Clearing Up The Confusion

About Deep Stops

By Erik C. Baker, P.E.

The old adage, an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure, is certainly applicable to the
various symptoms of decompression sickness (DCS). The best treatment of all for these maladies
is to complete a sufficient decompression profile in the first place. Technical divers have
observed that many ailments can be avoided by including deep stops in their profiles. A closer
examination of the decompression model reveals that this practice serves to reduce or eliminate
excessive overpressure gradients. Knowing this, the model can be modified to provide precise
control of gradients and stops can be calculated within the decompression zone to the depth of the
deepest possible decompression stop.

Note: For further explanation of the complete decompression profiles that can be at or near saturation at the bottom
decompression concepts and utilize arbitrary deep stops reveals that depth while the slowest compartments
terminology discussed herein, readers there are potential problems. These are only partially loaded. This means
are referred to a previous article by the include stops that are made too deep and that the fastest compartments will control
author, Understanding M-values, inadequate extension of decompression the initial ascent since their inert gas
Immersed, Vol. 3, No. 3, Fall 1998. time at the shallow stops to compensate loadings will be closer to M-values well
for the increased gas loading caused by before the slower compartments. The
the deep stops. first stop is determined when the inert
Many technical divers have observed CONVENTIONAL CALCULATION
gas loading in the leading compartment
is equal to or near its M-value.
that they feel fatigue, malaise, or
drowsiness after completing certain types
of decompression dives. The bounce In decompression application and theory, BUBBLES AND GRADIENTS
dive, which is characterized as being there is a trade-off between sufficient
relatively deep with a short bottom time, decompression (no symptoms of DCS) When the concept of M-values was first
often produces such symptoms. and economic decompression (minimum presented in 1965 by decompression
Conventional implementation of the amount of time, gas supplies, exposure, researcher Robert D. Workman, an
dissolved gas decompression model for etc.). Conventional dissolved gas assumption was made that inert gas
this kind of dive will generate a first stop algorithms, such as those developed by would not come out of solution as bubbles
in the decompression profile that is Robert D. Workman and Albert A. in a diver's tissues until an M-value was
much shallower than the bottom depth. Bhlmann, seek to optimize the exceeded. This theory was somewhat
Several divers have reported that if they decompression by allowing the diver to controversial at the time, however it was
add some deep stops in their profiles, ascend to the shallowest depth or recognized that future technology would
i.e., deeper than what the conventional ceiling based on the ascent limiting M- be able to give better information about
calculation calls for, then post-dive values for the hypothetical tissue the presence and behavior of bubbles in
symptoms are dramatically reduced or compartments. The economics of this are diver's bodies. Workman acknowledged
eliminated. Issues of confusion and two-fold: inert gas elimination in the that ultrasonic methods of bubble
controversy among technical divers are faster compartments is accelerated while detection in vivo and in vitro are being
the questions of how deep these deep inert gas uptake in the slower explored to permit better definition of
stops should be and how many such compartments is minimized during decompression adequacy, but this is still
stops should be performed. decompression. In practice, divers have in its early stages.
The empirical observations of divers traditionally been instructed to get off Since then, Doppler ultrasound
have led to the development of arbitrary the bottom and ascend to the first stop technology was developed and it has been
methods for introducing deep stops. in a timely manner. used extensively in decompression
Many of these methods involve For a typical bounce dive, the research around the world. This research
individual judgement and discretion conventional calculation will permit a has shown that bubbles are present in the
rather than having a basis in the relatively long ascent from the bottom to body's circulation during and after many
decompression calculations. Analysis of the first stop. In this scenario, the inert kinds of dives, including those with no
gas loadings in the fastest compartments symptoms of DCS. In other words, a

1
diver does not have to exceed an M- symptoms. Mild or vague symptoms (30 fsw/min) or less. This practice will
value in order to generate bubbles. This such as fatigue and malaise, which help to reduce rapid changes in
fact has been acknowledged in normally do not receive medical overpressure gradients which presumably
decompression science, but the treatment, may fall within a category of promote bubbling.
mechanisms for bubble formation and decompression stress, a lesser variant of Next, there is the issue of introducing
growth in the human body are neither DCS. deep stops. One empirically-derived
well understood nor precisely defined. method for deep stops was published by
The laws of physics and many bubble SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM diver and marine biologist Richard L.
models predict that greater numbers and Pyle. It is used in conjunction with a
sizes of bubbles can be expected with Large and/or rapid overpressure desktop decompression program with
increasing overpressure gradients. In the gradients in a decompression profile multi-level capabilities. A complete
dissolved gas model, this means that presumably create more bubbling which decompression profile using Richard
more bubbling can be expected as the leads to decompression stress or DCS. Pyle's method for deep stops is shown on
compartment inert gas loadings plot The obvious solution to this problem is to the pressure graph in Figure 2. The
farther above the ambient pressure line limit the magnitude of overpressure graph indicates that this method is
on the pressure graph. gradients. Information within the effective in reducing or eliminating
dissolved gas decompression model can excessive overpressure gradients when
ILLUSTRATING THE PROBLEM be used to address the issue. compared to the conventionally
First, there is a limit to how deep a calculated profile. There are, however,
The pressure graph in Figure 1 shows a deep stop can be. The leading potential difficulties with this approach.
complete decompression profile compartment inert gas loading associated Depending on the decompression
calculated by the conventional method. with a decompression stop should not program being used and its method for
In this profile, the fastest compartments be below the decompression zone. In conservatism, the gas loadings in the
have the greatest gas loadings during the general, an overpressure gradient of some slower compartments may be closer to
initial ascent and are leading. The M- magnitude is required for efficient off- the M-values at the shallow stops due to
values for these fast compartments gassing. It is also important to minimize the increased uptake caused by the deep
permit large overpressure gradients the extent of on-gassing in the slower stops. The program will compensate for
relative to the slower compartments. compartments during the decompression. the deep stops, but unless the
Consequently, a large and rapid Within the context of the dissolved gas conservatism factor is increased, it may
overpressure gradient is created during model, the deepest possible not provide the same margin of safety at
the ascent to the first stop. This is out decompression stop for a given profile the shallow stops as when running a
of proportion with the smaller can be defined as the next standard stop conventional profile. A good way to
overpressure gradients permitted during depth above the point where the gas evaluate this is to calculate the maximum
the rest of the decompression profile loading for the leading compartment Percent M-values and Percent M-Value
when slower compartments are crosses the ambient pressure line (see Gradients across all compartments at
controlling. Presumably, many bubbles Figures 1 thru 3). The deepest possible each stop.
could be generated during the initial stop depth is easily calculated in a The pressure graph in Figure 3 shows
ascent to the first stop. In this case, the decompression program and it will vary a complete decompression profile
calculated gradient is 22.4 meters of depending on the ascent rate from the calculated using Gradient Factors to
seawater (msw) . 73 feet of seawater bottom and the gas mix being used. control the overpressure gradients across
(fsw) . 2.2 atmospheres. For A decompression profile does not the entire profile. Gradient Factors
comparison, when a can of soda is necessarily need to have a first stop at the provide a consistent approach to
opened, the pressure gradient between deepest possible stop depth. This depth conservatism in decompression
the dissolved carbon dioxide and the air simply represents the point where at least calculations. They can be used to
is in the range of 3.1 to 3.4 atmospheres. one compartment will be in the generate deep stops within the
Although an M-value is not exceeded decompression zone. For many decompression zone, control overpressure
in the decompression profile of Figure 1, decompression profiles, stops that start a gradients, and ensure a fixed margin of
a diver could experience symptoms of few standard stop depths above the safety from the M-values across the entire
fatigue, malaise, or drowsiness after this deepest possible stop should be adequate decompression profile. A Gradient
dive. Explanations for this include to control excessive overpressure Factor is simply a decimal fraction or
theories of bubble migration within the gradients. However, the deepest possible percentage of the M-value Gradient (see
body and delayed off-gassing caused by stop depth is valuable information for the Figure 4).
accumulation of bubbles in the diver as it represents the beginning of the The addition of deep stops in a profile
pulmonary capillaries. In any case, it is decompression zone. When reaching this will generally increase the time required
possible to associate a cause and effect point during the ascent from the bottom, at the shallow stops as well as the overall
relationship between large overpressure the diver should slow the ascent to the decompression time. However, if truly
gradients during the dive and post-dive decompression zone rate of 10 msw/min sufficient decompression is the result,

2
then the concept of economic Hamilton RW, Rogers RE, Powell MR,
decompression is not really Vann RD. 1994. Development and
compromised. validation of no-stop decompression
The pressure graph is an excellent procedures for recreational diving: The
tool for divers to evaluate decompression DSAT Recreational Dive Planner.
profiles. Even a quick review can Santa Ana, CA: Diving Science and
identify potential problem areas such as Technology Corp.
l a r ge o ve r p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t s .
D e c o mp r e s s i o n mo d e l e r s a n d Pyle RL. 1996. The importance of
programmers are encouraged to include deep safety stops: Rethinking ascent
this feature in their programs. patterns from decompression dives.
Finally, the example decompression DeepTech. 5:64; Cave Diving Group
profiles used for the pressure graphs in Newsletter. 121:2-5.
this article were calculated with minimal
conservatism and are intended for Schreiner HR. 1968. Safe ascent after
comparison purposes only. Z deep dives. Rev. Subaquat. Physiol.
Hyperbar. Med. 1:28-37.

Erik C. Baker is an electrical engineer Schreiner HR, Kelley PL. 1971. A

with a consulting engineering firm in pragmatic view of decompression. In:
Florida who has developed several Lambertsen CJ, ed. Underwater
computer programs to improve the safety Physiology IV. New York: Academic
of his cave and trimix diving. Press.

References: Wienke BR. 1991. Basic

decompression theory and application.
Baker EC. 1998. Understanding M- Flagstaff, AZ: Best.
values. Immersed. Vol. 3, No. 3.
Wienke BR. 1994. Basic diving
Bennett PB, Elliott DH, eds. 1993. physics and applications. Flagstaff,
The Physiology and Medicine of AZ: Best.
Diving. London: WB Saunders.
Workman RD. 1965. Calculation of
Bhlmann, AA. 1984. decompression schedules for nitrogen-
Decompression-Decompression oxygen and helium-oxygen dives.
Sickness. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Research Report 6-65. Washington:
Navy Experimental Diving Unit.
Bhlmann, AA. 1995. Tauchmedizin.
Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

3
 Pressure Graph: Complete Decompression Profile
Using Conventional Calculation Method
Bhlmann ZH-L16 M-values by Compartment Number
11 13 15
1b 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16
100
ne
Deepest possible decompression Li
stop is next stop depth above re
ssu
90 point where leading compartment re
crosses ambient pressure line tP
ien
Compartment Inert Gas Pressure, msw absolute

b
Am
1b
Gradient "spike" or "hump"
80 is out of proportion with the 2
rest of the decompression
profile

Calculated Inert Gas Loadings by Compartment Number

3
70
Large and rapid
overpressure gradient 4

60 created during
ascent to first stop
5
Surface Pressure = 1.0 bar

50
6

40
7

30 8

20 10
11
12
13
14
1615
10 First
Stop
Depth Pressure, msw gauge
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60 63 66 69 72 75 78 81 84 87 90
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ambient Pressure, msw absolute
Notes: Decompression Table
Stop Run Stop Run Stop Run Stop Run
1. 13/50 Trimix dive to 90 msw (293 fsw) 4. Ascent rate is 10 msw/min. (msw) (min) (msw) (min) (msw) (min) (msw) (min)
for 20 minutes bottom time.
5. Inert gas loadings are shown leaving 33 29 15 45 0 100
2. Deco mixes: Nitrox 36% at 33 msw, the bottom at 20 minutes run time. 27 31 12 51
Nitrox 50% at 21 msw, and
6. Run times are leaving the stop. 24 33 9 60
Nitrox 80% at 9 msw.
7. This deco profile is representative 21 36 6 73
3. Conservatism factor is minimal (15%).
for the typical deep "bounce dive." 18 40 3 99

Figure 1

4
 Pressure Graph: Complete Decompression Profile
Using Richard Pyle's Method For Deep Stops
Bhlmann ZH-L16 M-values by Compartment Number
11 13 15
1b 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16
100
ne
Deepest possible decompression Li
e
stop is next stop depth above ur
point where leading compartment ss
90 re
crosses ambient pressure line tP
i en
Compartment Inert Gas Pressure, msw absolute

b
Large, rapid overpressure Am
1b

80 gradient during initial 2

ascent is eliminated
Gas loadings in slower

Calculated Inert Gas Loadings by Compartment Number

3
70 compartments may be
closer to M-values at
shallow stops unless 4

60 conservatism factor
is increased
5
Surface Pressure = 1.0 bar

50
6

40
7

30 8

20 10
11
12
13
14
1615
10 First
Stop
Depth Pressure, msw gauge
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60 63 66 69 72 75 78 81 84 87 90
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ambient Pressure, msw absolute
Notes: Decompression Table
Stop Run Stop Run Stop Run Stop Run
1. 13/50 Trimix dive to 90 msw (293 fsw) 4. Ascent rate is 10 msw/min. (msw) (min) (msw) (min) (msw) (min) (msw) (min)
for 20 minutes bottom time.
5. Inert gas loadings are shown leaving 60 26 27 35 12 57
2. Deco mixes: Nitrox 36% at 33 msw, the bottom at 20 minutes run time. 45 29 24 37 9 66
Nitrox 50% at 21 msw, and
6. Run times are leaving the stop. 39 31 21 40 6 81
Nitrox 80% at 9 msw.
7. Deep stops result in higher gas loadings 33 32 18 44 3 109
3. Conservatism factor is minimal (15%).
in slower compartments at shallow stops. 30 33 15 49 0 110

Figure 2

5
 Pressure Graph: Complete Decompression Profile
Using Gradient Factors To Control Entire Profile
Bhlmann ZH-L16 M-values by Compartment Number
11 13 15
1b 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16
100
ne
Deepest possible decompression Li
stop. Ascent rate should be slow re
su
(10 msw/min) above this point es
90 t Pr
Starting gradient factor ien
Compartment Inert Gas Pressure, msw absolute

b
Am
1b
(GF Lo) = 0.2 which
80 generates first stop 2

Precise control of

Calculated Inert Gas Loadings by Compartment Number

overpressure gradients 3
70 across entire profile

Surfacing gradient 4

60 factor (GF Hi)

= 0.75
5
Surface Pressure = 1.0 bar

50
6

40
7

30 8

20 10
11
12
13
14
1615
10 First
Stop
Depth Pressure, msw gauge
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60 63 66 69 72 75 78 81 84 87 90
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ambient Pressure, msw absolute
Notes: Decompression Table
Stop Run Stop Run Stop Run Stop Run
1. 13/50 Trimix dive to 90 msw (293 fsw) 4. Ascent rate is 10 msw/min. (msw) (min) (msw) (min) (msw) (min) (msw) (min)
for 20 minutes bottom time.
5. Inert gas loadings are shown leaving 54 24 39 30 24 40 9 71
2. Deco mixes: Nitrox 36% at 33 msw, the bottom at 20 minutes run time. 51 25 36 33 21 44 6 87
Nitrox 50% at 21 msw, and
6. Run times are leaving the stop. 48 26 33 34 18 47 3 119
Nitrox 80% at 9 msw.
7. Proximity of gas loadings to M-values 45 27 30 36 15 53 0 120
3. Conservatism is by gradient factors.
is controlled by gradient factors. 42 28 27 38 12 61

Figure 3

6
 Pressure Graph: Gradient Factors A Gradient Factor is simply a
y
1 .8 .6 .4 .2 0 decimal fraction (or percentage)
of the M-value Gradient.

Gradient Factors (GF) are

defined between zero and one,
M-value GF Lo 0 GF 1.
Compartment Inert Gas Pressure, absolute

Gradient generates
Surface Pressure

first stop A Gradient Factor of 0 represents

the ambient pressure line.

A Gradient Factor of 1 represents

e

the M-value line.

Lin
ue

linear function
val

for gradual Gradient Factors modify the

M-

ine
r eL change in original M-value equations for
su Gradient
es conservatism within the
t Pr
ien
Factors decompression zone.
b
Am
The lower Gradient Factor value
GF Hi (surfacing value) (GF Lo) determines the depth of
maintains safety margin First the first stop. Used to generate
Stop
deep stops to the depth of the
0 "deepest possible deco stop."
0 Ambient Pressure, absolute x

M-value equations modified for use with Gradient Factors (GF)

Workman Equations: Bhlmann Equations:
M = Depth ( M GF - GF + 1) + (Psb + GF ( MO - Psb)) Pt.tol. i.g. = Pamb. (GF/b - GF + 1) + GF a
Tol. Depth = [P - (Psb + GF (M O - Psb))] / ( M GF - GF + 1) Pamb.tol. = (Pt.i.g. - GF a) / (GF/b - GF + 1)

Gradient Factors can be applied manually for each stop or they can be applied in an automated mode. A simple linear
function will permit a gradual change in the Gradient Factor from the GF Lo value to the GF Hi value:
GF Hi - GF Lo
GF slope = GF = GF slope Current Stop Depth + GF Hi
Final Stop Depth - First Stop Depth

Advantages of Gradient Factor Method for Conservatism

Can be used to generate deep stops to the depth of the "deepest possible decompression stop"
Decompression stops, including deep stops, will always be within the decompression zone
Permits precise control of overpressure gradients including a gradual change in gradients from first stop to the surface
Minor modification to the familiar Haldanian decompression model - easy to understand and apply
Flexible - Gradient Factors can be applied to deal with individual physiology as well as various types of dive profiles

Figure 4