SURVEYING & LEVELLING PARTI "A Text-Book on Surveying & £ Engineering Students and Pract (Revised and brought up to date in SI units) by Late T. P. Kanetkar B.A. (HONS.), B.E., A.M. 1. E. (India), B. Associate Professor of Civil Enginee Shri Govindram Sekseria Technological Institute, Indore -ecturer in Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Pune 411005 and Prof. S. V. Kulkarni BE. (HONS), M. Sc. (Engg), F.1.B. (India), M. £.S., Ex. Principal, College of Engineering, Amravati Pune Vidyarthi Griha Prakashan 4786, Sadashiv Peth, Pune 411030.© Published by Hanamant Bhosale B.Se.. M.Ed. “hairman. Pune Vidyarthi Griha Vidyarthi Griha Prakashan 1786, Sadashiv Pech, Pune - 411 030, © © With Publishers © JISBN 81-8582: 9 e Edition : First 1945 ‘Twenty Third ( Revised in SI unit ) Jan 1985 Reprints from June 1985 To May 2011 Reprint June 2012 Printed by : Ramchandra Shete Director, Pune Vidyarthi Griha Maharashtra Mudranshala Chhapkhana, (Offset Deptt.) 1786, Sadashiv Peth, Pune 411 030, and the lool of. of ¢ subi Pro, tim tial and on ins sitie stud net] to lead, man the ¢ Suck emp casil: impe instr anot part Surv while syllal publi needFOREWORD With the large number of major and minor irrigation and power projects contemplated under the Five Year Plans, the time has now come to recognise the need for a new out- look in the training of young engineers. The speedy execution of such projects now demands greater familiarity on the part of the average engineer with more specialised techniques and subtle methods of approach than were customary in the past. Project authorities can even vouch from their experience that time schedules of several projects could have been substan- tially advanced if it were possible to undertake the survey and mapping by their own organisations instead of depending on specialist departments. While the comprehensive syllabus in surveying currently adopted by nearly all Indian Univer- sities is, therefore, a matter for gratification, the need for the students to acquire a degree of familiarity with the advanced methods cannot be too strongly emphasized. There is room to think that opportunities for such familiarity, which should lead to proficiency, are still to be desired on a wider sesie in many Enstitutions. A suitable book which can be used for intensive study by the engineering student is one part of the improvement plan. Such a book employing advanced techniques with appropriate emphasis on methods of application and written in a language easily understood, plays asi important part. It assumes added importance in the context of a proposed change of medium of instruction in order that the transition from one medium to another is brought about with the minimum of effort on the part of the teacher and the taught. Shri Kanetkar’s books on Surveying, which are among the few published in this country, while meeting the specific requirements of the comprehensive syllabus now in use, go a long way, as a possible basic publication to be adapted to regional languages when such need arises.Ww Numerical procedures have a special significance im Sur- veying no less than in other branches of engineering. Indeed certain special methods of approach are more easily illus- trated by an aptly chosen problem than pages of description. Viewed from this angle, many of the problems in this book may well be regarded as a part of the subject matter rather than 2 mere illustration of a particular procedure. The diversity of the problems presented in the book, both solved and unsolved, should suggest to the student the possibility of almost unlimited presentations and combinations and the need to takle them not infrequently, on his own initiative. The success of the book lies in leading the student, step by step, to a point where he can tackle any problem likely to be met with in the field with confidence and ability. The author's continuous efforts to revise the book and colarge its scope notwithstanding the warm reception enjoyed by it even whea it was first published in 1945, deserve the highest praise. The Institution which he has served with distinction for over a quarter of a century can well feel proud of the high traditions established by him. It may, it is hoped, prove an inspiration to others. L. T. Aminbhavi_ College of Engincering, Professor of Civil Engineering Poona—5 & Head of the Civil Engineering 26-7-1955 “ es Department has ber The stac atte Lor Lat pro Uni att tha: bot the the of toe and thei Poo ug syste stan quet teac ind bool thei: VJwn ee PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION In meeting the call for a new edition the opportunity has been taken to revise the subject-matter thoroughly. A nun: ber of additions are made; the more important ones are : ‘Theory of Anallatic lens, the description and use of Beaman stadia arc, Direct-reading tacheometers, Sun dial, and Solar attachment; the methods of determining the Meridian and Longitude: and the methods of setting out a parallel of Latitade: The section on Astranomy has been enlarged and the problems with answers from the examination papers of the Universities of Poona, Bombay, Gujrat and Karnatak are added at the end of the text for solution by the student. Tt is hoped that the additions will add_ to the general usefulness of the book both to the student and the practising engineer. The author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to the authors of a number of standard books and text-books on the subject which he has found of immense use in the preparation of this edition. The author also wishes to express his thanks to the authorities of the Universities of Karnatak, Poona, Bombay and Gujrat for their kind permission to reproduce questions from their examination papers. Poona T. BP. Kanercar August, 1955 PREFACE TO THE TWENTYTHIRD EDITION ‘The present edition is revised and rewritten in SI units, the system which has now been accepted all over the world as the standard system of measurement. The feed back in the form of querries, suggestions and helpful criticism from students and teachers from Engineering Colleges and Polytechnics and engineers in the field had inspired and helped me in the past to revise the book from time to time. I thank them all and look forward to their association with this book in future also. 1 Jan. 1985 S. V. KulkarniPUBLISHER’S NOTE This latest edition is thoroughly revised and brought up-to- date by Prof. $.V. Kulkarni, n. ve. (110Ns.), ats 6c. (2NG.), A.M. LSTRUGT. BE. (LON.), A. Mt. 1 8. (INDIA), Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Poona 5. He has a Jong experience in teaching this subject and has taken pains in revising the book, making it most suitable to the needs of the students’ concerned. September Manager, 1960 A.V. G. Puntrcation, Poona 2 We regret to announce the untimely death of Prof. T. P. Kanctkar on the 23rd June 1957. To continue to publish his adinirable book on Surveying and Levelling is really a fitting memorial to his soul. We are doing our best to. do this. We are very much thankful to Shri S. V. Kulkarni s, e. (Hons.), a. a1. Struct. ©. (Lond,), aca. 1.£. (Ind.), Lecturer in Civil Enginecring, College of Engineering, Poona for his kind suggestions. 23rd May Manager 1958 } A.V. Grits Puptication, Poona 2. PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION Ip undertaking the revision of this book for a fifth edition the subject matter is revised thoroughly with further addition of a few typical problems and diagrams, The author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to the authors of a number of standard books and text-books on the subject matter which he has found of immense use in the prepa- ration of this edition. The author also wishes to express his thanks to the authorities of the Universities of Karnatak, Poona, Sombay and Gujrat for their kind permission to reproduce questions from their examination papers. anee } T, P. Kaxerxar (ir thi stu Sa ane in the mo rel: anc bee val has put fou wor teac eng suge mer Poo,“to- @.} ssor has ains the his ing rec his on. fa he he rae ay aR PREFACE TQ TRE FIFTEENTH EDITION according to the Standards of Weights and Measures Act (India) 1956, the metric system has become the only recogniz- ed system of weights and measures in India from 1966. With this change, taking over, there was a constant demand from students, teachers and practising engineers to have our books on Surveying and Levelling revised to suit the present day require- ments, Part I-of Surveying and Levelling revised and rewritten in he metric system, was published in 1965. In the revision of Part II for this edition, metric units have been adopted throughout. Numerous ¢xamples are added to make students more conversant with the use of the metric system and its relationship with the F, P. S. system. Standards of materials and specifications for instruments as laid down by I. S. I, have been adopted wherever available. Elsewhere either rationalized values have been used or the practice current on the Gontinent has been adopted. The author expresses his indebtedness to numerous I. S. I. publications and German text books on the subject which were found of immense help in the compilation of this volume. He would like to make grateful mention of many of his students, teachers in the Engineering Colleges and Polytechnics, and engineer friends in the field who have made very useful suggestions from time to time. Suggestions for further improve- ment ‘vill continue to he welcome.. 8. V. Kulkarniis revis d and brought upto date by inchuc ing ppendix on Rermote Sensing. The technique whict to play a vital role in planning the future ent of our country September 1999 Kulkarni PREFACE TO THE EIGHTEENTH EDITION ‘Vo meet the growing demand from university students and students appearing for professional examinations, ihe last chapter ‘on photographic surveying is completely revised and enlarged, To keep students and practising engincers abreast of the new inventions and development in the field of surveying an appendix giving details of new techniques of distance measurement, optical ais well as electromagnetic, has been added. ‘Thanks are due to the organizations such as Wild (Hear- 8 J» Carl Zetss Jena}, Zeiss (Oberkochen) for supplying latest catalogues and photographs of instruments and allowing the material in them to be freely reproduced in this book. The author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to the authors of books on the subject, which were found of im: use in the preparation of this edition 8. V. Kalkarai Cua Omar CHa Cuatnd ter ew tix cal ng ng he ce CONTENTS Cuarrer I. Traverse Survey Omitted Measurements Examples ves we oe Partition of Land Problems Graprer I. ApjustwenT OF THE TRANSIT THRODOLITE .. oe wee 5 ‘Temporary oes wee “ Permanent Adjustments oe oe Problems . on ea o Cuapees IIT, TriconomerricaL Levertinc Curvature and Refraction we oo Axis-Signal Correction es Methods of Trigonometrical Levelling Exampies op oe ae Problems on oe) - Carter IV. Tacnuzomerric Survevine Principle of Stadia Method =... 7 Determination of Instrumental Constants ‘Theory of Anallatic Lens Distance and Elevation Formulae Subtense Method Tangential Method z Holding the Staff... = Reading the Staff. ve 62 65 68 69 mn 76 eh 84Field Work a Erros in Stadia Surveying... Examples on Tacheometry Problems... = CuarTer V. Curves ory wae Elements of Simple Curve... Location of Tangent Points Chain and Tape Methods - Instrumental Methods Obstacles in Setting out Curves Examples on Simple Curves Compound Curves Setting out Compound Curves Examples... 5 we Reverse Curves oo we Examphs .., es Transition Curves... oa Superelevation Lengta — trans.tion Curve Ideal Tra: son Curve one Character stics of Transition Curve Elements u. Cubic Parabola Elements of True spiral Elements of Gubic Spiral Length of Combined Curve Setting out Combined Curve Spiraling Compound Curves... Spiralling Reverse Curves . Examples on Combined Curve ... Vertical Curves on oes Types of Vertical Curves we Properties of the Parabola we Examples... = Lemniscate Curve... era 140 Cw Cuage 35 Examples... ve = Problems Cuaprer VI. Fico Asrronomy Spherical Trigonometry = Latitude and Longitude Examples... ves te 5 Astronomical ‘Terms... = a Co-ordinate Systems... at Circumpolar Stars The Astronomical Triangle Examples... we Time . Examples... es Corrections to the Observed Attitude ofa Celestial Body... = Determination of Azimuth Determination of the True Meridian Determination of Time ane os Examples on Azimuth and Time wee Determination of Latitude we os Examples... a te Determination of Longitude Problems... co a ws CHarter VII. Geoperic Surveyine Triangulation es es ‘Triangulation Figures ... Classification of Triangulation Systems ~ Reconnaissance ao os ae Station Marks ee ” Sea 237 273 282 284 292 297 305 319 325 326 328 329oon, Page Intervisibility and Height of Stations a 329 At Towers . S ce os ws 332 Examples . 332 A Signals ve 336 Measurement of Angles ses o 339 T Instruments for Measuring Angles 339 E Methods of Observation so 341 & Reduction to Centre oe pe we 945 hs Examples on Reduction to Centre i ve 349 G Base Line Measurement “ 352 Field Work ve . 356 G Corrections to Base Line Measurements s. 357 E Examples on Base Line Measurements 364 Bi Extension of Base oe renee 367) A Problems rc i oe ee 6o) A Cuaprer VIET. Triancuation Apjustaenr a 874 Caan Definitions 374 SI Laws of Weights wee a 376 R Most Probable Values of Quantities - 397 s Probable Error we 7 se 383 G Station Adjustment... to i o 388 z Triangle Adjustment : 396 8 Spherical Excess . oe os 400 8 Computation of the Lengths of the Sides of os s a Spherical Triangle a en a 402 R Adjustment of a Chain of Triangles i 407 y Adjustment of Two Connected Triangles - 408 a Adjustment of a Triangle with a Central Station .. 410 EK Adjustment of a Geodetic Quadrilateral .., ve 417 F Approximate Adjustment of a Geodetic 1 Quadrilateral a vee 420 FPxr Adjustment of a as with a Central Station eo ve a Adjustment of a Polygon ‘with a Central Station he - we on wee ‘Three-Point Problem ... . Examples. Adjastment of Level Work ++ Adjustment ofa Level Netw Convergence of Meridians/Effect of Cur the Earth on Survey Gc oo os Computation of Geodetic Positions see eo Examples. 5 Pa ee = Parallel of Latitude. Ea we Adjustment of a Glosed Traverse oo Problems «+ Peeee on es Cuavrer IX. Hyorocrapnic SURVEYING .-. a Shore Line Survey fe ws River Surveys an es ve Soundings Eas c a Equipment .-. of o = we Signals . a os . Sextant . a Be Sounding Party aes one Ranges Bc aa es Making Soundings... a om a Methods of Locating Soundings . we Reduction of Soundings ee en es Plotting Soundings --- “Three-Point Problem Page 423 426 431 434 439 443 474 475, 476 477 477 491aad Guarrer X. Toroorapme Surveving Representation of Relief Horizontal Control... Vertical Control Locating Contours Methods of Locating Contours Location of Details Dam Surveys Cuaever XI. Rouse Surveys Reconnaissance ao Preliminary Survey Paper Location Location Survey Construction Survey Guarrer XI. Grry Surveying Control wee we Equipment . Monuments Topographic Map, Wall Map Underground Map City Property Survey Location of Details Cwapter XII. Serre our Works Setting out Buildings Setting out Culverts Setting out Bridges Setting out Tunnels Page 496 497 497 498 499 500 SOL S04 307 307 409 SIZ SIS 54 SIS Ss 517 SI7 519 519 519 51g 521 527 531 RAMA CnaroF ud 2 2 5 7 1 nv Surface Survey i oes Instruments for Setting out Tunnels Surface Alignment Setting out from the Ends . ‘Transferring the Alignment Underground! ‘Underground Sights... _ we Levels . Pes - ‘Transferring Levels Underground ‘Underground Bench Marks Accuracy of Tunnel Surveying Cuavrer XIV. Prorocrarnic Sunveyinc Photo-Theodolite os = Principle of the Method of ‘Terrestrial Photogram Field Work we Stereo-photogrammetry Examples... o os a Aerial Surveying we Terminology Scale and Distortion of the Vertical Photograph a 539 Seale and Distortion of the Tilted Photograph 56t Principles of Binocular Vision and Stereoscopic fusion S64 Flight Planning . 0 . ve 368 Examples es an a STL Plotting from Air Photographs teas BTA Heighting = 7 wn we 878 Examples «+ bo oa o os 583 Plotting Machines «- . . .. 586 Photo Interpretation ae 590 Comparison between Air Photograph and ‘Map +. 591 Applications of Air ca o oe 593 Problems Er) ” +e 596XVE Apperidix 1 . Horizontal Staff Tacheometry Subtence Bar Methods Range Finders and Telemeters Electromagnetic Distance Measurement Principles of Phase Comparision E.D.M. Instruments Application Appendix 1 SI Units Appendix I Principles of remote sensing Ouestions From University Examinations Index Page 598 602 603 612 61s 616 624 625 627 627 630 638 656 angu axes and calle calle toget and: and depa eB Simi depare 8 An wD CHAPTER I TRAVERSE SURVEY Omitted Measurements A Survey line may be represented on plan by two cects angular co-ordinates, if its length and bearing be known, the axes of co-ordinates being a North and South line, and an East and West line, Distance measured parallel to the former iis called Latitude, while that measured parallel to the latter is called Departure. The known length and bearing of a line are together referred to as the Course of the line. ‘The trigonometrical rel n_ of the course with its latitude and departure are as follows : (Fi Fig. 1) Latitude (1. Departure (D) = length x sine reduced béaring. Latitude is positive when measured North or and negative when measured South or downwards. departure is positive when measured East or to the right, and egative when measured West or to the left. North latitudes are called ‘Northings’, and south latitudes ‘Southings’, Similarly, cast departures are known as ‘ Eastings *, and west departures as‘ Westings’.2 Surceying and Levelling Hence we have : Northing = North latitude = Southing = South latitude Easting = East departure Westing = West departure The reduced or quadrantal bearing of a line determines the signs of its latitude and departure, the first letter (N or 8) of a bearing giving the sign of the latitude, and the last one (E or W), the sign of the departure. If the bearing of a line is given as W. G.B., the following table should be referred 10, to determine the signs of the latitude and departure of the line, Sign of W. CG. Be Quadrant | Latitude Departure Between 0” and 90° UNE + * ” 90° and 180° Ws, EL 7 + " 180° and 270° il Ss. W. i 7” a » 270" and 360° |W NL We + a AA closed traverse may be said to be completely surveyed when the length and bearings of each of its sides are known. The bearing of the sides may cither be observed in the field or . computed from the observed bearing of any one side and the inchaded or deflection angles of the polygon. As arule, the bearings and lengths of the sides of a closed traverse are determined ly field observations in order to have a check on the field work. But if, due to obstacles, it is not possible to determine them by direct observations, €. g. the length and bearing of a line joining two points, which are not intervisible owing to an intervening obstruction such as a building, or the centre line of a tunnel whose ends are not intervisible, or if, from accident, omissions occur in the field notes, the principles of latitudes and departures may be employed to determine the omitted measurements, provided they are not more than two in number. The problem is indeterminate if more than two quantities are omitted. The sides, of which the parts (two bearings, two lengths, or one bearing and one nen in ios PSG er EUR eR RAGA Tra feng side the mez bal: sur} of equ the req met and is} prafing 8) tis Pa te at or he ed ot he tot le, he to ot if re i Traverse Survey 3 length) are missing, are called the affected sides. The affected sides may be adjoining or separated. In the process of calculating the missing quantitics, it must be assumed that all the field measurements are precise. Consequently, there are no means of balancing the work, and all errors propagated throughout the survey are thrown into the computed values of the omitted data. The solution of the problem of omitted measurements is based upon the fact that in a closed traverse, the algebraic sum of the latitudes (31) and that of the departures (SD) are each equal to zero. If J, ty ete, be the lengths, and 0,, 0,, etc., the bearings of the lines, then 1, cos 0; + bcos 0 + we = 0 . () 1, sin 0, + Ly sin Oy fone Guan (2) "Lhe solution of these two simultaneous equations gives the reqvired values of the two unknown elements. However this method is not convenient as if necessarily involves large numbers and may lead to confusion. ‘The following alternative method is preferable ‘The common cases of omitted measurements which occur in practice are : (J) (a) Bearing of one side is wanting. (b) Length of one side is wanting. (c) Length and bearing of one side are wanting. (2) Length of one side and bearing of another side are missing. (3) Lengths of two sides ave omitted. (4) Bearings of two sides are wanting. In the first case only one side is affected by the omission while in cach of the other cascs (2 to +) two sides are affected by the omission, The following trigonometric relations of the course of line with its latitude and departure should be used in computing the unknown quantities. (i) Latitude == Length x cosine reduced bearing. Departure -= Length x sine reduced bearing. ae departure (ii) ‘Tangent reduced bearing =“ ioge departure ant or reduced bearing ae4 Surveying and Levelling (ii) (a) Length = ” (Latitude)? (departure)=, (b) Length = latitude x sec reduced bearing. (c) Length = departure x cosec reduced bearing. )b or (iii) ¢ according as the latitude or departure is always to calculate from the greater of the known quantities Case t : Bearing, or Length, or Length and Bearing of One Side Wanting : —In Fig, 2, let the length, or bearing, or both of the line GD be wanting. To determine the missing parts, Fig.2. Fig. 3. @) Compute with correct signs the latitudes and departures of the known sides DE, EA, AB, and BC. (ii) Find the algebraic sum of the latitudes (SL) and that of the departures (ED). Subtract algebraically each of these sums (SL and XD) from zero in order to obtain the latitude and departure of the omitted or affected side. Then Latitude of CD =— EL, Departure of CD =— ED. (ili) Knowing the latitude and departure of GD, calculate its bearing and length from the trigonometric relations (ii) and (iii) with due regard to sign. Case 2: Length of One Side and Bearing of Another Side Missing :—In Fig. 3, let the length of DE and the bearing of EA be missing. (i) Ignoring the affected sides DE and EA, close the polygon formed by the known sides AB, BC, and OD by the closing line DA, Gi) Compute the length and’ bearing of the closing line DA as in case 1. (iii) Determine the angle (8) between the closing lineTraverse Suroey 5 DA and the line DE of known bearing from their known bearings. v) Solve the triangle DEA formed by the closing line and the two affected sides In the triangle DEA, the lengths of the sides DA and EA, and the angle ADE (9) are known. The angle DEA (i), and the length of DE may be calculated by using the Sine rule DA Fa Sind 3 LEAD =4 = 180° — (0449); sin = DE «=: EA v) Determine the bearing of EA from the known bearing of DE, andthe calculated value of the angle (), and check the result by finding it from the calculated values of the bearing of DA and the angle 4 Alternative Method :—In order to simplify the computa- tions, the side of unknown length may be assumed to be the reference meridian (a north and south line). The bearings of the other sides should be calculated with reference to this meridian, and the latitudes and departures of the known sides should then be calculated. ‘This artifice eliminates onc unknown quantity, viz. the departure of the side assumed as a meridian, since its value is zero. The algebraic sum of the departures then gives the departure of the other affected. side. Knowing the length of this side, its bearing with respect to the assumed meridian and its latitude may be calculated. The latitude of the side assumed as a meridian may then be obtained by finding the algebraic sum of all the latitudes and equating it to zero. The value thus obtained gives the length of this side as its departure is zero, This method is applicable when the affected sides adjoin or not. Note :—This is an ambiguous case. Two values for each of the unknowns (length and bearing) are possible in this case. However, it is usually evident which of the two solutions corres- ponds to the survey line, if the approximate shape of the figure is known. Case 3: Longths of Two Sides Omitted :—In Fig. 3 let DE and EA be the affected sides,6 Surogying and Levelling The first two steps are the same as in case 2. (iii) Determine the angles 0, ¢, and $ of the triangle DEA from the known bearings of DA, DE, and EA, Check the result by adding them and observing if their sum equals 180°, (iv) Compute the lengths of the sides DE and BA of the triangle DEA, of which all the angles and the side DA are known. Applying the Sine rule, we have sin b sin 0 DE = DA ——~. and EA = DA — sind sing Case 4: Bearings of Two Sides Unknown :In Fig. 3, let DE andl EA be the affected sides. The first two steps are the same as in case 2. (i) Knowing the lengths of the sides of the triangle DEA calculate its area by the formula A= V5 (s—a) (sb) (sc) (iv) Determine the angles of the triangle DEA by equating the calculated area to half the product of any two sides into the sine of the angle between them. (v) Find the bearings of the sides DE and BA from the known bearing of the closing line DA, and the angles g and 6. When the affected sides are not adjacent, one of these sides must be: shifted to « position adjacent, to the other. ‘They should be omitted and the known sides shifted each parallel to itself so as to fotm a connected series of the sides. The rest of the pro- cedure is exactly similar to that in cases 2 to 4. AFFECTED € SIDES F CLOSING UNE Vig. 4. In Fig. 4, let BC and EF be the affected sides. In order to have a connected series of the known sides, shift the known sides CD and DE‘pardllel to themselves in a direction parallelTraverse Suraey 7 to one of the unknowns and close the polygon by the line E’F. EE is then parallel and equal to BC. Thus a triangle FEE’ is formed by the closing line EF and the two affected sides BC and EF. It may be noted that the length and bearing of a line remain unchanged when moved parallel to itself. Note :—(1) In solving problems of this character, itis advisable to plot the traverse to scale, showing all the condi- tions and the triangle that is to be solved, therby avoiding mistakes and facilitating the work. (2) Having obtained the values of the unknowns, the com- putations may be checked by finding the latitudes and depar- tures of the affected sides and observing that the algebraic sum of the latitndes and the algebraic sum of the departures of the sides of the se are cach equal to zero. (3) In all these cases the general direction of at least one of the affected lines must be observed. Examples on Omitted Measurements Example 1 ;— The following lengths and bearings were recorded in running a traverse ABCDE (Fig. 2), the length and bearing of BA having been omitted + en Line \ Length in m Bearing AB QS 120° BC 318-0 62°30" cD 375-0 322724 DE 203-5, 335718" EA a ? Calculate the length and bearing of the line EA. In Fig. 2, the line EA is the closing line of the polygon ABCDE formed by the known sides. The latitudes and depar- tures of the known sides should be calculated in the usual way and tabulated as under :8 Surveying and Levelling Latitude { Departure Line AB | Be eae | 282-072 cD 297-105 | 228-804 DE 161-397 | |. 239-076 Sum | 448-940 | 270-975 | 469-944 461-880 The algebraic sum of the known latitudes = EL = + 443.940 — 270.975 = + 172.965 The algebraic sum of the known departures, = ID = +4- 469-944 — 461-880 = + 8-064. «Latitude of the closing line EA = —- ZL = — 172-965 Departure of 5,» =-=D=— 8-064 The minus sign of the latitude denotes a south bearing and the minus sign of the departure indicates that it is west, i.e. the line BA lies in the third (S.W.) quadrant. Let @ be the reduced bearing of EA. departure 8-064 Phen tan UT tade 172-565 oy Om 24", Hence R.B. of EA = 8. 2°40' W. W. C. B. of EA = 182°40'. Teength of BA = 2 72-968. 195.151 m = 173+ 15 ength of EA = 550 ~ cos gag 3° 1i m= m. Check — :Length of EA = 4/(172-965)" + (8-064)? = 173-151 m. = 173-15 m. Example 2 :—Giyen the following latitudes and departures of the sides of a traverse ABODE (Fig. 5), the bearing of BC and the length of CD having been omitted :Traverse Survey 9 No. | Line | Length in m | | Latitude . | Departure | §, 59°45" E + 187.872 2 ? > NN. 37°30" W ? ? 4 DE 283-5 BW 161-397, — 233-076 3) BA 173-15 s. agorw | 172-999 | = 8.055 Gompute the bearing of BG and the length of CD. the elosing Fine BD completes the polygon formed by the known lines 4, 5, and 1. On solving the triangle BCD Fig. 3. formed by the closing line BD and the affected sides BG and CD, the required quantities may be obtained, Adding algebrai- cally the known latitudes, and the known departures, we get NL =: — 443-964 and LD -- — 53-259. Latitude of the closing line BD = —SL = + 443-964, — YD — + 53-259, Departure of the closing line BD Since the latitude and departure are both positive, BD is in the first (N.E.) quadrant. If 0 be the reduced bearing of the line BD, we have Tan = o R.B. of BD = N, 6°50'E Length of BD = 443.964 sec 6°50’ = 447,15 m.10 Surveying and Levelling Now R.B. of DC = back bearing of CD = S, 37°36" E, R.B. of DB= ., —,, of BD = 8. 6°50" W. In the triangle BCD, 2 CDB = R. B. of DC +R. B. of DB = 37936’ + 6°50! = 44926". BD = 447-15 m; and BC = 318-0 m. ‘The remaining parts may be found by applying the Sine le. Let the angles DBG, BOD, and CDB be denoted by 0,, 0, and 9, respectively. . BD MINS Then sin 0, = gr sin 0, = ig sin 44°26 or 6, = 79°55, ZDBC = 6, = 180°- (6,-+03) 180° (79°53 +.44°26" Now R. B. of BC = R. B. of BD +0, =6°50' + 55°39" =N. 62°29’, sin 0, __sin 55°39’ Length of CD=BD Fp = 47-15 Se = 874-94 m. Aliernative Method :— Here the side CD of unknown length is assumed to be a north and south line. “+ The given bearings when referred to this meridian are : Bearing of CD =0° 0' sof DE=55°18" -37°36' = 92°54’ SW. = N. 87°6"W of EA= 2°40'+37°36'=40°16' S. W. = S. 40°16'\V. of AB=59°45’ —37°36’==22° 9' SE, = §, 2909’, Then the latitudes and departures of the known sides DE, EA, and AB are : Line wtitude Departure DE “+ 14-34 —283-08 EA 182-18 111-96 AB - 201-42 + 81-99 Now let'l be the length of CD, and 0 the R. B. of BC. ‘Lhen latitude of BU=318-0 cos 0 Departure of BU=318-0 sin of CD » of CD=0 Since ABGDE is-a closed traverse, SL and SD are each equal to zero,Traverse Suroey Hn 14-34 — 139-18 — 201-42 + 18 cos 0+ l= 0 .. (1) 283-08 — 111-96 + 81-99 +318sinO4+0=0 .. (2) Solving equation (2), we get Departure of BC=318-0 sin 0 = + 315-05 or (= sin? 318-0 = 79°35’ or 100°5" Substituting the value of 0 in equation (1), we have Latitde of CD — 14-34-4-132-18-+201 42 4-55-68 374-94 Length of CD =374-94 m. Bearing of BG with respect to the assumed meridian == 100°5' N.E. | of BC with the magnetic meridian = 100°5’ — 37°36" = 62°29" N. 62°29’ E. Example 3 :—Below are tabulated the measured lengths anil bearings of the sides of a closed traverse ABCDE (Fig. 5) together with the latitudes and departures of the known sides The lengths of BC and CD could not be measured. Departure 1 | AB 217-50 sss | 109-978 | —187-872 2 | BC ? N, 62°90" E. a ? 3| oD ? N. 37°36" Ws a) ? 4 | DE 283-50 s.55818 W. | 161-397 | 298-076 5 | BA 173-15 | S, 240° We —172:989 | — 8-055 Calculate the omitted measurements. ‘As in example 2, latitude of the closing line BD = Departure of the closing line BD = ~~ Reduced bearing of the closing line BD=N. 6°50" E. and length of the closing line BD=447-15 m. In Fig, 5, let the angles DBC, BOD, aud CDE of the A BCD be denoted by 0, O, and Q respectively, They may be obtained from the known bearings of BD, BC and OD.12 Surveying and Levelling ADBC = 0, = R.B. of BC — R.B. of BD = 62°30" — 6°50" — 5: ZBOD = 6, = 180° — R. B. of CB —R.B. of CD = 180° — 62930’ — 37836 — 79054 ZODB = 0, = R. B. of DC + R.B, of DB == 37°36’ + 6950’ — 44996" Check s— 0, + Oy 0, = 55°40" + 79054" + 44096" — 1990, Knowing the length of BD and the angles 8, 0, and 5, the lengths of BC and CD may he calculated by the Sing sale, sin 0, _ _ sin 44926" BC = BD —2 = 447-15 - sin 0 318-015 in sin 79054 sin 6, 715 Sn8540" CD = BD ge = HT 5 Sa yorggy = 375-18 m, Exsruple 4 :— Given the foliowing observed lengths and bearings of the sides of a closed traverse ABCDE (Fig. 5) together with the latitudes and departures of the known sides, the bearings of BC and CD having been omitted : No. Line| Length in m, Bearing Latitude { Departure US 318-0 375-0 283-5 178-15 S. 59°45’ E 109-578 |— 187-872 OR ww Find the bearings of BG and CD, Proceeding similarly as in example 3 to obtain the length and bearing of the closing line BD, we get Length of BD = 447-15 m and R. B. of BD = N. 6°50" E The area of the triangle BCD (Fig. 5) should now be calculated from the formula A, =Vs(s—a)(sn 6) (se) the lengths of the sides being known, j i A i i | { | i 1 ais tianTraverse Surcey 13 Let @ = the length of the closing line BD. b= 4, of BC. ¢ » of CD. 0, = the angle DBC. 0, = the angle BCD. 6, =the angle CDB. 5 = the semi-sum of a, 6 and c. ‘A = the area of the triangle BCD. Then s =} (a + b + c)=$ (447-15 4 318-0 $ 375-0) 570-08 5 a = 570-08 — 447-15 = 122-93. 5b = 570-08 — 318-00 = 252-08. $-—¢ = 570-08 — 375-00 = 195-08. A = ¥ 310-08 % 122-93 x 252-08 x 195-08 or log A = 4:7687 ‘A. is also equal to $ ab sin 0, =} besin C= } ca sin 0, or A = 4 (47-15 x 318-0 sia 9,) = 4 (319-0 375-0 sin 6) = } (373-0 x 447-15 sin 8). . 2h . 20 sin = Ga745 giao 18% = “aig 875-0 F 20 375-0 x 447-15 * ory = 35039'; @, = 79°54"; 0, = 44926" sin, = From the known bearing of BD and the angles 9, and 0, the bearings of BC and GD may be found. : R.B. of BG =R. B of BD + 0, = 6°50" + 55°39" = 62029 N. BL = N. 69929 EB. R. B. of DB = S. 6°50" W Now R. B. of DG = 6; — R.B. of DB. = 44926’ — 6°50' = 37°36’ S. B. R.B. of CD = 37936" N, W. = N. 37936’ W. Example 5 :—The following are the measured lengths and bearings of the sides of a closed traverse ABCDE (Fig. 6) together with the latitudes and departures of the known sides, the bearing of AB and the length of CD having been omitted :“4 Surveying and Lecelling eof ne Length 2 N. 62°30" E +:146-835 | 4282-072 3 N. 87°36" W. ? ? 4 S. 55°18" W, 161-397 | 283-076 5 S. 2°40" W. 172-989 | — 8-055 Fig. Ga. Fig. 6b. From Fig. 6a, it may be seen that the affected sides (lines 1 and 3) are not adjoining. However, they may be brought into the same triangle by shifting the intervening known side (line 2) parallel to itself as shown in Fig. 6b. ‘The closing line B'D closes the: polygon formed by the known sides (lines 4, 5, and 2), The algebraic sum of the known latitudes=NL = 187-5351 oy departures = D= + 40-941 -. Latitude of the closing line BD = —3L = +187-515, Departure of os ” ” — =D ='— 40-941 The signs of the latitude and departure beiug plus and minus respectively, the closing line BD lies in the fourth (N. W,) quadrant. 40-941 Now tan 0 = ig7y-sa1° where U) is the reduced bearing of B‘D v. 12°19 WY, or 0 = 12919’, i.e. R. B. of BD |Treverse Survey 15 Length of B'D = 187-551 sec 12°19" = 191-97 in. In the A DBYG, let the anglet DB‘C, B’CD and CDB’ be denoted by 0), 0), and 0, respectively. Now reduced bearing of CD (line 3) = N. 37°36 W. yw of DG = $. 37°36 E. Similarly,,, » of DB = $. 12°19 E. Hence /CDB’ = 8, = R. B. of DC — R.B. of DB’ 7936 — 12019" = 25°17". Knowing the lengths of BD and B’C (line 1) and the angle Q,, the angles 0, and 0, may be found BD 191-97 Sind, = srg sin © =5p7.g_ Sim BHT! oF Oy = 2289", Now ZDB‘G=6,=180"—0,—0, = 180°—22°9' —25917" = 132°34'. Bearing of B‘C=0,—R.B. of BD.= 132°34’—12019" 120°15° or R-B. of B'C (line 1) = S. 50°45’ E. sin 132034" sin 22°9' =375-°0 m. Example 6:—Below are given the total latitudes and departures of two stations A and B, referred to the origin of the system : sin 6, Length of CD (line 3) = B/D GG =639-9 ain Oy Station Total latitude Total departure A ++ 668-6 — 342-4 B + 820-2 + 602-3 [A point M is fixed by measuring a distance of 525 m from A ona bearing of N. 20°12’ W., anda line MN 1234 m long is set out parallel to AB from M. Calculate the bearing of N from B. (i) The consecutive co-ordinates of A with respect to B may be obtained by subtracting the total latitude of B from that of A, and the total departure of B from that of A. Thus we have Total lat. of A=+668-6 Total dep. of A=—342-4 Deduct ,, »» of B=—820-2 Deduct ,, ,, of B=—602-3 Latitude of BA=—151-6 Departure of BA=—944-76 Surveying and. Levelting “ 3S. AW. Hence, R. Bi. of AB Since MN is parallel to AB, R, B. of MD (ili) Now latitude of AM = 525 cos 20°12' » of MN = 1234 cos #0953" = 4. 195-5 m Departure of AM = 525 sin 20912" — — 181-3 m, » of MN = 1254 sin 8095 +1286 em. fiv) | Henee total latitude of N with respect to B , =BL =—151-6-492-74-195 “S= 4536-6 m. Total departure of N with respect to B = ED=—944-7—181-341218= +92 m. 92 - 944 NE ie : BIG WOME NAB, ie. N. 944" B, Example 7 :—Pegs were driven un the centre line of a railway on cither’ side of wood. To determine the distance AB, the following traverse was run {rem A to I along the side of wood = ) R. Bo of BN = tan Line Length Bearing | Line Length Bearing AG 250m 190912" | DE 212m ~—s1 564g" cD 156, 108924 | EB 160 ,, 76°86. Compute the distance AB, From the.traverse station D, a line DF is carried into wood on a beariug of N. 60°20’ E. in order to locate an intermediate point F on AB, Find the length of DF. @) The latitudes and departures of the lines of the traverse are: Line Northing Southing Easting Westing AG 246-08 44-28 cD 49-24 148-04 DE 194-88 83-48 EB 37-08 155-64 Sum 37-08 490-20 387-16 1 44-08 -. Total latitude of B with respect to A = ZL= —490-20437-0; » departure of B with respect to A =ED=-++387-16~ 44-28-= 4.34988, 453-12,Traverse Sureey 7 (i) R.B. of AB = tan~ Length of AB=455:12 sec 3796’ = (iii) Now total latitude of D with respect to A =ED= — 246-08—49-24 = —295 -32 Total departure of D with respect to A = ED==--44-28+ 148 -04= 4103-76 103-76 RB. of AD=tan 5 = 19992" 8. B. 295 Length of AD==295- 32 sec 19°22‘ = 313-08 m. (iv) In the triangle ADF, 4FAD=R.B. of AB—R. B. of AD 7°6' — 19°92" = 17°44" ZDPA = 180% — (sum of reduced bearings of FA and FD) 180°— (37° 6’ 4-60°20'}—8234" AD sin FAD 782 in 1794" sinDFA sin 82°34" == 96-16 m. Example 8 :—From the following traverse, calculate the length of CD so that A, D, and 1; are in one straight line. By the Sine rule, length of DI’ -- Line Length Bearing Line Length Bearing AB 320m —-N, 80°30" | CD — N. 120° Ww BO 500 in N. 80°15 E. DE 610m N. 16°45’ E. (i) Latitude of AB = 320 cos 80°30' = +. 52-8 m. » of BG = 500 cos 30°15’ = + 432-0 m. Departure of AB == $20 sin 80°80’ = + 351-6m. » of BU = 500 sin 30°15’ = + 251-9 m. Total latitude of G with respect to A = BL = + 52-8 -+ 432-0 = + 484-8 m, Total departure of C with respect to A == SD = 4 315-6 + 251-9 = + 567-5m, (ii) If O be the reduced bearing of AC, 567-5 484-8 N. 49930" E. and length of AC 567-5 cosec 49°80’ = 746-4 m. (iii) Since A, D, and E lie in one straight line, the bearing of AD is the same as that of DE, i. e. equal to N. 16°45" E, SLI. 2 tan 0 = 0 = 49930° Hence, R. B. of AG1 Suroeying and Levelling Now in the triangle DAC, DAG. . B. of AGC — R.B.of AD == 32045" ZADC=R. B. of DC+R.B. of DA = 1299 4 1645’ -= 29045' By the application of the Sine rule, we get ACsinDAC 746-4 sin 32945 Length of OD = = 8395 m, Partition of Land :— Several problems are involved in the division of a given tract into two or more parts. ‘They may be solved by the application of methods of determining omitted measurements. However, few common cases will now be considered : (1) To Gut off » Required Area by a Line through a Given Point :—In Fig. 7, ABODEF represents a polygon, the Fig. 7. lengths and bearings of whose sides are known; MBCDN the required area cut off from the polygon by a line MN through a given point M on the side AB. It is required. to determine the correct position of the dividing (or cut off) line MN. It is here presumed that the corrected latitudes and departures of the sides of the polygon are given. If the field measurements are given, the polygon may be balanced. It is assumed that the figure is drawn roughly to scale. The procedure is as follows + @) Galeulate the area of the’ polygon ABCDEF by the D. M.D. method or by the method of independent co-ordinates, (ii) Join M_ to the nearest corner E of the polygon, Calculate the latitude, departure, length and bearing of EM of the closed traverse MBCDE as explained in case 1 on page 4. Gi) Compute the area of the closed traverse MBCDE by the D.M. D. method, and find the difference between this ; rea.‘Traverse Survey 19 and the required area. This difference is represented by the triangle MNE. (iv) Determine the angle NEM (9) from the known bear- ings of DE and BM. Knowing the length of EM, the angle NEM (0), and the area of the triangle, MNE, calculate the length of EN from the relation oe ne __ 2 Xarea of AMNE Area of AMNE=} EN xEM sin 6 or EN= ~—Eitano (v) Knowing the lengths of EN and EM, and the angle NEM, find the angle EMN («) and length of MN from the relations _,__BN sin. % = tan" TEM—EN cos 0) ENsin@ EM sin 0 and MN= Sg sin Oa). _ EN EM since Fra sin fm — (0-+%) f (vi) Calculate the bearing of MN from the known bearing of EM and the angle EMN («). (vii) Check the computations by computing the area of AMNEE, which should equal the difference between the area of ABCDEF and the required area. The line MN is established in the field by measuring its Jength in the required direction. Both field work and computa~ tions are checked, if the point N thus established fallson the line DE, and if the measured distance EN or DN is equal to calculated distance. (2) To Cut off a Required Area by a Line Running in a Given Direction :—In Fig. 8, ABCDEF represents a polygon, the o20 Surveying and Levelling lengths and bearings of the sides of which are known. It is to be divided into two parts, each of the required area, by'a line MN running in a given direction. It is required to determine the exact position of MN. It is assumed that the figure is drawn roughly to scale. Procedure :~(i) Draw a line FG in the given direction (Parallel to MIN) through the corner F nearest the dividing line MN. (ii) Calculate the area of the polygon \BCDEF by the D. M. D. method or by the method of independent co-ordinates. (iii) From the known lengths and bearings of FA and AB and the known bearings of BG and GI of the closed traverse FABG, compute the lengths of BG and GE as explained in case 3 on page 5, (iv) Find the area of f ABG by the D. M. D. method, This area will be less than the required arca MFABN as shown in the figure, the difference between the two areas being represented by the trapezoid FENM. ‘The area of FENM must, therefore, be added to the calculated area of FABG. (v) The bearings of EF, FG, BC and MN being known, calculate the angles EFG (c) and BNM (8). (vi) Compute the area of the trapezoid F@NM. Arca of FONM = }x (FG+MN), where x is the Perpendi- cular distance between FG and MN. Now MN=FG—x cot « +e cot B, 7 “. Area of FGNM=} x { 2FG—x (cot x—cot B))} 2 or = FGx « “> (cot x~cot 8). The solution of this equation Gives the value of x, (vii) Determine the lengths FM and GN from the relations, FM=x cosec « and GN = # cosec 8, (viii) Check the computations by finding the area of ABNMF, whick should agree with its required area, The points M and N are located in the field on the lines EF and BC by measuring their calculated distances FM and CN respectively, and the line MN is then measured. A complete check is obtained both on field work and computations, if the measured length of MN agrees with its calculated length,Traverse Survey 2 If it is required to cut offa given area from anirregular tract by a line running in a given direction, the procedure is the same as explaincd in the preceding case except that the area of the part cut off by the wial lire is found by a planimeter, and that the surip between the trial line and the true dividing line representing the excess or deficiency of area may he considered as a trape- zoid, the irregular sides of the strip being assumed to be straight ones, (3) Given an area ABCDE. Required to divide it into twe parts by 2 line MN perpendicular to AB and so located that the part AMNE shall contain 2 specified area (Fig. 9). ‘To solve the problem, the unknown distance FM must be determined. Draw EP and EK BD parallel to NM and AB respec- tively. Let the angles EAF and NEK be denoted by « and B, the distance FM by x, and the area specified for AMNE by A. Then Fig. 9. AF = AE cosa; EF = AE sin «; AM= AF + FM = AE cos « -+ ¥. Area of EFMN := area of AMNE — area of EAF or =A—AF XEF= A —} AE* cos « sin « Now area of EFMN = area of EFMK ++ area of EKN = EF Xx4+4EK x NK=AE sin < X «+ 4%? tan B- Let the area of EFMN be denoted by Ay. Then 2A, =2AEsin < Xx +x tanp 2AE sin « 2A ore ang )r- ae The solution of this equation gives the required value of x. The problem imay also be solved by the application of the method of determining omitted measurements. (4) To divide a trapezoid into two parts whose areas shall be in a given ratio, by a line parallel to the bases ( Fig. 10). In Fig. 10, ABCD is the trapezoid, which is to’ be divided into two parts, and EF the dividing line parallel to the bases AB and DC.22 Surveying and Levelling T AL ir, _\ -—_*—} Fig. 10. the area of the trapezoid ABCD. the area of the part EFCD. the area of the part ABFE. the given ratio of the areas of the two parts. the length of AB. abo he altitude of the trapezoid ABCD. f= the altitude of the parr EFCD, 4,= the altitude of the part ABFE, the angle ADC. f= the angle BOD. a™, 4 Fi =~ Wika Mit dee fis oo fythy; DK =a—b; EG AG A men From the similar triangles ADK and AEG: xb oe hye =a and hy = Also, (@ ~ 6) = hicot « + cot B) a—b ne or " (cot x + cot B) Now area of the trapezoid ABCD =hla+ bh at — be =4 —— ~F (at + corp /- EFCD = Ar=4(a+%) hy*Traverse Survey 23 m mon Substituting the values of A and Aj, we get +( cot cron )- a x4 ( aint ) But Ai= A. a lath). Whence, — [meat ’ m+n ‘The triangles AEG and ADK being similar, AR EG x—b AD” DK a6 ye PROBLEMS 1. Distinguish between traversing and triangulation and state under what eircumstances you would adopt each. ‘The following traverse is carried round an obstruction in a line AE + Line. Length in m. Bearing. AB 425 3ae24" BC 520 348°0" cD 605 30°24" DE 430 30°48" It is required to peg a point F midway between A and E. Compute the length and bearing of CF. (Ans. 243-4 m.; 250°2’) 2. The notes taken in the field of part of a traverse are recorded as under : Line. Length in m. Beating. AB 405 N. 12°24 E BC 376 N. 15° 36" W. cD 330 N. 20° 12" W.24 Surveying and Levelling There is a point P which is inaccessible. [ts bearing from A is N. 46°49" W.. and from D, the bearing of P is §. 40° 1¢°W. Calculate the distance of P from A and D. (Ans, PA=963-8 m.; PD=781-2 m,) S. Discuss the relative merits of the different methods of traverse Survey with a theodolite. What checks can be applied to a closed traverse ? What do you understand by the « closing error ?° Explain how: it ia adjusted, 4. The following lengths and bearings were recorded in running @ theo- dolite traverse ABCD. There are obstactes which prevent direct measure: ment of the bearing and length of the line AD + Length in m. Bearing. AB 485 341° 48° BC 1725 16-24" op 1050 149° 6 Calculate the length and bearing of AD, (Ans. 1618 m., 37° 18%), 9. Given the following lavitudes and departures of a traverse ABCDE, the hearings of AB and EA having heen omitred 6 Line Latitudes. Departure. Length in m. AB ? ? 1970 BC 841-11 +336-71 cD 877-18 S174, DE 700-60 728-88 EA ? ? 1181 Determine the bearing of AB and EA, (Ans. 11049"; 254°04",) ing lengths and bearings were recorded in running a direction, the lengths of CD and DE having been omitted : Line. Bearing. AB vor BG NL 25° 12° w, cD ? 8. 75° 6" W, DE ? S. 56°24" E, EA 700° N. 35° 36 Be Caleulate the lengths of CD and DE, (Ans, 2491 m, 2746 th.) 7. For the following traverse, compute the length of CD so that A, and E may be in one straight line, Line. Length in m, Bearing in: AB 340 85 BG 506 32 cD - 350 DE 622 8 (Ans. 927-4 m.) ‘Fraverse Surcey 25 8. The following tengehs and bearings were recorded in running 2 theodolite traverse in the counterclockwise direction, the iength of GD and ‘bearing of DE having been omitted : Line. Length in m. W.C.B. AB 1970 116° 49° BG 906 21° 49° cD ? 340° 26° DE 101 2 ES 1181 254° 24 Determine the length of CD and the bearing of DR. 10, By) (Ans. 930-9 m.; 226%9") 9, A and B are two stations whose co-ordinates are as given below + Station North Go-ord inate East co-ordinate. \ 1036-9 385-1 % 1426-5 992-7 From A is run a tine AC, 154-4 min length, on a bearing of 152° 18’, and from C is runa line OD, of length 544-0 m parallel to AB, Find the length and bearing of BD. (Ans. 371-76 an.5 72° 1%) 10, In order to determine the distance of an inaccessible point P from station A, a straight line BAG is run, AB and AC being 260 m and 200 m respectively. The angles PBA cad PCA were found to be 74°30 and 62915" respectively. Determine the distance AP. (Ani. 581-5 m.) (Hint + Calculate BP from the triangle BPC. Assuming AB as the meridian, find the total latitude and departure of P with respect to A, and then calculate AP.) 11, ‘The following traverse is run round a lake : Line Lengthinm Bearing | Line Lengthinm Bearing AB 375 20°26" DE 192. 15°36, BG 258 265°0" EF 180°6 4738" cD 216 225043" FG 742 78°" Aline KL is to be set out parallel t6 AG, 45 m apart, K and L being the points on ‘the lines AB and FG respectively, Galeulate the distances AK and GL. (Ans. 46-41 m ; 49-08 m).CHAPTER II ADJUSTMENT OF THE TRANSIT THEODOLITE ‘There are two kinds of adjustments of a surveying instru- iment, (1) Temporary and (2) Permanent. The adjustments are those which are made at every set-up of the instrument prior to taking observations, while the permanent adjustments are those which establish the fixed relationships between the fundamental lines of the instrument. ° When once made, they remain permanent for long periods. emporary Temporary Adjustments of Theodolite The temporary adjustments of thé theodolite are three, viz. (1) Setting up the instrument, (2) Levelling up, and (3) Focu- sing the eyepiece and object glass (Elimination of parallax) (1) Setting up the Theodolite :—This includes two operations, viz. (a) centering the instrument over the station mark such as a tack in a station peg, and (b) approximately levelling it by the tripod legs only. Centering the Instrument :—For centering the instru- ment, a plumb bob is suspended from the hook and chain beneath the instrument. (i) Set up the instrument on firm ground in such a position that the plumb bob is approximately over the station point. (ii) Move the legs radially and sideways so that the plumk bob is exactly over the tack and at the same time the tribrach sprang is approximately horizontal. It may be noted that moving the leg radially shifts the plumb bob in the direction of the leg without seriously affecting the plate levels, while moving the leg circumferentially or sideways tilts the instrument considerably without seriously disturbing the plumb bob. Centering can be done more conveniently and rapidly by means of a centering device (e. g. centering plates). (2) Levelling the instrament :—The instrument is levelled by means of the levelling (or foot) screws with reference to theAdjustment of the Transit Theodolite 27 plate bubbles. To do this, (i) turn the upper plate until one of the bubble tubes is parallel to the line joining any pair of levelling screws. The other bubble tube will then be parallel to the line joining the third levelling screw and the mid-point of the line joining the first pair. (ii) Bring the bubble to the centre of its run by tucning both screws simultaneously and evenly (remembering the rule ‘right in and left out’). (iii) Similarly, bring the other bubble to its mid-position by turning the third levelling screw. (iv) Repeat the process until finally both bubbles are exactly centred. Now rotate the instrument about its vertical . Each bubble will now traverse provided the plate levels are in correct adjustment. ‘Fhe vertical axis will then be truly vertical. Note :—In the case of a four-screw levelling head, one of the bubble tubes should be placed parallel toa pair of diagonally opposite screws. The other tube will then be parallel co the other pair. (3) Focusing the Eyepiece and Object Glass :—The jobject of this adjustment is to make the foci of the eyepiece land object glass coincide with the plane of cross-hairs, i. ¢. to eliminate parallax. It is made in two steps. (a) Focusing the Eyepiece :—The object of focusing the eyepiece is to make the cross-hairs distinct and clear, To do this, point the telescope towards the sky or hold a sheet of white paper in front of the object glass and move the eyepiece in and out until the cross-hairs are seen quite distinctly and clearly. (b) Focusing the Object Glass :—The object of focusing the object glass is to bring the image of the object formed by the object glass in the planz of the cross-hairs. Otherwise there will be an apparent movement of the image relatively to the cross-hairs, when the observer moves his eye, the apparent move~ ment being called parallax. To eliminate it, direct the telescope towards the object and turn the focusing screw until the image appears clear and sharp (i. €. in sharp focus ). It must be noted that the correct position of the eyepiece depends only upon the eyesight of the observer. It is, however, necessary to use the focusing screw whenever the distance of the ‘object from the instrument is changed.28 Surveying and Levelling Permanent Adjustments of Theodolite The fundamental lines of the theodolite are (1) The vertical axi (2) The axes of the plate levels. (3) The line of collimation ( or the line of sight) (4) The horizontal axis (also called the transverse or trunnion axis ) (5) The bubble line of the altitude (or azimuthal) level. Conditions of Adjustment :—When the instrument is in perfect adjustment, the following relations should exist. (ly) The the vertical axi xes of the plate levels must be perpendicular to (2) The line of collimation must be at right angles to the horizontal axis. (3) The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to. the vartical axis. (4) The bubble line or the axis of the telescope level must be parallel to the line of collimation. (5) If the instrument has a fixed vernier for the vertical circle, the vernier must read zero when the instrument. is levelled’ (i. ¢. when the plate levels and the telescope level are centred ). (6) If the instrument is provided with a striding level, the axis of the striding level must be parallel to the horizontal axis. The permanent adjustments of the theodoiite consist of the following : (1) Adjustment of the plate levels, (2) Adjustment of the line of collimation ( or collimation adjustment ), (3) Adjust- ment of the horizontal axis, (4) Adjustment of the level tube on the telescope, (5) Adjustment of the vertical index frame. Since certain adjustments will upset others, the adjustments must be made in the order in which they are stated. For making the adjustments, the instrument should be set up at a fairly level place where sights of about 100 m can be taken in either direction in the same straight line. Preliminary Adjustment :— To make the diaphragm truly erect. The object of this adjustment is to ensure that theAdjustment of the Transit Theodotite 29 horizontal and vertical hairs are truly horizontal and vertical. This adjustment is not necessary in the case of a modern telescope. It is made as follows :— @) Having levelied the instrument carefully, sight a distant well-defined point such as the top of a spire, and with botli motions clamped, rotate the telescope in azimuth by means of one of the tangent screws. If the horizontal cross-hair remains in contact with the point, the adjustment is correct. Alternatively, move the telescope through a small vertical angle. If the point travels continuously on the vertical hair, the adjustment is correct. If not, loosen the diaphragm screws and rotate the diaphragm - ring. Repeat the test and adjustment until perfect. Then carefully tighten the screws. First Adjustment :—To make the axes of the plate level perpendicular to the vertical axis (Figs lla, 11b and Ic) Wy cae S| SL eemea"raoun aatmesenion § x “now (ay y s Ps g a » c Fig. U1. Necessity :—If this condition exists, the vertical axis wilt be truly vertical, and the horizontal circle and the trunnion (or horizontal) axis will both be truly horizontal when each plate bubble is in the centre of its run, The trunnion axis is required to be horizontal in all work involving vertical movement of the telescope. Test :—(i) Set up the instrument on firm ground. Clamp the lower motion (or lower plate) and turn the upper plate until the longer plate bubble is parallel to any pair of levelling screws. Bring each plate bubble to the centre of its run by means of levelling screws (‘Temporary adjustment ).30 Surveying and Levelling (ii) Rotate the instrument about the vertical axis through 180°. The plate bubble is again parallel to the pair of levelling screws, but reversed in direction. If the bubbles remain central, the axis of each plate level tube is perpendicular to the vertical axis and the vertical axis is truly vertical, Adjustment :—If not, note the deviation of the bubble (say, n division ). Bring each bubble half-way back ( through + division ) by means of the two capstan-headed screws at the ead of the tube. Bring each bubble to the centre of its run by means of the respective levelling screws. Repeat the test and adjustment until both bubbles traverse during a whole revolution of the instrument, Alternative Method :—In this method the altitude bubpie is used in making this adjustment to ensure greater accuracy since it is much more sensitive than the plate bubbles. Procedure :— (a) Clamp the vertical circle at zero. Revolve the instru- ment until the altitude bubble (fixed on the T frame on the telescope) is parallel to the line joining any pair of levelling screws. (b) Bring the bubble to the centre of its run by turning these screws. Turn the telescope through 90° and bring the bubble to the centre of its run by means of the third levelling screw. Repeat until the bubble remains central in these two Positions, . (c) Turn the telescope through 180° in azimuth, If the bubble docs not remain central, note the deviation (say n divisions ) of the bubble. Adjustment :—(d) Correct one-half of the deviation fn G divisions ) by means of the clip screws or the vertical circle tangent screw, and the remaining half by means of the same pair of levelling screws. (ce) Turn the telescope through 90° until the bubble is over the third levelling screw and bring it to the centre of its run by turning the third levelling screw only. The bubble should now'remain central when the telescope is turned through a complete revolution in azimuth. If not, repeat the process until perfect.1 Adjustment of the Transit Theodolite aI (€) The vertical axis is now truly vertical. Bring each plate. bubble to the centre of its run by means of the capstan- hneaded screws at the end of the tube. When this adjustment is made, all the bubbles will traverse during a complete revolution of instrument and the vertical axis will be truly vertical. It should here be noted that when the bubble is reversed end for end, the deviation of the bubble called the apparent error js twice the actual error in the axis of the level and, therefore the correction is only half the amount of the apparent error. After the adjustment is completed, clamp the upper motion (or vernier plate) and loosen the lower motion (or lower plate). On repeating the test if it is found that the bubbles do not traverse on reversal, the outer axis is not vertical, and is not, therefore, parallel to the inner axis. The instrument then needs repairs if the error is large. It may be noted that if the axes are not parallel, no error will be caused in the measurement of horizontal angles provided the angles are not measured by repetition, and the plate bubbles are adjusted perpendicular.to the inner axis. Second Adjustment :—To make the line of collinsation coincide with the optical axis of the telescope (‘To place the intersec- tion of the cross-hairs in the optical axis of the telescope ). If there are two inclined hairs instead of a single vertical hair, their intersection is adjusted as for a vertical hair. This adjust- ment is made in two steps, viz. (1) adjustment of the horizontal hair, and (2) adjustment of the vertical hair. ‘Adjustment of the Horizontal Hair :—(Fig. 12). To make the line of collimation in so far as defined by the-horizontal hair coincide with the optical axis. Fig. 12. Necessity :—The object of this adjustment is to place the horizontal hair into the plane, of motion of the optical centre of the object glass (i. e. to bring the horizontal hair into the horizontal plane through the optical axis), the movement of thé object glass being assumed along the32 Surveying and Levelling optical axis. If the horizontal hair is not in the optical axis the direction of the line of sight will chanige slightly when the objective is moved in and out for focusing. This adjustment is necessary only when the instrument is used for measuring vertical angles or when it is used for levelling operations. It is immaterial in measurements of horizontal angles. Test :— (i) Drive two pegs at O and B at a distance of about 100 m apart. Fix a third ptg at A in line with O and B and at adistance of about 10 m from ©. Set up the theodolite at O and level it accurately. Gi) With the telescope direct, take readings on the staff held on A and 8, Let the readings be Ad and Ba. (iii) Transit the telescope and swing it through 180°, Set theline of sight to the former staff reading Ad on the near peg A. iv) Again red the staff held on B. If this staff reading is the same as the former staff reading (Ba) on B, the adjustment is correct. Adjustment :—If not, let the staff reading ; be Bb. Find ‘the mean of the two staff readings Ba and Bb and call it Bc. Bring the horizontal hair to the mean reading Bc by means of the vertical diaphragm screws, Repeat till perfect. Alternative Method :—(Fig. 13). In this method the vertical angle is noted when a staff reading is taken on the distant peg instead of taking a reading on the near peg. SECOND LINE OF SIGHT, Fig. 13, (i) Set up the theodolite at a.convenient point and level it accurately, .Adjustment of the Transit Theodolite 33 (ii) With the telescope direct, take a reading on the staff held on the peg B driven at about 100 m from the instrument station (O), and note the vertical angle ( < ), Let the staff reading be Ba. (iii), Plunge (or transit) the telescope and turn through 180° in azimuth. Set the vertical vernier to the former angle («) and again take a staff reading on B. If the staff reading agrees with the previous reading Ba, no adjustment is necessary. Adjustment :—(iv) If not, let the second staff reading be Bb. Move the horizontal hair by means of the vertical diaphragin screws until the mean (Be) of the two readings Ba and Bb is obtained. Adjustment of the Vertical Hair :—(Fig. 14). To make the line of collimation perpendicular to the horizontal axis. l—l1 : First Position of Horizontal Axis. 2-2: Second . a +e 3-3 ; Correct ... oo ve Necessity :—If this condition obtains the line of collimation will gencrate a plane when the teiescope is transitted But if not it will generate a conc, the axis of which is the horizontal axis. Tho adjustment is necessary when a line is to be prolonged either by transitting or changing the inclination of the telescope, or when a horizontal angle between two points at different elevations is to be measured. Test :—(i) Sct up the instrument at a convenient point O ona fairly level ground and level it carefully. Fix a peg or an SL, HF3 Surveying And Levelling arrow at a point A at a distance of about 100m from the instrument station O. With both horizontal motions clamped, bisect A. (ti) Now plunge the telescope and mark a point P in the line of sight at about 160 m from O and at about the same level as A. (iii) Unclamp the upper’ motion ( vernier plate ), swing through 180°, and again bisect A ( with the telescope reversed ). Clamp the upper motion. (iv) Transit the telescope. If the point P is again bisected by the cross-hairs, the adjustment is correct. Adjustment :— If P is not now on the line of sight, mark a point Q in the line of sight opposite P. Mark a point D at one-fourth of the distance from QtoP (QD=4QP ). Move the diaphragm by means of the horizontal diaphragm screws until the vertical hair is on the point D. Repeat the process until the adjustment is perfect. Tt will here be noticed that the apparent error PQ is four times the rea} error QD, since the telescope is transitted twice. The points A and P are taken at the same level in order to avoid the error due to the horizontal axis not being perpendi- cular to the vertical axis, The distances OA and OP are equalised so that focusing need not be done when a foresight is taken, A board or a levelling staff placed horizontally may be used for marking the points P and Q.. Note :—(i) If the line of collimation is perpendicular to the horizontal axis i.e. /.4O3 is exactly 90°, on taking a back- sight on A and transitting the telescope, the line of collimation will generate a plane and strike a point A’ which is in the pro- longation of AO, But if it is out of adjustment by an amount «, the angle AOI is 90° — «. When the ‘telescope is transitted, the line of collimation will generate the surface of a cone and strike a point P instead of A’, It is evident from the figure that Z1OP is 90° — « and consequently, /POA’=2 x. On again backsighting on A with the telescope reversed, and plunging the telescope, the line of collimation will strike a pointQ, /QOA’ being 2 «. Thus the apparent error ( /POQ)=4 x. As two reversals of the telescope are involved in the test, the real error is x, and therefore, a point D is marked at one-fourth the distance QP.Adjustment Of The Transit Theodolite 35 (ii) In order to move the diaphragm ,( cross-hair ring ), one screw should be loosened and the opposite screw tightened. The cross-hair ring moves towards the tightened screw. By loosening the upper screw and tightening the lower screw, the cross-hair ring is drawn downward and vice versa. Similarly, if the screw on the right-hand side of the telescope is loosened and the opposite screw tightened, the cross-hair ring is drawn to the left and vice versa. Fig. 15. @a@,: First position of Horizontal Axis. 6 6, : Second, % a ¢é : Correct ,, » ” Third Adjustment :—To make the horizontal axis perpen- dicular to the vertical axis (Fig. 15). Necessity :—By means of the adjustment of the vertical hair, we ensure that the line of sight will revolve in a plane perpendicular to the horizontal axis. ‘The object of this adju ment is to make this plane vertical when the instrument is Ie (i. e. the vertical axis has been made truly vertical). By 0 of the second and third adjustments, we ensure that the linc of sight will revolve in a vertical. planc. The adjustment becomes essential in all work necessitating motions of the telescope in altitude, ° Test :—(i) Sct up the theodolite at about 10m trom a high building or other object on which there is a well-defined point at a considerable altitude such as a flag pole, lightuing conductor, and level it very carefully, Let S be such a point.36 Surceying And Levelling (ii) Sight the point $, and with both horizontal motions clamped, depress the telescope and mark a point A on the wall near its base in the line of sight. (ii) Unelamp, plunge the telescope and swing it through 180°, With the telescope, inverted, again sight on the point S. Depress the teleschpe. If the line of sight now strikes the point A previously marked, the adjustment is corre Adjustment tI not, mark another point B in the line of sight on the wall at the same level as A. Mark a point © midway between A and B. Sight on the point G and clamp the upper motion. Ra’se the tulescope. “Phe eof sight will not now strike the point S. Reise or lower the adjustable end of the trunnion (horizontal) axis by means of the screws near the top of the standard or A ft. me until the line of sight passes through the pomt $, Repeat the sest and cureection until perfect. Instead of marking che points on wall, an ordinary. levelling staff may be piaccd her'contally near the base of the wall, and the readings on the scale aoted each time when the telescope is depressed. It may be noted thac the high end of the horizontal axis and the poift set are always on the same side of the vertical plane passing through the high object. This method is known as the Spire Test. Alternative Method :—The adjustment may be made with the help of a striding level in the following manner :— The striding Icvel should be tested to ascertain if it is in adjustment. (iii) Place the striding level on the ends of the trunnion (horizontal ) axis.and bring the bubble exactly to the centre of. its run by the levelling screws. (iv) Reverse the striding level end for end, leaving the instrument undisturbed. If the bubble traverses, the level is in adjustment. Adjustment :—If not, note tie deviation of the bubble. Bring the bubble half-way back ( half its deviation), by means of the capstan-headed screws on one of the legs of the striding levelAdjustment of The Transit Theodotite 37 and the remaining half by the levelling screws. Repeat the process until the adjustment is perfect. Test for the Third Adjustment :—(i) Having adjusted the striding level, place it in position. (ii) Centre the bubble of the striding level exactly by means of the levelling screws. Gently lift the striding level and reverse the bearing trunnion by turning the head of the instru- ment through 180° in azimuth. Replace the striding level, the legs new resting on different pivots to those upon which they rested before. If the bubble remains central, the adjustment is cornee: Adjustment :—If not, note the deviation of the bubble. Correct half the deviation by means of the capstan-headed screws near the top of the standard, which raise or lower one end of the horizontal axis, and the other half by means of the levelling screws. Repeat the operation until the test 1s satisfied. In some instruments 1. sneans are pr. ded for making this adjustment. The condition is permaitnily established by the maker. Fourth Adjustment ;—70 make the axis of the telescope level parallel to the line of collimation (Figs. 16 and 17). Necessity :—With this adjustment, the lines of collimation become horizontal when the telescope bubble is brought in the FALSE LINE OF COLLMATION TRUE LINE OF COLLIMATION Fig. 16. FALSE LINE OF TRUE Line of [~~ COLLIMAT| oT Fig. 1738 Surveying And Levelling centre. The adjustment is a necessity when the theodolite is to be used as a level or when vertical angles are to be measured Test :—The procedure of testing is the same as in the “two peg” adjustment of the dumpy level. (1) Drive two pegs A and Bon a fairly level ground say, 100 m apart. Set up the instrument at O exactly midway between A and B, Clamp the vertical circle and bring the tele. scope bubble cxactly to the centre of its run by means of the tangent screw of the vertical circle. (it) With the bubble exactly central, take readings on the staff held on A and B, and find the difference between these readings, which gives the true difference of level between A and B Shift the instrument and set it up at O; on the line BA produced, at about 10 m from A. Level it accurately. (iv ) With the bubble exactly central, read the staff first on A and then on B and find the difference between the twd readings. If this difference agrees with the first ( true) difference, the adjustment is correct. Adjustment :—(v) If not, calculate the correct staff readings on A and B. Bring the horizontal hair exactly to the .correct reading on B by means of the tangent screw of the vertical circle, Bring the bubble exactly to the centre of its, run by means of the level tube nuts (capstan-headed screws attaching the level tube to the telescope ). (vi) Sight the staff on the near peg and note whether the calculated correct reading is obtained. Repeat the process until the test is satisfied. - Alternative Two-peg Method : — Many surveyors prefer: this method. ‘The procedure is exactly similar to that in the above method except for the following :— (1) The vertical vernier is set at zero and the telescope bubble is brought to the centre of its run by means of clip screws prior to taking staff readings on A and B. (2) The horizontal hair is brought exactly to the calculated reading on the far peg B by means of the clip screws. Since the vernier has been clamped at 2cio, there will he no index,crror, Fifth Adjustment :—To make the vertical circle or ave read i a | 4 a a te sg astern eeeAdjustuient of The Transit Theodolite 39 zero when the tine of collimation is horizontal (when the telescope bubble it centred ). Necessity :--The adjustment is carried out for convenience only. If the index error i.e. the reading on the vertical circle Wwhen the telescope bubble is in the centre is noted down and corresponding correction applied to the observed reading no error will be introduced. But as there is likely to be some confusion between + and — signs of the correction it is desirable that the index error is removed wherever possible. The index error is eliminated wien the vertical angle betwecn two objects is deter- jnined as a difference between two readings. Test :—(i) Having centred the plate bubbles, bring the telescope bubble exactly to the centre of its run by means of the vertical tangent screw as in firet adjustment, and rcad the vernier of the vertical circle. Adjustment ;— (ii) If the vernicr dees not read z-ro, loosen it and move it until it reads zero by means of the screws which hold it to the standard. If the vernier is not adjustable, note the angular error and its sign. is angular error is called the “index error’ and is applied as a correction to the observed values of vertical angles. In a transit theodolite, the vernicr can be clamped-at- zero, and the telescope is then brought into a horizontal position by means of the ‘clipping screws. There should, therefore, be no index error in the case of a transit instrument, In the case of a theadolite having an altitude level attached to the vernier arm (index arm ), the fourth and fifth: adjustments can be combined into one adjustment so that the line of collima- tion is horizontal when the altitude bubble is centred and the reading of the vertical circl zero. There arc two types of the instrument : (1) one in which the clamp and tangent screw of the vertical circle arc on the same side of the telescope as the clip screw, and (2) the other in which the clamp and tangent screw of the vertical circle are plkiced on one side of the telescope, and the vertical circle and the clip screw on the other side. ‘This type of instrument is usually packed as one piece. In the case of the former, when the clip screw is turned, the pointing of the telescope is altered, but the vertical circle readings remain unchanged, since it rotates the40 Surveying And Levelling vestical circle and the verniers together; while in the case of the latter, turning the clip screw moves the vernier, and changes the reading of the vertical circle, and tilts the bubble tube on the vernier arm, but does not change the pointing of the telescope (the vertical circle and the telescope remaining unchanged) Procedure for test :—(i) Set up the instrument and level it carefully with reference to the plate levels, (ii) Bring the altitude (azimuthal) bubble mounted on the index arm to the centre of its run by means of. the clip screw. Set the vertical vernier exactly to read zero by means of the clainp and slow motion screw of the vertical circle (iii) Take a reading on a staff held at a distance of about 100 m from the instrument station. (iv) Ghange face (i. e. transit and swing through 180° ), and again clamp the vernier exactly at zero. Level the instru ment if necessary. (v) Again sight the staff held on the same point and wate the reading. If this reading is the same as the first reading, the adjustment is correct. (vi) Adjustreent : — (First type of the instrument). Tf not, find the mean of the two readings, and by turning the clip scres, bring the horizontal hair exactly on.to the mean reading, thus setting the line of collimation truly horizontal. Then bring the altitude bubble to the middle of its run by means of the level tube nuts (i, c. capstan screws fixing it to the index arm ). Repeat the test and adjustment until the adjustmer’ is perfect. Adjustment :—( Second type of the instrument ). Bring the horizontal hair on to the mean reading by turning the vertical circle tangent screw Sct the vernier index to zero by turning the clip screw. . Then bring the bubble of the altitude level to the centre of its run by means of the cupstan screws attaching it to the vernier arm. Repeat the test and adjustment until all error is eliminated. In the case of an instrument fitted with two levels, one on the index arm and the other on the telescope, the adjustment should be made by reference to one of the bubbles. Having adjusted that bubble, the bubble of the other level tube is centred by means of the level tube nuts.1 4 aldjustment of the Transit. Theodolite a Relative Importance of the Adjustments :--‘ihie first adjustmentis important in the measurement of horicontfft and vertical angles. “Uhe vertical axis must be truly ve it may be gemembered that the error duc t@ the vertical axis not being truly vertical canuot be eliminated by taking face left and face right observations. ‘lhe adjustment should, therefore, be tested [vequently. Adjustment of the vertical hair and the third adjustment are very imuportant in the measurement of horizontal angles or in prolonging a straight line. By taking double face observations, the crrors of the second and third adjustments may be climinated, Adjustinent of the horizontal hair and the fourth and fifth adjustments are of utmost importance only in the measurement of vertical angies or in the levelling operations done with the theodolite. Face left and face right observations should be taken ‘o eliminate the crrors of these adjustments. PROBLEMS Give a list of the permanent adjustments of x transit theodolite and state the object of each of the adjustments, Describe how you would make the trunnion axis perpendicular to the vertical axis. (U.8,) 2. Give a list of permanent adjustments of a transit theodolite. Explain clearly how you would test a theodolite ta discover if the horizontal axis and the ine of sight were perpendicular to each other. If adjustment of the line of sight be found necessary, describe how you would carry it out. (U. B.) 3. Give a list of temporary aud permanent adjustments of a transit theodolite. ‘A niven line is prolonged with a theodolite, but it is found that the points lie on a curve. What is the source of the error ? Describe how you would test and adjust the instrument. 4. Describe, with the aid of neat sketches, how you would set the plate level at right angles to:the vertical axis. 5. You are asked to measure vertical angles correctly with a transit theodolite. Explain clearly, with sketches, how you would test the instrument and if necessary, adjust it. G. Explain the adjustment for making the axis of the spirit level over 'T frame of the vertical circle perpendicular to the vertical axis of the theodolite (G. U. ). 7. Mention the permanent adjustments of a transit theodolite and explain the object of each of these adjustments. (U.P.)CHAPTER IIT TRIGONOMETRICAL LEVELLING = eee Trigonometrical Levelling is a branch of levelling in which the relative elevations of different stations are determined from the observed vertical angles and known horizontal or geodetic distances, The vertical angles may be measured by means of a theodolite, and the horizontal distances may be either measured or computed. Various cases will now be considered. Curvature and Refraction :—The effect of curvature is to make the objects appear lower than they really are and that of refraction is to make them appear higher than they really are. The effect of refraction is in opposite direction to that of curv- ature and is taken as one-seventh of that of curvature. The com- bined effect of curvature and refraction is, therefore, to cause the objects appear lower than they really are. The correction for curvature and refraction is applied in two ways. (1) The apparent difference Qo of elevation of two stations is Fiz. 18. first calculated in the usual way and then corrected by applying algebraically the combined corrcetion in linear measure. (2) The observed vertical angle is corrected by applying the angular correction algebraically before calculating the requi- red difference of elevation, In Fig. 18, let A and C be the two stations whose differ- ence of level is desired. AB = the level line passing through A. CDs yy oy » Ge 74 Trigonometricat Levelling 4g AF = the horizqntal line at A ( tangential to AB}. CE =the horizongal line at C (tangestial to CD ). Sa he teuc difference of elevation of A and G, LA‘AP= = the angle of elevation obseryed at A. LO'CE=6 = the angle of depression. observed at C.- d = the horizontal distance in m between Avand G. 0 = the angle subtended by the horizeptal distance AB at the centre of the earth. LA'ACG= ZACC! = the angle of refraction. = the coefficient of refraction. R <= the radius of the earth in m. (381000 m. } It may be noted that on account of refraction the observer at A does not sight along the true line AC, but sights in the direction of AA’, which is tangential to the curved line of sight AG, since the signal at C is apparently seen in that direction. Therefore, the angle actually observed at A with a transit is the angle A'AF while the true angle is CAF. Similarly, the angle observed at Cis the angle C'CE and the tric angle is the angle ACE. Hence th correction for refraction is subtractive in the case of the angle of elevation (plus angle ), and additive for the angle of depression (minus angle ). .. Corrected angle atA = ZCGAF = /A'AF — ZA‘AC «nF ACE = /C'CE+ ZC'CA +r ‘The angle of refraction (1) is usually expressed in terms of the central angle ( 0). The coefficient of refraction (m ) is the tatio of the angle of refraction and the central angle so that r ma porn = mo. The correction for curvature is additive for the angle of elevation, and subtractive for the angle of depression. Now we shall consider the two cases which occur in practice. Case I :—One angle will be an angle of elevation and the other an angle of depression. This happens when the difference in elevation of the two stations is great and the distance between them {s comparatively small.eal Surveying And Levelling Gase II :— However, when the distance between the two stations is great and their difference in elevation is small, both angles will be angles of depression. Refraction : Gase I :-—When one angle is an angle of eleva- tion and the other an angle of depression. ‘The angle of refraction or refraction error (r ) may be obtained as follows : (Fig. 18 }, ACE = /CAF+ /AxXc and AXG = The exterior angle of the A ACK. Now 2 ACE =8 +1; . GAF O+ « oe BTS «© rt Osie res Gase If :— When ‘both angles are angles of depression, Changing the sign of « in (i ), we get af _ (bt «<) oan qa d in which 0 = radians ~ 3-F— seconds. itis assumed that the refraction error is the same at both the stations. Correction for Curvature and Refraction :—( Fig. 16). (i) The angular correction for curvature FAB a d = 1 LAOB= F= 9 radians = 556-5, seconds: a The corresponding linear correction = FB —= R™ d@and R being expressed in metres. | Gil) ‘The angular correction for refraction = ANAC=C'CA md =rem0= goa seconds: _. The value of m may be taken as 0.07 for sights over land and 0.08 for sights over sea. R sin 1” = 30°83 m to 30°94 m. 1 The corresponding linear correction =— of 2md? oR” Tvigonometrical Levelling 45 (iii) The combined angular correction F ¢ md = (curvature — refraction ) = { Ran 7 yl (1 —2m)d = {S ai } seconds ... (3) Ap . a 2md* ‘The combined linear correction = m7 oR (12m) = The combined correction is additive in the case of an angle of elevation and subtractive in the case of an angle of depression. Distance between Two Statioas :—The given distance may be horizontal or geodetic. By geodetic distance is meant the distance reduced to mean sea-level. The required horizontal distance may be computed from the given geodetic distance by the formula Rtha) xl . Cte . . (5) where | = the geodetic distance; R = the mean radius of the earth, ha = the elevation of station A. Axis-signal Correction :—‘The axis-signal correction, also 8) called the eye and object correction. requires to be applied to the observed vertical angles when 8 g 90-040) the height of the signal at one wks station is not the same as that of 7S Ktheinstrament at the other station. (+6) Refer ng to Fig. 19, let 9048) a 5, = the height of signal at .\. (s0+$) 2 = ” o » ard Ay, of instrument at A. b= nn on at C. d == the horizontal distance bet- ween the stations A and C. CH = the difference between the 6 height of signal at G and the Fige19. height of int. at A=(s,—/y)46 Surveying And Levelling. %=the axis-signal correction to. the vertical angle observed at A. 2a eer » » ” vertical angle observed at C. The correction may be found from the formula, (height of signal —height of inet.) “~~ (horizontal distance ) sin 1” Sah; 5 eA scones; n= $ This formula gives sufficiently accurate results when the vertical angle is small and the difference between the height of signal and that of the instrument is also small. If, however, the vertical angle is large, the angle HAC must be taken at its correct value. It may be shown that (52 — hy) cos? ( x +6 Tan HAC = (achleot (x +8) (exact). d cos Gis usually small (a few minutes) and may, therefore, be ignored. (aly) cos? seconds(appraximate).(6) “ ZHAC=9,= iz seconds. d 2 Then tan HAG = tan %, = W 8 (She) oot BE (8) d The correction is minus to + angle and plus to — angle. Similarly, tan%, = The formula may be derived as follows : After drawing HK perpendicular to AH, meeting AC produced in K, it will be seen from Fig. 19 that /AHO = 180° — {HAO — /AOH = 180° —( 90° + « )~0=90°—( «+0) and /CHK = 90° /AHO = « +6. Now HK =CH cos ( « +0) very nearly. Tn the triangle ABET 6 6 ( sin 90 ) cos > sin (90— ( «+0)} ~ 43 S40) HK — CHeost( « +6 Now tan HAG = 2 = CHOOT) AH = AB AB 0 cos 5 But CH = 5; — fy and AB = ESE aco One ro 9 itedTrigonometrical Levelling 4 « +0) J Tan HAC d cos > ‘There are:two methods by which the difference of elevation of two stations may be determined. First Method : By Single Observation :—The method is used when it is not possible to occupy both the stations, one of them being inaccessible. In such a case, the vertical angle is observed at one station and the observed angle is then cor- rected for the curvature and refraction effects, assuming the value of the coefficient of refraction to be 0,07. Since refraction is very uncertain, the results obtained by this method are not so accurate as those obtained by the second method. c In Fig. .20, let A and C be =the two stations, the diffe- rence of level of which is required. | <=the angle of elevation observed at A. d= the horizontal — distance between A and G. sarc AB=chord AB = AF HH = the difference of level of A and C, Neglecting the correction for curvature and refraction, and the axis-signal, correction, the formula for H may be derived as Fig. 20. follows : Case I—: When the distance is very great — In the A AOG, ZAOC=8; {CAO=90° + <. s. ZAGO, = 180°—0 —(90° + «) =9° —( < +9) In the A ACF, ZCAF = «; ZAGF = 90° —(« + 8). “LARC = 180° — < —90° + x+6= 90° +8 By the Sine rule we get, The apparent height (CF) AFsinCAF AF sin « _ AF sin < = Gn ACF sin{90°—(<+0)} cos (x +0)18 Surveying And Levelling But AP may be taken equal to d without appreciable. error 2 ed 88 act) an we (9) : “cos WTO) eee (9) where 6" seconds, Resin 17 Case 1 :— When the distance is comparatively short and the angle ~ is fairly small, 0 may be neglected. In other words, we assume the angle AFC to be a right angle. ‘The above formula may, thevefore, be written as CP = dtan « (approximate) a. a) ‘Yo determine the value of AL, the axis-signal correction and the corrections for etvature and refraction must be applied to the apparent height thus found, Case (3)- (Very great distances). When the observed angle is an angle of cievation (+ angle ). Applying the axis-sig- nal corection of the observed angle <, we have _ ssh dsint”? hnvinus in the case of an angle of elevation (+ angle ). The angle thus obtained is further corrected for curvature and refraction, ‘Thus we get the true value of the observed angle «, Corrected angle «y+ « the correction being Then in the A ABC, ZCAB = «,—m0-4 es 0 Z ABC = 90° 4 2 ZACL = 180°— (90° + +) -( <1— m4. ) = 90°— (x —m04 6). . 0 ~md+ Now H=CB=ap S28 C3B yy vn Nt ) sin ACB sin { 90° ( <1 M046) } sin (i= m0 + +) = AB oan sa, 3| | | | | | 4 + Trigonometrical Levelling 49 Substituting the values of 6 and AB we have a 1-2 sinf x + ( 2) Fe sin } Xt (Lm) ee Had (exact)... (10) in 1* Case I(b)~ ( Very great distances ) : When the observed angle is an angle of depression ( — angle), we proceed as follows : Applying the axis-signal correction to the observed angle 6 and denoting the corrected angle by B,, we have (s—&) BaBt iia’ the correction being plus in the case of an angie of depression ( — angle ). By is further corrected for curvature and refraction, thus obtaining the true value of the observed angle f. Thus in Fig. 21, the irue angle © ACD = B+ md. sin( Bi + m0 [sin 90° — (6, + m0 — 0]. Substituting the values of 0 and CD, we get sin oo [a= (12m) ge ‘cw[fs 0 ~ Deel Case H (a) :—(Great distances) : When the observed angle isan angle of elevation :—Assuming the angle ABC (Fig. 20) to be (exact) .. (11) a right angle, ( being ignored ) Sob tLt50 Surveying And Levelling CB = AB tan CAB ; AR = AB aad <,—~ m0 4 z): Substituting the values of 0 and AB, we have H =dtan { <4 (12m) sacs }(APProsimate) (12) Case HI (b) :—(Great distances) :—When the observed angle is an angle of depression : When = is neglected, i. . 7 ADC taken as a right angle (Fig. 21), we have H = AD = CDtan ACD = CD tan iG + m0 — >) Substituting the values of 8 and CD, we get H=dtan {6 (2m) = 2 Jloporoximaey. -(13) T To avoid confusion, computation work shox be done in the following steps : methodically (1) Find the axis-signal correction from formula (6) and apply it algebraically to the observed vertical angle, due attention being paid to the sign of the correction. Thus we get the value of «, or By. (2) Obtaimthe values of (1—2m ) and ad QR sin 1” (1—m——4 _, and add them algebraically to the calculated Rosin 1” value Of <, or (1, thus obtaining the value of the observed angle corrected for the difference in height of the signal and the instrument, and for curvature and refraction. 43) When the distance (d) is very great, substitute this value of the corrected angle in formula (10) or (11) according as the observed! angle is + angle or — angle, thus determining the value of the difference of elevation (H) of the two stations A and C. (4) When the distance is great, add the value of {12m} 4 __ algebraically to the calculated value of «4 2R sin 1” i | { |iin Cab aly Trigonometrical Levelling 50 or 8, and substitute the value thus obtained in formula (12) or (13), thus obtaining the value of H. Approximate Method :—In this method the apparent height CE is calculated from formula (9a) and is then corrected by applying the correction for height of instrument, height of signal, curvature, and refraction in linear measure. ‘Thus we have (a) When the observed angle is an angle of elevation : H=dtan « + height of inst. — height of signal -+ (curvature — refraction } 5 @ or Ha dtan «< bh —s+ (1 2m) (4) (b) When the observed angle is an angle of depression © H =d tan @ — height of inst. + height of signal — ( curvature — refraction ) a r H -dtan 8 —h s—(L--2m)— | . (15 or an Bhs (Lm) i) Second Method : By Reciprocal Observations :—In this method the vertical angle to cach station is observed from the other station, and the refraction effect is assumed to he the same at each station, In order to completely eliminate the refraction effect, simultaneous observations should be taken whenever possible. It is not, however, usually possible to measure the vertical angles simultancously. ‘hey should, therefore, be measured at the time when the refraction effect is mini- mum and on different ys. Since refraction is variable between 10 a,x and 3p..., the vertical angles should be measured during these hours. The results obtained by this method are more accurate than those obtained by the first method. In Fig. 22, let A and C be the stations whose difference .in eleva- tion is required.52 Surceying And Levelling 4 = the horizontal distance in m between A and C: AB = the level line passing through A. cD = G. AF = the horizontal line at A (tangential to AB ). CE = the horizontal line at C { tangential to CD). AaC = the curved line of sight. AA’ = the line tangential to AaC at A, cc’ 7 yy atc. 2 AAF = the angle of elevation observed at A. 4 G'GE = the angle of depression observed at C: ZAAC = the angle of refraction (1) at A. 2 C'CA = the angle of refraction (r ) at C. ZAOG = the central angle (0). H = the difference of elevation of A and C. We will now derive the formula for H onthe assumption that observations are made from ground level to ground level, i. ¢. upon a signal of the same height above ground as that of the instrument. Correcting the observed angles «< and § for curva- ture and refraction, we have The corrected angle at A=CAB=the observed angle A’AF + total correction for curvature and refraction, the sign of the correction being positive in the case of an angle of elevation, Now the correction for curvature — FAB = + = EoD, i > refraction = A'AC =r =m9=-C'CA . Combined correction = ( - ~ m0 ). Hence the corrected angle at A — GAB eed (F — mo axon the sign of the correc: tion being positive in the case of an angle of elevation. 9 CD.=8~( — ~ mo HG ») % ; A roca = +m ~ ge the sign of the. correction being negative in Similarly, the corrected angle at G: the case of an angle of depression, Since chords AB and CD are parallel, CAB = ACD, 0 ve x = mI - Pmt, and each = SenerTrigonometrical Levelling 53 Now in the ACB, AB = d;CAB = « — mO+ + ABC = 90°42 ACB = 90 — (B+ m8). By the Sine rule, we get a i m0 + — acon _ (oa 4) sin ACB sin { 90° — (B-+-m0)} 8 i — m0 +2. sin (« mo +>) CB = AB cos (B+ mid) bat m0 SFP yO ;CB=H; and «—m0+ Sn Stt sin( FF) =a wea (16) cxs( 000-00 Elevation of B= 1600-550 + 106-770 - 1707-320 Elevation of C ( Blevation of A Example 3 :—To determine the mean clevation of a station O interpolated ina triangulation system, the following observa- tions were made : Distance | Height ‘| Vertical | Remarks inm signal | Angle ~ 3084 5-58 4191207] sin 1730-88 m, 4698 at =52'50" m= 0-07 5028-6 | 4-9 ~31'10" log sin 1° = 6.085575 aaNet SS eet et{ Trigonometrical Levelling 39 Find the mean clevation of station Q, given that the elevations of D, E, and F are 293-58, 157-725, and 179-355 respectively. sah dsin 1” 3! 46"-76 (~ oe) (i) Axis-signal correction -—By 7= seconds, (411 — 1.53) . be . OE : 9%) = 11927 3". 0 9608 sin 93r27 (+ ae) OF 195 = E92 = 1:59) 139°.05 = 9" 19°-05. (+ ve) 5028-6 sin 1” (4i) Correction for curvature and refraction >= cg, (ha 2md oR sin? OD:Co, = (1014) 3684 510.39 p 2 x 30-88 OE :Corg = (LO) 4698 65 gy 2 < 30-88 OF Gagce LOE) 5028-6. ayes, 2x 30°88 (iii) Correcting the observed angles for axis-signal, and for curvature and refraction, O'toD : «4 = 1°1'20",— 3'46"- 76 + (SU30 == SB'24 54. OtoE «&, = 52! 50" + 1'53"-27 — 1 5-42 = 55'37"-85 Oto: «4 == 34 10 + 2119"-05 — 111". 15 == 35°17"-90. (iv) Difference of level of the stations :— O and D : HD == 3684 tan 58! 24°54 = 4 62-587 O and E : HE -- 4698 tan 53’ 377-85 = — 73-326 O and F : Ht =5028-6 tan 35177190 = — 51-633 Elevation of O in the first case = 293-580 — 62-587 Elevation of O in the second case = 157-725 + 73-326 Elevation of O in the third case = 179+355 4 51-6 230-993 231-051 230-988 Elevation of O ~ 231-017 mean =60 Surveying And Levelling PROBLEMS 1. Correct the observed altitude for the height of signal, and refrietion from the following data : Observed aliiiude = = 4 9° 12/48" Height of instrument = 1.585 m. Height of signal = 4-248 m. Horizontal distance = 3787-14 m. (Ans, 2° 30°-237; 8-179" 5 3° 10° 9-584" ) 2. Find the difference of level of the points A and B and the reduced level of B fom the following data + Horizontal distance between A and B = 5625 389 m. Angle uf depression from A to B = 1° 28’ 34°. Height of signal at B = 3-386 m, Height of instrument at A = 1.497 m. Co-efficient of refraction = 0 07. R sin I" = 30-876 m, R. L. of A = 1265-850. (Ans. 145-213 m. 1120-687 m.) 5. Find the difference in level between two points A and Band the refraction correction from the following data Horizontal distance between A and B Angle of elevation of B at A Angle of depression of A at B Height of signal at A Height of signal at B Height of instrument at A Height of instrument at B = 0882-384 m, + 1° 50" 20°, = 50 10", = 4-145 m. = 3-597 m, 1-463 m. “354 m. (Ans, 222.03 m.; 15*-35.) 1 Two stations A and Bare situated at a distance apart cf 2696-619 m. The depression angle of B at A i is 7748". The heights of sig 3-22 m and the heights of in respectively. at the time of observation. 5°10 aud the depression angle of A at B Mat Aand B are respectively 3-90 my and frument at A and B 1-463 m and 1-554 m Calculate the difference of level of A and B and the refraction (Ans. 11,339 m. 1 5"+12,} 5 Determine the reduced level of B from the following data : Horizontal distance Eztween A and B = 3489-96 m. Height of instrument at A Height of instrument at B Height of signal at A Height of signal at B Angle of elevation cf B at A Angle of depression of A at B Reduced level of ‘A R sin It = 1-433 m, = 1-463 m. = 4-572 m. = 3-902 m. = 15274" = 1°48" 20" = 950-75 m. = 30-987 m, (Ans. 1662-932 m, )Trigonometrical Levelling 61 6, Two stations A and B are situated at a distance apart 0'3041-776 m. | The following observations were recorded Height of signal at A = 1517 m. Height of instrument at A = 1-463 m. ‘Angle of elevation from A toB = 2° 12/ 20° Reduced level of A = 1420-50 m. Height of signal at B == 3-938 m. Height of instrument at B = 1-512 m. j Angle of depression from Bio A = 2° 2" 30". Determine the reduced level of B. (Ans. 1552-97 m.) 7. Two stations A and B are 3791-712 m apart. The following obser- vations were recorded + } Height of instrament at A = 1-463 m. Height of signal at A = 5-09 m. Height of instrument at B 1.494 m i Height of signal at B = 4.511 m. | Vertical angle from A to B + 1° 54 30", | Vertical angle from B to A = 19 50°25" Reduced level of A = 1275-60 m. | Find the reduced level of B. (Ans, 1999 955 m. —-—_—_CHAPTER IV TACHEOM. TRIG SURVEYING ‘Tacheometry is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and vertical distances of points are obtained by instru. mental observations, chaining being thus entirely eliminated. The method is most rapid though less accurate. ‘The accuracy of tacheometry is less than that of chaining, butit is far more rapid in rough and difficutt country where ordinary levelling is tedious, and chaining is inaccurate, difficult, and slow. When obstacles ‘such as steep and broken Sround, deep ravines, stretches of water oF swamps are met witis, tacheometry is best adapted from the Point of view of speed and accuracy. ‘The primary object of tachieometry is the Preparation of contoured maps or plans. It is extensively wed on hydrographic ‘Surveys, location surveys for roads, railways, reservoirs, etc. It ean be used for checking more precise measurements. It is well adapted for locating contours and filling in detail in topographic surveys, Instruments :~-The instruments usually cmployed in tacheoe metry are {1) a tacheometer and (2) a levelling or stadia rod, A lacheometer in a general sense, is a transit theodolite having a stadia telescope i. ¢. a telescope fitted with a stadia diaphragm, i. e, x telescope equipped with two horizontal hairs called. stadin hig in addition to the regular cross-hairs. ‘The additional hairs are cauidistant from the central one and are also known ae stadia lines, webs, wires or points, ‘The types of stadia diaphragm commonly used are shown in Fig. 23. ‘The kinds of telescopes nsed in stadlin D® Fig. 23. surveying are #(i) the external - focusing telescope, (ii) the internal focusing telescope, and (ili) the external - focusing Fi methTacheometrie Surveying 6 anallatic telescope (i. ¢. teles ope fitted with an anallatic lens ). cometer is restricted to a transit theodolite provided anallatic telese ntial pe. Th racteristics of a tacheometer are : (i) The value of the constant 4 should be 100, (ii) the telescope should be fitted with an anailatic lens, (iit) the telescope should be powerful, the magnification being 20 to 30 diameters, ( iv) the aperture of the objective should be 35 to 45 mm in diameter in order to have a sufficiently bright image, and (v ) the magnifying power of the eyepiece should be greater to render staff graduations clearer at a long. distance. Stadia rod :---The stadi rod is usually of one piece, but for ease of transport it may be folding or telescopic. It is 5 coh to 15 cm wide and 3 todm long. It is graduated in metres, decime- tres and centimetres. The pattern of graduations should be bold and dimple. Some patterns of graduation are shown in Figs. 24, 25 ane 26. For short sights upto 100 m, an ordinary transit equipped with a stadia telescope(or stadia-theodolite) and a levelling staff may be used. The stadia theodolite is an instrument of low precision, the accuracy of a single measurement — being about 1 in 500, However, it is most suitable for filling in topographic detail. But for long sights, say more 300 m a tacheometer and stadia red are required Tacheometric method :—The various — tacheometric methods may be classified as :of Surveying And Levelling Tacheometry Stadia method ‘Tangential method | | | Fixed hair Movable hair The principle underlying these methods is 2s follows :— TEC and D be two pdints, and if a transit is set up at C, the hori. zontal distance of D from Cand the elevation of D with respect to the instrument axis at C can be obtained from (1) the vertical angle to D from C and (2) the angle subtended at Ci by a known distance on the staff held at D. This principle is utilised in diffe- rent ways in the above methods and consequently, the methods of observation and reduction are different 1. (a) Fixed Iiair Method :— The interval between the stadia hairs heing fixed : In this method the stadia hair interval is fixed. When a staff is sighted through the telescope, a certain length of the staff (staff intercept ) is intercepted by the stadia lines and from this value of the staff intercept, the distance from the instrument to the staff station may be determined. It may be noted that the staff inter- cept varies with the distance at which the staff is held. In the case of inclined sights the staff may be held vertically or normal to the line of sight. This method of tacheometry is in most common use. (b) Movable Hair Method :—The interval between the stadia hairs being variable : In this method the stadia lines are not fixed, but can be moved by means of micrometer screws. ‘The staff is provided with two vanes or targets fixed at a known distance apart, usually 3 m. ‘The variable stadia interval is measured, and from this value the required horizontal distance may be computed. This method is now rarely used. Il. Tangential Methed :—In this method a staff fitted with two targets or vanes at a fixed distance apart, usually 3 m is held at a station and the vertical angles to the two vancs are observed with a theodolite. This method is used when the telescope of the instrument is not equipped with a stadia diaphragm.Tacheometric Surveying 65 For the complete location of a point with respect to the instrument station (i. e. its horizontal distance and ‘elevation } the following observations are required :— (2) The bearing of the fine joining the instrument station to the point. (2) The vertical angle : an angle of elevation ( + angle) or an angle of depression ( — angle) as recorded on the vertical circle of the transit. (3) The staff readings of the bottom, middle, and top wires. Principle of Stadia Method :—The principle of the stadia method is as follows : Fig. 27. In Fig. 27, let O = the optical centre of the object glass. ‘A’, C, and B! = the top, axial and bottom hairs or lines. B, C, and A = the points on the staff cut by the three,lines. BA’ =the interval between the stadia lines or hairs (BYA’ is the length of the image of BA). BA =S = the staff intercept ( the difference of the stadia) hair readings ). f= the focal length of the object glass, i.e. the distance from the optical centre (Q) to the principal focus (F ) of the lens. Sy = the horizontal distance from the optical centre (©) to the staff. fe = the horizontal distance from the optical centre (O) to the image of the: staff. fy and f, being called the conjugate focal lengths of the lens. S.LHL.566 Surveying And Levelling 4 = the horizontal distance from the optical cen- tre (QO) to the vertical axis of the tacheometer. D = the horizontal distance from the vertical axis of the instrument to the staff. 4* AOB and A’OB’ being similar, os oo ine. or The distance from the vertical axis of the instrument to whe staf =f. 4g “" D=fid=ts5 FFF Ay ee a (1) i The formula is to be used in stadia measurements when the line of sight is horizontal and the staff held vertically, i. e. Perpendicular to the line of sight. The quantities Soandyta i are called the constants of the instrument, their values being usually marked on a card attached to the inside of the box by the maker. The constant : ---$ K po E6088 Fig. 33. (b) When the vertical angle is an angle of depression (—angle ) :—KP, has to be subtracted from 1, cos 0 to obtain the horizontal distance D as is evident from the Fig. 33. D= SF 5 cos 6 + (fd) cos @ — hsin 6 veo vae(10) ‘The expression for the vertical distance V is the same as (8) Elevation (or R. L.) of the staff station P = elevn, of the inst. axis —V—Acos® ve 4. wu (II)%6 Surveying and Levelling When @ is small, & sin’® may be neglected and h cos 0 taken equal to A. Subtense Method (Movable Hair Method ) :—In this method the instruments used are (1) a subtense theodolite and (2) a staff provided with two vanes or targets at some known distance apart, usually 8 to 6 m, ao A third vane is fixed exactly Brent a midway for levelling purposes. =] ‘The subtense theodolite ( Fig. 34) j 2 is equipped with a diaphragm, the er es | axial wire of which is fixed in the optical axis of the telescope ana the other two wires can be moved from the axial wire by means of two finely threaded micrometer screws so as to intercept the distance between the targets. The distance through which either wire is moved from the middie EL one is measured by the number eee turns made by the micrometer wt Oy og] tu Y screw, the whole turns being read on the comb (scale ) seen in field Fig. 34. of view and the fractional parts of a turn on the graduated drums of the micrometer screws, which are placed one above and one below the eyepiece. Thus the dis- tance through which the stadia wires are moved is given by the sum of the micrometer readings. It may be observed that in this method the staff intercept (S) is constant and'the stadia interval is variable. In observing with the instrument, the middle vane or target is first bisected with the axial wiz! the micrometer screws are then simultancously turned to move the stadia wires. When the line of sight is horizontal, the horizontal distance (12) Dis given by D = BS (f+4) in which K and (f+ d) are the constants of the instrument, and nthe sum of the micrometer readings.| Tatheometric Surveying 7 The value of K. varies from 600 to 1000. If there is an index error ¢, D = OUP) say an an en os (FES) When the line of sight is inclined, the formulae 3 to 1] may be used in making the necessary calculation Reduction of Stadia Notes :—In practice, the horizontal and vertical distances are not calculated by the direct application of formulae, since it is laborious. But they are found by the use of (i) stadia tables, [ii ) stadia diagrams, or (iii ) stadia slide rule? The reduction work is also greatly facilitated by the use of an instrument fitted with a Beaman stadia arc, or the direct read- ing tacheometer. In stadia tables the values of cos? and } sin 20 for various values of 0 are given in columns headed as Hor. Dist., and Diff, Elev. for each metre of staff intercept when = 100 i The values of (f+ 4) cos and (f-+d) sin 0 for a few values of f + dare also given for each degree of vertical angle at the bottom of the columns. Thus, suppose the vertical angle is 43°20", and staft intercept 1-75 m. From the tables, the values of cos? 3°20’ and } sin 6° 40’ are found to be 99.66 and 5-80, and those of (f +d) cos 3° and (f-+d) sin 3°, 0-30 and 0-018 for f+ = 0-30, Then the horizontal distance D = 99-66 x 1-75 + 0-30, = 174-7 ft. and the vertical distance V = 5. 80x 1-75 10-17 m. The Beaman Stadia Are (Fig. 35) :—It isa mechnical device fitted to the vertical circle of a theodolite or to the tele- scopic alidade of a plane table. It enables the surveyor to reduce rapidly an inclined stadia distance (1) to the corresponding horizofital distance (.D.\, and the vertical component (V) (differenc- in elevation ) witMout measyring vertical angles and without intricate calculations, or without the use of tables, diagrams, or stadia slide rule. It consists of two scales (1 )'The vertical scale marked V in the figure and (2) the horizontal scale marked H. The graduations ‘on the vertical scale are figured by whole numbers in terms of 100 x 4 sin 20. When the telescope is horizontal, the index I ix opposite the zero graduation.