Computer Networks

( BCS-603 )
 Computer Network
• A computer network is a set of communicating
devices connected together by
communication links for the purpose of
sharing resources.

• Shared resources include printer, scanner and

file servers etc.
 What is a Computer Network
◆A set of communication elements connected by
communication links
router
workstation
➭ Communication elements
● Computers, printers, mobile phones, … server mobile
● Routers, switches, ...
local ISP
➭ Communication links
● optic fiber
● coaxial cable
● twisted pair regional ISP
● wireless (radio, microwave, satellite)

➭ Topologies
● Ring, Star, Bus, Tree, Mesh

company
5 network
Components of Computer Network
 Benefits of Computer Network

• Resource and load sharing

– Programs do not need to run on a single machine
• Reduced cost
– Several machines can share printers, tape drives,
etc.
• High reliability
– If a machine goes down, another can take over
• Powerful Communication Medium
 Historical Background
⚫ 1950s – centralized large systems housed in a
room
❖Operated by trained personnel
❖Jobs submitted in the form of punched cards and outputs
collected as printouts
❖ Batch mode of processing (delay b/w input and output)

⚫ 1960s – centralized systems with direct access

through interactive terminals connected by
point-to-point links
❖Simultaneous access by remote users in TDM mode
❖Interactive feedback from computers

❖On-line terminals and Time-sharing OS

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 Historical Background
⚫ 1970s – Advancement of VLSI technology and
invention of Microprocessors (Mini computers
and PCs)
❖Smaller in size, less expensive, increased processing power
❖Communication technology advanced with deployment of
telephone network for voice communication
❖Development of computer networks for data communications
amongst organization having computers located at
geographically dispersed locations
❖Late 1970s - low bandwidth telephone n/w for data com.

❖Experimental network ARPANET developed by US Dept of

Defense in 1969 (used)

⚫ Early 1980s – Local Area Netwoks

❖Communication at high speed over small geographical area
❖Later, optical fiber and satellite communication allowed high-
speed data communications over long distances
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 Network Applications
⚫ Marketing and sales;
⚫ Financial services (e.g. EFT, ATM);
⚫ Manufacturing (e.g. collaborative CAD/CAM);
⚫ Electronic messaging (e-mails);
⚫ Directory services;
⚫ Information services (e.g. WWW);
⚫ Electronic data interchange (EDI);
⚫ Teleconferencing/text conferencing/video conferencing;
⚫ Cellular telephony and Internet telephony (VoIP);
⚫ Cable television (Video on demand)
⚫ News groups/Bulletin Boards/Discussion Forums
⚫ Chat groups
⚫ Instant Messengers
⚫ Instant Radio
⚫ Social Networking/Blogs/Wikis
⚫ Cloud Computing
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 Network Applications
Main areas of applications can be broadly
classified into following categories:

⚫ Scientific and Technical Computing

⚫Client/Server Model, Distributed Processing, Parallel
Processing

⚫ Commercial
⚫Advertisement,Telemarketing, Teleconferencing,
Worldwide Financial Services

⚫ Network for the People

⚫Telemedicine, Distance Education, Access to remote
information, Person-to-person communication,
Interactive Entertainment
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 Criteria for a Data Communication
Network
• Performance
– Performance is the defined as the rate of transferring error free data. It is
measured by the Response Time. Response Time is the elasped time
between the end of an inquiry and the beginning of a response. Request a
file transfer and start the file transfer. Factors that affect Response Time
are:
– Number of Users: More users on a network - slower the network will run
– Transmission Speed: speed that data will be transmitted measured in bits
per second (bps)
– Media Type: Type of physical connection used to connect nodes together
– Hardware Type: Slow computers such as XT or fast such as Pentiums
– Software Program: How well is the network operating system (NOS)
written

• Consistency
– Consistency is the predictability of response time and accuracy of data.
 Criteria for a Data Communication
Network
• Reliability
– Reliability is the measure of how often a network is useable. MTBF (Mean
Time Between Failures) is a measure of the average time a component is
expected to operate between failures. Normally provided by the
manufacturer. A network failure can be: hardware, data carrying medium
and Network Operating System.

• Recovery
– Recovery is the Network's ability to return to a prescribed level of
operation after a network failure. This level is where the amount of lost
data is nonexistent or at a minimum. Recovery is based on having Back-up
Files.

• Security
– Security is the protection of Hardware, Software and Data from
unauthorized access. Restricted physical access to computers, password
protection, limiting user privileges and data encryption are common
security methods. Anti-Virus monitoring programs to defend against
computer viruses are a security measure.
 Protocols
• A protocol is a predefined way of communicating
• A set of ``rules'' between processes
• Example: A ``person query'' protocol
– I send you the name of a person
– You send me a ``yes'' or a ``no'' depending upon
whether that person lives in your house
– If I send anything except a name, or you reply with
anything except a ``yes'' or ``no'', the protocol is broken
 Types of Networks
Classification based on
Transmission Technology
❖ Broadcast Networks
Example of a broadcast network
❖ Single communication channel based on shared bus

shared by all machines on n/w

❖ Any machine sends packets, and

all others receive

❖ Address field in the packet

specifies the intended recipient

❖ All receivers check address in the

packet; intended recipient receives
it and process, all others ignore

❖ All receive – Broadcast mode, a Example of a broadcast network

based on satellite communication
sub-set receive – Multicast mode 15
 Types of Networks
Classification based on Transmission
Technology
❖ Point-to-Point Networks

❖ End devices - stations

❖ Switching devices - nodes

❖ Nodes connect to other nodes and also to

stations, multiple paths exist b/w source and
destination

❖ FDM/TDM for node-to-node communication

Communication network based on
point-to-point communication
❖ Nodes provide switching facility to move
data from node-to-node till they reach
destination; no concern for contents of data

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 Types of Networks
Classification based on scale

Determined by its size, ownership, distance covered

and physical architecture

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Classification of networks on scale

Personal area network

Global area network

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Classification By Scale
 Local Area Networks

A local area network, or LAN, consists of a computer network at a single site, typically an individual
office building. A LAN is very useful for sharing resources, such as data storage and printers. LANs
can be built with relatively inexpensive hardware, such as hubs, network adapters and Ethernet
cables.
The smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger LANs can accommodate thousands of
computers. A LAN typically relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed and security, but
wireless connections can also be part of a LAN. High speed and relatively low cost are the defining
characteristics of LANs.
 Metropolitan Area Networks - Cable TV

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, consists of a computer network

across an entire city, college campus or small region. A MAN is larger than a
LAN, which is typically limited to a single building or site. Depending on the
configuration, this type of network can cover an area from several miles to
tens of miles. A MAN is often used to connect several LANs together to form
a bigger network. When this type of network is specifically designed for a
college campus, it is sometimes referred to as a campus area network, or
CAN. The most common example of MAN is cable TV network.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
long-distance transmission over large geographical areas
(country/continent/world)
utilize public, leased or private communication in combinations
An enterprise network is a WAN owned by a single company

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 Internetworks
internet – a network of networks
Individual networks are joined into internetworks using internetworking
devices such as routers, switches, bridges, gateways

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A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs

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Some newer types of the networks based on their reach

PAN (Personal Area Network)

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for data
transmission amongst devices such as computers, telephones, tablets,
personal digital assistants, fax machines and printers, that are located close to
a single user.
 CAN (Campus Area Network)
A network infrastructure covering the school, university, or a corporate premises
can be dubbed as campus area network. It can comprise of several LANs, a
central firewall, and connected to the internet using a leased line or any other
means.
 BAN (Body Area Network)
Related to PAN ( as a subnetwork ), another term BAN is used for using
wearable devices like smartwatches, fitness bands, biometric RFID implants,
and medical devices placed inside the body like pacemakers. Wireless BAN is
the primary form used to created such networks. It is defined as per the IEEE
802.15.6 standard which describes a short-range, extremely low power wireless
communication within or in a vicinity of the human body.
Wireless BAN can work together with PAN technologies. For instance, a
Bluetooth-connected smartphone can be used to sync data from wearables and
various sensors present in the body.
 NAN (Near-Me Network)
Although it sounds totally unfamiliar, you use Near-me network almost every day.
Remember chatting with your friends on Facebook while all of you were sitting in the
same room. You were part of a NAN, even though you might be on the networks of
different carriers.
A message from your device would traverse all the way to Facebook servers over the
internet come to your friend’s device sitting right next to you. In a logical way, both the
device are on some sort of network. Basically, the criteria for the devices is to lie in
proximity. They don’t need to be connected to the same network. For instance, they
can be connected via WiFi, cellular, etc.
 Internet
A specific internetwork
spread over the world
providing various services
Allows various applications
such as e-mail, file transfer,
remote log-in, World Wide
Web, Multimedia, etc to run
across it.
Basic difference between
WAN and Internet is that
WAN is owned by a single
organization while Internet
uses the public networks to
provide services
Internet is a type of WAN,
but more specifically it forms
a GAN built over various
service providers (ISPs)
 Internet Service Provider (ISP)
❑ ISP stands for Internet Service
Provider, It is a company that
provides access to the
internet and similar services
such as Website designing
and virtual hosting.
❑ For example, when you
connect to the Internet, the
connection between your
Internet-enabled device and
the internet is executed
through a specific
transmission technology that
involves the transfer of
information packets through
an Internet Protocol route.
 Network Structure
• Line Configuration:
– Point-to-point
– Multipoint
• Transmission Modes:
– Simplex
– Half-duplex
– Full duplex
– Full-full duplex
• Network Topology:
– Basic - Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring
– Extended – Tree, Hybrid
• Network Components:
– Network Hardware
– Network Software
 Line Configuration
• Defines the attachment of communication
devices to a link
• Link is a physical communication pathway
that transfers data from one device to
another
 Point-to-Point Line Configuration
• Provides a dedicated link between two devices
• Entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between these two devices
• Link can be a wire, cable or a microwave/satellite, etc
 Multipoint Line Configuration
• Also know as mutidrop line configuration
• More than two specific devices share a single link
• Therefore the capacity of the channel is shared (spatially
or temporally)
 Transmission Modes
• Specifies the direction of signal flow between two linked devices
• Four types of transmission modes
Simplex:
❖ Unidirectional communication,
❖ Only one of the two nodes can send, the other can only receive, e.g. sending signals from a
remote to a television set, giving print command from a machine to a printer.

Half duplex:
❖Communication is bidirectional but not simultaneous
❖Each station can both send & receive, but not at the same time, e.g.
walkie-talkies.
 Transmission Modes
• Four types of transmission modes
Full duplex:
❖Communication is bidirectional and simultaneous
❖Both stations can send and receive
simultaneously, e.g. Telephones
❖Signals flowing in either direction share the
capacity of the link
 Network Components
• N/w Hardware (to be discussed in subsequent sections)
– Computer Systems & Peripherals
– Transmission Links (Cables)
– Networking and Internetworking Devices
– N/w Adapters (NIC)
– Connectors
• N/w Software
– NOS (Client-Server/Peer-to-Peer)
– Drivers & Utilities
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 Network Operating System
• Network operating systems (NOS) coordinate
the activities of multiple computers across a
network
• The two major types of NOS are:
– Peer-to-peer
• Allow users to share resources and files located on
their computers and to access shared resources
found on other computers.
• Do not have a file server or a centralized
management source.
• Designed primarily for small to medium local area
networks
• E.g. AppleShare and Windows for Workgroups
• Advantages - less initial expense, easy setup
• Disadvantages - decentralized, less secure

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 Network Operating System
• Client/Server
– Allow the network to centralize functions and applications in one or more
dedicated file servers
– File servers are the heart of the system, providing access to resources and
security; individual workstations (clients) access the resources available on the file
servers.
– E.g. Novell Netware, Windows 2000 Server, Unix/Linux, etc
– Advantages-Centralized, Scalability, Flexibility, Interoperability, Accessibility
– Disadvantages – Expense, Maintenance, Dependence

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 Motivation behind layer model
• To reduce the design complexity, most of the networks are
organized as a series of layers or levels, each one build
upon one below it.
• The basic idea of a layered architecture is to divide the
design into small pieces.
• Each layer adds to the services provided by the lower layers
in such a manner that the highest layer is provided a full set
of services to manage communications and run the
applications.
• The benefits of the layered models are modularity and
clear interfaces, i.e. open architecture and comparability
between the different providers' components.
• Let us discuss it in detail -
 Advantages of layered architecture in a network
• Layered architecture increases flexibility, maintainability, and scalability. In a Layered
architecture we separate the user interface from the business logic, and the business
logic from the data access logic. Separation of concerns among these logical layers and
components is easily achieved with the help of layered architecture
• Multiple applications can reuse the components. For example if we want a windows
user interface rather than a web browser interface, this can be done in an easy and
fast way by just replacing the UI component. All the other components like business
logic, data access and the database remains the same. Layered architecture allows to
swap and reuse components at will.
• Layered architecture enables teams to work on different parts of the application
parallely with minimal dependencies on other teams.
• Layered architecture enables develop loosely coupled systems.
• Different components of the application can be independently deployed, maintained,
and updated, on different time schedules.
• Layered architecture also makes it possible to configure different levels of security to
different components deployed on different boxes. sO Layered architecture, enables
you to secure portions of the application behind the firewall and make other
components accessible from the Internet.
• Layered architecture also helps you to test the components independently of each
other.
 Disadvantages of layered architecture in a network

❑ There might be a negative impact on the performance as we have

the extra overhead of passing through layers instead of calling a
component directly.

❑ Development of user-intensive applications can sometime take

longer if the layering prevents the use of user interface components
that directly interact with the database.

❑ The use of layers helps to control and encapsulate the complexity of

large applications, but adds complexity to simple applications.

❑ Changes to lower level interfaces tend to percolate to higher levels,

especially if the relaxed layered approach is used.
 THE OSI MODEL
 Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated
to worldwide agreement on international standards.
An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced
in the late 1970s.
 Note:
◦ ISO is the organization.
◦ OSI is the model.
Seven layers of the OSI model
Interfaces b/w Layers
Exchange using the OSI Model
 Physical Layer
• The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits
from one hop (node) to the next.
• It is a fundamental layer underlying the higher level functions in a
network. Due to large variety of available hardware technologies
with widely varying characteristics, this is perhaps the most
complex layer in the OSI architecture.
– Physical characteristics of interface and medium:
pin assignment, connector, cables
– Representation of bits: encoding
– Data rate
– Synchronization of bits
– Line configuration: point-to-point, multipoint
– Physical topology
– Transmission mode: simplex, half-duplex, full-duplex
 Physical Layer
• Cabling Protocols (crossover, 100BaseT & more)
• 802.3 Ethernet
• 802.11 Wireless Used,
• USB,
• Bluetooth
• ADSL (Asymmetric digital subscriber line)
• ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
• SONET (Synchronous Optical NETworking)
 Data Link Layer
• The data link layer is responsible for moving frames
from one hop (node) to the next.

MAIN FUCTIONS: PROTOCOLS USED

• Framing • LLC (Logical Link Control),
• Physical addressing • MAC(Media Access Control),
• ATM,
• Flow control • Frame Relay,
• Error control • Token Ring,
• Access control • FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)

and more…
Hop-to-hop Delivery
 Network Layer
• Main function of Network Layer is to move packets from source to
destination in an efficient manner (called routing), e.g., along the shortest
path, and to provide internetworking of different
• network types (a key service is address resolution across different
networks or network layers).
PROTOCOLS USED
• IPv4
MAIN FUNCTIONS • IPv6
• Logical addressing • ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
(IP Addressing) • IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol)
• Routing • RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
• RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)
• IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange)
• BGP(Border Gateway Protocol)
Source-to-destination delivery
 Transport layer
• The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a
message from one process to another.
– Service-point addressing
– Segmentation and reassembly
– Connection control
– Flow control
– Error control

PROTOCOLS USED
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
• SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol)
Transport layer
Transport layer
 Transport layer
Segmentation and Reassembly
Reliable process-to-process delivery
of a message
 Session layer
Its function is to maintain a “conversation” across multiple related
message exchanges between two hosts (called session), to keep track of
the progress of their communication.

This layer establishes, authenticates, manages, and terminates sessions.

Example services include keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit
(dialog control) and checkpointing long conversations to allow them to
resume after a crash.
 Session layer
PROTOCOLS USED:
• NetBIOS, PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol ),
NCP (NetWare Core Protocol)
 Presentation layer
• The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.
 Presentation layer
PROTOCOLS USED:
• ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange)
• EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange
Code) ,
• JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
• MPEG (Moving Pictures Experts Group)
 Application layer
• The application layer is responsible for providing
services to the user.
 Application layer
PROTOCOLS USED:
• Telnet (Remote login to hosts)
• DNS (Domain Name System)
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol )
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol )
• SNTP (Simple Network Time Protocol)
Crossover A crossover cable, occasionally called crossed cable, connects two Ethernet
network devices to each other. They were created to support temporary host-
to-host networking in situations where an intermediate device like a network
router is not present.
100BASE-T 100BASE-T is an enhanced form of Ethernet 10BASE-T and a network standard
used for fast data transfer rates up to 100 Mbps
Ethernet Ethernet, is the standard way to connect computers on a network over a
wired connection. It provides a simple interface and for connecting multiple
devices, such computers, routers, and switches.

ATM Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a switching technique used by

telecommunication networks that uses asynchronous time-division
multiplexing to encode data into small, fixed-sized cells.
Frame relay Frame relay is a data link layer, digital packet switching network protocol
technology designed to connect Local Area Networks (LANs) and transfer data
across Wide Area Networks (WANs).
NetBIOS NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System) is a program that
allows applications on different computers to communicate within a
local area network (LAN).
PPTP The Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) is a method for
implementing virtual private networks, with many known security
issues.
Summary of layers
Summary of layers
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-
to-network, internet, transport, and application.

However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say

that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers:
• physical
• data link
• Internet
• transport
• application.
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TCP/IP and OSI model
 OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)
1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard, acting as 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols around
a communication gateway between the network and end which the Internet has developed. It is a communication
user. protocol, which allows connection of hosts over a network.
2. In OSI model the transport layer guarantees the delivery 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not guarantees
of packets. delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP model is more reliable.
3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.
4. OSI model has a separate Presentation layer and Session 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation layer or
layer. Session layer.
5. Transport Layer is Connection Oriented. 5. Transport Layer is both Connection Oriented and
Connection less.
6. Network Layer is both Connection Oriented and 6. Network Layer is Connection less.
Connection less.
7. OSI is a reference model around which the networks are 7. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the OSI
built. Generally it is used as a guidance tool. model.
8. OSI model has a problem of fitting the protocols into the 8. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
model.
9. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are easily replaced 9. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
as the technology changes.
10. OSI model defines services, interfaces and protocols 10. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are not
very clearly and makes clear distinction between them. It is clearly separated. It is also protocol dependent.
protocol independent.
11. It has 7 layers 11. It has 4 layers
 Network Topologies
Simple Physical Topologies
• Physical topology: physical layout of nodes on a
network
• Four fundamental shapes:
– Bus
– Ring
– Star
– Mesh
• May create hybrid topologies
• Topology is essential for type of network, cabling
infrastructure, and transmission media used
Bus Topology (continued)
 Bus Topology
• Single cable connects all network nodes
without intervening connectivity devices
• Devices share responsibility for getting data
from one point to another
• Terminators stop signals after reaching end of
wire
– Prevent signal bounce
• Inexpensive, not very scalable
• Difficult to troubleshoot, not fault-tolerant
Advantages & Disadvantages of Bus Topology

Advantages
• Works well for small networks
• Relatively inexpensive to implement
• Easy for adding new systems
Disadvantages
• Management costs can be high
• Potential for congestion with network traffic
 Ring topology
– Each node is connected to the two nearest nodes so the
entire network forms a circle
– One method for passing data on ring networks is token
passing

Active topology
– Each workstation transmits data
 Advantages of Ring Topology

• Easier to manage; easier to locate a defective

node or cable problem
• Well-suited for transmitting signals over long
distances on a LAN
• Handles high-volume network traffic
• Enables reliable communication
 Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• Expensive
• Requires more cable and network equipment
at the start
• Not used as widely as bus topology
– Fewer equipment options
– Fewer options for expansion to high-speed
communication
 Star Topology
Every node on the network is connected through a
central device
 Star (continued)

• Any single cable connects only two devices

– Cabling problems affect two nodes at most
• Requires more cabling than ring or bus networks
– More fault-tolerant
• Easily moved, isolated, or interconnected with other
networks
– Scalable
Advantages & Disadvantages of Star Topology

Advantages
• Good option for modern networks
• Low startup costs
• Easy to manage
• Offers opportunities for expansion
• Most popular topology in use; wide variety of equipment
available

Disadvantages
• Hub is a single point of failure
• Requires more cable than the bus
Mesh Topology
Mesh topology is a type of networking
where all nodes cooperate to distribute
data amongst each other.

Advantages of mesh topology:

•Each connection can carry its own data load
•It is robust
•A fault is diagnosed easily
•Provides security and privacy
Disadvantages of mesh topology:
•Installation and configuration are difficult if the
connectivity gets more
•Cabling cost is more and the most in case of a fully
connected mesh topology
•Bulk wiring is required
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It
consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus
backbone cable
Advantages of tree topology:
• Scalable as leaf nodes can accommodate more nodes in the
hierarchical chain.
• A point to point wiring to the central hub at each intermediate
node of a tree topology represents a node in the bus topology
• Other hierarchical networks are not affected if one of them gets
damaged
• Easier maintenance and fault finding
Disadvantages of tree topology:
• Huge cabling is needed
• A lot of maintenance is needed
• Backbone forms the point of failure.
Derived Topology-HYBRID TOPOLOGY
A hybrid topology is a type of network topology that uses two or more other
network topologies, including bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology, star
topology, and tree topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology
1)Reliable : Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting is easy in
this type of topology.
2) Scalable: Its easy to increase the size of network by adding new components,
without disturbing existing architecture.
3) Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requirement and by
optimizing the available resources.
4) Effective: Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more topologies, so we
can design in such a way that strengths of constituent topologies are maximized
while there weaknesses are neutralized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1) Complexity of Design: One of the biggest drawback of hybrid topology is its
design. Its not easy to design this type of architecture and its a tough job for
designers. Configuration and installation process needs to be very efficient.
2) Costly Switch : The switches used to connect two distinct networks, are very
expensive. These hubs are different from usual hubs as they need to be
intelligent enough to work with different architectures and should be function
even if a part of network is down.
3) Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, they
require a lot of cables, cooling systems, sophisticate n/w devices, etc.
Network Devices
❑Repeater ❑ Router
❑Hub ❑Bridge
❑ Switch ❑Gateways
REPEATER
A repeater operates at the physical
layer. Its job is to regenerate the
signal over the same network before
the signal becomes too weak or
corrupted so as to extend the length
to which the signal can be
transmitted over the same network.

An important point to be noted about

repeaters is that they do no amplify
the signal. When the signal becomes
weak, they copy the signal bit by bit
and regenerate it at the original
strength. It is a 2 port device.
HUB
A hub is basically a multiport
repeater. A hub connects multiple
wires coming from different
branches. For example, the connector
in star topology which connects
different stations. Hubs cannot filter
data, so data packets are sent to all
connected devices.
Also, they do not have intelligence to
find out best path for data packets
which leads to inefficiencies and
wastage.
SWITCH
A switch is a multi port bridge
with a buffer and a design that
can boost its efficiency(large
number of ports imply less
traffic) and performance.

Switch is a data link layer device. Switch

can perform error checking before
forwarding data, that makes it very
efficient as it does not forward packets
that have errors and forward good
packets selectively to correct port
only. In other words, switch divides
collision domain of hosts,
but broadcast domain remains same.
ROUTERS
A router is a device like a switch
that routes data packets based on
their IP addresses. Router is
mainly a Network Layer device.

Routers normally connect LANs

and WANs together and have a
dynamically updating routing table
based on which they make
decisions on routing the data
packets. Router divide broadcast
domains of hosts connected
through it.
NETWORK BRIDGE
A network bridge is a product that
connects a local area network
(LAN) to another local area
network that uses the same
protocol.
Bridges are similar to—but more
intelligent than—simple repeaters,
which also extend signal range. It
has a single input and single output
port, thus making it a 2 port
device.
NETWORK GATEWAY
A gateway, as the name suggests,
is a passage to connect two
networks together that may work
upon different networking
models.
They basically works as the messenger
agents that take data from one system,
interpret it, and transfer it to another
system. Gateways are also called protocol
converters and can operate at any
network layer. Gateways are generally
more complex than switch or router. A
gateway can be implemented completely
in software, hardware, or in a
combination of both.
 Backbone Networks
• A backbone is a part of computer network
that interconnects various pieces of network,
providing a path for the exchange of
information between different LANs and
subnetworks.
• A backbone can tie together diverse networks
in the same building, in different buildings in a
campus environment, or over wide areas.
Normally, the backbone's capacity is greater
than the networks connected to it.
 Backbone Networks:
Serial Backbone

• Daisy chain: linked series of devices

– Hubs and switches often connected in daisy chain to extend a network
• Hubs, gateways, routers, switches, and bridges can form part
of backbone
 Backbone Networks:
Collapsed Backbone

• A network configuration that provides a backbone in a centralized

location, to which all subnetworks are attached. A collapsed backbone is
implemented in a router or switch that uses a high-speed backplane that
can handle the simultaneous traffic of all or most of its ports at full wire
speed.
 Backbone Networks:
Parallel Backbone

• When organizations are looking for a very strong and

trustworthy backbone they should choose a parallel
backbone. This backbone is a variation of a
collapsed backbone in that it uses a central node (connection
point).
 Backbone Networks:
Distributed Backbone

• A distributed backbone is a backbone network that consists of

a number of connectivity devices connected to a series of
central connectivity devices, such as hubs, switches, or
routers, in a hierarchy.
 Delay Analysis

• Transmission Delay
• Propagation Delay
• Queuing Delay
• Processing Delay
 Delay Analysis
❑Transmission Delay : Time taken to put a packet onto link. In other
words, it is simply time required to put data bits on the wire/communication
medium. It depends on length of packet and bandwidth of network.
Transmission Delay = Data size / bandwidth = (L/B) second

❑Propagation delay : Time taken by the first bit to travel from sender
to receiver end of the link. In other words, it is simply the time required for
bits to reach destination from start point. Factors on which Propagation delay
depends are Distance and propagation speed.
Propagation delay = distance/transmission speed = d/s

❑Queuing Delay : Queuing delay is the time a job waits in a queue until
it can be executed. It depends on congestion. It the time difference between
when packet arrived Destination and when the packet data was processed or
executed. It may be caused by mainly three reasons i.e. originating switches,
intermediate switches or call receiver servicing switches.
Average Queuing delay = (N-1)L/(2*R)
where N = no. of packets L=size of packet R=bandwidth
 Delay Analysis
❑ Processing Delay :
Processing delay is the time it takes routers to process the packet
header. Processing of packets help in detecting bit-level errors that
occur during transmission of packet to destination. Processing
delays in high-speed routers are typically on the order of
microseconds or less.

In simple words, it is just the time taken to process packets.

Total time / End-to-End time / Latency / Total Delay =

Transmission delay + Propagation delay
+ Queuing delay + Processing Delay
 Numericals on
Delay Analysis
What are the propagation time and the transmission
time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail) if the
bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the
distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000
km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
Solution:

Note that in this case, because the message is short and the bandwidth is high,
the dominant factor is the propagation time, not the transmission time. The
transmission time can be ignored.

SE
What are the propagation time and the transmission
time for a 5-Mbyte message (an image) if the
bandwidth of the network is 1 Mbps (1/8 MBps). Assume
that the distance between the sender and the receiver is
12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
Solution

Note that in this case, because the message is very long and the bandwidth is
not very high, the dominant factor is the transmission time, not the
propagation time. The propagation time can be ignored.

SE
What is the total delay (latency) for a frame of size 5 million
bits that is being sent on a link with 10 routers each having a
queuing time of 2 μs and a processing time of 1 μs. The
length of the link is 2000 Km. The speed of light inside the
link is 2 × 108 m/s. The link has a bandwidth of 5 Mbps.
Which component of the total delay is dominant? Which one
is negligible?
Propagation time 8
= distance / propagation speed = (2000 x 1000 m) / (2 x 10 m/s) = 10 ms

Transmission time 6 6
= Message size / Bandwidth = 5 x 10 bits/ 5 Mbps (i.e. 5 x 10 bps )= 1 s

Queuing time = 10 routers * 2 us = 20 us

Processing Delay = 10 routers * 1 us = 10 us

Total delay (latency) = 10 ms + 1 s + 20 us + 10 us = 1010.03 ms

A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an
average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the
throughput of this network?
Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in

this case.
 Physical Layer
Physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI
reference model. It is responsible for sending
bits from one computer to another.

This layer is not concerned with the meaning of

the bits and deals with the setup of physical
connection to the network and with
transmission and reception of signals.
 Functions of Physical Layer
• Representation of Bits: Data in this layer consists
of stream of bits. The bits must be encoded into
signals for transmission. It defines the type of
encoding i.e. how 0's and 1's are changed to signal.
• Data Rate: This layer defines the rate of
transmission which is the number of bits per
second.
• Synchronization: It deals with the synchronization
of the transmitter and receiver. The sender and
receiver are synchronized at bit level.
 Functions of Physical Layer (contd.)
• Interface: The physical layer defines the transmission
interface between devices and transmission medium.
• Line Configuration: This layer connects devices with the
medium: Point to Point configuration and Multipoint
configuration.
• Topologies: Devices must be connected using the
following topologies: Mesh, Star, Ring and Bus.
• Transmission Modes: Physical Layer defines the direction
of transmission between two devices:
Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex.
• Deals with baseband and broadband transmission.
 Design Issues of Physical Layer
The design issue has to do with making sure that when one
side sends a 1 bit, it is received by the other side as a 1 bit and
not as a 0 bit.
Typical questions here are:
• How many volts should be used to represent a 1 bit and how many for a
0?
• How many nanoseconds a bit lasts?
• Whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both directions?
• Whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both directions?
• How many pins the network connector has and what each pin is used
for?
• The design issues here largely deal with mechanical, electrical and timing
interfaces, and the physical transmission medium, which lies below the
physical layer.
 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect.

The imperfection causes signal impairment. This means that the
signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal
at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received.
Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.
 Attenuation
• Means loss of energy -> weaker signal
• When a signal travels through a medium it loses energy
overcoming the resistance of the medium
• Amplifiers are used to compensate for this loss of energy
by amplifying the signal.

• To show the loss or gain of energy the unit “decibel” is

used.

dB = 10 log10 P2/P1
P1 - input signal
P2 - output signal
Attenuation
 Example

Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and

its power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2 is P1 / 2.
In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated
as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.

 Example

The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per kilometer

(dB/km). If the signal at the beginning of a cable with −0.3 dB/km
has a power of 2 mW, what is the power of the signal at 5 km?
Solution
The loss in 5 km cable in decibels is 5 × (−0.3) = −1.5 dB.
P1=2mW
We can calculate the power as -
 Example

The attenuation of a signal is -10 dB. What is the

final signal power if it was originally 5 W?

Ans –
-10 = 10 log10 (P2 / 5)
→ log10 (P2 / 5) = −1
→ (P2 / 5) = 10−1
→ P2 = 0.5 W

SE
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium
and its power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2
is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power)
can be calculated as:

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.

SE
A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is
increased 10 times. This means that P2 = 10P1 . In this
case, the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated
as

SE
Let the energy strength at point 2 is 1/50th with respect
to the point 1. Find out the attenuation in dB.

Ans:
Attenuation in dB is –

10 log10 (1/50) = - 16.9 dB.

SE
Sometimes the decibel is used to measure signal power
in milliwatts. In this case, it is referred to as dBm and is
calculated as dBm = 10 log10 Pm , where Pm is the power
in milliwatts.
Calculate the power of a signal with dBm = −30.

Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as

SE
The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per
kilometer (dB/km). If the signal at the beginning of a
cable with −0.3 dB/km has a power of 2 mW, what is the
power of the signal at 5 km?

Solution
The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 × (−0.3) = −1.5 dB.
We can calculate the power as

SE
 Distortion

❑Means that the signal changes its form or shape

❑Distortion occurs in composite signals
❑Each frequency component has its own
propagation speed traveling through a medium.
❑The different components therefore arrive with
different delays at the receiver.
❑That means that the signals have different phases
at the receiver than they did at the source.
Distortion
 Noise

• There are different types of noise

– Thermal - random noise of electrons in the
wire creates an extra signal
– Induced - from motors and appliances, devices
act are transmitter antenna and medium as
receiving antenna.
– Crosstalk - same as above but between two
wires.
– Impulse - Spikes that result from power lines,
lightning, etc.
Noise
 Network Performance
• One important issue in networking is the performance of the
network—how good is it?
• Quality of service, an overall measurement of network
performance, will be discussed later
• Here, some terms will be introduced that account for network
performance
– Bandwidth
– Throughput
– Latency (delay)
– Bandwidth-delay product
– Jitter
Bandwidth

In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two contexts:

Bandwidth in Hertz, refers to the range of frequencies in a composite
signal or the range of frequencies that a channel can pass
Bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed of bit transmission in a
channel or link
An increase in bandwidth in hertz means an increase in bandwidth in
bits per second

Example
The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice or data. The bandwidth of this line
for data transmission can be up to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem to change the
digital signal to analog.

If the telephone company improves the quality of the line and increases the bandwidth to
8 kHz, we can send 112,000 bps by using the same technology
Throughput
A measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network
A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps
through this link with T always less than B
Bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link; throughput is an
actual measurement of how fast we can send data

Example
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12,000
frames per minute with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is
the throughput of this network?
Solution
We can calculate the throughput as
Latency (Delay)

Defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive

at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the
source
Made of four components: propagation time, transmission time,
queuing time and processing delay
Latency = propagation time + transmission time + queuing time +
processing delay
Propagation time: measures the time required for a bit to travel
from the source to the destination
Propagation time = Distance / Propagation speed
Propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on the medium
and on the frequency of the signal
Latency
Example
What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is 12,000
km? Assume the propagation speed to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as

Transmission time: time between the first bit leaving the sender/arriving
at the receiver and the last bit leaving the sender/arriving at the receiver
Time required for transmission of a message depends on the size of the
message and the bandwidth of the channel
Transmission time = Message size / Bandwidth
Latency

Queuing time: the time needed for each intermediate or end device
to hold the message before it can be processed
It changes with the load imposed on the network
Queuing time increases if there is heavy traffic on the network
An intermediate device, such as a router, queues the arrived messages
and processes them one by one

Processing delay: the time taken by intermediate devices, such as

routers, to process the message before forwarding
Depends on the processing power/speed of the device
Bandwidth-Delay Product
The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill
the link
This measurement is important if we need to send data in bursts and
wait for the acknowledgement of each burst before sending the next
one
We can think about the link between two points as a pipe.
The cross section of the pipe represents the bandwidth, and the length
of the pipe represents the delay.
The volume of the pipe defines the bandwidth-delay product
Filling the link with bits for case 1
Jitter

Jitter is a problem if different packets of data encounter

different delays and the application using the data at the
receiver site is time-sensitive (e.g. audio and video)
It represents the variation in delay for packets belonging to the
same flow
High jitter means the difference between delays is large; low
jitter means the variation is small
If the jitter is high, some action is needed in order to use the
received data
 Data and Signals
To be transmitted, data must be transformed to
electromagnetic signals
Data Communication:
⚫ Source – Computer, telephone handset, video camera, etc
⚫ Transmitter – Converter/Modem
⚫ Communication Medium – Twisted pair, coaxial, fiber optic
cables, wireless media
⚫ Receiver – Converter/Modem
⚫ Destination – Computer, television set, telephone set, etc
 Digital Signals
Example: A digitized voice channel is made by digitizing a 4-kHz
bandwidth analog voice signal. We need to sample the signal at twice the
highest frequency (two samples per hertz). We assume that each sample
requires 8 bits. What is the required bit rate?
Solution
The bit rate can be calculated as

Example: What is the bit rate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?

Solution
HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality video signals. The
HDTV screen is normally a ratio of 16 : 9. There are 1920 by 1080 pixels
per screen, and the screen is renewed 30 times per second. Twenty-four
bits represents one color pixel.
 Digital Transmission
The information to be sent from one point to the other,
needs to be converted to either a digital signal or an
analog signal for transmission

Involves schemes used to transmit data digitally

Digital-to-digital conversion: methods that convert digital

data to digital signal

Analog-to-digital conversion: methods that change

analog signal to digital signal

Digital transmission modes – serial and parallel

Line Coding Characteristics

Data rate vs Signal rate:

Data rate defines the number of data elements (bits) sent
in 1 s. Unit is bits per second (bps)

Signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in 1 s.

Unit is baud

Data rate is sometimes called bit rate; signal rate is

sometimes called pulse rate, modulation rate or baud rate

In data communications we increase the data rate while

decreasing the signal rate
Increasing the data rate increases the speed of
transmission; decreasing the signal rate decreases the
bandwidth requirement
 Bit Rate and Baud Rate
• Bit rate (information rate) is simply the number
of bits (i.e., 0’s and 1’s) transmitted in per unit
time. It determines the number of bits
traveled per second.
Bit rate = baud rate x the number of bits per signal unit

• Baud rate (signaling rate) is the number of

signal units transmitted per unit time that is
needed to represent those bits.
Baud rate = bit rate / the number of bits per signal unit
 Bit Rate and Baud Rate
Baud rate (s) is calculated using the below formula.
S= N /r
here, N is the bit rate and r is the number of data elements
carried by each signal element.
r must be as great as possible for better efficiency.

Here, the data rate(bitrate) and signal rate(baud) are There are two data elements transmitter per signal
same and r is one. One data element rides on one element. In other words, the bit rate is higher than the
signal element (analogous to one person per carriage baud rate. (Analogous to two passengers per carriage in
in a train). a train) and here r is two. Hence baud rate is one half of
bit rate.
 Baud Rate
▪ Baud rate is the rate at which the number of
signal elements or changes to the signal occurs
per second when it passes through a
transmission medium.
▪ The higher a baud rate is the faster the data is
sent/received.

▪ Baud rate = Number of signal elements / total

time in seconds
▪ Bit rate = Baud rate * bits per signal or
symbol
 Number of signal elements (marked in red color) = 3,
Number of bits transmitted (1, 0, 1) = 3. So, Here Bit
rate = 3/1 = 3 bits per second. And, Baud rate = 3/1 = 3
baud per second.
 Number of signal elements (marked in red color) = 6,
Number of bits transmitted (1, 1, 0) = 3. So, Here Bit
rate = 3/1 = 3 bits per second. and, Baud rate = 6/1 = 6
baud per second.
Signal element versus data element

4.152
Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and
the other with four signal levels
 Baud rate is calculated using the below formula.
http://www.circuitstoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/form.jpg

here, N is the bit rate and r is the number of data elements carried by
each signal element. Here r must be as great as possible for better
efficiency.

An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal unit. If 1000

signal units are sent per second, find the baud rate and the
bit rate
• Baud rate = 1000 bauds per second (baud/s)
• Bit rate = 1000 x 4 = 4000 bps
The bit rate of a signal is 3000. If each signal unit carries 6
bits, what is the baud rate?

• Baud rate = 3000 / 6 = 500 baud/s

A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are
needed per level?

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are

needed per level?

We calculate the number of bits by using the above formula.

Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits.
However, this answer is not realistic.
The number of bits sent per level needs to be an integer as well as a
power of 2. So, for this example, 4 bits can represent one level.
A digitized voice channel, is made by digitizing a 4-kHz
bandwidth analog voice signal. We need to sample the
signal at twice the highest frequency (two samples per
hertz). We assume that each sample requires 8 bits.
What is the required bit rate?

Solution
The bit rate can be calculated as
 Signaling (Encoding) Techniques
• Unipolar signaling
– Use voltages either vary between 0 and a positive value or between 0
and some negative value
• Bipolar signaling
– Use both positive and negative voltages
– Experiences fewer errors than unipolar signaling
• Signals are more distinct (more difficult (for interference) to
change polarity of a current)
– Return to zero (RZ)
• Signal returns to 0 voltage level after sending a bit
– Non return to zero (NRZ)
• Signals maintains its voltage at the end of a bit
• Manchester encoding (used by Ethernet)
 What is Line Coding?
• The process of converting Digital Data to Digital Signal is
termed as Line Coding.
• The simplest is to represent ‘1’ by a square pulse and ‘0’ by
0 volt. But the simplest is not always good enough. Also, a
long sequence of ‘0’ may appear as a loss of transmission.
• In order to take care of these and many other requirements,
the symbols are transformed in to various different wave
shapes, a process named line coding.
Figure Line coding schemes
 Digital data to digital signals
A digital signal is sequence of discrete ,
discontinuous voltage pulses. Each pulses a signal
element. Encoding scheme is an important factor in
how successfully the receiver interprets the
incoming signal.
• Encoding Techniques
Following are several ways to map data bits to signal
elements –
– Unipolar signaling
– Bipolar signaling
• Return to zero (RZ)
• Non return to zero (NRZ)
– Manchester encoding (used by Ethernet)
Digital Data to Digital Signal
 Manchester and Differential Manchester Encoding

Manchester and Differential Manchester encoding are two

line coding techniques that are used in digital communication
to encode binary data. Both methods employ a technique of
converting data to form so that it can detect errors when in
transit. Manchester encoding encodes data bits with a
transition in the middle of the bit period which restricts the
timing reference.

Differential Manchester encoding, however, employs

transitions to represent data bits; the absence or presence of
a transition at the onset of the bit interval determines the
value of the said bit. Familiarity with these encoding
techniques is essential when it comes to developing efficient
communication systems.
 Manchester Encoding
❖ In Manchester encoding, a low-to-high transition
represents a 1, and a high-to-low represents a 0.
❖ The duration of the bit is divided into two levels.
❖ Voltage remains at one level in one half and moves to
another level in the second half.
• NOTE :
o + ve voltage = 1
o - ve voltage = 0

Application of Manchester Encoding

• It is used for IR protocols, RFID, and NFC system.
• Manchester Encoding is transparent.
• There is no signal-dropping issue.
 Differential Manchester Encoding
❖ It is also known as the Biphase mark code, etc.
❖ The presence and absence of the transition indicate the value.
❖ In Differential Manchester Encoding 0 should contain an edge
but 1 should not contain any edge it should be continuous.

Application on Differential Manchester Encoding

• For every bit, there is a transition guaranteed
• Used in 802.5 with Twisted Pair.
 Difference Between Manchester and Differential
Manchester Encoding

Manchester Encoding Differential Manchester Encoding

Manchester encoding s a synchronous Differential Manchester encoding is a line
clock-encoding technique used by the code in which data and clock signals are
physical layer to encode the clock and data combined to form a single 2-level self-
of a synchronous bit stream. synchronizing data stream
No transition at the start of a bit period
Low to High represents 1 and High to Low
represents 1 and transition at the start of a
represents 0.
bit period represents 0.
It provides less signal synchronization as
It provides better signal synchronization.
compared to manchester encoding.
Signal rate is the drawback of manchester It maps at least one transition per bit time
encoding as there is always one transition and possibly two bits. Its modulation or
at the middle of the bit and maybe one signal rate is two times that of NRZ. Hence
transition at the end of each bit. it requires more bandwidth.
Used by IEEE 802.3 specification for Used by IEEE 802.5 specification for Token
Ethernet LAN Ring LAN
Analog Transmission of Digital Data
• A well known example
– Using phone lines to connect PCs to Internet
• PCs generates digital data
• Phone lines use analog transmission technology
• Modems translate digital data into analog signals

Internet
M

Phone line Telephone

Network
PC M Analog Central Office
transmission (Telco)
Digital data
 Sound Waves and Characteristics
90o

• Amplitude
0o 180o 360o
– Height (loudness) of the wave
– Measured in decibels (dB)
• Frequency: 270o
– Number of waves that pass in a second
– Measured in Hertz (cycles/second)
– Wavelength, the length of the wave from crest to crest, is related to
frequency and velocity
• Phase:
– Refers to the point in each wave cycle at which the wave begins
(measured in degrees)
– (For example, changing a wave’s cycle from crest to trough
corresponds to a 180 degree phase shift).
Wavelength vs. Frequency
speed = frequency * wavelength

v=fλ
v = 3 x108 m/s
= 300,000 km/s
= 186,000 miles/s

Example:
if f = 900 MHz
λ = 3 x108 / 900 x 10 3
= 3/9 = 0.3 meters
λ
 Modulation
• Μodification of a carrier wave’s fundamental
characteristics in order to encode information
– Carrier wave: Basic sound wave transmitted through the
circuit (provides a base which we can deviate)
• Βasic ways to modulate a carrier wave:
– Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Also known as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
– Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Also known as Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
– Phase Modulation (PM)
• Also known as Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Changing the height of the wave to encode data

• One bit is encoded for

each carrier wave
change
– A high amplitude
means a bit value
of 1
– Low amplitude
means a bit value
of 0

• More susceptible noise than the other modulation methods

 Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Changing the frequency of carrier wave to encode data
• One bit is encoded for each carrier wave change
– Changing carrier
wave to a higher
frequency
encodes a bit
value of 1
– No change in
carrier wave
frequency means
a bit value of 0
 Phase Modulation (PM)
• Changing the phase of the carrier wave to encode data
• One bit is encoded for each carrier wave change
– Changing
carrier wave’s
phase by 180o
corresponds to
a bit value of 1
– No change in
carrier wave’s
phase means
a bit value of 0
Digital Transmission of Analog Data
• Analog voice data sent over digital network
using digital transmission
• Requires a pair of special devices called
Codecs - Coder/decoders
– A device that converts an analog voice signal into
digital form
• Also converts it back to analog data at the receiving end
– Used by the phone system

3/7/2025 179
 Translating from Analog to Digital
• Must be translated into a series of bits before transmission of
a digital circuit
• Done by a technique called Pulse Amplitude Modulation
(PAM) involving 3 steps:
– Measuring the signal
– Encoding the signal as a binary data sample
– Taking samples of the signal
• Creates a rough (digitized) approximation of original signal
– Quantizing error: difference between the original signal and
approximated signal
 Data Encoding

• Digital data to analog signals

A modem (modulator-demodulator) converts digital
data to analog signal. There are 3 ways to modulate
a digital signal on an analog carrier signal.

1. Amplitude shift keying (ASK)

2. Frequency shift keying (FSK)
3. Phase shift keying (PSK)
 Digital data to analog signals
1. Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
Amplitude shift keying (ASK): is a form of
modulation which represents digital data as
variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave. Two
different amplitudes of carrier frequency represent
'0' , '1’.
Digital data to analog signals (contd.)
2. Frequency shift keying (FSK)
In Frequency Shift Keying, the change in frequency
define different digits. Two different frequencies
near carrier frequency represent '0' ,''1'.
Digital data to analog signals (contd.)
3. Phase shift keying (PSK)
The phase of the carrier is discretely varied in
relation either to a reference phase or to the phase
of the immediately preceding signal element, in
accordance with data being transmitted. Phase of
carrier signal is shifted to represent '0' , '1'.
 DATA RATE LIMITS
A very important consideration in data communications is
how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
▪ Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
▪ Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
▪ Using Both Limits
Increasing the levels of a signal increases the probability of an error
occurring, in other words it reduces the reliability of the system. Why??
 Capacity of a System
• The bit rate of a system increases with an
increase in the number of signal levels we use to
denote a symbol.

• A symbol can consist of a single bit or “n” bits.

• The number of signal levels = 2n.
• As the number of levels goes up, the spacing
between level decreases -> increasing the
probability of an error occurring in the presence
of transmission impairments.
 Nyquist Theorem
• Nyquist gives the upper bound for the bit rate of a transmission
system by calculating the bit rate directly from the number of
bits in a symbol (or signal levels) and the bandwidth of the
system
• Nyquist theorem states that for a noiseless channel:
C = 2 B log2m
C= channel capacity in bps
B = bandwidth of the channel in Hz
m = number of signal levels used.
The maximum rate at which data can be correctly
communicated over a channel in presence of noise and
distortion is known as its channel capacity.
 Example

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000

Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels.
(i.e. for each level, we send 1 bit)
The maximum bit rate can be calculated as –

C = 2 B log2m
C= capacity in bps
B = bandwidth in Hz
 Example

Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal

with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2 bits). The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as

C = 2 B log2m
C= capacity in bps
B = bandwidth in Hz
 Example

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a

bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?

Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:
C = 2 B log2m
C= capacity in bps
B = bandwidth in Hz

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase the

number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we have 128 levels, the
bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.
Assuming there is no noise in a medium of B = 4KHz,
determine channel capacity for the encoding level 4.

Ans: BitRate = 2×4000×log24 = 16 Kbps

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with
a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we
need?

Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase the

number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we have 128 levels, the
bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an
average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the
throughput of this network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in

this case.
 Shannon’s Theorem

• Shannon’s theorem gives the capacity of a

system in the presence of noise.

C = B log2(1 + SNR)

• The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit;

• The Nyquist formula tells us how many signal
levels we need.
 Example

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the

value of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In
other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is
faint. For this channel the capacity C is calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero

regardless of the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot
receive any data through this channel.
 Example

Calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone

line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000. The
signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this channel the capacity
is calculated as

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860
kbps. If we want to send data faster than this, we can either
increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the signal-to-noise
ratio.
 Important Observation

The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels.

Assume that SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth
is 2 MHz.

The theoretical channel capacity can be calculated

as:
 Example

We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this

channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate and signal
level?
Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.

The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit.

For better performance we choose something lower, 4 Mbps, for
example.
Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the number of signal
levels.
 Example

Calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular

telephone line. A telephone line normally has a
bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually
3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860
kbps. If we want to send data faster than this, we can either
increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the signal-to-noise
ratio.
 Example

Measure the performance of a telephone line (4KHz of

bandwidth). When the signal is 10 V, the noise is 5 mV.
What is the maximum data rate supported by this
telephone line?
Solution
C = 4,000 X log2 (1 + 10 / 0.005) = 43,866 bps

A channel has B = 10 MHz. Determine the channel

capacity for signal-to-noise ratio 60 dB.
Solution
C = B * log2(1 + S/N) = 10 x log2(1 + 60)
 Example

A channel is given with a bandwidth of 30 kHz and a

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) of 40 dB.
For error free transmission the Shannon’s channel
capacity formula is known as C=B*log2(1+SNR).
Calculate the channel capacity.

Answer: 400 kbps

 Example

In a certain communication channel ,the signal power is 100 W

and noise power is 10 W in order to send information at the rate
of 10 kbps ,what is require bandwidth ?
Solution
signal power is 100 W
noise power is 10 W
data rate of 10 kbps
Bandwidth?
Max data rate = bandwidth * log (1 + (Signal power / Noise power))
10 = bandwidth * log (1 + (100 / 10))
{ log (1 + (100 / 10)) = 3.4594 approx. equal to 4 is taken here}
10 = bandwidth * 4
bandwidth = 2.5 Kbps
 Types of Data Transmitted
• Analog data
– Produced by telephones
– Sound waves, which vary continuously over time
– Can take on any value in a wide range of
possibilities

• Digital data
– Produced by computers, in binary form,
represented as a series of ones and zeros
– Can take on only 0 ad 1
 Types of Transmission
• Analog transmissions
– Analog data transmitted in analog form (vary continuously)
– Examples of analog data being sent using analog
transmissions are broadcast TV and radio
• Digital transmissions
– Made of square waves with a clear beginning and ending
– Computer networks send digital data using digital
transmissions.
• Data converted between analog and digital formats
– Modem (modulator/demodulator): used when digital data
is sent as an analog transmission
– Codec (coder/decoder): used when analog data is sent as a
digital transmission
 Data Type vs. Transmission Type
Analog Digital
Transmission Transmission

Analog Radio, PCM & Video

Data Broadcast TV standards using
codecs

Digital Data Modem-based LAN cable

communications standards
Digital Transmission: Advantages
• Produces fewer errors
– Easier to detect and correct errors, since transmitted data is binary
(1s and 0s, only two distinct values))
• Permits higher maximum transmission rates
– e.g., Optical fiber designed for digital transmission
• More efficient
– Possible to send more digital data through a given circuit
• More secure
– Easier to encrypt
• Simpler to integrate voice, video and data
– Easier to combine them on the same circuit, since signals made up of
digital data
 Bandwidth Utilization-Multiplexing

• Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the

simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single
data link. This is for effective utilization of bandwidth.
• A Multiplexer (MUX) is a device that combines several
signals into a single signal.
• A Demultiplexer (DEMUX) is a device that performs the
inverse operation.
 Multiplexing
• Breaking up a higher speed circuit
into several slower (logical) circuits
–Several devices can use it at the same
time
–Requires two multiplexer: one to
combine; one to separate
• Main advantage: cost
–Fewer network circuits needed
Categories of Multiplexing
 Wavelength-division Multiplexing (WDM)
• Wave-division multiplexing is conceptually the same as
FDM, except that multiplexing and demultiplexing involve
light signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
• The purpose is to combine multiple light sources into one
single light at the multiplexer and do the reverse at the
demultiplexer.
• Combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled
by a prism.
 Time-division Multiplexing (TDM)
• Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that
can be applied when the data rate capacity of the
transmission medium is greater than the data rate
required by the sending and receiving devices.
 Time-division Multiplexing (TDM)
TDM can be implemented in two ways:
a) Synchronous TDM
b) Asynchronous (statistical) TDM.

• In synchronous time-division multiplexing,

the term synchronous means that the
multiplexer allocates exactly the same time
slot to each device at all times, whether or not
a device has anything to transmit.
 Synchronous Time Division
Multiplexing
• Data rate of medium exceeds data rate of
digital signal to be transmitted
• Multiple digital signals interleaved in time
– Can be at the bit level or in blocks
• Time slots pre-assigned to sources and fixed
• Time slots allocated even if no data
• Time slots do not have to be evenly
distributed amongst sources
215
 Asynchronous / Statistical TDM
• In Synchronous TDM many slots are wasted
• Statistical TDM allocates time slots
dynamically based on demand
• Multiplexer scans input lines and collects data
until frame full
• Data rate on line lower than aggregate rates of
input lines

216
Synchronous TDM vs. Asynchronous / Statistical TDM

217
 Use of TDM frames
Time slots are grouped into frames. A frame consists of a one
complete cycle of time slots, including one or more slots dedicated
to each sending device.
In a TDM, the data rate of the link is n times faster, and the unit
duration is n times shorter.
FDM vs TDM

219
Switched Network

A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called

switches. Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections
between two or more devices linked to the switch.
Switching Methods
 Circuit-Switched Network
➢A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected by
physical links. , in which each link is divided into n channels.
➢A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or
more links. However, each connection uses only one dedicated channel
on each link.
 Circuit-Switched Network
➢Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer.

➢There are 3 phases:

• Set-Up phase.
• Data Transfer Phase.
• Tear Down Phase.

➢Before starting communication, the stations must make a reservation

for the resources to be used during the communication. These resources,
such as channels bandwidth, switch buffers, switch processing time, and
switch input/output ports, must remain dedicated during the entire
duration of data transfer until the teardown phase.

➢Data transferred between the two stations are not packetized (physical
layer transfer of the signal). The data are a continuous flow sent by the
source station and received by the destination station, although there
may be periods of silence.
Delay in a Circuit-Switched Network
 Packet Switching

In packet switching, there is no resource allocation for a packet. This means

that there is no reserved bandwidth on the links, and there is no scheduled
processing time.
 Datagram Approach
In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently of all others.
Datagram switching is normally done at the network layer. In this example, all
four packets (or datagrams) belong to the same message, but may travel
different paths to reach their destination.
Delay Analysis in Datagram Networks
 Virtual Circuit Network
A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a
datagram network. It has some characteristics of both.

➢As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases in

addition to the data transfer phase.

➢Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-switched

network, or on demand, as in a datagram network.

➢As in datagram network, data are packetized and each packet carries an
address in the header. However, address in header has local information (it
defines what should be next switch and channel on which packet is being
carried).
➢As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path
established during the connection.

➢A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data link layer,

while a circuit-switched network is implemented in the physical layer and a
datagram network in the network layer.
 Virtual Circuit and VCI

Virtual-Circuit Identifier :
The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called the virtual-circuit identifier (Vel). It is
used by a frame between two switches. When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI; when it
leaves, it has a different VCI.
Note that a VCI does not need to be a large number since each switch can use its own unique set
of VCls.
Source-to-destination data transfer in a virtual-circuit network

8.230
Setup request in a virtual-circuit network

8.231
Setup acknowledgment in a virtual-circuit network

8.232
Delay Analysis in Virtual Circuit
Comparison chart
 Message Switching
• With message switching there is no need to establish a dedicated path between two stations.
• When a station sends a message, the destination address is appended to the message.
• The message is then transmitted through the network, in its entirety, from node to node.
• Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its entirety on disk, and then transmits the message
to the next node.
• This type of network is called a store-and-forward network.
• A message-switching node is typically a general-purpose computer. The device needs sufficient
secondary-storage capacity to store the incoming messages, which could be long. A time delay is
introduced using this type of scheme due to store- and-forward time, plus the time required to find the
next node in the transmission path.
 Message Switching
Advantages:
• Channel efficiency can be greater compared to circuit-switched
systems, because more devices are sharing the channel.
• Traffic congestion can be reduced, because messages may be
temporarily stored in route.
• Message priorities can be established due to store-and-forward
technique.
• Message broadcasting can be achieved with the use of
broadcast address appended in the message.
Disadvantages
• Message switching is not compatible with interactive
applications.
• Store-and-forward devices are expensive, because they must
have large disks to hold potentially long messages.
Message Switching
Transmission Media-Taxonomy
 Design Factors
for Transmission Media
• Bandwidth: All other factors remaining constant, the greater
the band-width of a signal, the higher the data rate that can
be achieved.
• Transmission impairments. Limit the distance a signal can
travel.
• Interference: Competing signals in overlapping frequency
bands can distort or wipe out a signal.
• Number of receivers: Each attachment introduces some
attenuation and distortion, limiting distance and/or data rate.
 Factors Used in Media Selection
• Type of network
– LAN, WAN, or Backbone
• Cost
– Always changing; depends on the distance
• Transmission distance
– Short: up to 300 m; medium: up to 500 m
• Security
– Wireless media is less secure
• Error rates
– Wireless media has the highest error rate (interference)
• Transmission speeds
– Constantly improving; Fiber has the highest
 Twisted Pair (TP) Wires
• Commonly used for telephones and LANs
• Reduced electromagnetic interference
– Via twisting two wires together
(Usually several twists per inch)
• TP cables have a number of pairs of wires
– Telephone lines: two pairs (4 wires, usually only one pair is used by the
telephone)
– LAN cables: 4 pairs (8 wires)
• Also used in telephone trunk lines (up to several thousand
pairs)
• Shielded twisted pair also exists, but is more expensive
Types-UTP and STP and connectors
UTP Categories
 Coaxial Cables
• Used for cable television, LANs, telephony
• Has an inner conductor surrounded by a braided mesh
• Both conductors share a common center axial, hence the
term “co-axial”.
• Advantages-
– Higher bandwidth
• 400 to 600Mhz
• up to 10,800 voice conversations
– Can be tapped easily (pros and cons)
– Much less susceptible to interference than twisted pair
• Disadvantages-
– High attenuation rate makes it expensive over long distance
– Bulky
Coax Layers
outer jacket
(polyethylene)
shield
(braided wire)

insulating material

copper or aluminum
conductor
Coaxial Cable-Categories and
Connectors
 Optical Fiber
Relatively new transmission medium used by telephone
companies in place of long-distance trunk lines.
Also used by private companies in implementing local data
communications networks
Require a light source with injection laser diode (ILD) or light-
emitting diodes (LED)
 Optical Fiber-Benefits and
applications
• Greater capacity
• Data rates of hundreds of Gbps
• Smaller size & weight
• Lower attenuation
• Electromagnetic isolation
• Greater repeater spacing • Long-haul trunks
• 1500km, 20 – 60k voice channels
• 10s of km at least • Metropolitan trunks
• 12 km, 100k channels
• Rural exchange trunks
• 40 – 160Km, 5k voice channels
• Subscriber loops
• Voice data cables leased by corporate clients
• LANs
• 100Mbps – 1 Ghz
Unguided Media
A Realtime Implementation
 Radio Waves
• EM waves ranging in frequencies
between 3 KHz and 1 GHz
– Omni-directional antennas are used
– Propagates in all directions; sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned
– Use ground and sky propagations
– Susceptible to interference
– Can travel long distances
– Can penetrate walls
– Narrow bands
– Used for multicast communications, e.g. AM
and FM radio, television, cordless phones
and paging Omnidirectional antenna
 Microwaves
• EM waves having frequencies between 1 GHz and 300 GHz
– Unidirectional antennas; use line-of-sight propagation
– Narrowly focused; sending & receiving antennas need to be aligned
– No interference if properly aligned
– Repeaters are often needed for long distance communication
– Very high frequency waves cannot penetrate walls
– Wider bands
– Used for unicast communications, e.g. cellular phones, satellite networks
and wireless LANs

265
 Infrared waves
• EM waves with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz
– Use line-of-sight propagation
– High frequency waves cannot penetrate walls; prevents interference
– Cannot be used outside a building as sun’s rays can interfere
– Wide bandwidth
– Used for short-range communications in a closed area
– Infrared Data Association (IrDA) has established standards for using
infrared waves for communication between wireless devices
– Devices with IrDA port: wireless keyboard, wireless mouse, wireless
printer, remote controls, etc
– Data rate: 75 Kbps (original); 4 Mbps (recent)
THANKS