Anthropometry

Workplace Design

John works in a power plant. As part of his daily job duties,

he monitors several dozen plant status displays. Some of
the displays are located so high that he has to stand on a
stool in order to read the displayed values correctly. Being 6
feet 6 inches tall himself, he wonders how short people
might do the same job. "Lucky me, at least I don't have to
climb a ladder," he calms himself down every time he steps
on the stool.

Susan is a ''floater'' at a manufacturing company. That

means she goes from one workstation to another to fill in for
workers during their breaks. She is proud that she is skilled
at doing different jobs and able to work at different types of
workstations. But she is frustrated that most of the
workstations are too high for her. "One size fits all!? How
come it doesn't fit me, a short person!" She not only feels
uncomfortable working at these stations, but worries every
day that she may hurt herself someday if she overextends
her shoulder or bends forward too much when reaching for a
tool.

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 Anthropometry is the study and measurement of human
body dimensions.

Anthropometric data are used to develop design

guidelines for heights, clearances, grips, and reaches of
workplaces and equipments for the purpose of
accommodating the body dimensions of the potential
workforce.

Examples include the dimensions of workstations for

standing or seated work, production machinery,
supermarket checkout counters, and aisles and
corridors.

Anthropometric data are also applied in the design of

consumer products such as clothes, automobiles,
bicycles, furniture, hand tools, and so on.

Because products are designed for various types of

consumers, an important design requirement is to select
and use the most appropriate anthropometric database
in design.

Grieve and Pheasant (1982) note that "as a rule of

thumb, if we take the smallest female and the tallest
male in a population, the male will be 30-40 percent
taller, 100 percent heavier, and 500 percent stronger'

Clearly, products designed on the basis of male

anthropometric data would not be appropriate for many
female consumers.

When designing for an international market, applying the

data collected from one country to other regions with
significant size differences is inappropriate.

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HUMAN VARIABILITY AND STATISTICS

Human Variability

Age Variability
Everyone knows that the stature of a person changes quickly
from childhood to adolescence. In fact, a number of studies
have compared the stature of people at each year of age.

Sex Variability
Adult men are, on average, taller and larger than adult women.
However, 12-year-old girls are, on average, taller and· heavier
than their male counterparts because girls see their maximum
growth rate from ages 10 to 12 (about 2.5 in./year), whereas boys
see theirs around ages 13 to 15 (about 2.7 in./year). Girls continue
to show noticeable growth each year until about age 17, whereas
the growth rate for boys tapers off gradually until about age 20
(Stout et aI., 1960).

Racial and Ethnic Group Variability

Body size and proportions vary greatly between different
racial and ethnic groups. Anthropometric surveys of black
and white males in the U.s. Air Force show that their
average height was identical, but blacks tended to have
longer arms and legs and shorter torsos than whites (Long
& Churchill, 1965; NASA, 1978). Comparisons of the U.S.
Air Force data with the Japanese Air Force data (Yokohori,
1972) found that the Japanese were shorter in stature, but
their average sitting height did not differ much from the
American data.

Occupational Variability
Differences in body size and dimensions can be easily
observed between people working in different occupational
groups. Professional basketball players are much taller than
most American males. Ballet dancers tend to be thinner
than average.

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Generational or Secular Variability
Annis (1978) graphed the trend of change in stature of the
American population since 1840 and noted that there has
been a growth in stature· of about 1 cm per decade since the
early 1920s. Improved nutrition and living conditions are
offered as some of the possible reasons for this growth.

Transient Diurnal Variability

Kroemer (1987) notes that a person's body weight varies by
up to 1 kg per day because of changes in body water content.
The stature of a person may be reduced by up to 5 cm at the
end of the day, mostly because of the effects of gravitational
force on a person's posture and the thickness of spinal disks.

Statistical Analysis

In order to deal with these variabilities in engineering design,

an anthropometric dimension is analyzed as a statistical
distribution rather than a single value. Normal distribution
(also called Gaussian distribution in some science and
engineering disciplines) is the most commonly used
statistical distribution because it approximates most
anthropometric data quite closely.

Normal Distribution.
The normal distribution can be visualized
as the normal curve, shown as
asymmetric, bell-shaped curve. The mean
and the standard deviation are two key
parameters of the normal distribution. The
mean is a measure of central tendency
that tells us about the concentration of a
group of scores on a scale of
measurement.

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 where M is the mean of the sample, Xi represents the ith
measurement, and N is the sample size.

The standard deviation is a measure of the degree of

dispersion or scatter in a group of measured scores. The
standard deviation, s, is calculated with the following
formula:

Percentiles.
In engineering design, anthropometric data are most
often used in percentiles. A percentile value of an
anthropometric dimension represents the percentage of
the population with a body dimension of a certain size or
smaller. This information is particularly important in
design because it helps us estimate the percentage of a
user population that will be accommodated by a specific
design. For example, if the width of a seat surface is
designed using the 50th percentile value of the hip
breadth of US. males, then we can estimate that about 50
percent of US. males (those with narrower hips) can
expect to have their hips fully supported by this type of
seat surface, whereas the other 50 percent (those with
wider hips) cannot.

For normal distributions, the 50th-percentile value is

equivalent to the mean of the distribution.

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ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA

Anthropometric data collected by different measures usually

requires clearly identifiable body landmarks and fixed points in
space to define the various measurements.

For example, stature is defined as the distance between the

standing surface (often the floor) and the top of the head,
whereas hand length is the distance from the tip of the middle
finger of the right hand to the base of the thumb.

The person being measured is required to adopt a standard

posture specified by a measurer, who applies simple devices on
the body of the subject to obtain the measurements.

To avoid potential ambiguity in interpretation, the following terms

are defined and used in anthropometry (Kroemer, 1987):

Height: A straight-line, point-to-point vertical measurement.

Breadth: A straight-line, point-to-point horizontal measurement

running across the body or segment.

Depth: A straight-line, point-to-point horizontal measurement

running fore-aft the body.

Distance: A straight-line, point-to-point measurement between

body landmarks.

Circumference: A closed measurement following a body

contour, usually not circular.

Curvature: A point-to-point measurement following a body

contour, usually neither circular nor closed.

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Structural and Functional Data

Depending on how they are collected, anthropometric data

can be classified into two types: structural (or static) data
and functional (or dynamic) data. The two types of data
serve different purposes in engineering design.

Structural anthropometric data are measurements of the

body dimensions taken with the body in standard and still
(static) positions.

Examples include stature, shoulder breadth, waist

circumference, length of the forearm, and width of the hand.

Functional anthropometric data are obtained when the body

adopts various working postures (i.e., when the body
segments move with respect to standard reference points in
space).

The flexion-extension range of wrist motion and the ulnar-

radial range of wrist motion (measures 41 and 42 in Figure
10.4) are examples of functional data.

Another example is the reach envelope.

For example, the area that can be reached by the right hand
of a standing person defines a standing reach envelope of the
right hand, which provides critical information for workspace
design for right-handed standing workers.

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Anthropometric measures:
standing and sitting.
(Source: Eastman Kodak
Company, 1986.
Ergonomic Design for
People at Work, Vol. 1.
New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold.)

Anthropometric
measures: hand, face,
and foot.

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 Most anthropometric data are static, although work
activities can be more accurately represented by dynamic
data.

Because standard methods do not exist that allow one to

convert static into dynamic data, the following procedure
suggested by Kroemer (1983) may be useful for designers
to make estimates:

1. Heights (stature, eye, shoulder, hip) should be reduced

by 3 percent.

2. Elbow height requires no change or an increase of up

to 5 percent if elbow needs to be elevated for the work.

3. Forward and lateral reach distances should be

decreased by 30 percent if easy reach is desirable, and
they can be increased by 20 percent if shoulder and trunk
motions are allowed.

Use of Anthropometric Data in Design

Data contained in anthropometric tables provide critical

information with which designers can design workplaces
and products.

Use of the data, however, requires a thorough analysis of

the design problem.

The following procedure provides a systematic approach

for the use of anthropometric data in design:

1. Determine the user population (the intended users). The

key question is, Who will use the product or workplace?
People of different age groups have different physical
characteristics and requirements. Other factors that must also
be considered include gender, race, and ethnic groups;
military or civilian populations.

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 2. Determine the relevant body dimensions. The key
question is, Which body dimensions are most important for
the design problem? For example, the design of a doorway
must consider the stature and shoulder width of the
intended users. The width of a seat surface must
accommodate the hip breadth of the users.

3. Determine the percentage of the population to be

accommodated. Although a .simple answer to this
problem is that we should accommodate 100 percent of
the population, this answer is not practical or desirable in
many design situations because of various financial,
economical, and design constraints. For most design
problems, designers try to accommodate as large a
proportion of the intended, User population as possible
within these constraints. There are three main approaches
to this problem.

The first approach is called design for extremes, which

means that for the design of certain physical dimensions of
the workplace or living environment, designers should use
the anthropometric 'data from extreme individuals,
sometimes at one end and sometimes at both ends of the
anthropometric scale in question. One example is the
strength of supporting devices. Designers need to use the
body weight of the heaviest users in designing the devices
to ensure that the devices are strong enough to support all
potential users of the devices.

The second approach, called design for

adjustable range, suggests that
designers should design certain
dimensions of equipment or facilities in
a way that they can be adjusted to the
individual users. Common examples
include seats and steering wheels of
automobiles and office chairs and
desks.

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According to the third approach, design for the
average, designers may use average
anthropometric values in the design of certain
dimensions if it is impractical or not feasible to
design for extremes or for adjustability
because of various design constraints. Many
checkout counters in department stores and
supermarkets, for example, are designed for
customers of average height. Although they
are not ideal for every customer, they are more
convenient to use for most customers than
those checkout counters that are either too low
or too high. Clearly, it is impractical to adjust
the height· of a counter for each customer.

4. Determine the percentile value of the selected

anthropometric dimension. The key design questions are,
Which percentile value of the relevant dimension should be
used: 5th, 95th, or some other value? Should the percentile
value b~ selected from the male data or the female data? The
percentage of the population to be accommodated determines
the percentile value of the relevant anthropometric dimension
to be used in design.

5. Make necessary design modifications to the data from the

anthropometric tables. Most anthropometric measures are taken
with nude or nearly nude persons, a method that helps
standardize measurements but does not reflect real-life
situations. Clothing can change body size considerably. A light
shirt for the summer is very different from a heavy coat for winter
outdoor activities. Therefore, necessary adjustments must be
made in workplace design to accommodate these changes.

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 6. Use mock-ups or simulators to test the design.
Designers often need to evaluate whether the design
meets the requirements by building mock-ups or
simulators with representative users carrying out
simulated tasks. This step is important because various
body dimensions are measured separately in a
standardized anthropometric survey, but there may
exist complicated interactions between the various
body dimensions in performing a job. Mock-ups can
help reveal potential interactions and help designers
make necessary corrections to their preliminary design.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR WORKSPACE DESIGN

There are many ways in which a workplace can be

adjusted. The following summarizes four general
approaches to workplace adjustment that should be
considered in workplace design (Eastman Kodak
Company, 1986).

1. Adjusting the workplace. The shape, location, and

orientation. of the workplace may be adjusted to achieve a
good fit between the worker and the task. For example, front
surface cutouts can be used to allow the worker to move
closer to the reach point so that reach requirement can be
minimized. Reach distance may also be reduced by height
and orientation adjustments relative to the worker and other
equipments involved in the same task.

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2. Adjusting the worker position relative to the workplace.
When workplace adjustments are not feasible because
they conflict with the requirements of other vital
equipment or services or because they exceed budget
constraints, designers may consider various ways of
adjusting the working position relative to the workplace.
Change in seat height and use of platforms or step-up
stools are some of the means of achieving vertical
adjustability. A swing chair may be used to change the
orientation of the worker relative to the equipment.

3. Adjusting the workpiece. Lift tables or forklift trucks

can be used to adjust the height of a workpiece. Jigs,
clamps, and other fixtures can be used to hold a
workpiece in a position and orientation for easy viewing
and operation. Parts bins can help organize items for
easier access.

4. Adjusting the tool. An adjustable-length hand tool can

allow. People with different arm lengths to reach objects
at different distances. In an assembly plant, such tools
can allow a worker to access all otherwise inaccessible
workpiece. Similarly, in a lecture hall, a changeable-
length pointing stick allows a speaker to point to items
displayed on varying locations of a projection screen
without much change in his or her standing position and
posture.

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 Component Arrangement

Part of a workplace designer's task is to arrange the displays

and controls, equipment and tools, and other parts and
devices within some physical space.

The general issue is to increase overall movement efficiency

and reduce total movement distance, whether this is
movement of the hands, of the feet, or of the total body
through locomotion.

Principles of display layout, previously mentioned (hopefully

still remembered), can be extended to the more general
design problem of component arrangements.

These principles may be even more critical when applied to

components than to displays, since movement of the hands
and body to reach those components requires greater effort
than movement of the eyes (or attention) to see the displays.

1. Frequency of use principle. The most frequently used

components should be placed in most convenient locations.
Frequently used displays should be positioned in the primary
viewing area, shown here; frequently used hand tools should
be close to the dominant hand, and frequently used foot
pedals should be close to the right foot.

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 2. Importance principle. Those components that are more
crucial to the achievement of system goals should be
located in the convenient locations. Depending on their
levels of importance for a specific application, displays and
controls can be prioritized as primary and secondary.
Primary displays should be located close to the primary
viewing area, which is the space in front of an operator and
10° to 15° within the normal line of sight. Secondary displays
can be located at the more peripheral locations. One
suggested method of arranging controls according to their
priority is shown here.

3. Sequence of use principle. Components used in sequence

should be located next to each other, and their layout should
reflect the sequence of operation. If an electronic assembly
worker is expected to install an electronic part on a device
immediately after picking the part up from a parts bin, then the
parts bin should be close to the device if possible.

4. Consistency principle. Components should be laid out with

the same component located in the same spatial locations to
minimize memory and search requirements. Consistency
should be maintained both within the same workplace and
across workplaces designed for similar functions.

Of course, for cars, this may not apply as some manufacturers

may want to “stand-out” from their competition.

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5. Control-display compatibility principle of colocation.
This is a specific form of stimulus-response compatibility
discussed in previous slides. In the context of
arrangement, this principle states that control devices
should be close to their associated displays, and in the
case of multiple controls and displays, the layout of
controls should reflect the layout of displays to make
visible the control display relationship.

6. Clutter-avoidance principle. We discussed the

importance of avoiding display clutter; clutter avoidance is
equally important in the arrangement of controls. Adequate
space must be provided between adjacent controls such
as buttons, knobs, and pedals to minimize the risk of
accidental activation.

7. Functional grouping principle. Components with closely

related functions should be placed close to each other.
Displays and controls associated with power supply, for
example, should be grouped together, whereas those
responsible for communications should be close to each
other. Various groups of related components should be
easily and clearly identifiable. Colors, shapes, sizes, and
separation borders are some of the means to distinguish
the groups.

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DESIGN OF STANDING AND SEATED WORK AREAS

In most job environments, workers either stand or sit during

work.

Standing workplaces are usually used where the workers

need to make frequent movements in a large work area,
handle heavy or large objects, or exert large forces with their
hands.

Long-duration standing duty is also observed in the service

industry, such as the jobs of the airline or hotel reservation
clerks and bank tellers.

Because prolonged standing is a strainful posture that puts

excessive load on the body and may lead to body fluid
accumulation in the legs, a worker should not be required to
stand for long time without taking a break.

Whenever possible, a seated workplace should be

used for long-term duration jobs, because a seated
posture is much easier to maintain and much less of
a strain to the body.

It also allows for better controlled arm movements,

provides a stronger sense of balance and safety, and
improves blood circulation.

Workplace designers must make sure, however, that

leg room (leg and knee clearance) is provided for the
seated worker.

Furthermore, prolonged sitting can be harmful to the

lower back.

Seated workplaces should also be provided with

adjustable chairs and footrests, and workers should
be allowed to stand up and walk around after a period
of seated work.

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Work Surface Height

The nature of the tasks being performed should determine the

correct work surface height for standing or seated work.

A simple but useful rule of thumb to determine the work

surface height is to design standing working heights at 5 to 10
cm (2-4 in.) below elbow level and to design seated working
heights at elbow level unless the job requires precise
manipulation or great force application (Ayoub, 1973;
Grandjean, 1988; Eastman Kodak Company, 1986).

Whether seated or standing, precise manipulation calls for

working heights above the elbow level; the work surface must
be raised to a level at which the worker can see clearly
without bending his or her back forward.

Great force application or coarse work involving much

movement requires working heights lower than that specified by
the rule of thumb but should not be so low that there is not
enough knee or leg room left under the work surface.

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Work Surface Depth

An important concept in determining work surface depth is normal

and maximum work areas.

These areas were first proposed by Farley (1955) and Barnes

(1963).

The areas defined by Barnes are shown in the next slide, in which
the normal work area in horizontal plane is the area covered by a
sweep of the forearm without extending the upper arm, and the
maximum work area is the area defined by a sweep of the arm by
extending the arm from the shoulder.

In defining the normal work area, Barnes assumes that the elbow
stays at a fixed point.

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Work Surface Inclination

Most work surfaces are designed as horizontal surfaces.

However, a number of studies have shown that slightly slanted

surfaces (about 15°) should be used for reading.

Eastman and Kamon (1976) and Bridger (1988) found that

slant surfaces improve body posture, involve less trunk
movement, require less bending of the neck, and produce less
worker fatigue and discomfort.

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