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Units, Dimensions and Measurement / 1

1. Units, Dimensions and Measurement

1.1 Physical Quantity
A quantity which can be measured and expressed in form of laws is called a physical quantity.
Physical quantity (Q) = Magnitude × Unit = n × u
Where, n represents the numerical value and u represents the unit. as the unit(u) changes, the magnitude(n)
will also change but product ‘nu’ will remain same.
i.e. n u = constant, or n1u1 = n2u2 = constant;
1.2 Fundamental and Derived Units

Any unit of mass, length and time in mechanics is called a fundamental, absolute or base unit.
Other units which can be expressed in terms of fundamental units, are called derived units
System of units: A complete set of units, both fundamental and derived for all kinds of physical quantities is
called system of units.
(1) CGS system (2) MKS system (3) FPS system.
(4) S.I. system: It is known as International system of units. There are seven fundamental quantities in this
system. These quantities and their units are given in the following table.
Quantity Name of Unit Symbol

Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of Substance mole mol
Luminous Intensity candela cd

Besides the above seven fundamental units two supplementary units are also defined – Radian (rad) for
plane angle and Steradian (sr) for solid angle.
1.3 Practical Units
(1) Length:
(i) 1 fermi = 1 fm = 10-15m
(ii) 1 X-ray unit = 1XU = 10-13
(iii) 1 angstrom = 1Å = 10-10m
(iv) 1 micron = µm = 10-6m
(v) 1 astronomical unit = 1 A.U. = 1. 49 × 1011 m ≈ 1.5 × 1011 m
(vi) 1 Light year = 1 ly = 9.46 × 1015 m
(vii) 1 Parsec = 1pc = 3.26 light year
(2) Mass:
(i) Chandra Shekhar unit: 1 CSU = 1.4 times the mass of sun = 2.8 × 1030 kg
(ii) Metric tonne: 1 Metric tonne = 1000 kg
(iii) Quintal: 1 Quintal = 100 kg
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(iv) Atomic mass unit (amu): amu = 1.67 × 10-27 kg mass of proton or neutron is of the order of 1 amu
(3) Time:
(i) Year: It is the time taken by earth to complete 1 revolution around the sun in its orbit.
(ii) Lunar month: It is the time taken by moon to complete 1 revolution around the earth in its orbit.
1 L.M. = 27.3 days
(iii) Solar day: It is the time taken by earth to complete one rotation about its axis with respect to sun.
Since this time varies from day to day, average solar day is calculated by taking average of the
duration of all the days in a year and this is called Average Solar day.

1 Solar year = 365.25 average solar day or average solar day = the
part of solar year
(iv) Sedrial day: It is the time taken by earth to complete one rotation bout its axis with respect to a
distant star.
1 Solar year = 366.25 Sedrial day = 365.25 average solar day Thus 1 Sedrial
day is less than 1 solar day.
(v) Shake: It is an obsolete and practical unit of time.
1 Shake =10-8sec
1.4 Dimensions of a Physical Quantity

When a derived quantity is expressed in terms of fundamental quantities, it is written as a product of different
powers of the fundamental quantities. The powers to which fundamental quantities must be raised in order
to express the given physical quantity are called its dimensions.
1.5 Important Dimensions of Complete Physics

Mechanics
S. N. Quantity Unit Dimension
(1) Velocity or speed (v) m/s [M0L1T –1]
(2) Acceleration (a) m/s2 [M0LT –2]
(3) Momentum (P) kg-m/s [M1L1T –1]
(4) Impulse (I) Newton-sec or kg-m/s [M1L1T –1]
(5) Force (F) Newton [M1L1T –2]
(6) Pressure (P) Pascal [M1L–1T –2]
(7) Kinetic energy (EK) Joule [M1L2T –2]
(8) Power (P) Watt or Joule/s [M1L2T –3]
(9) Density (d) kg/m3 [M1L– 3T 0]
(10) Angular displacement (θ) Radian (rad.) [M0L0T 0]
(11) Angular velocity (ω) Radian/sec [M0L0T – 1]
(12) Angular acceleration (α) Radian/sec2 [M0L0T – 2]
(13) Moment of inertia (I) kg-m2 [M1L2T0]
(14) Torque (τ) Newton-meter [M1L2T –2]
S. N. Quantity Unit Dimension
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(15) Angular momentum (L) Joule-sec [M1L2T –1]

(16) Force constant or spring constant (k) Newton/m [M1L0T –2]
(17) Gravitational constant (G) N-m2/kg2 [M–1L3T – 2]
(18) Intensity of gravitational field (Eg) N/kg [M0L1T – 2]
(19) Gravitational potential (Vg) Joule/kg [M0L2T – 2]
(20) Surface tension (T) N/m or Joule/m2 [M1L0T – 2]
(21) Velocity gradient (Vg) Second–1 [M0L0T – 1]
(22) Coefficient of viscosity (η) kg/m-s [M1L– 1T – 1]
(23) Stress N/m2 [M1L– 1T – 2]
(24) Strain No unit [M0L0T 0]
(25) Modulus of elasticity (E) N/m2 [M1L– 1T – 2]
(26) Poisson Ratio (σ) No unit [M0L0T 0]
(27) Time period (T) Second [M0L0T1]
(28) Frequency (n) Hz [M0L0T –1]
Heat
S. N. Quantity Unit Dimension
(1) Temperature (T) Kelvin [M0L0T0θ 1]
(2) Heat (Q) Joule [ML2T– 2]
(3) Specific Heat (c) Joule/kg-K [M0L2T– 2θ –1]
(4) Thermal capacity Joule/K [M1L2T – 2θ –1]
(5) Latent heat (L) Joule/kg [M0L2T – 2]
(6) Gas constant (R) Joule/mol-K [M1L2T– 2θ – 1]
(7) Boltzmann constant (k) Joule/K [M1L2T– 2θ – 1]
Coefficient of thermal conductivity (K)
(8) Joule/m-s-K [M1L1T– 3θ – 1]
(9) Stefan's constant (σ) Watt/m2-K4 [M1L0T– 3θ – 4]
(10) Wien's constant (b) Meter-K [M0L1Toθ1]
(11) Planck's constant (h) Joule-s [M1L2T–1]
Coefficient of Linear Expansion
(12) Kelvin–1 [M0L0T0θ –1]
( )
(13) Mechanical eq. of Heat (J) Joule/Calorie [M0L0T0]
(14) Vander wall’s constant (a) Newton-m4 [ML5T– 2]
(15) Vander wall’s constant (b) m3 [M0L3T0]
Electricity
S. N. Quantity Unit Dimension
(1) Electric charge (q) Coulomb [M0L0T1A1]
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(2) Electric current (I) Ampere [M0L0T0A1]

(3) Capacitance (C) Coulomb/volt or Farad [M–1L– 2T4A2]
(4) Electric potential (V) Joule/coulomb M1L2T–3A–1

S. N. Quantity Unit Dimension

Coulomb /newton– meter
2 2
(5) Permittivity of free space (ε0) [M–1L–3T4A2]

(6) Dielectric constant (K) Unitless [M0L0T0]

(7) Resistance (R) Volt/Ampere or ohm [M1L2T– 3A– 2]
Resistivity or Specific resistance
(8) Ohm-meter [M1L3T– 3A– 2]
(ρ)
Coefficient of Self-induction (L) Volt-second/ampere or
(9) hennery or ohm-second [M1L2T– 2A– 2]

(10) Magnetic flux (φ) Volt-second or weber [M1L2T–2A–1]

newton/ampere-meter *
joule/ampere2meter or tesla
(11) Magnetic induction (B) [M1L0T– 2A– 1]

(12) Magnetic Intensity (H) Ampere/meter [M0L– 1T0A1]

(13) Magnetic Dipole Moment (M) Ampere-meter2 [M0L2T0A1]

(14) Permeability of Free Space (µ0) Hennery/meter [M1L1T–2A–2]

(15) Surface charge density (σ) Coulombmetre−2 [M0L–2T1A1]

(16) Electric dipole moment (p) Coulomb − meter [M0L1T1A1]

(17) Conductance (G) (1/R) ohm−1 [M–1L–2T3A2]
(18) Conductivity (σ) (1/ρ) ohm−1meter−1 [M–1L–3T3A2]
(19) Current density (J) Ampere/m2 M0L–2T0A1
(20) Intensity of electric field (E) Volt/meter, Newton/coulomb M1L1T –3A–1
(21) Rydberg constant (R) m–1 M0L–1T0
1.6 Quantities Having Same .
Dimensions
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S. N. Dimension Quantity
Frequency, angular frequency, angular velocity, velocity gradient and decay
(1) [M0L0T–1]
constant
Work, internal energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, torque, moment of force
(2) [M1L2T–2]

Pressure, stress, Young’s modulus, bulk modulus, modulus of rigidity, energy

(3) [M1L–1T–2]
density
(4) [M1L1T–1] Momentum, impulse
(5) [M0L1T–2] Acceleration due to gravity, gravitational field intensity
(6) [M1L1T–2] Thrust, force, weight, energy gradient
(7) [M1L2T–1] Angular momentum and Planck’s constant
(8) [M1L0T–2] Surface tension, Surface energy (energy per unit area)
Strain, refractive index, relative density, angle, solid angle, distance gradient,
(9) [M0L0T0] relative permittivity (dielectric constant), relative permeability etc.

(10) [M0L2T–2] Latent heat and gravitational potential

(11) [M0L2T–2θ–1] Thermal capacity, gas constant, Boltzmann constant and entropy
(l/g)1/2, (m/k)1/2,(R/g)1/2 , where l = length
(12) [M0L0T1]
g = acceleration due to gravity, m = mass, k = spring constant
(13) [M0L0T1] L/R,( LC)1/2 , RC where L = inductance, R = resistance, C = capacitance

(14) [ML2T–2] I2Rt,t, VIt, qV, LI2, ,CV2 where I = current, t = time, q = charge,
L = inductance, C = capacitance, R = resistance
1.7 Application of Dimensional
Analysis.
(1) To find the unit of a physical quantity in a given system of units.
(2) To find dimensions of physical constant or coefficients.
(3) To convert a physical quantity from one system to the other.
(4) To check the dimensional correctness of a given physical relation: This is based on the ‘principle of
homogeneity’. According to this principle the dimensions of each term on both sides of an equation
must be the same.
(5) To to derive new relations.
1.8 Limitations of Dimensional Analysis.
(1) If dimensions are given, physical quantity may not be unique.
(2) Numerical constant having no dimensions cannot be deduced by the methods of dimensions.
(3) The method of dimensions can not be used to derive relations other than product of power functions.
For example,
s =ut+(1/ 2)at2 or y = asinωt
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(4) The method of dimensions cannot be applied to derive formula consist of more than
3 physical quantities.
1.9 Significant Figures.
Significant figures in the measured value of a physical quantity tell the number of digits in which we have
confidence. Larger the number of significant figures obtained in a measurement, greater is the accuracy of the
measurement. The reverse is also true.
The following rules are observed in counting the number of significant figures in a given measured quantity.
(1) All non-zero digits are significant.
(2) A zero becomes significant figure if it appears between to non-zero digits.
(3) Leading zeros or the zeros placed to the left of the number are never significant.
Example: 0.543 has three significant figures.
0.06 has one significant figures.
(4) Trailing zeros or the zeros placed to the right of the number are significant.
Example: 4.330 has four significant figures.
343.000 has six significant figures.
(5) In exponential notation, the numerical portion gives the number of significant figures. Example: 1.32
× 10–2 has three significant figures.
1.10 Rounding Off

(1) If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged. Example: x = 7.82 is
rounded off to 7.8, again x= 3.94 is rounded off to 3.9.
(2) If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the preceding digit is raised by one. Example: x = 6.87 is
rounded off to 6.9, again x = 12.78 is rounded off to 12.8.
(3) If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, then the preceding digit is raised by
one.
Example: x = 16.351 is rounded off to 16.4, again x = 6.758 is rounded off to 6.8.
(4) If digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then preceding digit is left unchanged, if it is even.
Example: x = 3.250 becomes 3.2 on rounding off, again x = 12.650 becomes 12.6 on rounding off.
(5) If digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is raised by one, if it is odd.
Example: x = 3.750 is rounded off to 3.8, again x = 16.150 is rounded off to 16.2.
1.11 Significant Figures in Calculation .
The following two rules should be followed to obtain the proper number of significant figures in any calculation.
(1) The result of an addition or subtraction in the number having different precisions should be reported
to the same number of decimal places as are present in the number having the least number of decimal
places
(2) The answer to a multiplication or division is rounded off to the same number of significant figures as is
possessed by the least precise term used in the calculation.
1.12 Order of Magnitude.
Order of magnitude of quantity is the power of 10 required to represent the quantity. For determining this
power, the value of the quantity has to be rounded off. While rounding off, we ignore the last digit which is less
than 5. If the last digit is 5 or more than five, the preceding digit is increased by one. For example,
(1) Speed of light in vacuum = 3 × 108 ms–1 ≈ 108 m/s (ignoring 3 < 5) (ignoring 3 < 5)
(2) Mass of electron = 9.1 × 10–31 kg 10–30 kg (as 9.1 > 5).
1.13 Errors of Measurement .
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The measured value of a quantity is always somewhat different from its actual value, or true value. This
difference in the true value of a quantity is called error of measurement.
(1) Absolute error: Absolute error in the measurement of a physical quantity is the magnitude of the
difference between the true value and the measured value of the quantity.
Let a physical quantity be measured n times. Let the measured value be a1, a2, a3, ….. an.

The arithmetic mean of these value is am =( a1 +a2 +....an )/n

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Usually, am is taken as the true value of the quantity, if the same is unknown otherwise. By
definition, absolute errors in the measured values of the quantity are
∆a1 = am – a1
∆a2 = am – a2
………….
∆an = am – an
The absolute errors may be positive in certain cases and negative in certain other cases.
(2) Mean absolute error: It is the arithmetic mean of the magnitudes of absolute errors in all the
measurements of the quantity. It is represented by ∆a. Thus
∆amean=(∆a1+∆a2+∆a3+….∆an)/n
Hence the final result of measurement may be written as a = am ±∆am

This implies that any measurement of the quantity is likely to lie between (am +∆a) and
(am −∆am)
(3) Relative error or Fractional error: Relative error or Fractional error

= mean absolute error = ∆am / am

mean value

(4) Percentage error: Percentage error = ∆am/am×100%

1.14 Propagation of Errors

(1) Error in sum of the quantities: Suppose x = a + b

Let ∆a = absolute error in measurement of a
∆b = absolute error in measurement of b
∆x = absolute error in calculation of x i.e. sum of a and b. The
maximum absolute error in x is ∆x=±(∆a+∆b)
(2) Error in difference of the quantities: Suppose x = a – b
The maximum absolute error in x is ∆x=±(∆a+∆b)
(3) Error in product of quantities: Suppose x = a × b

The maximum fractional error in x is ∆x/x=± (∆a/a +∆b/b)

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(4) Error in division of quantities: Suppose x = a /b

The maximum fractional error in x is ∆x/x=±(∆a/a+∆b/b)

an
(5) Error in quantity raised to some power: Suppose x = bn

The maximum fractional error in x is ∆x/x=±(n∆a/a+m∆b/b).

the quantity which have maximum power must be measured carefully because it's contribution to error is
maximum.