Practical 1: Soil Ecosystems

Practical 1: Soil ecosystems - soil biota and food webs

Introduction

An ecosystem is made up of plants, animals (biodiversity) and abiotic factors which work
together to capture, store and transfer energy, nutrients and water. For example plants “capture”
energy via photosynthesis and energy is stored as carbohydrates in plants or fats and proteins in
animals after they have eaten the plants. Soil organisms break down plant and animal tissues and
transfer the energy to themselves, while returning nutrients to the soil for uptake by plants. The
many organisms in an ecosystem carry out these ecosystem functions, and the more diverse an
ecosystem is, the more stable and reliable are these functions. The soil provides a good, easily
studied example of an ecosystem.

Soil biodiversity reflects the mix of living organisms in the soil. These organisms interact
with one another and with plants and small animals forming a web of biological activity. Soil is
by far the most biologically diverse part of Earth. The soil food web includes beetles, springtails,
mites, worms, spiders, ants, nematodes, fungi, bacteria, and other organisms. These organisms
improve the entry and storage of water, resistance to erosion, plant nutrition, and break down of
organic matter. A wide variety of organisms provides checks and balances to the soil food web
through population control, mobility, and survival from season to season.

Objective:

To identify the different types and number of macrofauna in different types of soil.

Variables:

a) Manipulated : Types of soil, volume of soil

b) Responding : Number of macrofauna, types of macrofauna
c) Fixed : Technique used to collect macrofauna, temperature of
surrounding

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Material and Apparatus:

Soil Sample (A, B, C and D), ethanol, tulgren funnel, petri dish, microscope, hand lens.

Assessing macrofauna:

Macrofauna accelerate the rate of organic matter decomposition. They break organic material
into smaller pieces, and mix organic matter with soils. However, the relative number of
macrofauna to microfauna in the soil is small.

Procedure:

1) Two samples of leaf are collected from different locations (O-horizon- leaf litter; A
horizon- no deeper than about 3 cm). Native vegetation, garden bed, under different
species of tree etc. or other distinctive site was chosen from lawn. The sample is placed in
plastic bags, sealed and labelled with student’s name and collection location.
2) On return to the lab, the soil is mixed with the leaf litter sample from the same location
thoroughly. A known volume is put on the sample in the Tulgren funnel. It is leaved for
about 2 days, and then the preserving jar containing ethanol was removed and screwed on
the lid. The sample from the second location was placed in the Tulgren funnel, and
removed after about 2days.
3) The same procedures are followed.

Picture 1: Tulgren-type funnels for the extraction of soil fauna

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4) From the bags, a measured volume of the leaf litter (O Horizon) and the topsoil (A
Horizon) were examined using a microscope or hand lens.
5) Any fauna found was removed to a clean jar or petri dish for identification. All organisms
were identified to order if possible, but at least put them into different groups (ie. group A
no legs – worms; group B 8 legs – spiders and mites etc.).
6) The number of individuals was counted from each order or group. (If you have large
numbers you may need to estimate the number rather than try to count them all)
7) The contents of the collecting jar was emptied into a petri dish and as many organisms as
possible was identified.
8) The number of individuals was counted from each Order or group (as far as possible).
9) The results from both counts (1.2 and 1.3) were used and the number of Orders or
groups per cm3 of soil and leaf litter, and the numbers of individuals from each Order or
group per cm3 of soil and leaf litter were calculated.

Results:

(a) Larger macro fauna

Organisms No. Of Organisms

A
(Earthworm, Lumbricus)

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 Practical 1: Soil Ecosystems

B
(White Flouse)

C
(Unknown)

D 3

(Diatomaceous earth)

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Table 1: Larger Macro fauna for our Group

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Diagram 1: Classification of Larger Macro Fauna

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Practical 1: Soil Ecosystems

1
 Practical 1: Soil Ecosystems

No. of Soil Sample

Organisms A B C D
Group 1: 4/402 g Group 6: 3/213 g Group 3: 4/250 g
Macro fauna Group 2: 6/500 g
Group 4: 14/750 g
Group 5: 14/250 g
Total (per 0 38/1902 g 3/213 g 4/250 g
gram)

Table 2: The overall Larger Macro Fauna (all group)

b) Smaller Macrofauna

Organisms No. Of Organisms

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Table 3: Smaller Macro fauna for in Sample B

SCE3107: Ecosystems and Biodiversity

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Diagram 2: Classification of Smaller Macrofauna

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B
Soil Sample

Group 1: 4
Group 2: 2
Group 4: 5
C

Group 6: 5
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Group 3: 1
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Group 5: 7
Total (unit per
gram) 0 18/1902 g 5/213 g 1/250 g

Table 4: The overall Smaller Macro Fauna (all group)

c) Number of Order or groups per cm3 soil/litter

Macrofauna Soil Sample

B C D
Number of orders or 56 unit / 1902 g = 8 unit / 213 g = 0.038 5 unit / 250 g = 0.02 unit
group per cm3 soil / 0.029 unit per g unit per g per g
litter
No. individuals of group 2 unit / 1902 g = 1 unit / 250 g = 0.004 unit
A per cm 3 soil/litter 0.0011 unit per g 0 per g
(without leg)
No. individuals of 3 unit / 1902 g = 4 unit / 213 g = 2 unit / 250 g = 0.008 unit
group B per cm3 0.0012 unit per g 0.0188 unit per g per g
soil/litter
(6 legs)
No. individuals of 2 unit / 1902 g = 1 unit / 213 g = 1 unit / 250 g = 0.004 unit
group C per cm3 0.0011 unit per g 0.0047 unit per g per g
soil/litter
(8 legs)
No. individuals of 1 unit / 1902 g =
group D per cm3 0.0005 unit per g 0 0
soil/litter
(10 legs)
No. individuals of 4 unit / 1902 g = 2 unit / 213 g = 1 unit / 250 g = 0.004 unit
group D per cm3 0.0021 unit per g 0.0094 unit per g per g
soil/litter
(more than 10 legs)

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 Practical 1: Soil Ecosystems

Discussion:

1) How did the diversity (number of group and number of individuals) of macrofauna
from the soils from the two locations differ? Can you suggest why there might to
differences. What soil parameters could you has measured which may help explain the
differences?

Different locations possess different type of macrofauna. This is due to the soils contents
either it forest soils or garden soils. From the result, sample B soil contains more macrofauna
compare to the other sample of soil. They might be certain circumstances which lead to this
phenomenon. Example, the farm soils was exposed to the perturbation which made it as an
insecure habitat for the macrofauna. The pesticide used by the farmer put the macrofauna in
line of danger. Thus, there are small numbers of macrofauna that can be found in farm soils.
In other hand, forest soils which are safer and more natural habitat for the macrofauana. It
contains more soil biota and also isolated from human perturbation and activities. The soils
parameter that has to be measured in determining the differences are the human activities
upon the soils and the minerals contain of the soils. Besides the food supply for the
macrofauna also need to take into consideration since every macrofauna need food and
energy to undergo their living processes.

(http://biology.clc.uc.edu/Courses/bio104/macrofauna)

2) Explain the role of macrofauna in the soil

Function of macrofauna community performs in soils to produce diversity in biogenic soils

structures that help regulate physicals properties and chemical process, activities endangered
by poor agriculture practices. Incorporation of the macrofauna and organic residues improve
erosion protection, favor decomposition, and increase biological activity, all leading to
increase the soils fertility and structural stability. In other words, the macrofauna acts as

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natural ratters. There are many different plants and animals that get to work straight away on
natural rubbish like leaves, logs or dead creatures. They are called decomposers. Like lichen,
grows on stones and woods and gradually break them down. Worm pulls leave a bit of death
plant down into the soils and eat them. While maggots that hatch from housefly eggs eat the
body of death creatures while woodlice live in the dark, damp place and feed on leaves and
wood. All this microorganisms had their own respective contribution upon the soils naturally.
With other words, the role of macrofauna is to decomposed organic matter and bind soil
particles.

(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?)

Growing and reproducing are the primary activities of all living organisms. As individual
plants and soil organisms work to survive, they depend on interactions with each other. By-
products from growing roots and plant residue feed soil organisms. In turn, soil organisms
support plant health as they decompose organic matter, cycle nutrients, enhance soil
structure, and control the populations of soil organisms including crop pests.

Type of Soil Organism Major Functions

Photosynthesis Plants Capture Energy
Algae
Bacteria
Decomposers Bacteria Break down residue
Fungi
Mutualists Bacteria Enhance plant growth
Fungi
Pathogens Bacteria Promote disease
Parasites Fungi
Nematodes
Macro arthropods
Root-feeders Nematodes Consume plant roots
Macro arthropods
Bacterial-feeders Protozoa Graze
Nematodes
Fungal-feeders Nematodes Graze

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Macro arthropods

Shredders Earthworms Break down residue and

Macro arthropods enhance soil structure
Higher-level predators Nematode-feeding Control populations
nematodes
Larger arthropods, mice,
voles, shrews, birds

Functions of Soil Organisms

(http://soils.usda.gov/SQI/concepts/soil_biology/images/A-4.jpg)

3) On the food web diagrams provided, label the type of biota (e.g. fungi, nematode etc.)
what they do (predator, leaf shredder etc) and describe which way the energy “flows’
e.g. where does it first get “captured” and where does it “finish” (ie. the top of the food
chain). What happens to the energy and nutrients when the organisms at the top of food
chain die? Include this diagram with your report. Check DSO Resources.

Primary producer are autotrophs (grass) that can trap the sun’s energy and use it for
photosynthesis. Only 1-5 % of the solar energy is converted into the biomass in the produces.
Consumers are organisms that depend on the producers for energy. They include animal,
decomposer and detritivores. In this food chain, it is the combination of the parasitic food
web and predatory food web. Like in the food web diagram, the grass become a dead
organic matter and consumed by detivores consumer. Detritivores are animals that feed on
detritus. They break down detritus into small particles. Examples are earthworm, millipede
and woodlouse. This food chain does not exist in isolation and normally interconnect with
the food wed. Only then, detritus consumers are consume by the small predator like small
bird and rats.

(http://www.slideshare.net)

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 Practical 1: Soil Ecosystems

When organisms at the top of foods web die (birds and mole), the energy and nutrient will
not disappeared yet it will go back to the soils as the source of nutrient to the soils itself. This
is where the maggot plays their role as the natural decomposer. The organisms which
normally assumed as the unsanitary pests will perform their ecological important role by feed
on the rotten death animal’s body and earth will soon be piled with high organic waste. The
transfer of energy in ecosystem can be traced from one level to one level. However, during
the transferences of the energy, 90% of the energy is loss to the environment as heats. Energy
transfer is not like carbon and nitrogen transfer which flows through the ecosystem in
continuous cycle. Energy diminish as it moving from one phase to another phase and at last
loss as heat and need to be replaced by energy from the sun.

(http://soils.usda.gov/SQI/concepts/soil_biology)

*(Refer to Appendix 1)

4) What groups of the organisms make up the mesofauna? What groups make up the
microfauna? What are the main functions of these two main groups?

Microfauna are small animals and unicellular organisms visible only under a microscope.
Usually microfauna are defined as creatures smaller than 0.1 mm (100 microns) in size, with
mesofauna as organisms between 0.1 mm and 2 mm in size, though definitions may vary.
Some of the most common and important microfauna are protozoa (unicellular eukaryotes),
mites (among the most diverse and successful of all animals), springtails (related to insects),
nematodes (transparent wormlike creatures), rotifers (named for their wheel-like ciliated
mouthparts), and tardigrades, also known as "water bears," one of the hardiest organisms in
nature. Microfauna can be found worldwide, wherever there is wet soil and some other places
as well. Larger animals also found in the soil are called mesofauna, such as earthworms,
arthropods, and large nematodes, and the macrofauna, which includes burrowing mammals
like moles and rabbits. The microfauna are the least understood of soil life, due to their small
size and great diversity. Many microfauna are members of the so-called "cryptozoa," animals
that remain undescribed by science. Out of the estimated 10-20 million animal species in the

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world, only 1.8 million have been given scientific names, and many of the remaining
millions are likely microfauna, much of it from the tropics.

(http://www.hometrainingtools.com/articles/organism)

Microfauna live in tiny pores in between grains of soil, and many are aquatic. Some
microfauna are sessile, meaning they attach to a substrate their entire lives and never move.
These animals fertilize their mates by releasing ciliated sperm, while they themselves stay
put.

The main function of these two groups is able to decompose almost any existing natural
material. Micro-organisms transform organic matter into plant nutrients that are assimilated
by plant and mesofauna helps in breakdown the soils particles as well as the source of
nutrient when they die and decomposed by the decomposer.

(Lee Ching, 2008)

5) Food webs can indicate the biological complexity, and therefore the health of the soil.
Explain how our land management practices alter soil health.

Since the health of soils are depend on the food web which indicate the biological
complexity, our land management introduce one of the new way to reduce the number of pest
in farm naturally is pest biology control. Biological method of pest control is not only safer,
they are often more economical- up to 10 times cheaper than pesticide. Pests have predators
to, and it is possible to make use of them to reduce pest number dramatically. They also
introduce the way of planting different type of plant on the same land accordingly. This is on
purpose to ensure the three important mineral in the soils, nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium can be retained.
(http://www.hometrainingtools.com/articles/soil_health)

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6) Explain how the soil biotas contribute to the functioning of the soil ecosystem. What
ecosystem services do they regulate?

Soils biota contributes to the health of the soils. As we know, the soils which contain the big
amount of oxygen are the best soils for agricultural purposes. Thus, the biota helps to form
the oxygen flows by burrowing of fragmenting the soils. We took an example worms burrow
along under the ground, they eat soils, leaving behind mounds of fine soils called worm casts.
You can watch worms pull leaves and death plants down into the soils to munch. They are
also contributing in changing the pH level of the soils by their activities.

(Lee Ching, 2008)

Conclusion:

There have many types of macrofauna in the soil. Soil contains a lot of substances which needed
by macrofauna to survive. Therefore, soil which contains more substances or food will has more
macrofauna can be found. Soil sample B has larger number of macrofauna compared to the other
sample of soil.

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References:

Books:

Lee Ching and J. Arunasalam (2008). Pre-U Text STPM Biology Volume 2. Longman: Selangor.

Betsy Teh Lay Hong (2004). SPM Biology. Longman: Selangor.

Internet:

Food Chain. Retrieve from http://www.slideshare.net on 22 July 2010.

Land Management. Retrieve from http://www.hometrainingtools.com/articles/soil_health on 22

July 2010.
Macrofauna. Retrieve from http://biology.clc.uc.edu/Courses/bio104/macrofauna on 27 July
2010.
Role of Macrofauna. Retrieve from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science? on 22 July 2010.

Soil Biology. Retrieve from http://soils.usda.gov/SQI/concepts/soil_biology on 27 July 2010.

Soil Biology. Retrieve from http://soils.usda.gov/SQI/concepts/soil_biology/images/A-4.jpg on

27 July 2010.

SCE3107: Ecosystems and Biodiversity