ENCE 361

Soil Mechanics

Grain Size Analysis

Sieve Analysis (Coarse Grained Soils)

Hydrometer Analysis (Fine Grained
Soils)

Liquid Limit

Plastic Limit
 Overview of Grain Size
Analysis

Grain-size analysis is a process in which
the proportion of material of each grain size
present in a given soil (grain-size
distribution) is determined.

The grain- size distribution of coarse-grained
soils is determined directly by sieve analysis.

The grain-size distribution of fine-grained soils
is determined indirectly by hydrometer analysis.

The grain-size distribution of mixed soils is
determined by combined sieve and hydrometer
analyses.
 Sieve Analysis

Apparatus

Preparation of Sample

Procedure

Computations

Possible Errors
 Sieve Analysis

A sieve analysis consists of passing a
sample through a set of sieves and
weighing the amount of material
retained on each sieve.

Sieves are constructed of wire
screens with square openings of
standard sizes.

The sieve analysis is performed on
material retained on a U. S. Standard
No. 200 sieve.
 Apparatus
U.S. Standard Sieve Sieve
Sieve Size or
Number
Openings,
inches
Openings,
mm

A series of U. S. standard sieves with
3”
2”
3”
2”
76.2
50.8 openings ranging from 3” to 0.074 mm
1 ½” 1 ½” 38.1
1” 1” 25.4 (No. 200), including a cover plate and
¾” ¾” 19.1
½”
3/8”
½”
3/8”
12.7
9.52
bottom pan, conforming to ASTM
No. 3
No. 4
¼”
0.187”
6.35
4.76
Designation: E11, Standard
No. 6
No. 8
0.132”
0.094”
3.36
2.38
Specifications for Sieves for Testing
No. 10
No. 16
0.079”
0.047”
2
1.19
Purposes.
No. 20 0.033” 0.84
No. 30 0.023” 0.59
No. 40 0.0165” 0.43
No. 50 0.0117” 0.3
No. 70 0.0083” 0.21

No. 100 0.0059” 0.15

No. 140 0.0041” 0.11

No. 200 0.0029” 0.07

 Apparatus

Sieve shaker, a mechanical unit that can
produce on duplicate samples the same
consistent results as those obtained by the
circular and tapping motion used in hand
sieving.

Balances, sensitive to 0.1 g for samples
weighing less than 500 g, and to 1.0 g for
samples weighing over 500 g.

Paintbrush, 1”, or soft wire brush, for cleaning
sieves. Sample splitter or riffle for dividing
samples. Mortar and rubber-covered pestle,
for breaking up aggregations of soil particles.

Oven.
Preparation of Sample

The material to be treated is first air dried, after
which the aggregations present in the sample are
thoroughly broken up with the fingers or with the
mortar and pestle. A representative sample is then
obtained by dividing, using the sample splitter or
riffle.

If the sample contains more than about 40% of
sizes larger than the No. 4 sieve, it is generally
advisable to separate the material on the No. 4
sieve, retaining both fractions for independent
sieve analysis as subsequently described.

The coarser fraction and the fraction passing the
No. 4 sieve including the fines and water should be
retained for independent sieve analysis as
subsequently described.
 Procedure

Two Procedures

Material
predominantly finer
than the No. 4
(0.187”/4.76mm)
sieve

Material split on
No. 4 sieve, i.e.,
material that was
retained on and is
larger than the
mesh of the No. 4
sieve
 Finer Sieve Analysis

Record all identifying information for
the sample, such as project, boring
number, or other pertinent data, on a
data sheet.

Oven-dry the sample at 110º ± 5º C,
allow to cool, and weigh.

If necessary, clean the sample.
 Finer Sieve Analysis

Select a nest of sieves suitable to the soil being
tested. Arrange the nest of sieves according to
size as shown in , with decreasing openings
from top to bottom. Attach the bottom pan to
the bottom of the smallest sieve used. Place the
sample on the top sieve of the nest as shown in
and put the cover plate over the top sieve.
 Finer Sieve Analysis

Place the
sample on the
top sieve of the
nest as shown in
and put the
cover plate over
the top sieve.
 Finer Sieve Analysis

Place the nest of sieves in
the shaking machine as
shown in and shake
them for 10 min, more or
less, or until additional
shaking does not produce
appreciable changes in
the amounts of material
on each sieve. If a
shaking machine is not
available, the nest of
sieves may be shaken by
hand.
 Finer Sieve Analysis

Remove the nest of sieves from the mechanical
shaker, if used. Beginning with the top sieve,
transfer the contents of the sieve to a piece of
heavy paper approximately 1 ft square. Carefully
invert the sieve on the paper and gently brush the
bottom of the sieve, to remove the entire sample.
Transfer the sample from the paper to the balance
and weigh.
 Finer Sieve Analysis

The sum of the weights retained on each

sieve and pan should equal the initial
total weight of the sample within 1
percent. If the difference is greater than
1 percent, the sieving should be
repeated.
Coarser Sieve Analysis

Analysis for material retained on #4 sieve

is similar to the previous procedure,
except that mechanical shaking is more
advisable and the sieve set is coarser.
In some cases an air-dry sample may be
used.
 Computations

General relationship for portion
retained on a given sieve

Total weight for particular situations

may vary depending upon method of
analysis (i.e., the way in which the
sample is split)
 Possible Errors

Aggregations of particles not thoroughly
broken. If the material contains plastic fines,
the sample should be slaked -before sieving.

Overloading sieves. This is the most common
and most serious error associated with the
sieve analysis and will tend to indicate that a
material is coarser than it actually is.

Sieves shaken for too short a period or with
inadequate horizontal or jarring motions.

Broken or deformed sieve screens.

Loss of material when removing soil from
each sieve.
 Hydrometer Analysis

Description

Apparatus

Hydrometer Calibration and
Corrections

Preparation of Sample

Procedure

Computations

Possible Errors
 Description

Based on Stokes’ law

v = terminal velocity of sphere, cm/sec


s = density of sphere, g/cm3


f = density of fluid, g/cm3

 = viscosity of fluid, g-sec/cm2

D = diameter of sphere, mm

The hydrometer is used to determine
the percentage of dispersed soil
particles remaining in suspension at a
given time.
 Apparatus

Hydrometer, calibrated at 20º/20º C
(68º/68º F), graduated in specific
gravity or grams/litre with a range of
0.995 to 1.040 and 0 to 50,
respectively. The accuracy of the
specific gravity hydrometer shall be ±
0.001 and of the gram-per-litre
hydrometer, ± 1.
 Apparatus

Dispersion apparatus:

A mechanically operated stirring device in
which a suitably mounted electric motor
turns a vertical shaft at a speed of not less
than 10,000 rpm without load. The shaft
shall be equipped with a replaceable stirring
paddle of metal, plastic, or hard rubber. A
special dispersion cup shall be provided to
hold the sample while it is being dispersed.
 Dispersion Cup
Baffle Location Plan

Stirring Paddle

Permanent Baffle Rods Removable Baffle Rods

 Apparatus

Sedimentation cylinder, of glass,
essentially 18” high and 2½” in
diameter and marked for a volume of
1000 ml.

Centigrade thermometer, range 0 to 50
C, accurate to 0.5 C.

Timing device, a watch or clock with a
second hand.

Balance, sensitive to 0.1 g.

Oven
Hydrometer Calibration and
Corrections

Both hydrometer
and bulb must be
carefully calibrated

Meniscus at surface also must

be corrected in computations
 Preparation of Sample

Size of preparation depends on the soil

The exact dry weight of the sample in
suspension may be determined either
before or after the test. However, oven-
drying some clays before the test may
cause permanent changes in the
apparent grain sizes. These soils may
be preserved at the natural water
content of the soil.

A dispersing agent is necessary for the
suspension.
 Procedure

Record all identifying information for
the sample, such as project, boring
number, or other pertinent data, on a
data sheet.

Determine the dispersing agent
correction, Cd, and the meniscus
correction, Cm, unless they have been
previously established. Record this
information on the data sheet.

Determine or estimate the specific
gravity of solids and record on the data
sheet.
 Procedure

If the oven-dry weight is to be
obtained at the start of the test, oven-
dry the sample, allow cooling, and
then weighing to nearest 0.1 g.
Record the dry weight on the data
sheet. Place the sample in a
numbered dish and add distilled or
demineralised water until the sample
is submerged. Add the dispersing
agent at this time. Allow the sample
to soak overnight or until all soil
lumps have disintegrated.
 Procedure

Transfer the soil-water slurry from the dish to
a dispersion cup, washing any residue from
the dish with distilled or demineralised water.
Add distilled water to the dispersion cup, if
necessary, until the water surface is 2 or 3”
below the top of the cup; if the cup contains
too much water, it will splash out while
mixing. Place the cup in the dispersing
machine and disperse the suspension for 1 to
10 minutes. The lower the plasticity of the
soil the shorter the time required to disperse it
in the cup.
 Procedure

Transfer the suspension into a 1000-ml

sedimentation cylinder and add distilled
or demineralised water until the volume
of the suspension equals 1000 ml. The
suspension should be brought to the
temperature expected to prevail during
the test.
 Procedure

One minute before starting the test, take the

graduate in one hand and, using the palm of
the other hand or a suitable rubber cap as a
stopper, shake the suspension vigorously for
a few seconds in order to transfer the
sediment on the bottom of the graduate into
a uniform suspension.

Agitation can be done by shaking by hand or
hand agitator.
 Procedure

At the end of 1 min, set

the cylinder on a table.
Slowly immerse the
hydrometer in the liquid
20 to 25 seconds before
each reading. Care should
be exercised when
inserting and removing
the hydrometer to prevent
disturbance of the
suspension.
 Procedure

Observe and record the hydrometer readings on
the data sheet after 1 and 2 min have elapsed
from the time the cylinder is placed on the table.
As soon as the 2-min reading has been taken,
carefully remove the hydrometer from the
suspension and place it in a graduate of clean
water. Again, insert the hydrometer in the
suspension and record readings after elapsed
times of 4, 15, 30, 60, 120, 240, and 1440 min,
removing the hydrometer from the suspension
after each reading and placing it in a graduate of
clean water.
 Procedure

If the dry weight of the sample is to be

obtained at the end of the test, carefully
wash all the suspension into an evaporating
dish. Oven-dry the material, allow to cool,
and then determine the sample weight.
Subtract the dry weight of dispersing agent
used from this weight to obtain the oven-dry
weight of soil.
 Computations

Corrected hydrometer reading.

Compute the corrected hydrometer
readings, R, for use in computing
particle diameter by adding the
meniscus correction, Cm, to the actual
hydrometer readings, R’. Record the
corrected reading, R, on the data
sheet
 Computations

Computation of particle diameter. Calculate
the particle diameter corresponding to a
given hydrometer reading based on Stokes’
equation.
 Computations

Percent finer. To compute the percent of
particle diameters finer than that
corresponding to a given hydrometer
reading, subtract the dispersing agent
correction, Cd, from the corrected
hydrometer reading, R. A temperature
correction factor, m, must also be added
algebraically to each of the readings.
This factor can be either positive or
negative depending on the temperature of
the suspension at the time of each
reading.
 Computations

Obtain the temperature correction
factors from and record them on the
data sheet. Record the values of R - Cd
+ m on the data sheet.

Gs = specific gravity of solids

Ws = Wo = oven-dry weight in g of soil used
for hydrometer analysis

R - Cd + m= corrected hydrometer reading
minus dispersing agent correction plus,
algebraically, temperature correction
 Possible Errors

Soil oven dried before test. Except for
inorganic soils of low dry strength, oven
drying may cause permanent changes in the
particle sizes.

Unsatisfactory type or quantity of
dispersing agent.

Incomplete dispersion of soil into
suspension.

Insufficient shaking or agitating of
suspension in cylinder at start of test.

Too much soil in suspension.
 Possible Errors

Disturbance of suspension while

inserting or removing hydrometer.

Stem of hydrometer not clear. Dirt or
grease on the stem may prevent full
development of the meniscus.

Nonsymmetrical heating of suspension.

Excessive variation in temperature of
suspension during test.

Loss of material after test.
Liquid and Plastic Limits

Overview of Test

Apparatus

Preparation of Material

Liquid Limit

Plastic Limit

Plasticity Index

Possible Errors
 Overview of Test

The Atterberg limits are water
contents that define the limits of
various stages of consistency for fine-
grained soils.

The liquid limit (LL) and the plastic
limit (PL) define the upper and lower
limits, respectively, of the plastic
range of a soil

The numerical difference between
these two limits expresses the
plasticity of a soil and is termed the
plasticity index (PI).
 Definitions

Liquid Limit. The liquid limit of a soil is the
water content, expressed as a percentage of the
weight of oven dried soil at which two halves of
a soil pat separated by a groove of standard
dimensions will close at the bottom of the
groove along a distance of ½” under the impact
of 25 blows in a standard liquid limit device.

Plastic Limit. The plastic limit of a soil is the
water content, expressed as a percentage of the
weight of oven dried soil at which the soil just
begins to crumble into short pieces when rolled
into a thread 1/8” in diameter.
 Apparatus

Liquid Limit Device

 Apparatus

Liquid Limit Device

Base. The base shall be hard rubber
having a D Durometer hardness of 80 to
90. The tests shall be conducted on the
finished base with feet attached.

Feet. The base shall be supported by
rubber feet designed to provide isolation
of the base from the work surface.

Cup. The cup shall be brass and have a
weight, including cup hanger, of 185 to
215 g.
 Apparatus

Liquid Limit Device

Cam. The cam shall raise the cup smoothly and
continuously to its maximum height, over a distance
of at least 180º of cam rotation. The preferred cam
motion is a uniformly accelerated lift curve.

Carriage. The cup carriage shall be constructed in a
way that allows convenient but secure adjustment of
the height of drop of the cup to 10 mm (0.394”).

Optional Motor Drive. As an alternative to the hand
crank shown in Figure 1, the device may be
equipped with a motor to turn the cam. Such a
motor must turn the cam at 2 ± 0.1 revolutions per
second.
 Apparatus

Grooving Tool

A grooving tool having dimensions as
shown. The tool shall be made of plastic
or noncorroding metal.

Gage

A metal gage block for adjusting the
height of drop of the cup.
 Apparatus

Container

Small corrosion-resistant containers
with snug-fitting lids for water
content specimens.

Balance

Storage Container

Ground Glass Plate

Spatula

Sieve (



 Apparatus

Wash Bottle

Drying Oven

Washing Pan

Rod (Optional)

A metal or plastic rod or tube 3.2 mm
(1/8”) diameter and about 100 mm (4”)
long for judging the size of plastic limit
threads.

Mixing Water (distilled or
demineralised)
 Calibrations

Inspection for Wear

Adjustment of Drop Height
Preparation of Material

The same soil mixture must be

used for both the plastic and
liquid limit tests

Soils should be at the natural
water content when preparation
for testing has begun. Some soil
types (especially organic soils)
can experience significant
changes when dried that will
alter the results of the test.
 Liquid Limit

Place a portion of the prepared soil in
the cup of the liquid limit device at the
point where the cup rests on the base,
squeeze it down, and spread it into the
cup to a depth of about 10 mm at its
deepest point, tapering to form an
approximately horizontal surface.
 Liquid Limit

Form a groove in the soil pat by
drawing the tool, bevelled edge,
forward through the soil on a line
joining the highest point to the lowest
point on the rim of the cup.
 Liquid Limit

Verify that no crumbs of
soil are present on the
base or the underside of
the cup. Lift and drop
the cup by turning the
crank at a rate of 1.9 to
2.1 drops per second
until the two halves of
the soil pat come in
contact at the bottom of
the groove along a
distance of 13 mm
(1/2”).
 Liquid Limit

Verify that an air bubble has not

caused premature closing of the groove
by observing that both sides of the
groove have flowed together with
approximately the same shape.

Record the number of drops (N)
required to close the groove. Remove
a slice of soil and place in a weighed
container, and cover.
 Liquid Limit

Return the soil remaining in the cup to the glass
plate. Wash and dry the cup and grooving tool
and reattach the cup to the carriage in
preparation for the next trial.

Remix the entire soil specimen on the glass plate
to reduce the water content of the soil and
increase the number of blows required to close
the groove. Repeat the previous steps for at
least three additional trials producing
successively greater numbers of blows to close
the groove. Preferably, two trials should
produce closure in 25 blows or less, and two
trials should produce closure in 25 blows or
more.
 Liquid Limit

Determine the water content (WN) of

the soil specimen from each trial. Make
all weighings on the same balance.
Initial weighings should be performed
immediately after completion of the
test. If the test is to be interrupted for
more than about 15 min, the specimens
already obtained should be weighed at
the time of the interruption.
Liquid Limit Calculations

Plot the relationship between
the water content, 'N ’ and the
corresponding number of
drops, N, of the cup on a
semilogarithmic graph. Draw
the best straight line through
the four or more plotted
points.

Take the water content
corresponding to the
intersection of the line with
the 25-drop abscissa as the
liquid limit of the soil.
Potential Errors in Liquid
Limit Test

Improperly constructed or adjusted
liquid limit device.

Worn parts of liquid limit device,
especially at point of contact between
the cup and the base or worn tip of
grooving tool.

Soil at point of contact between the
cup and the base.

Loss of moisture during test.
 Plastic Limit

Preparation of Test Specimen

Procedure

Calculations

Possible Errors
Preparation of Test Specimen

Either after the second mixing before

the test or from the soil remaining
after completion of the test, select a 20
g portion of soil from the material
prepared for the liquid limit test.

Reduce the water content of the soil to
a consistency at which it can be rolled
without sticking to the hands by
spreading and mixing continuously on
the glass plate.
 Procedure

From the 20 g mass, select a portion of 1.5 to 2.0 g.
Form the test specimen into an ellipsoidal mass.
Roll this mass between the palm or fingers and the
ground-glass plate with just sufficient pressure to
roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter
throughout its length.The thread shall be further
deformed on each stroke so that its diameter is
continuously reduced; and its length extended until
the diameter reaches 3.2 ± 0.5 mm (0.125” ±
0.020”), taking no more than 2 minutes to
complete the rolling operation. A 3.2 mm (1/8”)
diameter rod or tube is useful for frequent
comparison with the soil thread to ascertain when
the thread has reached the proper diameter.
 Procedure

When the diameter of the thread becomes 3.2 mm, break
the thread into several pieces. Squeeze the pieces
together, knead between the thumb and first finger of
each hand, reform into an elliposidal mass, and reroll.
Continue this alternate rolling to a thread 3.2 mm in
diameter, gathering together, kneading and rerolling,
until the thread crumbles under the pressure required for
rolling, and the soil can no longer be rolled into a 3.2
mm diameter thread.
 Procedure

Gather the portions of the crumbled thread
together and place in a weighed container.
Immediately cover the container.

Select another 1.5 to 2.0 g portion of soil
from the original 20 g specimen and repeat
the rolling operations until the container has
at least 9 g of soil.

Repeat all of these steps to make another
container holding at least 9 g of soil.
Determine the water content, in percent, of
the soil contained in the containers. Make all
weighings on the same balance.
 Calculations

Compute the average of the two
water contents. If the difference
between the two water contents is
greater than two percentage points,
repeat the test. The plastic limit is
the average of the two water
contents.
 Possible Errors

Incorrect final thread diameter. A
length of 1/8” diameter metal rod
nearby will help in estimating this
diameter accurately.

Stopping the rolling process too
soon. If there is any doubt as to
whether the thread has crumbled
sufficiently, it is better to roll the
thread once more than to stop the
process too soon.
 Plasticity Index

Formula for Plasticity Index:

PI 0.9 LL0.8
PI LLPL
Upper
Limit Line
Possible Errors (General)

Specimen not representative.

Specimen improperly prepared.

Inaccurate determination of water
content.

Computational mistakes.
Questions?