NETWORKS

A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share
resources (such as printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files, or allow electronic
communications. The computers on a network may be linked through cables,
telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

TYPES OF NETWORKS
 
The three basic types of networks include: LAN, MAN and WAN.  
 
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)  
A network is said to be Local Area Network (LAN) if it is confined relatively  
to a small area. It is generally limited to a building or a geographical area,  
expanding not more than a mile apart to other computers.  
 
LAN configuration consist of:
 
o       A file server - stores all of the software that controls the  
network, as well as the software that can be shared by the  
computers attached to the network.  
 
o       A workstation - computers connected to the file server (Mac or
PCs). These are less powerful than the file server  
 
o       Cables  - used to connect the network interface cards in each  
computer.  
 
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)
 
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers larger geographic areas, such as  
cities. Often used by local libraries and government agencies often to connect  
to citizens and private industries.
 

 
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)Wide Area Networks (WANs)
connect larger geographic areas, such as London, the UK, or the world. In this
type of network dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be
used.  
Advantages of  Network
Speed. Sharing and transferring files within Networks are very rapid.
Thus saving time, while maintaining the integrity of the file.

Cost. Individually licensed copies of many popular software programs

can be costly. Networkable versions are available at considerable
savings. Shared programs, on a network allows for easier upgrading of
the program on one single file server, instead of upgrading individual
workstations.

Security. Sensitive files and programs on a network are passwords

protected (established for specific directories to restrict access to
authorized users) or designated as "copy inhibit," so that you do not
have to worry about illegal copying of programs.

Centralized Software Management.  Software can be loaded on one

computer (the file server) eliminating that need to spend time and
energy installing updates and tracking files on independent computers
throughout the building.

Resource Sharing. Resources such as, printers, fax machines and

modems can be shared.

Electronic Mail. E-mail aids in personal and professional

communication. Electronic mail on a LAN can enable staff to
communicate within the building having tot to leave their desk.

Flexible Access. Access their files from computers throughout the

firm.

Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software (such as Microsoft

BackOffice) allows many users to work on a document or project
concurrently.

DISADVANTAGES OF  NETWORK

 Server faults stop applications being available

 Network faults can cause loss of data.
 Network fault could lead to loss of resources
 User work dependent upon network
 System open to hackers
 Decisions tend to become centralised
 Could become inefFicient
 Could degrade in performance
  Resources could be located too far from users
 Network management can become dif

OSI MODELS

The standard model for networking protocols and distributed applications is

the International Standard Organization's Open System Interconnect (ISO/OSI)
model. It defines seven network layers.

Layer 1 - Physical

This layer defines the cable or physical medium itself, e.g. unshielded
twisted pairs (UTP).  All media of transmission are functionally
equivalent in this layer and  the main difference is in convenience and
cost of installation and maintenance.

Layer 2 - Data Link

Data Link layer defines the format of data on the network ( a network
data frame,  packet  and destination address). The Maximum
Transmission Unit (MTU) is defined by the largest packet that can be
sent through a data link layer.

Layer 3 - Network

This layer defines the protocols that are responsible for data delivery at
the required destination, and requires.

Layer 4 - Transport

This layer subdivides user-buffer into network-buffer sized datagrams

and enforces desired transmission control. Two transport protocols,
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol
(UDP), sits at the transport layer. Reliability and speed are the primary
difference between these two protocols.

Layer 5 - Session

This leyer defines the format of the data sent over the connections.

Layer 6 - Presentation
 This layer converts local representation of data to its canonical form
and vice versa. The canonical uses a standard byte ordering and
structure packing convention, independent of the host.

Layer 7 - Application

Provides network services to the end-users. e.g Mail.

OSI Model gives; Increased evolution, Modular engineering, Interoperable

technology, Reduced complexity
Simplified teaching and learning, Standardised interfaces.

INTERNETWORKING

Internetwork is a collection of individual networks, connected by intermediate

networking devices, that functions as a single large network.

Different Network Technologies Can Be Connected to Create an Internetwork

Internetworking devices have many advantages and they are:

         Increases the number of nodes that can connect to the network thus
limitations on the number of nodes that connect to a network relate to
the cable lengths and traffic constraints.

 Extends the physical distance of the network.

          They localize traffic within a network.

         Merge existing networks.

         Isolate network faults.

Typical internetworking devices are:

 Repeater. Operate at Layer 1 of the OSI

         Bridges. Passes data frames between net-works using the MAC
address (Layer 2 address).

         Hubs. Allow the interconnection of nodes and create a physically

attached network.

         Switches. Allow simultaneous communication between two or more

nodes, at a time.

 Routers. Passes data packets between connected networks, and operate

on network addresses (Layer 3 address).

BROADCASTS

Todetermine the network address of a computer, the host send out broadcast to
all the host on its network segment. There are two types:

 Requests for a destination MAC addresses. A broadcast is sent to all

the hosts on the network segment. A host with matching network
address responds back with its MAC address in the source MAC
address field. The MAC and the network address is stored in the
memory of the host so that they can be used in the future
communication. Known as Address Resolutions Protocol (ARP).
 Requests for a network address. A host sends out a request with the
MAC address if it does not know network address for a given MAC
address. A server on the network responds back with the network
address for the given MAC address. Known as Reverse Address
Resolution Protocol (RARP).

Most networking technologies have a special MAC address for a broadcast.

Ethernet uses the address: FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF  for a broadcast. There are also
network broadcast addresses using the network address (known as multicast) -
all  nodes on the network listen to the communication (such as transmitting a
video conference to many nodes on a network, at the same time), but they are
used for different purposes than with broadcast MAC addresses, which are
used to get network information.
Broadcast for MAC Address

BITS, FRAMES, PACKETS AND SEGMENTS

At each nodes each of the OSI layers communicates directly with the
equivalent layer on the receiving host. The data that is transmitted in each of
the lower layers is referred to in a different way. Protocol data units (PDUs)
are the data that passes from layer to layer and are referred to in different ways
in each of the layers (bits - at the physical, frames - at the data link layer,
packets - at the network layer they, and segments -  at the transport layer).

Bits, frames, packets and segments

PROTOCOL
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between
computers on a network. These rules are guidelines that regulate the access
method, allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of data
transfer.

The most common protocols are:

o Ethernet
o LocalTalk
o Token Ring
o FDDI
o ATM

ETHERNET

This is the most widely used protocol. This protocol uses an access method
called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection). In this
system each computer listens to the cable for any transmitting node before
sending anything through the network. If the network is clear, the computer
will transmit. Else wait and try again when the line is clear. Sometimes, two
computers attempt to transmit at the same instant (causing a collision). Each
computer then backs off and waits a random amount of time before attempting
to retransmit. The delay by collisions and retransmitting is very small and does
not normally affect the speed of transmission on the network. Topologies are
bus star or tree and transmission is via twisted pair, coaxial, or fibre optic cable
at a speed of 10 Mbps.

Fast Ethernet

Support 100Mbps and are more expensive network concentrators/hubs and

network interface cards is requires for Fast Ethernet. Category 5 twisted pair or
fibre optic cable is necessary.

Gigabit Ethernet

The Ethernet has a standard protocol of 1Gbps transmission speed but used
primarily for backbones on a network.

LOCALTALK

Apple Computer developed LocalTalk for Macintosh computers. The method

used by LocalTalk is called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance). It is similar to CSMA/CD except that a computer signals
its intent to transmit before it actually does so. LocalTalk adapters and special
twisted pair cable can be used to connect a series of computers through the
serial port.

LocalTalk protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies using twisted
pair cable.

TOKEN RING

This was developed by IBM in the mid 1980s. The method used involves
token-passing. Computers are connected so that the signal travels around the
network from one computer to another in a logical ring. A single electronic
token moves around the ring from one computer to the next. If a computer
does not have information to transmit, it simply passes the token on to the next
workstation. If a computer wishes to transmit and receives an empty token, it
attaches data to the token. The token then proceeds around the ring until it
comes to the computer for which the data is meant. At this point, the receiving
computer captures the data.

FIBRE DISTRIBUTED DATA INTERFACE (FDDI)

Access method of token-passing via a dual ring physical topology.

Transmission on one of the rings; however, if a break occurs, the system keeps
information moving by automatically using portions of the second ring to
create a new complete ring. Transmison speed is100 Mbps over a fibre optic
cable, but expensive.

ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)

Transmits data in small packets of a fixed size at a speed of 155 Mbps and
higher. ATM supports a variety of media such as video, CD-quality audio, and
imaging. ATM employs a star topology with fibre optic or twisted pair
cabling. 

WIRELESS LANS

Fig 8 Wireless LAN

Wireless LANs use high frequency radio signals, infrared light beams, or
lasers to communicate between the workstations and the file server or hubs.
Each workstation and file server on a wireless network has some sort of
transceiver/antenna to send and receive the data. Information is relayed
between transceivers as if they were physically connected. For longer distance,
wireless communications can also take place through cellular telephone
 technology, microwave transmission, or by satellite.

Wireless networks are great for allowing laptop computers or remote

computers to connect to the LAN. Wireless networks are also beneficial in
older buildings where it may be difficult or impossible to install cables.
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