Preservation of food by use of high temperature and low temperature:

Among the various methods of food preservations, these two methods i.e. use of high

temperature and low temperature is best techniques of food preservations without altering

the nutritional value of food.

1. Preservation by use of high temperature.

2. Preservation by use of low temperature.

Preservation by the uses of high temperature:

Use of high temperature in food brings about denaturation of proteins, thermal

breakdown of plasma membrane and inactivation of enzymes that require for microbial

metabolism. Heat treatment employed should be such that either it kill an organism or

inhibit that growth of surviving spoilage organisms. The various types of or degree of

heating used in food must be classified as below:

1. Heating below 100*C (Pasteurization)

2. Heating at about 100*C
3. Heating above 100*C

Heating below 100*C (Pasteurization):

Pasteurization is heat treatment at temperature below 100*C. It kills any apart

(pathogenic or spoilage causing or undesirable) but not (like lactic and bacteria)

microorganisms present in food. Heating may be by means of steam, hot water, dry heat or

electric current. Pasteurization is applied under following conditions:

1. When microorganisms are very heat resistant such as yeast in fruit juices.
2. When major aim is to kill undesirable microorganisms as with market milk.
3. When more rigorous heat treatment might harm the food product or changes the quality of food as with
market milk.
4. When main spoilage organism arenot very heat resistant.
5. When any surviving spoilage organisms will be taken care by additional preservative method to be employed.

Thermal destruction of microorganisms 1

 6. When competing organisms are to be killed and allow the growth of desire organism like addition of starter
culture during fermentation.

Time and temperature used in pasterurization depands on method employed and

product treated as :

1. Low Temperature Time Holding (LTH)

2. High Temperature Short Time (HTST)

HTST: It indicates application of high temperature for a short period of time. HTST for pasteurization of milk is
71.7*C for 15second.
LTH: It indicates application of low temperature for a long period of time. For example: LTH for pasteurization
of milk is 62.8*C for 30 minutes.

Heating about 100*C (Boiling):

A temperature of about 100*C is obtained by boiling of liquid food, by immersion of

container of food in boiling water, by expososure to hot steam. Most home canners use

pressure-cookers at about 100*C or less for some acidic food. Heating at 100*C may kill

most of vegetative cell but spores are quite resistant. During baking interval temperature of

bakery product cannot reach to 100*C but surface is with 100*C or above. Similarly,

roasting, frying, cooking, simmering also involved the heat treatment of food at about

100*C.

Heating above 100*C : Temperature above 100*C are often obtained by means of steam under pressure in
steam-pressure sterilizer or retorts. The temperature in the retorts increase with rise in steam pressure. Ultra
high temperature (UTH) is one of the process that require heating temperature above 100*C for sufficient
holding period and results in the proper sterilization of food and food products

#Canning:

Canning is defined as the preservation of food in sealed container. It implies heat

treatment as the principle factor in the prevention of spoilage/ preservationof food. Canning

is mostly done in tin canes madeup of tin coated steel, in glass containers made up of

alumunium, plastic, etc. Canning is also refered as hermetically (air tight) 'sealed

container'. Nicolas Appert reknowed as Father of Cannin. He heated canned food product
Thermal destruction of microorganisms 2
for hours in boiling water and often the result that favour long term preservation. He then

established this phenomenon as Appertixation. Today with his idea, many canned foods

are preserved for a long period of time. Special cans are prepared for specific food

products.

During process of canning at first raw food is harvested and washed with clean water.

Then the food is chopped into smaller pieces and then placed in can. The can is then

sealed and heated either placing in boiling water or by steam or by placing in oven. There

are two system of canning, they are:

1. Hot Pack
2. Cold Pack

Food Package

Sterilization Sterilization

Aseptic filling and

sealing

Finished product

(Aseptic processing)

(Hot packed)
Food Package

Thermal destruction of microorganisms 3



Filling

Heat treatment

Finished product (Canning)

(Cold packed)
Flow chart of Canning (Hot Packed and Cold Packed)

Proper canning is important for preservation of food. Defective canning leads to

spoilage of food. During canning, can must be completely filled with food to replaced most

of the air from the canes or evacuate the unfilled space. During canning, the can must be

heated at sufficient temperature to kill vegetative cells and spores. Can must not be leaked

type, if can is leaked, it facilitates contamination of can through leak and helps in germinate

of surviving spores.

Use of low temperature:

Low of temperature is mainly prefered method of food preservations. It is used most

commonly as housedhold method and rapidly in food industries too. The use of low

temperature in food for its preservations mainly retards:

1. Microbial growth an activities.

2. Chemical reaction and action of food enzymes.
3. Biochemical reaction.
4. Insect and pest activities.

Thermal destruction of microorganisms 4

 The lower the temperature, the slower the chemical reaction, enzymatic action and

microbial growth. Preservation of food at low temperature varies with microorganisms .

Most pathogenic or spoilage causing organisms failed to grow at temperature below 5*C

but some microorganisms like Clostridium botulinum Type E and Yersinia enterocolitica are

reported to grow even at lower temperature.

Preservation of food with drop of 10*C may stop the growth of some organisms and

slow the growth of other organisms. Afurther decrease of 10*C in temperature, food further

stop growth of more organisms and slow down growth of other.Therefore storage of food at

low temperature influence the important environmental factors for preservation of food.

Various temperature employed in low temperature are:

1. Chilling storage
2. Comon or cellar storage
3. Cold storage
4. Frozen storage.

Chilling storage:

Chilling storage is done at a temperature around freezing and involves cooling by ice or

mechanical refrigerator. It is a temporary storage process. Food like dairy product like fish,

meat, some vegetables and fruits can be hold in chilling storage. This method slower the

enzymatic and microbial changes in food.

Common or cellar storage:

Refer to use of cold temperature above freezing. This temperature is generally in

between 10-15*C. Roots craps (under root), potatoes. tomato cabbage, apple and similar

food are stored for limited period in common or cellar storage. Persiable (food which

spoiled fastly) food like fruits and vegetables can be stored for certain time period.
Thermal destruction of microorganisms 5
Common storage doesnot prevent the spoilage of fruits and vetebales by their own

enzyme system or microorganisms but only lower their activities. In place where

mechanical refregirator is only available common storage is applicable.

Cold storage : Refer to use of low temperature i.e. temperature above or below

freezing with the replication of mechanical refregiration. During cold storage food is

generally stored above 0*C.

Frozen storage :

It is a storage of food in frozen state at or below -18*C. Under the usual condition of

storage a frozen food shows prevention in microbial growth entirely and the action of food

enzyme is greatly retarted. The rate of freezing of food based on number of factors such as

method used, the temperature applied, circulation of air, size and shape of food, etc. Two

basic ways to achieve the freezing to food are:

The rate of freezing of food based on number of factors such as method used on

number of factors such as method used, the temperature applied, circulation of air, size

and shape of package, kinds of food, etc. Two basic ways to achieve the freezing to food

are:

1. Quick freezing.
2. Slow freezing.

Quick freezing:

Process by which the temperature of food is lower to about -20*C within 30 minutes or

less. It is accomplished by one of following method:

Thermal destruction of microorganisms 6

 (A) Direct immersion of food in refrigererator: (-20*C / -70*c /-80*C) (-20*C ice cube

forming) (-4*C in another chamber of freeze)

(B) Air blast freezing: In this method air at -17.8*C to 34*C is blown across the food.

Slow freezing process by which desired temperature is achieved within 3-72 hours. It is

effective to kill microbial cell. This type of freezing is applied in home freezer.

Slow freezing: Process with desire temperature is acheived within 3 to 70 hours. It is more effective in killing
microbial cells. This type of freezing is applied in home freezer.

# Difference between fast freezing and slow freezing :

Fast freezing Slow freezing

Small ice
Large ice crystal are
formed.
crystal are formed.
Microbial cell dehydrated Microbial cells dehydrate
to lesser extent. to greater extent.
Block or supresses Break down of metabolic
metabolism. rapports.
No adaptation of Some microorganisms
microorganisms to lower may adopt to lower
temperature. temperature.
Thermal shock occur. No thermal shock occur.
It gives less mechanical It gives more
damage to food due to mechanical damage to
formation of small ice food due to formation of
crystals. large ice crystals

Thermal Destruction of Microorganisms

source from: Professor Douglas Goff, Dairy Science and Technology Education, University of Guelph, Canada,
www.foodsci.uoguelph.ca/dairyedu/home.html.
Heat is lethal to microorganisms, but each species has its own particular heat tolerance.
During a thermal destruction process, such as pasteurization, the rate of destruction is
logarithmic, as is their rate of growth. Thus bacteria subjected to heat are killed at a rate that is
proportional to the number of organisms present. The process is dependent both on the
temperature of exposure and the time required at this temperature to accomplish to desired rate
of destruction. Thermal calculations thus involve the need for knowledge of the concentration of
microorganisms to be destroyed, the acceptable concentration of microorganisms that can remain

Thermal destruction of microorganisms 7

behind (spoilage organisms, for example, but not pathogens), the thermal resistance of the target
microorganisms (the most heat tolerant ones), and the temperature time relationship required for
destruction of the target organisms.
The extent of the pasteurization treatment required is determined by the heat resistance of the
most heat-resistant enzyme or microorganism in the food. For example, milk pasteurization
historically was based on Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Coxiella burnetti, but with the
recognition of each new pathogen, the required time temperature relationships are continuously
being examined.
A thermal death curve for this process is shown below. It is a logarithmic process, meaning
that in a given time interval and at a given temperature, the same percentage of the bacterial
population will be destroyed regardless of the population present. For example, if the time
required to destroy one log cycle or 90% is known, and the desired thermal reduction has been
decided (for example, 12 log cycles), then the time required can be calculated. If the number of
microorganisms in the food increases, the heating time required to process the product will also
be increased to bring the population down to an acceptable level. The heat process for
pasteurization is usually based on a 12 D concept, or a 12 log cycle reduction in the numbers of
this organism.
Several parameters help us to do thermal calculations and define the rate of thermal lethality.
The D value is a measure of the heat resistance of a microorganism. It is the time in minutes at a
given temperature required to destroy 1 log cycle (90%) of the target microorganism. (Of course,
in an actual process, all others that are less heat tolerant are destroyed to a greater extent). For
example, a D value at 72C of 1 minute means that for each minute of processing at 72C the
bacteria population of the target microorganism will be reduced by 90%. In the illustration
below, the D value is 14 minutes (40-26) and would be representative of a process at 72C.

Thermal destruction of microorganisms 8

 The Z value reflects the temperature dependence of the reaction. It is defined as the
temperature change required to change the D value by a factor of 10. In the illustration below the
Z value is 10C.

Reactions that have small Z values are highly temperature dependent, whereas those with
large Z values require larger changes in temperature to reduce the time. A Z value of 10C is
typical for a spore forming bacterium. Heat induced chemical changes have much larger Z
values that microorganisms, as shown below.

Z (C) D121 (min)

bacteria 5-10 1-5
enzymes 30-40 1-5
vitamins 20-25 150-200
pigments 40-70 15-50
Thermal destruction of microorganisms 9
 The figure below illustrates the relative changes in time temperature profiles for the
destruction of microorganisms. Above and to the right of each line the microorganisms or quality
factors would be destroyed, whereas below and to the left of each line, the microorganisms or
quality factors would not be destroyed. Due to the differences in Z values, it is apparent that at
higher temperatures for shorter times, a region exists (shaded area) where pathogens can be
destroyed while vitamins can be maintained. The same holds true for other quality factors such
as colour and flavour components. Thus in milk processing the higher temperature, shorter time
(HTST) process (72C/16 sec) is favored compared to a lower temperature longer time (batch or
vat) process since it results in a slightly lower loss of vitamins and better sensory quality.

Alkaline phosphatase is a naturally-occurring enzyme in raw milk which has a similar Z

value to heat-resistant pathogens. Since the direct estimation of pathogen numbers by microbial
methods is expensive and time consuming, a simple test for phosphatase activity is routinely
used. If activity is found, it is assumed that either the heat treatment was inadequate or that
unpasteurized milk has contaminated the pasteurized product.
A working example of how to use D and Z values in pasteurization calculations:
Pooled raw milk at the processing plant has bacterial population of 4x10exp5/mL. It is to be
processed at 79C for 21 seconds. The average D value at 65C for the mixed population is 7
min. The Z value is 7C. How many organisms will be left after pasteurization? What time
would be required at 65C to accomplish the same degree of lethality?
Answer:
At 79C, the D value has been reduced by two log cycles from that at 65C since the Z value
is 7C. Hence it is now 0.07 min. The milk is processed for 21/60=0.35 min, so that would
accomplish 5 log cycle reductions to 4 organisms/mL. At 65C, you would need 35 minutes to
accomplish a 5D reduction.

Thermal destruction of microorganisms 10

 STERILIZING DEFINITION and SYMBOLS (D, z, F)
Pasteurization
Pasteurization is one type of preservation by heat that most people are familiar with. This
process involves heating a particular food to a certain temperature and keeping that temperature
over a specific amount of time to kill the organisms Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Coxiella
burnetii. These two organisms are the most heat resistant of pathogens that are not spore
forming. Milk is a product that most people know is pasteurized. There are many different
time/temperature combinations that can be used in the pasteurization of milk. The LTLT (low-
temperature/long-time) process involves brining the milk to a temperature of 145 (63) for
30 minutes. Conversely, the HTST (high-temperature/short-time) method brings the milk to a
temperature of 161 (72) for 15 seconds. Both of these processes accomplish the same thing:
the destruction of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Coxiella burnetii. So, you can see that not
only is temperature important, but the time at that temperature is also important.
Organisms that can survive pasteurization temperature belong to the groups of organisms
referred to as thermodurics and thermophiles. Thermoduric organisms are those that can survive
high temperature, but dot necessarily grow and reproduce at those temperatures. Thermophiles
are organisms that can grow and reproduce at high temperatures. Remember psychrotrophs and
psychrophiles.

Sterilization
Some products are referred to as commercially sterile. This means that no viable organisms
can be grown from traditional culture methods. In other words, the product should have been
subjected to a heat treatment having a sufficiently high lethal effect so that - after incubation at
30 or 35 for 5 days - no spoilage occurs and the changes in flavor, odor, color and
nutritional value are minimized. In addition to ensuring the destruction of microorganisms, the
heat treatment of milk also results in a number of other reactions and changes occurring.
The main changes are:
Inactivation of enzymes
Denaturation and complex formation
Maillard browning reactions
Losses of vitamins
Losses of amino acids
Many canned products are referred to in this manner. Time/temperature relationships are
different for different products, depending on the types of microbes that are commonly found in
the fresh product.

2. DEFINITION OF "STERILE" AND "STERILIZATION"

Sterile
Free from viable micro-organisms

Sterilization
Thermal destruction of microorganisms 11
Any physical or chemical process which destroys all life forms, with special regard to
microorganisms (including bacteria and sporogenous forms), and inactivates viruses.

Therefore the terms "sterile" and "sterilization", in a strictly biological sense, describe the
absence or destruction of all viable micro-organisms. In other words, they are absolute terms: an
object or system is either "sterile" or "non-sterile". The destruction of a microbial population
subjected to a sterilization process follows a logarithmic progression. Therefore only a treatment
of infinite duration provides the absolute certainty that the entire microbial population has been
destroyed and that the system is sterile.
Making the characteristics of the sterilization treatment more drastic (i.e. increasing time and/or
temperature) usually entails a decay of the qualities of the product and certainly increases
process costs. It is therefore agreed that the product is acceptable as sterile when the probability
of finding a non-sterile unit in a sterilized batch entails a risk which is lower than the other risks
associated with the use of the product itself.
More properly, in the pharmaceutical industry, in order to define a unit as sterile we must be able
to certify, on a statistical basis related to the conditions of preparation and sterilization of that
specific product and of that specific batch, that less than one unit in a million is exposed to the
risk of not being sterile.
The probability of finding a non-sterile unit (PNSU = Probability of Non Sterile Unit) must
therefore be lower than 10-6.

UHT Aseptic Technology -- Ultra High Temperature Sterilization

A sterilization process is defined as a UHT (Ultra High Temperature) process, if the product
is heat-treated in a continuous flow at a temperature of not less than 135 for a very short time,
aseptically packaged in sterile containers, and has undergone minimum chemical, physical and
Organoleptic changes in relation to the severity of the heat treatment required for sterilization.

Thermal Death Time (TDT)

Thermal death time is the amount of time that is necessary to kill a specific number of
microbes at a specific temperature. This value is obtained by keeping temperature constant and
measuring the time necessary to kill the amount of cells specified.

Decimal reduction time (D-value)

The D-value, which denotes the decimal reduction time, is the time required at a specific
temperature and under specified conditions to reduce a microbial population by one decimal.
The decimal reduction time is dependent on the temperature, the type of microorganism and the
composition of the medium containing the microorganism.

The term D-value refers to decimal reduction time. This is the amount of time that it takes at
a certain temperature to kill 90% of the organisms being studied. Thus after an organism is
Thermal destruction of microorganisms 12
reduced by 1 D, only 10% of the original organisms remain. The population number has been
reduced by one decimal place in the counting scheme. When referring to D values it is proper to
give the temperature as a subscript to the D. For example, a hypothetical organism is reduced by
90% after exposure to temperatures of 300F for 2 minutes, Thus the D-value would be written as
D300F = 2 minutes.

It is often more convenient to use the D-value as a measure of rate of microbial inactivation.
The D-value is the exposure time required for the number of survivors to change by a factor of
10 or the time required to achieve a decrease of one log cycle in the survivor curve [in other
words the temperature or radiation dosed required to reduced the initial population by 90% . The
D-value may be estimated graphically see graph or mathematically from the equation

The D-value and K are specific for each set of microorganisms and each sterilization process.
Thus with data for heat inactivation of microbes the temp is shown D121 . For radiation
inactivation the d-value is stated in the terms absorbed dose (kGy).

D-value is the time required to kill 90% of the spores or vegetative cells of a given
microorganism at a specific temperature in a specific medium. D-values can be determined from
survivor curves when the log of population is platted against time (Figure TD-1 for a
microorganism having a D185 = 1.0 minutes), or by the formula:
Dreference temperature = Time/(Loga-Logb)
Where a = the initial population, and b = the survivors after a time interval

The 12-D Process

Canned foods are susceptible to the spores of the organism Clostridium botulinum. This is the
organism that causes botulism. These bacterial spores can survive many heat treatment
processes. However, in modern food production, canned foods are subjected to a
time/temperature process that will reduce the probability of the survival by the most heat-
resistant C. botulinum spores by 12 logs or 12-D at 250 (the temperature used in the
calculation of most commercial 12-D processes is 250, and the D-value for this organism at
250 is 0.21 minutes). This process is based on the assumption of the number of surviving
spores in one can. If we assume that there are 10 surviving spores in one can, then we can
calculate the time for a 12-D process to occur by using the following formula:
F0 = D250(log a - log b), where a = initial population and b = final population.
1 -11
So F0 = (0.21min.)(log 10 - log 10 ), we move down 12 log values (1 - (-11)) = 12
So, F0 = (0.21min.)(1 - (-11)), or 0.21 x 12 = 2.52 minutes.
Simply put, (D-value at 250) x (12) results in a 12-D process.

The Z-value.
The Z-value is the increase or decrease in temperature required to reduce or
increase the decimal reduction time by one decimal. It is a measure of the change in
death rate with a change in temperature.
Thermal destruction of microorganisms 13
 The number of degrees Fahrenheit or Centigrade required for a thermal death time curve to
traverse 1 log cycle. This is the temperature increase required to reduce the thermal death time
by a factor of 10. The z-value gives an indication of the relative impact of different temperatures
on a microorganism, with smaller values indicating greater sensitivity to increasing heat. The z-
value is obtained by plotting the logarithms of at least 2 D-values against temperature or by the
formula:
Z = (T2-T1)/(logD1-logD2)
Where T = temperature and D = D-value

The z-value of an organism is the temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit, that is required for the
thermal destruction curve to move one log cycle. While the D-value gives us the time needed at
a certain temperature to kill an organism, the z-value relates the resistance of an organism to
differing temperatures. So, the z-value allows us to calculate a thermal process of equivalency, if
we have one D-value and the z-value. So, if it takes an increase of 10 to move the curve one
log, then our z-value is 10. So then, if we have a D-value of 4.5 minutes at 150, we can
calculate D-values for 160 by reducing the time by 1 log. So, our new D-value for 160 is
0.45 minutes. This means that each 10 increase in temperature will reduce our D-value by 1
log. Conversely, a 10 decrease in temperature will increase our D-value by 1 log. So, the D-
value for a temperature of 140 would be 45 minutes.

Sterilizing effect or lethality

The sterilizing effect, which is also called lethality or death rate, indicates the effect of a heat
treatment, expressed as the number of decimal reductions in the number of microorganisms.

F-value
The F value for a process is the number of minutes required to kill a known population of
microorganisms in a given food under specified conditions. This F value is usually set at 12 D
Thermal destruction of microorganisms 14
values to give a theoretical 12 log cycle reduction of the most heat-resistant species of
mesophilic spores in a can of food. For example, if there were 10,000 spores of a species of
spore in a can of food and a 12 D process was given, the initial 10,000 spores (10 4 spores)
would be reduced to a theoretical 10-8 living spores per can, or again in theory, one living spore
per 10 8 cans of product (one spore per one hundred million cans). To refer back to the original
example where the D 240 was 1 min., the F value for the process would be 12 min. or F 240 =
12 min.
When F is used without a subscript indicating temperature, 250 is assumed. When the
symbol F is used, a z value of 18 is assumed with an exposure temperature of 250 . The
actual processing time a can of food is given in a retort is always greater than the F value due to
heat penetration requirements. Industry makes extensive use of F values in maintaining
processes and in developing new schedules. Optimally the old and new processes are equated to
acceptable F values. Two different processes are considered equivalent when the processes are
equally effective with respect to destruction of a given microorganism.

Thermal destruction of microorganisms 15