Tunnel Construction Techniques and Their

Details
Home Constrution Tunnel Construction Techniques and Their Details

A tunnel construction is an underground passage provided beneath earth surface

or water. Different methods of tunnel construction and their details are
discussed.

In most of the cases tunnel construction is expensive but it saves time and
provides comfort. Large excavation of soil or rock etc. is necessary for a tunnel
construction. With the availability of modern equipment, excavation and
backfilling has become easier.

Tunnels can be used for roadways, railways and even as waterways also. In
many cities, underground metro rail networks work inside a tunnel.

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Methods of Tunnel Construction
There are various types of construction techniques developed for construction of
tunnels which are discussed below:

o Cut and cover method

o Bored tunnel method

o Clay kicking method

o Shaft method

o Pipe jacking method

o Box jacking method

o Underwater tunnels

Cut and Cover Method of Tunnel Construction

Cut and cover method of tunnel construction is generally used to build shallow
tunnels. In this method, a trench is cut in the soil and it is covered by some
support which can be capable of bearing load on it.

The cutting can be done by two methods. One is bottom up method in which a
tunnel is excavated under the surface using ground support. Another method is
top-down method in which side support walls are constructed first by slurry
walling method or contiguous bored piling.

Then roof is located on the top of the walls and excavation is carried out. Finally,
base slab is constructed. Most of the Underground metro rail stations are
constructed using cut and cover method.
Bored Tunnel Method
Bored tunnel method is modern technology. In this case, tunnel boring machines
are used which automatically work and makes the entire tunneling process
easier. It is also quicker process and good method to build tunnel in high traffic
areas.

Tunnels boring machines (TBMs) are available in different types suitable for
different ground conditions. These machines can be used in difficult conditions
such as below the water table etc.

A special pressurized compartment is provided for TBM to work in below water

table conditions. The workers should not enter that compartment except for
repair works.

Care should be taken while TBM is in working conditions. The only difficulty with
this TBM is its heavy weight. So, transportation is difficult and costlier.
Clay Kicking Method of Tunnel Construction
This method is used for strong clayey soil conditions. This is an old method and
used for small works like sewage pipes installations etc.

In this method, a hole is excavated into the ground and after some depth tunnel
is excavated which is done by the clay kicker which lies 0n a plank at 45o angle.
An excavating tool is provided under clay kicker foot. The excavated using that
tool is collected by other workers. This is well famous because it is the method
used by Englishmen to put mines under the German empire during First World
War.
Shaft Method of Tunnel Construction
In this method tunnel is constructed at greater depth from the ground surface.
The shaft is built up to the depth where tunnel is required.

Shaft is a permanent structure which is like well with concrete walls. At required
depth, tunnels are excavated using TBMs. Shafts are provided at both inlet and
outlet of tunnels.

Intermediate shafts are also provided if tunnel is too long. After the construction
process, these shafts can also be used for ventilation purpose as well as
emergency exits.
Pipe Jacking Method of Tunnel Construction
Pipe jacking method is used to construct tunnels under existing structures like
road ways, railways etc. In this method, specially made pipes are driven into
underground using hydraulic jacks. Maximum size of 3.2-meter diameter is
allowed for tunnels.
Box Jacking Method of Tunnel Construction
Box jacking method is similar to pipe jacking, but in this case instead of pipes,
specially made boxes are driven into the soil. A cutting head is provided at the
front side of the box. Excavated matter is collected within the box. Larger size
tunnels can be excavated using box jacks up to 20 meters.

Underwater Tunnel Construction

An underwater tunnel is a structure which is built under water to make a way
through it. If construction of bridge is not possible then under water tunnel is
good choice.
Under water tunneling is costly process but have advantages over bridge or
ferry links. Immersed tubes or bored tunnel are two most common methods
which are used to construct under water tunnels.

Tunnel Surveying -Methods and Procedures

of Tunnel Surveying
Home Surveying Tunnel Surveying -Methods and Procedures of Tunnel Surveying

Tunnel surveying is a type of underground surveying for the construction of

tunnels. Methods and procedure of tunnel surveying is discussed.

Special instructions on the type of survey and the equipment that must be used
in the tunnel surveying procedure, for the tunnel construction are initially given
by the planners.

The basic procedure of tunnel surveying is to align the center line in the ground
and transfer that to the tunnel. This also involves leveling the surface on the
ground and the internal of the tunnel.
 Table of Contents [show]
Methods and Procedure of Tunnel Surveying
The steps that are involved in the tunnel surveying are detailed in the following
points.

1. The initial procedure is to carry out a preliminary survey that is later made
more precise by surveying the line on the surface of the area under
consideration

2. From the start of the excavation, as a part of tunnel construction, it is

essential to keep up even minute accuracy with the center line that is already
marked. When a new area of excavation is commenced, the center line of the
before finished work has to be carried forward over the new face. No shifting of
the center line in vertical or horizontal direction is accepted, when the opposite
faces meet with adjacent headings.
3. Ordinary engineers transit and properly handled works give satisfactory
results for the construction of short tunnels.

4. Tunnel transit that is large and sophisticated, is fitted to a striding level, that
helps in keeping the transverse axis horizontal. This is necessary for long tunnel
construction.

5. The instruments above mentioned should undergo periodic maintenance,

calibration as well as checking.

6. The procedure of leveling is carried out in a normal way. But areas with steep
slopes are measured with utmost care. This is ensured by having equal values
for backsight and foresight. This would reduce the errors that are caused by the
human, like improper or mal -adjustments of the instruments.

7. There are two methods that can be employed to measure the horizontal
distances. They are stepping and inclined sights. Any of these methods can be
employed based on the area under consideration and convenience.

The steel tapes used for the measurement are checked for errors due to any
cause of tension or temperature changes. This would result in cumulative errors
in the measures.

The below figure shows the alignment of a curve line, based on which the
construction must be proceeded (figure-1).
 Fig.1: Alignment of Curve Line in Tunnel Surveying
The center line of the curve in the figure is the alignment through which the
center line of the tunnel must proceed. This is the curve that must be
determined. The headings consist of short tangents that are drawn to the curved
lines as ab, bc, cd etc. To locate the center line of the area, offsets from the
above-mentioned tangents are set off.

When the heading has proceeded up to x y, point like n on the tangents is

aligned as shown in the figure. We then set off the calculated offset, i.e. n-o that
will intersect the center line of the heading.

After each blasting of the heading face, the center line recommended being
transferred.

How is Transferring of Center Line into the Tunnel Carried

Out?
The transferring of the center line is a method that is done with great care,
precision and accuracy. The accuracy throughout the execution of the same
must be guided, else it can give up many related problems. Carelessness can
cause the lines from opposite faces not to meet.

Even small deviation from the centerline can cause, over breaking. This whole
undesirable work brings large expenditure than it has to be. The problem
because more tiring when the procedure is undergone on hard rock strata. As
shown in the figure, well elaborate equipment are made ready for the
proceeding of the work.

Fig.2: Arrangement in Transferring the Center Line Points to the Tunnel

Through the shaft constructed, the plumb bob weighing 22 lbs are taken down
through the shaft, thus transferring the two center line points to the bottom as
shown. It is carried out vertically downwards. The plumb bobs are suspended
with the help of piano wires that are passing through the grooves, that is
connected to a shaft for easily leveled movement of the plumb bob.

When the plumb bob reaches the bottom, they are replaced by heavy iron so
that the weight will keep the wire straight. For higher precaution of the wire to
resist any kind of vibration or oscillation, it can be immersed in a container of
oil.
Once level, the line joining the two plumb bobs are extended with the help os a
theodolite that is placed on the shaft floor, that is designated with respect to
one point of the shaft roof, as shown in the figure.

A similar reference point is made to the opposite side of the roof, initially noted.
Hence the center line is marked on the shaft floor and continued for further
tunnel extension.

How to Transfer the Tunnel Grade?

The same piano wire and the plumb bob combination can be used to transfer the
tunnel grade to the shaft bottom. Here at 5 feet below the springing level of the
roof, two points are marked on the wire.

Initially, the reduced level of the top mark is determined, with respect to a
benchmark i.e. a point near to the mouth of the shaft. And later the reduced
level of the second mark is also determined.

With all the above measurements, a benchmark is determined at a point on the

tunnel side wall. Based on this benchmark the floor levels are transferred and
continued measurement.

Decision of Shape and Size of the Tunnel

The shape of the tunnel is decided based on the nature and the type of the soil
or the ground that is penetrated during the surveying and the excavation
procedure. After surveying and related construction works, a choice of shape
can be made. The size of the tunnel is already measured in the design, as it is
based on the scope or requirement of the project.
 Fig.3: Shapes for Tunnels
Among different cross sections, the circular cross sections are found to be the
best shape to bring huge resistance towards the internal and external pressures.
This also has another peculiarity of bringing larger size for a smaller diameter.
But in engineers point of view, they demand high lining and covering to protect
it from high vibration in railway uses.

So, an optimized shape is a tunnel with circular top and vertical side walls
Another shape is the horseshoe type. They are compromised with the problems
related to the circular tunnel shape.

Tunnel Engineering -Features, Advantages

and Methods of Tunneling in Construction
Home Constrution Tunnel Engineering -Features, Advantages and Methods of Tunneling in Construction

Tunnels are underground constructions used for transportations. The features,

advantages, disadvantage and methods of tunneling in construction is
discussed.

The tunnel engineering is one of the most interesting disciplines in engineering.

The work is complex and difficult throughout its course, even though it is
interesting.

The tunnels are defined as the underground passages that are used for the
transportation purposes. These permit the transmission of passengers and
freights, or it may be for the transportation of utilities like water, sewage or gas
etc.

The operations and the constructions are carried out underground without
disturbing the ground surface. This operation is called as the tunneling.

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Construction of First Tunnel
It is found that the first tunnel was made by the Egyptians and the Babylonians,
4000 years ago. This tunnel served the purpose of connecting two buildings in
Babylon. The connection was from the royal palace to the temple. The length of
this tunnel was found to be 910m, which was brick lined.

Construction of Largest Ancient Tunnel

The largest tunnel in ancient times was constructed between Naples and
Pozzuoli, in 36.B.C. This tunnel was 4800-foot-long, 25-foot-wide and 30 foot in
height. It was a road tunnel.
 During the second half of the twentieth century, the development and progress
of explosives and sophisticated equipment were flourished, that made the
tunneling process more feasible.

The tunneling, work better for different approaches under different

circumstances. It is hence dependent on the experience and the knowledge of
the engineer. Mainly the tunneling works are carried out by the civil engineers.

This discipline will let us know, that the knowledge on structural and concrete
technology is not sufficient. An equal and thorough skill and knowledge on
geology, mechanical engineering, geomechanics and the new construction
technologies are also essential.

Selection of Tunneling Route

The two main factors that help in the efficient route of the tunnel are the
alignment restraints and the environmental considerations. The underground, as
we know is heterogeneous in nature. A proper inspection on the nature of soil,
rock, the water table level, and all the alignment restraints had to be made
before fixing the route.

The site chosen for tunneling is such a way that the inconvenience and difficulty
that is caused to the environment in that area including living is minimum.

The tunneling method chosen depends on the ground conditions, the water table
level, the tunnel drive length and the diameter, the tunnel depth, final utility
requirements, the shape of the tunnel and the risk of construction.

Advantages of Tunneling
The tunneling method gain certain advantages compared with other methods,
which are mentioned below:

o The tunneling procedure is more economical in nature, compared to open cut

trench method when the depth is beyond a limit
o The surface life or ground activities like transportation are not disturbed when
tunneling is undergone.

o The method ensures high-speed construction with low power consumption

o Reduces Noise Pollution

o These methods have freedom from snow and iceberg hazards, in areas of high
altitudes

o Surface and air interference is restricted for tunnels

o Provision of tunnels with easy gradients, help in reducing the cost of hauling

o For the transportation of public utilities, tunneling method has a remarkable

advantage compared to the bridge.

o The dangerous open cut to a nearby structure, when it is needed, is solved by

the tunneling method

o The tunneling grant greater protection in aerial warfare and bombing conditions

Tunneling Disadvantages
The tunneling method gains certain disadvantages, which is due to its
complexity and difficulty. Some of them are:

o The initial investment cost for commencing the tunnel is high compared to the
open cut method.

o Highly skilled and experienced designers and engineer team only will work best
for this operation.

o Higher and constant supervision from the start to the end of the tunneling
project is necessary without any compromise

o Highly sophisticated and specialized equipment are necessary to perform the

tunneling operations.

Comparison between Open Cuts and Tunneling

There are always debate arising on the cost that is consumed between the open
cuts and the tunneling techniques, to conclude which is more economical.
Consider the following factors:
a) Open cuts are found very costly at deep cutting for soil with varying nature
and slopes. This method will account for the large volume of excavation, which
is costly. At this situation, tunneling method will bring more economy than the
open cuts.

b) When the material of drilling is rock, open cut performs well with less amount
of excavation and finds cheaper. While tunneling method is found difficult to
show its activity.

c) Based on the requirement of material for nearby filling, an open cut method
can be suggested, but the tunneling is found comparatively economical in
working. For depth of cutting greater than 60 feet, the method of tunneling is
always recommended.

Approaches in Tunneling Method

There are two approaches based on the open cuts on the either ends of a slope.
They are short approach and long approach. The approach is said to be short,
when the hill slope is very steep in nature, as shown in figure.1.

The approach is said to be very long, when the slope of the hill is very flat, as
shown in figure.2. The cost of this mainly depends upon the topography of the
considered area. In high altitudes, these approaches will be bounded with snow
or may be blocked by the heavy landslides. These are the factors that would
cause the decision of open cut or tunnel method.

Fig.1: Short Approach in Tunneling

 Fig.2: Long Approach in Tunneling
Alignment and Grade in Tunneling Process
Certain factors that must kept in mind in the tunneling procedures are:

o The best and economical alignment was chosen must be straight in nature

o Tunnel should have a grade, which is less than the outside. It is observed that in
the railway tunnels, constant slipping of the wheels takes place due to the
wetness of the rails. This reduces the hauling capacity of the locomotives.

o 0.2% gradient must be provided to ensure proper drainage.

o When it comes to long tunnels, two grades at the either ends must be provided
(That rise from each end then towards the center as shown in figure-3).

Fig.3: Surface Alignment and the provision of grade for the tunnel
o If the grade is provided on one side, instead of either side, the effectiveness of
ventilation can be increased.

Tunnel Form Construction Technique and

Process for Structures
Home What is Concrete? How to Make Concrete? Tunnel Form Construction Technique and Process for Structures

Tunnel Form Construction Technique was invented over 50 years ago. The use of
tunnel-form produces high quality monolithic structures. It eliminates the use of
any subsequent wet trades (Plastering etc). It is basically an operation to cast
walls and slabs in one operation in a daily cycle. This technique is highly
systematic, earthquake proven and provides an ideal solution to the critical
problem of sound transmission. It gives a sound reduction of 50 decibels.
Tunnel form is widely used in the construction of cellular structures with high degree of
repetition such as:
o Prisons
o Hotels

o Student Accommodation (Hostels)

o Private Housings

o Commercial Developments

It reduces the heating costs by providing Thermal Mass and speeds up the
building process. However, specialist contractors with tunnel-form experience is
high recommended in order to tailor the design to suit best construction
method.
Tunnel formwork come in half units and in the form of an inverted L which are
bolted together at the top to form each tunnel. The inbuilt wheels and the jacks
help the formwork move in and out of the position and adjusted to the final
height.
The factory-made steel formwork can be reused up to 600 times and it can suit
a variety of module sizes. This makes the method of construction very versatile
and extremely economical.

Tunnel-formwork allows a 24-hour construction cycle to be achieved and thus

the buildability of in-situ concrete is improved by choosing this type of
formwork.

In practice, when the two halves are bolted together, the tunnel formwork will
appear like the following figure.

The Casting Process of Tunnel Formwork:

1) Stage One: Prefabricated Wall reinforcement is placed by crane along the entire
wing prior to casting the kickers (used to position wall formwork).

2) Stage Two: Two and a half tunnel is craned into place, bolted together and ties
are added.

3) Stage Three: The wall concrete is poured.

4) Stage Four: The slab reinforcements are fixed

5) Stage 5: The slab concrete is placed. The formwork system provides for a pour
to be wrapped in tarpaulins and for the use of butane heaters to maintain a
sufficiently high temperature for the concrete to reach its striking strength
overnight.

6) Stage 6: The tunnel-forms are removed next day.

7) Stage 7: The process is repeated for the next two bays.

Tunnel form can produce strong and durable in-situ cellular structures. This
method of construction can achieve time savings up to 25% with cost savings of
15%.
Since the concrete finish is very good, the requirement for post construction
trades such as plasterers and electricians are greatly reduced.
Ventilation in Tunnels -Types of Ventilation
Systems in Tunnel Construction
Home Transportation Ventilation in Tunnels -Types of Ventilation Systems in Tunnel Construction
 There are various types of ventilation systems in tunnel construction provided to
remove dust and poisonous gas during its construction and operation. These
ventilation systems in tunnel construction are discussed in this article.

The tunnel construction works are mainly carried out by drill and blast method,
which have many safety and health issues due to the emission of dust and many
poisonous gasses. Hence it is essential to provide ventilation systems in in
tunnel during construction.

The main objectives of providing ventilation systems in tunnel are:

o To provide the working crew an environment of fresh air.

o To exhaust out fumes and gasses, that is injurious to health and explosive in
nature.

o To remove the drilling, mucking and blasting gasses emitted.

Ventilation during construction and after completion of tunnel construction is an

essential feature that a tunnel should own to facilitate functional, comfortable
and a safe tunnel environment for both the road and railway tunnels.
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Why Ventilation Systems in Tunnel Construction Required?
When the work is being carried out within the tunnel, each worker has to be
supplied with 200 c. ft to 500 c. ft of fresh air constantly. The consideration of
compressed air emitted during drilling purpose is contaminated with oil and
dust. So this should not be taken as a source of air to play the role of
ventilation.

After each explosion, the face is completely covered with air that is full of fumes
and dust, which is unfit for breathing. Before he starts to remove the debris of
the explosion, the foul air surrounding him must be removed out by any source
of exhaustion and get him fresh air.

There exist 30 minutes between the explosion and mucking process, within
which the ventilation system installed should clear the tunnel contaminated with
poisonous gas and dust and refill with fresh air.

There are mainly three factors, based on which the form and capacity of the
ventilation system are dependent:

1. The length of the tunnel and its size.

2. The amount of explosives used for blasting and their respective frequencies

3. The condition and rate of temperature and humidity inside the tunnel

Working Environment inside a Tunnel

The working environment inside a tunnel is contributed by the following factors:

o The dust and the gasses emitted by the tunneling operations

o Exhaust gasses emitted by the diesel operations

o Explosive or organic solvent emitted poisonous gasses. For example Nitrogen

oxide, hydrogen sulfide, sulfurous acid gas, carbon monoxide

o Flammable gasses or oxygen shortage gas in the ground. For example,

methane, carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulfide
o High temperature and humidity factors

Table-1: Density of Dust Emitted due to Tunneling Works

Tunneling Works The Density of Dust Formed in mg/m3

Excavation 10 -1000

Loading of materials that are excavated 10 1000

Mucking 10 100

Drilling 1-50

Blasting 100 300

Shotcreting 10 200

Table-2: Volume of Generated Poisonous Gas in Tunnels

The table below shows the allowable density of dust poisonous gas to control the
standard values.

Table.3: Allowable Density Value of Dust inside Tunnel

 Table.4: Allowable Density of Poisonous Gas in Tunnels

Tunneling Works Safety and Health

To secure safer and healthier environment during the tunneling works, it is
necessary to take absolute measures while carrying out the operations of
drilling, blasting, excavation, Shotcreting and mucking. Dust, smoke and
poisonous gasses inside tunnel can be removed efficiently with the help of a
proper ventilation. The government has considered this step to safeguard the
health and safety of the labors working in the tunnel.

Types of Ventilation Systems in Tunnel Construction

The methods employed for tunnel ventilation generally depends upon the
normal, emergency or congested operation that will be dependent on the actual
conditions of the size, cross section, traffic conditions, intermediate ventilation
shafts etc.

Types of Ventilation Airflow Systems in Tunnels

Longitudinal Ventilation Airflow Systems in Tunnels
Here the direction of airflow is longitudinal in nature. At the beginning of the
tunnel or the tunnel section starting, these moves the pollutant gasses and
effluents, that is followed by the fresh air. Then at the end of the tunnel portal
or at the tunnel section end, the polluted air is discharged. This is shown in the
figure-1.

The configuration of longitudinal ventilation can be either portal to portal, shaft

to shaft or from portal to shaft. For transit and railway tunnel, the longitudinal
airflow system is used.

Fig.1: Configuration of Longitudinal Ventilation in Tunnels

Transverse Airflow Ventilation Systems in Tunnel
Here uniform distribution of fresh air is created along the length of the tunnel. It
is mainly employed in road tunnels. Occasionally it is used for transit tunnels. A
consistent level of temperature and the pollutants will be maintained if this
system is employed. The system can be either fully or semi-transverse.

Transverse or semi-transverse ventilation tunnel is better than a longitudinal

one for the tunnels that are longer than 4 to 5 km.

The ventilation system capability and their choice will depend on the air
considerations, the amount of air within the tunnel that too must be calculated
based on the traffic conditions, the rate of emission of gases within the tunnel,
standards of pollution level, the local standard conditions so that the
neighboring environment too is not polluted and harmed.
In the case of railway tunnels, the emergency scenarios of smoke or fire cause
is a major concern behind the choice of ventilation. Here mainly longitudinal
ventilation is used- that uses ventilation plants at intermediate shafts or at the
station adjacent. These may be either combined with exhaust from large
caverns.

The ventilation provided can be either Natural or Mechanical ventilation.

Natural Ventilation Systems in Tunnel
When from one portal to next portal of the tunnel, there is a provision of drift, it
forms a fair ventilation during the operations involving enlarging. This is when
the tunnel length is short. In the case of long tunnels, such natural ventilation
will be inadequate and we must design separate mechanical ventilation system.

Fig.2: Natural Ventilation Configuration in Tunnels

The natural ventilation can be configured from portal to portal, shaft to shaft or
from portal to shaft. As shown in figure.5. the roadway has an air velocity that is
uniform. The temperature and the pollutant level increases at the exit portal or
the section end.

If the meteorological conditions of the tunnel go adverse, the velocity, the

temperature, and the pollutant level get increased. The pressure differential
between the two tunnel portals, that is formed by the differences in the
elevation and the ambient temperatures of wind are the chief meteorological
conditions.

A sudden change in wind direction or the wind velocity will affect the natural
effects along with the vehicle generated piston effect.
 Fig.3: Airflow Characteristics in Natural Ventilation System in Tunnels
Mechanical Ventilation System in Tunnels
Mechanical ventilation system employs mechanical devices like electric fans,
exhaust, and blowers, which serves the function of removing the exhaust gasses
within the tunnel and help in blowing fresh air into the tunnel. Now, whatever be
the device employed, there are three main services they can provide:

1. Blowing

2. Exhausting

3. Combination of blowing and exhausting

Blowing Ventilation Systems in Tunnel
As the name tell, fresh clean air is blown to the working face, with the help of
pipes. When it flows back to the portal, it takes the dust and gasses with it. This
system of ventilation help providing fresh air near the working face with ease.
But in long tunnels, these systems have a disadvantage of fogging the
atmosphere inside the tunnel when the smoke, dust and foul air move out.

Exhausting Ventilation Systems in Tunnel

The system incorporates an exhausting duct near the working face, into which,
the foul air and the dust are let. By this fresh air is maintained within the tunnel,
through the entrance. Quick removal of dust and smoke is one advantage of the
exhausting system.
The combination of Blowing and Exhausting
The figure below shows a schematic figure of a blowing and exhausting system
applied in a combination. This concept is developed, so that the advantage of
each system can be combined, bringing a ventilation system of higher
performance.

Fig.4: Schematic Representation of Combination of a Blowing and Exhausting Ventilation

System in Tunnels
Working: After the explosion or blasting, the exhausting system will operate for a
period of 15 to 30 minutes. This will remove harmful air immediately. After this,
the blowing system works continuously to supply the fresh air till the next
blasting.
From the figure-4, D is the fan and it is supposed to rotate only in one direction.
Now the valves A, B, and C are valves that are manipulated either to exhaust
from or blow into the tunnel.
Dust Prevention in Tunnel Construction
The dust accumulation within the tunnel is the after effect of conduction the
blasting, drilling mucking operations. If the dust accumulated amount is beyond
the permissible limit, it creates harmful effects for the people working and to the
surrounding environment.

The blasting of rocks as a part of tunneling operation will emit a high amount of
silica in the environment. The intake of same will cause a disease called the
silicosis which is fatal.
 Dust Control Methods in Tunnels
The methods used to control dust accumulation are:

1. Wet drilling

2. Use of vacuum hood

3. Use of respirators

Now modern drilling machines are available, that make use of water to drill.
Here the area that is to be bored is made wet, resulting in a reduction of dust
emission.

The figure below shows a vacuum hood that is used in tunneling work. A hood is
fitted to a drill face. This is at the rock face. This is connected to an exhaust
pipe. The exhaust pipe takes in the dust formed by the drilling process and that
is taken safely out of the tunnel. This reduces no flying of dust to outside.

Another common and efficient method to prevent dust inhalation is using

respirators. These are well designed units that are worn by the miners and
workers, who are highly exposed to the dusty environment.

Pipe Jacking Method and Utility Tunneling

Method in Trenchless Construction
Home Constrution Pipe Jacking Method and Utility Tunneling Method in Trenchless Construction

Pipe jacking and utility tunneling methods are types of trenchless construction
methods, which involves the requirement of workers to enter the bore hole.

Following are the types of trenchless construction methods as shown in figure-1.

 Fig.1: Trenchless Construction Methods
We will discuss pipe jacking and utility tunneling methods in this article.

Table of Contents [show]

Pipe Jacking Method in Trenchless Construction
Pipe jacking method involves the installation of a pipe (prefabricated) through
the ground. The driving takes place from a drive shaft to the reception shaft.
The drive shaft consists of jacks, that moves the pipe.

During the execution of the process, the hydraulic jack makes use of thrust
power to move the pipe forward into the ground. The rams of the jacks are
retracted after installation of each pipe. This facilitates the preparation of next
pipe in a position to repeat the same procedure.

Fig.2: A Real Site Pipe Jacking Work

The soil is transported out of the jacket pipe as well as the driven shaft, as the
excavation proceeds. This is done either manually or mechanically.

As mentioned above, the pipe jacking is a workers entry method, which

involves workers to be there at both excavation and the soil removal processes
inside the pipe. So, for personnel safety and health of workers, a minimum pipe
diameter of 42 inches minimum is required at all conditions.

Slurry systems, vacuum extraction systems, wheeled carts or skips, auger

systems are some of the modes by which the soil is conveyed.

The process of soil excavation is mainly conducted based on the soil conditions.
A collapse of soil during excavation is not recommended. So, if a pre-check of
the soil conditions show any possibility of collapse, it is recommended to
undergo soil stabilization first and then proceed with excavation.

Mechanical excavation within a shield or using tunnel boring machine are some
of the methods used for excavation of soil. Even hand mining can also be
employed based on the size of the project.

The working space should be adequate so that it facilitates proper storage, the
handling and to occupy the shaft. The shaft size mainly varies with the type of
excavation equipment that is used and the type of jacking. In a safer side, a
working space of 10 to 25 feet longer than the length of pipe has to be
prepared. In terms width, 4 to 10 feet wider than the pipe diameter would be
best.
As too many workers are employed, a care on unanticipated problems has to
kept in mind throughout the fulfillment of the project. The first main concern is
the subsurface soil behavior. If the water level is not above the pipe invert, the
sandy clay is the best soil for such projects.

The decision on best excavation method for the site under consideration will
help in avoiding many problems at the site. This decision is taken based on
certain factors like groundwater level, unanticipated obstructions like boulders,
change in soil conditions if any.

Other factors that are to be considered are the design features of the shaft. It
must be a good design to withstand the large thrust. It is always told to avoid
over excavation, which can cause voids. These voids if arises have to be fixed
with the help of grouting techniques.

Utility Tunneling Method in Trenchless Construction

Utility tunneling is a method with the same purpose of pipe jacking. The only
difference is the lining used or the support structure used. The pipe jacking uses
special steel supporting structure that is mainly meant for this. But the UT make
use of a temporary support like concrete liner plates, wood lagging systems, or
steel ribs.

The procedure of utility tunneling method in trenchless construction mainly

involves installation of a liner that acts as the continuous supporting structure at
the front cutting face, where the soil is removed by excavation.

The tunnel construction takes place between two accessible shafts. The
procedure can be explained in the following steps:

1. Soil Excavation
There are mainly three methods of excavation carried out, which is chosen
based on the soil conditions. The first method is hand mining, which is the
simplest method of all the methods available for excavation. This method makes
use of picks, shovels or any pneumatic hand tools.
 This method proceeds with the help of a protective shield, that provides face
stability during excavation. The method is simple and is helpful when the site
consists of varying soil conditions. But this method is time-consuming.

Another method is open face mechanical excavation, that is quite faster than the
hand mining, as it uses mechanical devices. Here also, shields are provided,
with power excavation devices. The shields provide access to the front face if
any adjustments have to made, which cannot be done manually under
unexpected situations.
The third method is Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM), which employs rotary cutter or
disk cutters that are driven either hydraulically or electrically. The most
improved version of TBM makes use of pressure chamber. This method has high
cost and has limited access. This method is restricted in circular tunnels.
2. Removal of Spoil
Based on space, the method of excavation conducted and the total tunnel
length, the best spoil removal system is chosen. The most common method
used are mentioned below:

o Slurry systems

o Auger systems

o Vacuum extraction systems

o Belt or chain conveyors

o Wheeled cart or skips

o Positive displacements pumps

3. Installation of Segmental Liner

After the above excavation, removal of the spoil, the liner sections are brought
through the already set lining. The new liner is connected to the existing ones.
The liner plates are steel or reinforced concrete made which are prefabricated
ones.

The steel plates are of higher demand compare to concrete plates, due to a
higher strength to weight ratio.
4. Control of line and grade
The control is mainly done with the help of theodolite and the laser systems.
The current position of the tunnel systems can be estimated with the help of
theodolite.

The laser system shows any kind of variation in already set alignment. This
makes use of led lights. But one of the drawbacks is that it shows variation with
temperature changes. The gyroscope is a higher sophisticated control device
used mainly in curved tunneling.

During the excavation, the change in direction is carried out by applying

different forces to the jacking cylinders. The utility tunneling procedure is labor
intensive in nature. But it can be adopted in a site with varying soil conditions.

Trenchless Technology in Construction and

their Methods
Home Constrution Trenchless Technology in Construction and their Methods

The concept trenchless technology is a word used to describe a set or family of

activities that are employed in construction work or in civil engineering. The set
of works involves activities or techniques for making holes or conduit renovation
or underground activity without disturbing the surface.

Trenchless technology is widespread in various areas that involve techniques,

equipment and methods or procedure that are unique for each project type.

Table of Contents [show]

Background of Trenchless Technology
The concept of trenchless construction method was started from 1900s. As time
passed new method got added with new studies and innovation. The concept of
no use trenches mainly during underground construction is to avoid problems
and nuisance arising from subsurface disturbances.
 We have observed that when a small underground conduit goes off, it has to be
repaired by open trenches causing a nuisance to the locality. If a road moves
through the area, traffic and inconvenience to the public are further problems
arising.

In general, trenchless technology minimizes highway damage, environmental

impacts, and traffic problems.

Features of Trenchless Technology

The technology includes the following features

o Installation

o Replacement

o Rehabilitation

o Inspection

o Location and Leak Detection

This system provides all these features. Which feature to undertake, mainly
depends on the type of project and the requirement. Whatever be the work
conducted, minimum or no ground excavation is appreciated.

Need for Trenchless Technology

The demand for efficient community service in terms of both quantity and
quality is increasing. This has been a continuous pressure on the heads of
responsible ones in the areas of planning, the engineering, their implementation
and on the maintenance.

Further increase of underground activities and the improvements with new

innovations had increased the complexity.

There was a situation where all these underground activities were done only by
means of open cutting or by excavation that would badly affect the natural flow
of workplace of a highway, streets, railroads or buildings. The best alternative
for this was the trenchless technology.
 Many studies have shown the following advantages of trenchless technology in
terms of costs. The cost involves the direct, indirect as well as the overall social
costs. When we analyze a project handled by the trenchless method, the
restoration costs are reduced to an extent or in some cases no restoration costs
exist.

Compared to conventional methods, the trenchless technology employs less

labor thus less labor cost. This method help in implementing simplified operation
mainly in urban areas. An effective system of trenchless technology keeps good
relations with the customers and welcome new customers.

On an overall trenchless method eliminates all the disturbances caused on the

surface. When we employ an open cutting method instead of a trenchless
method, the traffic is disturbed, extra restoration has to be done, and the
surface has to be set back to its original condition. These are the reasons why
trenchless technology is needed.

Trenchless Technology Methods

On an overall the trenchless technology methods (TT) can be classified into 2
main divisions:

o Trenchless Construction methods (TCM)

o Trenchless Renewal Methods (TRM)

The trenchless construction methods involve different techniques that are

related to the commencement of a new work or new project in underground. It
may be a new conduit or pipeline installation in the site or any other new utility.

The trenchless renewal methods that facilitate already existing utilities. It may
be renewing or rehabilitation or renovation. This work is applied on old, existing
utility or pipeline systems that may have some problem with their performance.

Trenchless Construction
 Irrespective of the type of construction project, the trenchless construction or
renewal methods depends upon certain factors or parameter. They are:

o Type of application

o Accuracy

o Range of work in diameter

o Maximum length of installation

The skills and technology experience of the contractors, engineers and the equipment
operators, are one of the leading factors governing the accuracy of the project.
Their knowledge and skill would help in determining the maximum length of
installation for a clean project work.
The site conditions; surface and sub-surface conditions and the requirement of the
project will let us know which and what type of equipment would suit the best.
This would make a clear idea on how efficient the proposed trenchless method is
for the site and requirement under condition.
These are later studied and investigated by engineers who are professionally
forward in both the planning and the designing stages of the project.
 Classification of Trenchless Construction Method
This method as mentioned involves construction and installation of new utility
systems below the grade without the use of an open trench.

TCM is classified into two main broad categories based on work entry. They are:

o Work entry required

o Work entry Not required

The work entry required classification has two main techniques. They are Pipe
Jacking (PJ) and Utility Tunneling (UT).The work entry required classification is
mainly carried out by Horizontal earth boring (HEB).

The HEB techniques do not make use of any workers to work inside the borehole
drilled. They are carried out by mechanical means only. Now as the classification
tell, the PJ and the UT methods would employ workers inside the borehole. They
facilitate the excavation and installation purposes.

Classification of Trenchless Renewal Methods

The trenchless technologies, to meet the purpose of renovation are still under
development. These methods possess the key features to give a new life to an
existing utility system. They can be used to:

o Rehabilitate

o Renovate

o Replace

o Enlarge pipe systems

o Renew

o Repair

The trenchless renewal method involves the following types:

1. Underground coatings and linings

2. Modified Slip lining

3. Close-fit pipe

4. In-line replacement

5. Cured-in-place pipe

6. Slip lining

7. Localized Repair

8. Lateral Renewal

9. Thermoformed Pipe

10. Sewer manhole renewal

The choice on which technique is best for renewal mainly depends upon the following factors:
o The length of the pipeline system

o Type, size, material of manholes

o The number of manholes

o The physical conditions of pipeline

o The bends involved

o The details of service connections

Once this is done, we need to identify the problem. The problem may be:
o Structural or non-structural

o Breakage of pipeline

o Misalignment

o Outflow or exfiltration

o Settlement of the joint

o Corrosion problems

o Problems due to abrasion

o Capacity problems

Once a technique has been chosen for the problem identified, we need to cross
check on the applicability, durability, cost and construction factors. As this is
more applicable in pipeline utilities, problems related to the same are more
focused.

Pipe Jacking Method and Utility Tunneling

Method in Trenchless Construction
Home Constrution Pipe Jacking Method and Utility Tunneling Method in Trenchless Construction

Pipe jacking and utility tunneling methods are types of trenchless construction
methods, which involves the requirement of workers to enter the bore hole.

Following are the types of trenchless construction methods as shown in figure-1.

Fig.1: Trenchless Construction Methods

We will discuss pipe jacking and utility tunneling methods in this article.

Table of Contents [show]

Pipe Jacking Method in Trenchless Construction
Pipe jacking method involves the installation of a pipe (prefabricated) through
the ground. The driving takes place from a drive shaft to the reception shaft.
The drive shaft consists of jacks, that moves the pipe.

During the execution of the process, the hydraulic jack makes use of thrust
power to move the pipe forward into the ground. The rams of the jacks are
retracted after installation of each pipe. This facilitates the preparation of next
pipe in a position to repeat the same procedure.
 Fig.2: A Real Site Pipe Jacking Work
The soil is transported out of the jacket pipe as well as the driven shaft, as the
excavation proceeds. This is done either manually or mechanically.

As mentioned above, the pipe jacking is a workers entry method, which

involves workers to be there at both excavation and the soil removal processes
inside the pipe. So, for personnel safety and health of workers, a minimum pipe
diameter of 42 inches minimum is required at all conditions.

Slurry systems, vacuum extraction systems, wheeled carts or skips, auger

systems are some of the modes by which the soil is conveyed.

The process of soil excavation is mainly conducted based on the soil conditions.
A collapse of soil during excavation is not recommended. So, if a pre-check of
the soil conditions show any possibility of collapse, it is recommended to
undergo soil stabilization first and then proceed with excavation.

Mechanical excavation within a shield or using tunnel boring machine are some
of the methods used for excavation of soil. Even hand mining can also be
employed based on the size of the project.
The working space should be adequate so that it facilitates proper storage, the
handling and to occupy the shaft. The shaft size mainly varies with the type of
excavation equipment that is used and the type of jacking. In a safer side, a
working space of 10 to 25 feet longer than the length of pipe has to be
prepared. In terms width, 4 to 10 feet wider than the pipe diameter would be
best.

As too many workers are employed, a care on unanticipated problems has to

kept in mind throughout the fulfillment of the project. The first main concern is
the subsurface soil behavior. If the water level is not above the pipe invert, the
sandy clay is the best soil for such projects.

The decision on best excavation method for the site under consideration will
help in avoiding many problems at the site. This decision is taken based on
certain factors like groundwater level, unanticipated obstructions like boulders,
change in soil conditions if any.

Other factors that are to be considered are the design features of the shaft. It
must be a good design to withstand the large thrust. It is always told to avoid
over excavation, which can cause voids. These voids if arises have to be fixed
with the help of grouting techniques.

Utility Tunneling Method in Trenchless Construction

Utility tunneling is a method with the same purpose of pipe jacking. The only
difference is the lining used or the support structure used. The pipe jacking uses
special steel supporting structure that is mainly meant for this. But the UT make
use of a temporary support like concrete liner plates, wood lagging systems, or
steel ribs.

The procedure of utility tunneling method in trenchless construction mainly

involves installation of a liner that acts as the continuous supporting structure at
the front cutting face, where the soil is removed by excavation.
 The tunnel construction takes place between two accessible shafts. The
procedure can be explained in the following steps:

1. Soil Excavation
There are mainly three methods of excavation carried out, which is chosen
based on the soil conditions. The first method is hand mining, which is the
simplest method of all the methods available for excavation. This method makes
use of picks, shovels or any pneumatic hand tools.
This method proceeds with the help of a protective shield, that provides face
stability during excavation. The method is simple and is helpful when the site
consists of varying soil conditions. But this method is time-consuming.

Another method is open face mechanical excavation, that is quite faster than the
hand mining, as it uses mechanical devices. Here also, shields are provided,
with power excavation devices. The shields provide access to the front face if
any adjustments have to made, which cannot be done manually under
unexpected situations.
The third method is Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM), which employs rotary cutter or
disk cutters that are driven either hydraulically or electrically. The most
improved version of TBM makes use of pressure chamber. This method has high
cost and has limited access. This method is restricted in circular tunnels.
2. Removal of Spoil
Based on space, the method of excavation conducted and the total tunnel
length, the best spoil removal system is chosen. The most common method
used are mentioned below:

o Slurry systems

o Auger systems

o Vacuum extraction systems

o Belt or chain conveyors

o Wheeled cart or skips

o Positive displacements pumps

3. Installation of Segmental Liner
After the above excavation, removal of the spoil, the liner sections are brought
through the already set lining. The new liner is connected to the existing ones.
The liner plates are steel or reinforced concrete made which are prefabricated
ones.

The steel plates are of higher demand compare to concrete plates, due to a
higher strength to weight ratio.

4. Control of line and grade

The control is mainly done with the help of theodolite and the laser systems.
The current position of the tunnel systems can be estimated with the help of
theodolite.

The laser system shows any kind of variation in already set alignment. This
makes use of led lights. But one of the drawbacks is that it shows variation with
temperature changes. The gyroscope is a higher sophisticated control device
used mainly in curved tunneling.

During the excavation, the change in direction is carried out by applying

different forces to the jacking cylinders. The utility tunneling procedure is labor
intensive in nature. But it can be adopted in a site with varying soil conditions.

Trenchless Construction Methods and Their

Details and Uses
Home Constrution Trenchless Construction Methods and Their Details and Uses

Table of Contents [show]

Trenchless Construction Methods
Trenchless construction methods can be implemented for new construction as
well as for renewal purpose. Each purpose requires specific trenchless
construction techniques.

Classification of Trenchless Construction Methods

 The classification flow chart of trenchless construction methods are shown in
figure-1.

Fig.1: Methods employed under trenchless construction

From the above figure, trenchless construction methods are classified as:
o Horizontal earth boring,

o Pipe jacking, and

o Utility Tunneling

The classification is based on the requirement of workers. From the above chart,
the horizontal earth boring (HEB) do not require workers to proceed the work
inside the borehole drilled. While the pipe jacking methods (PJ) and the Utility
tunnelling (UT) method involves workers inside the borehole.

The pipe jacking differs from utility tunneling in terms of the support structure
they employ. Pipe jacking uses prefabricated structures as support and the UT
method employs the equipment used for excavation itself as the support
structure which is temporary.

Horizontal Earth Boring (HEB)

The horizontal earth boring construction method is further divided into several
methods such as:

o Horizontal augur boring

o Horizontal directional drilling

o Pipe ramming methods

o Compactions methods

o Pilot-tube microtunneling

o Microtunneling methods

Each method is described in detail in the following sections.

Fig.2: Classification of Horizontal Earth Boring (HEB) Method

Horizontal Auger Boring (HAB) Method
The installation of a steel cast pipe across a busy area like road, railroad or
highway etc. can be done by horizontal auger boring method, as it is found
more economical than any other method.

In this method, through an embankment (from the drive to reception shaft) a

horizontal bore is driven. The auger string consists of a cutting head at its end,
that is leading. The spoil is taken back to the driven shaft.

Uncased boring is avoided to get rid of collapse or accidents to the personnel

working. The cutter head is rotated by the auger string, which in turn is rotated
by the boring machine. With this advancement of drilling hole, a casing will
occupy the bore hole.
The hydraulic jack facilitates the movement of the case into the hole, by pushing
it, with the progress of boring. So the soil excavation and removal, the insertion
of the casing, all are done as a continuous operation.

Fig.3.Depicting horizontal auger boring without disturbing the roadway

Table.1: Horizontal Auger Boring (HAB) Method Characteristics
Diameter
Installation Material of The degree
Method range in Application
height in feet Pipe used of Accuracy
inches

1% of
Auger Road, rail
4-60 600 steel length of
Boring crossings
bore

Steered on
grade Gravity &
4-60 600 Steel 12in
auger pressure pipe
boring
 Steered on
line grade Pressure &
4-60 600 Steel 12in
auger gravity pipes
boring

Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD)

The horizontal directional drilling methods mainly involves two stages or
process.

1. In the first stage, a small diameter pilot hole is drilled along the proposed line or
center line that is desired.

2. The second stage is to enlarge the drilled pilot hole. This enlargement will help
in the accommodation of the utility line which is later pulled all through the hole
that is enlarged.

The process of enlargement is sometimes done at different stages, until a

desired diameter of hole is obtained. The method is mainly involved in
installation of pipelines or conduits.

The horizontal directional drilling method can be classified into different

categories:

o Small -mini HDD

o Medium -midi HDD

o Large maxi HDD

 Fig.4: The Boring Operation done in Horizontal Directional Boring
Table.2: The Characteristics of Horizontal Directional Drilling Method
Diameter
Installation Material of The degree of
Method range in Application
height in feet Pipe used Accuracy
inches

PVC, Clay, Cable,

Mini-HDD 2-12 >/=600 Varying
FRP, PE Pressure Pipe

PE, Steel,
Midi -
12-24 >/=1000H Ductile Pressure Pipe
HDD
iron

Maxi -
24-48 >/=6000H Steel, PE Pressure Pipe
HDD

Pipe Ramming (PR) Methods

Pipe ramming method is a trenchless construction methods used for the
installation of utilities for railroad or road crossings mainly. The steel casing is
hammered inside the earth by means of an air compressor.

The hammered pipe may be opened end or closed end depending on the
diameter. The soil is pushed out of the steel with the help of air pressure, when
large diameters are employed. The main characteristics of pipe ramming method
is shown in table-3.

Fig.5: Pipe Ramming Method Procedure

 Fig.6: Final Arrangement After Piper Ramming method
Table.3: Characteristics of Pipe Ramming Methods

Compaction Methods (CM)

Installation of conduits less than 8-inch diameter can make use of compaction
method. This method is also called as impact moiling. The method is proceeded
by forming a bore hole by pushing or pulling of pipe, by the compression of the
earth(soil). Those jobs that are done with no engineering assistance, make use
of these methods.

Table.4: The characteristics of Compaction Methods

The
Maximum
Diameter material
Method installation Application Accuracy
in inches of pipe
depth in feet
used

1% of
Compaction Cables or the length
8 or less 250 Any
Methods pipes of the
bore

Microtunneling
Microtunneling is a trenchless construction method. This is a complete remote
controlled method. It provides continuous support to the whole excavation
process with the help of a guided pipe jacking process.
 Microtunneling method is applied for sewer line installation. The spoils are
removed with the help of pumping or by means of mechanical augers. It
generally constitutes six independent systems all together:

o A micro tunnel boring machine

o A jacking system

o A spoil removal system

o The guidance system (Laser guidance)

o Remote Control system

o A pipe lubrication system

The microtunneling is very accurate in nature. A wide variety of microtunneling

machine are available for boring. The factors that need to identified to choose
the best machine is based on the soil conditions of the site, the groundwater
level and obstructions that are unanticipated.

Pilot-Tube Microtunneling
This method is an alternative for the microtunneling. It makes use of all the
main features of horizontal boring techniques and perform. It gains the accuracy
of microtunneling, the spoil removal system property of an auger boring
machine, the auger and guidance system as in microtunneling, directional drill
methods steering mechanism and also make use of camera mounted theodolite.
It is a complete equipped system, even with LED to have a higher accuracy in
line as well as grades.

For the installation of smaller sewer, water or main line sewers, the method is
found very economical. For house water lines or sewer connections to the main
lines, this method is a good choice.

The pilot tube machines are usually used in soft soil that are relatively in a
smaller depth. The distance of jacking can be around 300 feet or less. The main
characteristics of the pilot tube tunnelling are mentioned in table 8.
 Table.8: Characteristics of Pilot-Tube Microtunneling
The
Maximum
Diameter material
Method installation depth Application Accuracy
in inches of pipe
in feet
used

Steel, Gravity Pipes

PTMT 6-10 300 PCP, DIP, with small 1inches
VCP, GRP diameter

Tunnel Form Construction Technique and

Process for Structures
Home What is Concrete? How to Make Concrete? Tunnel Form Construction Technique and Process for Structures

Tunnel Form Construction Technique was invented over 50 years ago. The use of
tunnel-form produces high quality monolithic structures. It eliminates the use of
any subsequent wet trades (Plastering etc). It is basically an operation to cast
walls and slabs in one operation in a daily cycle. This technique is highly
systematic, earthquake proven and provides an ideal solution to the critical
problem of sound transmission. It gives a sound reduction of 50 decibels.
Tunnel form is widely used in the construction of cellular structures with high degree of
repetition such as:
o Prisons

o Hotels

o Student Accommodation (Hostels)

o Private Housings

o Commercial Developments
It reduces the heating costs by providing Thermal Mass and speeds up the
building process. However, specialist contractors with tunnel-form experience is
high recommended in order to tailor the design to suit best construction
method.
Tunnel formwork come in half units and in the form of an inverted L which are
bolted together at the top to form each tunnel. The inbuilt wheels and the jacks
help the formwork move in and out of the position and adjusted to the final
height.
The factory-made steel formwork can be reused up to 600 times and it can suit
a variety of module sizes. This makes the method of construction very versatile
and extremely economical.

Tunnel-formwork allows a 24-hour construction cycle to be achieved and thus

the buildability of in-situ concrete is improved by choosing this type of
formwork.

In practice, when the two halves are bolted together, the tunnel formwork will
appear like the following figure.

The Casting Process of Tunnel Formwork:

1) Stage One: Prefabricated Wall reinforcement is placed by crane along the entire
wing prior to casting the kickers (used to position wall formwork).
2) Stage Two: Two and a half tunnel is craned into place, bolted together and ties
are added.

3) Stage Three: The wall concrete is poured.

4) Stage Four: The slab reinforcements are fixed

5) Stage 5: The slab concrete is placed. The formwork system provides for a pour
to be wrapped in tarpaulins and for the use of butane heaters to maintain a
sufficiently high temperature for the concrete to reach its striking strength
overnight.
6) Stage 6: The tunnel-forms are removed next day.

7) Stage 7: The process is repeated for the next two bays.

Tunnel form can produce strong and durable in-situ cellular structures. This
method of construction can achieve time savings up to 25% with cost savings of
15%.
Since the concrete finish is very good, the requirement for post construction
trades such as plasterers and electricians are greatly reduced.
Tunnel Surveying -Methods and Procedures
of Tunnel Surveying
Home Surveying Tunnel Surveying -Methods and Procedures of Tunnel Surveying

Tunnel surveying is a type of underground surveying for the construction of

tunnels. Methods and procedure of tunnel surveying is discussed.

Special instructions on the type of survey and the equipment that must be used
in the tunnel surveying procedure, for the tunnel construction are initially given
by the planners.

The basic procedure of tunnel surveying is to align the center line in the ground
and transfer that to the tunnel. This also involves leveling the surface on the
ground and the internal of the tunnel.
 Table of Contents [show]
Methods and Procedure of Tunnel Surveying
The steps that are involved in the tunnel surveying are detailed in the following
points.

1. The initial procedure is to carry out a preliminary survey that is later made
more precise by surveying the line on the surface of the area under
consideration

2. From the start of the excavation, as a part of tunnel construction, it is

essential to keep up even minute accuracy with the center line that is already
marked. When a new area of excavation is commenced, the center line of the
before finished work has to be carried forward over the new face. No shifting of
the center line in vertical or horizontal direction is accepted, when the opposite
faces meet with adjacent headings.
3. Ordinary engineers transit and properly handled works give satisfactory
results for the construction of short tunnels.

4. Tunnel transit that is large and sophisticated, is fitted to a striding level, that
helps in keeping the transverse axis horizontal. This is necessary for long tunnel
construction.

5. The instruments above mentioned should undergo periodic maintenance,

calibration as well as checking.

6. The procedure of leveling is carried out in a normal way. But areas with steep
slopes are measured with utmost care. This is ensured by having equal values
for backsight and foresight. This would reduce the errors that are caused by the
human, like improper or mal -adjustments of the instruments.

7. There are two methods that can be employed to measure the horizontal
distances. They are stepping and inclined sights. Any of these methods can be
employed based on the area under consideration and convenience.

The steel tapes used for the measurement are checked for errors due to any
cause of tension or temperature changes. This would result in cumulative errors
in the measures.

The below figure shows the alignment of a curve line, based on which the
construction must be proceeded (figure-1).
 Fig.1: Alignment of Curve Line in Tunnel Surveying
The center line of the curve in the figure is the alignment through which the
center line of the tunnel must proceed. This is the curve that must be
determined. The headings consist of short tangents that are drawn to the curved
lines as ab, bc, cd etc. To locate the center line of the area, offsets from the
above-mentioned tangents are set off.

When the heading has proceeded up to x y, point like n on the tangents is

aligned as shown in the figure. We then set off the calculated offset, i.e. n-o that
will intersect the center line of the heading.

After each blasting of the heading face, the center line recommended being
transferred.

How is Transferring of Center Line into the Tunnel Carried

Out?
The transferring of the center line is a method that is done with great care,
precision and accuracy. The accuracy throughout the execution of the same
must be guided, else it can give up many related problems. Carelessness can
cause the lines from opposite faces not to meet.

Even small deviation from the centerline can cause, over breaking. This whole
undesirable work brings large expenditure than it has to be. The problem
because more tiring when the procedure is undergone on hard rock strata. As
shown in the figure, well elaborate equipment are made ready for the
proceeding of the work.

Fig.2: Arrangement in Transferring the Center Line Points to the Tunnel

Through the shaft constructed, the plumb bob weighing 22 lbs are taken down
through the shaft, thus transferring the two center line points to the bottom as
shown. It is carried out vertically downwards. The plumb bobs are suspended
with the help of piano wires that are passing through the grooves, that is
connected to a shaft for easily leveled movement of the plumb bob.

When the plumb bob reaches the bottom, they are replaced by heavy iron so
that the weight will keep the wire straight. For higher precaution of the wire to
resist any kind of vibration or oscillation, it can be immersed in a container of
oil.
Once level, the line joining the two plumb bobs are extended with the help os a
theodolite that is placed on the shaft floor, that is designated with respect to
one point of the shaft roof, as shown in the figure.

A similar reference point is made to the opposite side of the roof, initially noted.
Hence the center line is marked on the shaft floor and continued for further
tunnel extension.

How to Transfer the Tunnel Grade?

The same piano wire and the plumb bob combination can be used to transfer the
tunnel grade to the shaft bottom. Here at 5 feet below the springing level of the
roof, two points are marked on the wire.

Initially, the reduced level of the top mark is determined, with respect to a
benchmark i.e. a point near to the mouth of the shaft. And later the reduced
level of the second mark is also determined.

With all the above measurements, a benchmark is determined at a point on the

tunnel side wall. Based on this benchmark the floor levels are transferred and
continued measurement.

Decision of Shape and Size of the Tunnel

The shape of the tunnel is decided based on the nature and the type of the soil
or the ground that is penetrated during the surveying and the excavation
procedure. After surveying and related construction works, a choice of shape
can be made. The size of the tunnel is already measured in the design, as it is
based on the scope or requirement of the project.
 Fig.3: Shapes for Tunnels
Among different cross sections, the circular cross sections are found to be the
best shape to bring huge resistance towards the internal and external pressures.
This also has another peculiarity of bringing larger size for a smaller diameter.
But in engineers point of view, they demand high lining and covering to protect
it from high vibration in railway uses.

So, an optimized shape is a tunnel with circular top and vertical side walls
Another shape is the horseshoe type. They are compromised with the problems
related to the circular tunnel shape.

Home Surveying Underground Surveying Methods and Applications

Table of Contents [show]

What is Underground Surveying?
Underground surveying embraces the survey operations performed beneath the
surface of the earth in connection with tunneling, exploration and construction in
subterranean passageways. It is quite different from surveying on the surface.

The following peculiarities of underground surveys indicate how they differ from surface
surveys:
o Artificial illumination is required to view instrument crosshairs, to read verniers,
to sight targets etc. Because of poor lighting.

o Working space in passageways is often cramped.

o Instrument stations and benchmarks for levelling must often be set into the roof
of a passageway to minimize disturbance from the operations being carried on in
the workings.

o Instrument stations are set with some difficulty since plugs must be driven into
drill holes in rock.

o In many instances the underground workings arc wet, with considerable water
dripping from the roofs of passage ways and running along the floors.

Applications of Underground Surveys

The major application of underground surveys is in the construction of tunnels and
other underground utilities. The tunnel is constructed when open excavation
becomes uneconomical usually when it is more than 20 m. It
o Reduces the grade

o Shortens the distance between given points separated by a dividing mountain or

ridge.

o Meets the demand of-modern rapid transit in a city.

o Engineering operations to be performed

o Exact alignment

o Proper gradient
o Establishment of permanent stations marking the proposed route.

The survey work in connection with tunneling can be divided into:

1. Surface survey

2. Transferring the alignment underground

3. Levels in tunnels

Surface survey:
Surface survey connects points representing each portal of a tunnel. A traverse
connecting the portal points determines the azimuth, distance and differences in
elevation of each end of the proposed tunnel. Based on the local conditions and
proposed length of the tunnel the methods of working are adopted.

It is always advisable that the survey is based on the suitable local coordinate
system. The alignment is permanently referenced by a system of monuments
within an area outside each tunnel portal. And here is sketch regarding how the
tunneling work proceeds.

Central line and grade stakes within the tunnel are usually set in the roof to
avoid displacement and destruction by the constant flow of people and
machinery as construction proceeds. If the stakes are set on the floor they
should be offset into an area along the tunnels edge.
 Transferring the alignment underground
For long tunnel excavation is carried inward from both parties. But vertical
shafts are also sunk up to the required depth along the alignment of the tunnel
at intermediate locations along the routes. The vertical alignment can be done
by

o Plumb bob

o Optical collimator

o Laser

A heavy plumb bob (5 to 10 kg) is suspended on either a wire of heavy twine.

Oscillations of the bob can be controlled by suspending it in a pot with high
viscosity oil. The bob is suspended from a removable bracket attached to the
surface side of the shaft.

Optical plumbing becomes important with the increase in depth of internal shaft.
Various types of plummet are available for upwards and downward sighting to
allow the establishment of a vertical line and these are normally manufactured
so as to be interchangeable with theodolites on their tripods.
As the line of sight of a theodolite in adjustment will transit in a vertical plane, it
can also be used to check perpendicularity.

The advantages of an optical collimator are:

o More convenient than a plumb bob.

o Can be used to set marks directly on the floor of a completed shaft

o No wires as in case of plumb bob.

A laser equipment can be, used to, provide a vertical line of sight. The laser
generates a light beam of high intensity and of low angular divergence and can
be projected over long distances since the spread of the beam is very small to
provide a visible line for constant reference

Levels in tunnels:
 In transferring levels underground, little difficulty is encountered at the ends of
the tunnel, but at the shaft use is made of

o Steel tape

o Chain

o Constructed rods

o Steel wires

Now a days EDMI is also used. But in all cases the main idea is to deduct the
height of the shaft measured from the top of a benchmark of known value.

Figure showing how the depth is measured by steel tape

Figure showing Depth measured by EDM

The important features of EDM are:
o EDMI unit and reflectors should be in the same vertical line.

o Both are mounted on stable support.

o Visibility should be good for EDMI to operate.