VM114

Fish Nutrition1
Ruth Francis-Floyd, DVM2

Introduction popularity of these animals has made the extra investment

worthwhile for many commercial exhibits, but makes it
For many years water quality has been the most important
unrealistic for the typical home aquarist.
limitation to fish production. Advances in life support
technology have been substantial in recent years, and nutri-
tion is increasingly regarded a key limitation to increased Nutritional Composition of Fish
production efficiency as well as the growth and propagation
of new species.
Diets
Generally, fish diets tend to be very high in protein. Foods
Commercially prepared diets for channel catfish and for fry and fingerlings frequently exceed 50% crude protein.
salmonids have been developed using a great deal of As growth rate decreases and fish age, protein levels in diets
research data on specific nutritional requirements of these are decreased accordingly. Protein levels on grow-out diets
species, their production systems and their life stages. Some often approach or exceed 40% crude protein, while mainte-
nutritional studies have also been carried out for tilapia nance diets may contain as little as 25-35%. In addition to
production. For all other species, including freshwater and decreasing the protein content of the food as fish grow, the
marine ornamentals, nutritional management is based on a particle size must also be changed. Many fish require live
combination of application of knowledge generated for the food when they are hatched because their mouth parts are
species mentioned above and the experience of successful so small. Some fish, such as the channel catfish, are large
aquarists. enough to place on a fry diet immediately without having
to bother with the expense and labor needed for live foods.
Most successfully reared ornamental fish are omnivores,
and these are the species that have adapted best to captive Fish meal should be a major protein source in fish diets.
conditions, including available nutrition. Successful There are essential amino and fatty acids that are present in
maintenance of difficult species is often influenced by fish meal but not present in tissue from terrestrial plants or
the aquarists success in obtaining or rearing specialized animals. Low cost formulations in which fish meal has been
food items. For example, members of the highly popular eliminated and replaced by less expensive proteins from ter-
sygnathid family, sea horses and sea dragons, have long, restrial sources (ie soybeans) are not recommended for fish.
tubular mouth parts. These animals are not physically Fish meal and fishery by-products have high lipid content
capable of ingesting typical commercial fish foods. Instead, and therefore rancidity can be a problem if foods are not
successful husbandry typically involves significant properly stored. Feed storage is discussed briefly below.
investment in the rearing of brine or mycid shrimp. The

1. This document is VM114, one of a series of the Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food
and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Original publication date March 2002. Reviewed October 2011. Visit the EDIS website at http://edis.
ifas.ufl.edu.

2. Ruth Francis-Floyd, Extension Veterinarian for Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, and Professor, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences,
Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611

The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) is an Equal Opportunity Institution authorized to provide research, educational information and other services only to
individuals and institutions that function with non-discrimination with respect to race, creed, color, religion, age, disability, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, national
origin, political opinions or affiliations. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, IFAS, Florida A&M University Cooperative
Extension Program, and Boards of County Commissioners Cooperating. Millie Ferrer-Chancy, Interim Dean
In addition to the concern for essential amino acids that Vitamin C is an essential vitamin for fish, and most species
may be present in fish meal, fish require long chain fatty tested are not capable of synthesizing their own. Stabilized
acids (C20 and C22) that are not found in tissue from terres- (phosphorylated) forms of ascorbic acid are available and
trial organisms. Fish meal, shrimp meal and various types are used in many, but not all, fish feeds. Feeds that do not
of fishery by-products are the source for these essential fatty contain stabilized ascorbic acid are not recommended for
acids. In addition, crustacean by-products serve as a source fish. If assays for ascorbic acid content are to be run it is
of carotenoid pigments that are excellent for color enhance- imperative to know which form the vitamin is in before
ment. There is a high oil content associated with carotenoid sending the feed sample to a laboratory.
pigments, so vitamin E supplementation is recommended
when these are used. Types of Feeds
Vitamin and mineral requirements of most fish species are Commercially milled fish foods are usually sold as dry
not well understood. It is known that fish absorb minerals or semi-moist pellets or as flakes. Pellets are typically the
from the water. Calcium deficiency of channel catfish most complete diets. They are cooked, and, if marketed
fry has been associated with calcium concentrations less as a complete ration, the nutrition in each particle should
than 10 mg/L in rearing systems. Calcium chloride has be uniform. Disadvantages include the potential for rapid
been used to raise the calcium concentration of water sinking unless the pellet is extruded. In addition, the pellet
used for fry rearing. Conversely, too much calcium in the size is very important. It may be impossible to manufacture
water has been associated with reproductive problems in a particle small enough for some fish, especially juveniles of
some Amazon fish. Water hardness > 100 mg/L has been many species. For larger animals, a very small pellet may be
attributed to formation of hard shells for eggs of some tetra unacceptable. Semi-moist diets are soft and compact. Many
species, and fry were not able to hatch. of these are expensive, but they tend to be high quality diets
and may be an excellent choice for some species.
Most fish require dietary ascorbic acid (vitamin C). This
becomes very important if fish are reared in a poorly lit Flakes have been used extensively in the ornamental fish
area where algae cannot grow, or if they are so crowded that industry for many years and have the advantage of being
they cannot consume any natural food items that might be soft enough for very small fish to consume. They also sink
in the water. Ascorbic acid added to fish foods should be very slowly. Unfortunately, the volume required to meet the
phoshorylated to stabilize the vitamin and increase storage nutritional needs of the animals may be deceptively high.
time. In addition, vitamins A, D, E and B complex should The author recommends weighing the diet to approximate
be added to fish foods. The concentration of vitamin E is the amount required and avoid accidental underfeeding.
often inadequate, especially in diets that are high in fat. If
Technology associated with rearing of live foods is
fish are housed in natural systems with algae and phyto-
improving rapidly. This is having a positive impact on
plankton, and stocking rates are not too great, then vitamin
larval rearing, a frequent bottleneck for commercialization
supplementation seems to be less important, presumably
of new species. Rotifers are the smallest live food that
because of the availability of natural food items.
is routinely used for larval rearing. Newly hatched brine
shrimp are larger, but still quite small, and are commonly
Feed Storage used in fish hatcheries. Cultured live foods can provide a
Because fish feeds usually contain relatively high amounts source of high quality nutrition, but care must be taken to
of fish meal and/or fish oil, they are very susceptible to avoid perpetuation of infectious disease. Use of wild caught
rancidity. In addition, ascorbic acid is highly volatile, but food items is also risky because of the potential for disease
critical to normal growth and development of most species introduction.
of fish. For these reasons, fish feeds should be purchased
frequently, ideally at least once a month and more
frequently if possible. Feeds should be stored in a cool, dry
Feeding Practices
Fish should be fed based on a percentage of body weight.
place and should never be kept on hand for more than three
For maintenance, 0.5-1.0% body weight per day is adequate.
months. Refrigeration of dry feeds is not recommended
Fish should probably be fed at least 5 days per week. The
because of the high moisture content of that environment.
most common mistake made by pet owners is over-feeding
Freezing is an acceptable way of extending the shelf life,
their fish, often with resulting degradation of water quality.
however.
Occasionally however, owners dramatically underfeed their

2
fish. This is alluded to above. One feeding per day is plenty there seems to be a great deal of research activity in this
for most pet animals. Rearing of young stock does require area. In the interim, practitioners are encouraged to include
small meals fed more frequently. This is often accomplished questions about diet and feeding practices in their histories
using automatic feeders on commercial farms. and to keep the potential for a nutritional etiology in mind
when working through perplexing cases.
Nutritional Diseases
Nutritional disease is often a diagnosis of exclusion. Other Recommended Reading
explanations for the problem are ruled out and then the 1. Lovell, T. 1988. Nutrition and Feeding of Fish. Van Nos-
feeding program is critically evaluated. Several examples of trand Reinhold, New York, NY 260 pp.
nutritional disease merit mention. These include starvation,
scoliosis, nutritional anemia, and gill disease. Each is 2. Roberts, R.J. 1989. Nutritional pathology of teleosts,
discussed briefly below. In: Fish Pathology, R.J. Roberts (Ed).,. Balliere-Tindall,
London Pp. 337-362.
Starvation is usually the result of poor husbandry and, in
many cases, is a sequelae to environmental problems. A 3. Winfree, R.A. 1992. Nutrition and feeding of tropical fish,
poorly designed or maintained system is likely to develop IN: Aquariology: The Science of Fish Health Management.
water quality problems with related morbidity or mortality J.B. Gratzek (ED). Tetra Press, Morris Plains, NJ Pp.
among the fish. In an effort to correct the water quality 197-206.
problems aquarists may cut back on feed to the point where
the animals are in a negative caloric balance and begin to
lose weight, If the problem becomes chronic, starvation can
result.

The classical cause of scoliosis, or broken back disease

in fish is ascorbic acid deficiency. Improvements in feed
manufacture, including phosphorylation of vitamin C, and
feed storage, have decreased the incidence of nutritionally
derived scoliosis. Still, ascorbic acid deficiency must be
considered as a possible cause of scoliosis and a thorough
review of feeding practices is warranted when evaluating
such cases.

Nutritional anemia is caused by folic acid deficiency and

has been reported in channel catfish. The diagnosis is often
based initially on history, with multiple units developing
similar signs at the same time. When suspected, a sample
of feed should be frozen for later analysis, but all affected
ponds should have the feed changed immediately to a
fresh lot. The problem is caused by bacterial contamina-
tion of feed, so it is not related to particular brands or
formulations.

Nutritional gill disease has been described in channel

catfish and is caused by pantothenic acid deficiency. The
primary lamellae at the tips of affected gills are fused,
resulting in a very characteristic histologic lesion. Clinically
the condition is rare, probably because of improvements in
feed formulations.

Advances in the diagnosis and correction of nutritional

disease should be significant over the next few years as