Heat Pump PDF
Uploaded by
Osman KutluHeat Pump PDF
Uploaded by
Osman Kutlu 0 do in fact meet the requirements. Thus the equations for an
ideal gas provide good approximations to real gas behavior at low pressures,
and because of their simplicity they are very useful
From a practical point of view in the solution of problems, 1wo things
should be noted. First, at very low pressures, ideal gas behavior can be
assumed with good accuracy, regardless of the temperature. Second, at
temperatures that are double the critical temperature or above, ideal gas
behavior can be assumed with good uccurucy to pressures of at least 1000
Ibflin.?. When the temperature is less than twice the critical temperature, and
the pressure above a very low value, say atmospheric pressure, we are in the
superheated vapor region, und the deviation from ideal gus behavior may be
considerable. In this region itis preferable to use tables of thermodynamic
properties or charts for a particular substance.
2.4.10. Mixtures
Up to this point we have limited our consideration primarily to pure sub-
stances. A large number of thermodynamic problems involve mixtures of
pure substances
‘A pure substance has been defined as a substance that is homogeneous
and unchanging in chemical composition. Homogeneous mixtures of gases
that do not react with each other are therefore pure substances, and the
properties of such mixtures can be determined, correlated, and tabulated or
fitted by equations just like the properties of uny other pure substance, This
has been done for common mixtures such as air and certain combustion
products, but, since an unlimited number of mixtures is possible, properties
of all of them cannot be determined experimentally and tabulated. It is
therefore important to be able to calculate the properties of any mixture
from the properties of its constituents, This section pertains to such calcula-
tions, first for gas mixtures and then for gas-vapor mixtures,
‘Mixtures of different gases are encountered in many engineering applica-
tions, Airis @ good example of such a mixture. Since the individual gases can
‘often be approximated as perfect gases, the study of mixtures of perfect
‘gases and their properties is of considerable importance.
‘The first properties we shall examine are pressure, volume, and temper-
ature,
Each constituent gas in a mixture has its own pressure, called the partial
peescure of the particular pas. "The Gibbs-Dslian law states that ins mixture
Of ideal gases, the pressure of the mixture is equal to the sum of the partial
pressures of the individual constituent gases. In equation form,
Pow
a + Pa + Po a1)
24, PROPERTIES OF A SUBSTANCE $5
where py is the total pressure of the mixture of gases A, B, and C, and pa,
pa, and pe are the partial pressures. In a mixture of ideal gases the partial
pressure of each constituent equals the pressure which that constituent
‘would exert ifit existed alone at the temperature and volume of the mixture:
With regard to volume, on the other hand, we know from experience and
experiment that generally, in mixtures of gases, each constituent gas be
hhaves as though the other gases were not present. Each gas occupies the
total volume of the mixture at the mixture temperature. If V,, is the volume
of the mixture, then
Vm = Va = Ve = Ve 2.15)
where Vi, Vp, and Ve are the volumes of the constituents
However, the volume of 2 mixture of ideal gases equals the sum of the
volumes of its constituents if each existed alone at the temperature and
pressure of the mixture. This is known as Amagat's Law, Ledue’s Law, or
the law of additive volumes. Like Dalton’s Law itis strictly true only for ideat
‘gases but holds approximately for real-gas mixtures even in some ranges of
pressure and temperature where py = RTis inaccurate, When the tempera-
lure of a real-gas mixture is well above the critical temperatures of all its
constituents, the additive volume law is usually more accurate than the
additive pressure law.
For ideal-gas mixtures, volumetric analyses are frequently used. The
‘volume fraction is defined as,
Volume fraction of A = —YAWmTi)
Volume of the mixture at Ply
Notice that in a gas mixture each constituent occupies the total volume, and
so volume fraction is not defined as the ratio of a constituent volume to the
mixture volume because this ratio is always unity.
‘Avogadro's law states
Equal volumes of perfect gases held under exactly the same tempera-
ture and pressure have equal numbers of molecules.
If Ty is the temperature of the mixture, then the temperature relationship is
Ty = T, = Ty Teo
‘The analysis of a gas mixture based on mass is called a gravimetric analy-
sis, Itis based on the fact that the mass of a mixture is equal to the sum of the
-masses of its constituents
yma bg + me (2.16)
1} 56 THERMODYNaMics
‘where the subscript mt refers to the mixture and the subscripts A, B, and C
refer to individual constituents of the mixture. The ratio mtq/ntn is called the
mass fraction of constituent A.
‘The total number of moles, Nj, ina mixture is defined as the sum of the
umber of moles of its constituents:
Ng # Na+ Np + Net oo am
‘The mole fraction « is defined as N/Nsy, and
My = xaMy + xphfy + ¥oMe 18)
where My. is called the apparent (or average) molecular weight of the mix:
ture
‘The second part of the Gibbs-Dalton law can be taken as a basic defini
tion:
Internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy of a gas mixture are equal to the
sums of those properties for each component when it occupies the total
volume by itseif.
Um = Ux + Us + Ue (2.19)
Hy = Hy + Hy + He 2.20)
Sm = Sat Sat Se 2
‘The constituent entropies must be evaluated at the temperature and volume
of the mixture o at the mixture temperature and the constituent partial
pressures. The entropy of any constituent at the volume and temperature of
the mixture (and hence at its partial pressure) is greater than its entropy at
the pressure and temperature of the mixture (and hence at its partial
volume).
‘Consider the constituents as perfect gases:
o taRa + mals + mcRe
Rn a2)
2)
oe 0.24
2.4.11, Psychometrics: Moist Air Properties
Let us consider a simplification, which in many cases is a reasonable one, of,
the problem involving a mixture of ideal gases in contact with a solid or
liquid phase of one of the components. The most familiar example is a
ture of air and water vapor in contact with liquid water or ice, such as the
24. PROPERTIES OF A SUBSTANCE 57
problems encountered in air-conditioning or drying. We are all familiar with
the condensation of water from the atmosphere when it is cooled on a
‘summer day.
Performance of air-conditioning phenomena and a number of similar pro-
‘cesses can be analyzed quite simply and with considerable accuracy if the
following assumptions are made:
1. The solid oF liquid phase contains no dissolved gases.
2. The gaseous phase can be treated as a mixture of ideal pases,
3. When the mixture and the condensed phase are at a given pressure
‘and temperature, the equilibrium between the condensed phase and
its vapor is not influenced by the presence of the other component.
‘This means thal when equilibrium is achieved the partial pressure of
the vapor will be equal tothe saturation pressure corresponding to the
temperature of the mixture,
Since this approach is used extensively and with considerable accuracy. fet
us give some attention fo the terms that have been defined and the type of
problems for which this approach is valid and relevant
Ifthe vapor is at the saturation pressure and temperature, the mixture is
referred to as a saturated mixture, and for a air-water vapor mixture, the
term ‘saturated air” is used.
Psychromeurics is the science involving thermodynamic. properties of
‘moist air and the effect of atmospheric moisture on materials and human
comfort. As it applies in this text, the definition must be broadened to in-
clude the method of controlling the thermal properties of moist air.
‘When moist air is considered to be a mixture of two independent perfect
sases, dry air and water vapor, each is assumed to obey the perfect gas
‘equation of state:
Dry air: Po
Water vapor: pV
where p is the partial pressure of dry air, pis the partial pressure of water
vapor, Vis the total mixture volume, ng i the number of moles of dry air, R
is the universal gas constant (1945.32 feibfflbmole), my is the number of
moles of water vapor, and T is the absolute temperature (°R).
The following definitions are useful when dealing with air/water vapor
mixtures:
Dry-bulb temperature, ¢, is the temperature of air as registered by an
‘ordinary thermometer.
Thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature, 1, is the temperature at which
water (iquid or solid) evaporating into moist air at a given dry-bulb tempera-
ture rand humidity ratio W can bring the air to saturation adiabatically while
the pressure p is maintained constant. 58 THERMODYNAMICS
‘The wet-bulb temperature of air is commonly measured with an ordinary
thermometer whose glass bulb is covered by a wet cloth or gauze. ‘The
temperature is recorded alter the thermometer has been moved rapidly in
the air. Evaporation of water from the “wet sock” causes a cooling of the
bulb. The temperature spread between the dry bulb and wet bulb depends
‘upon the moisture content of the air.
Humidity ratio, W, of a given moist air sample is defined as the ratio of the
‘mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air contained in the sample:
ae 2.25)
w 2.26)
ww = (1093 = 0.556r¢)Wt ~ 0.2401 ~ 14) 2
TO + 04a —
Relative humidity, 6, is the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapor xy in
given moist air sample to the mole fraction x, in an air sample that is
saturated al the same temperature and pressure:
2.28)
The term pj» represents the saturation pressure of water vapor at the given
temperature #.
Dew-point temperature, tg, is the temperature of moist air that is satu
rated at the sume pressure p and has the same humidity ratio W as that ofthe
siven sample of moist sir
‘The volume v of a moist air mixture is expressed in terms of a unit mass of
dry air, with the relation p = Po + Pr
RT.
Pe
where Ry = R/28.9685 = $3,352 (fHIDEydbm"R).
‘The enthalpy of a mixture of perfect gases is equal to the sum of the
individual partial enthalpies of the components. The enthalpy of moist air is
then
2.29)
hm hig + Why
where iis the specific emthalpy for dry air and hi is the specific enthalpy for
saturated water Vapor at the temperature of the mixture. Approximately,
shy = 0.2400 Beu/lben
and
shy = 1061 + 0.444" Buu/lbm
24, PROPERTIES OF ASUBSTANCE 59
Fig. 2.14, ASHRAE normal psychrometric chart. Reprinted by permission from
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals 1977.
where ¢ is the dry-bulb temperature, °F, The moist air enthalpy then be
comes
hh = 0.2401 + WULO6T + 0.4440) 230)
Where fr has units of Btu/tom dry air.
‘The primary data sources for moist air properties are the reports of an
ASHRAE cooperative research project conducted at the University of Penn-
sylvania by John A. Goff and Serge Gratch. Table 1 in Chapter 6 of 1977
Fundamentals (ilustrated in Fig. 2.13) isa tabulation ofthe thermodynamic
properties for the temperature range of ~ 160 to 200°F and standard atmo-
spheric pressure,
2.4.12, The Psychrometric Chart
‘The ASHRAE psychrometric chart may be used conveniently in the solution
‘of numerous process problems wim moist alr. Processes performed with air
‘can be plotted on the chart for quick visualization as well as for determining
changes in significant properties such as temperature, humidity ratio, and
enthalpy for the process, Figure 2.14 isan abridgment of ASHRAE Psyehro-
Per ‘een if MOST I od meg Per 38621 hy ed)
I =
I 8
i
i a
Te
He ig
ile
ide ‘e
tla
tlt 8
iG g
t
Fig, 2.13. Air-water vapor table illustration. Reprinted
ASHRAE Hardbook of Fundamentals 1977.
fet He
ik ts estat St i
by permission
from
24. PROPERTIES OF ASUBSTANCE 64
Fig. 2.18. Paychrometrc representations of basi air-conditioning processes.
metric Chart No. { for ready reference. Figure 2.15 shows some ofthe basic
air-conditioning processes.
Sensible heating only (C) and sensible cooling only (G) show a change in
You might also like