ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

Technical Report Writing and Research Methods in Water

Resources and Irrigation Engineering
(WRIE 3181)
(Summer Course for 4th Year Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering Students)

By

Mengistu Sime Biratu (PhD), Associate Professor

July 2016
Adama, Ethiopia

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Chapter One: Introduction

1.1Definition of Research

The term research come into English from French word: “Cerchier”, meaning to search or seek
and the prefix re, meaning again and again.

The following is the process.

Person ------- observes again & again ------ Phenomena ------- Data collection
& analysis ------ Conclusions

Therefore, research means to observe the phenomena again and again from different dimensions.
Research can be broadly defined as original and creative intellectual activity, carried out in the
laboratory, the library or the field, which endeavors to discover new facts and to appraise and
interpret them properly in the light of previous knowledge. With constantly increasing
understanding, it revises previously accepted conclusions, theories and laws, and makes new
applications of its findings.
In brief, research can be summarized as “a process of enquiry and investigation; it is systematic,
methodical and ethical; research can help solve practical problems and increase knowledge.” Or it is the
process of using tools and techniques to discover new truths and relationships in the world we
live in, by sophisticated empirical study.

1.2 Purpose of Research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Each research study has its own specific purpose.
The purpose of research is:
• To discover answers to questions by applying scientific procedures. The scientific
procedure is also developed to increase the likelihood that the information gathered
would be relevant to the question asked and will be reliable and unbiased.
• To solve the problems that faced to our country concerning water resources and irrigation
engineering.
• Used in decision making.
• Generally, research is a real life situation, the process of locating and evaluating
information.

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1.3 Types of Research

There are two systems of classifying research:

• Classification based on the goal or purpose of the research
• Classification based on the way research is conducted

A) Based on goal or purpose of research; there are two types of research

 Basic research, also called fundamental or pure research- expand science and knowledge.
 Applied research - find a solution to an immediate problem.

1.3.1 Basic Research

It is a fundamental theoretical or experimental investigation to advance or improve scientific
knowledge whose immediate application is not being a direct objective.
Objectives of the basic research
Basic research embraces origin or unique investigation for the advancement of knowledge. It is
designed to add an organized body of scientific knowledge and does not necessarily produce
results of immediate practical value.
Its objectives are:
 To provide a better understanding of the phenomenon under investigation i.e. adding to
the existing body of knowledge in the discipline - gathering knowledge for knowledge’s
sake.
 To discover or illustrate theories and general principles in general, basic research is
carried out to understand the basic knowledge that can be used in a wide variety of
applied research.
For example, researches concerning some phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics, physics,
chemistry, etc are examples of basic research.

1.3.2 Applied Research

• Applied research is undertaken to solve an immediate practical problem and the goal of
adding to scientific knowledge is secondary. It aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industry or business organization, where basic

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 research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with formulation of a theory. It is a
type of research done to solve specific and practical problems and to produce knowledge
and technologies that can be used in practice. Applied research is directed towards using
knowledge gained from basic research in solving specific practical problems; and
practicability is an important property of applied research
Its objectives are:

• To solve practical problems of society, company or business organization rather than to

acquire knowledge for knowledge sake.
• To solve an immediate practical problems or to find a solution to some pressing practical
problems.
For example, researches relating to design and testing of water pumping machine, improving
natural resources degradation, improving irrigation water requirements of crops, etc are
examples of applied research.
However, in developing countries, like Ethiopia with limited research resources, applied research
is given priority.
Applied research can be further classified as:
 Adaptive research
 Strategic research

i) Adaptive research
 It is a type of research designed to adjust new technologies generated elsewhere to a
specific set of environmental conditions.
 It involves taking applied research results that developed elsewhere and adapting them to
a specific situation or environment. In adaptive research, no new scientific principle is to
be developed.
 Testing of such technology are useful before going to supply to the communities.

ii) Strategic research

 It is a research aimed at solving specific research problems of strategic importance.
 It aimed at defining research strategies and priority areas in which specific applied
research should focus.

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For example, researches conducted to solve food security problems, policy research, credit
service; effective extension system, etc are examples of strategic research.

B) Classification based on the way research is conducted

Based on attributes to be measured and the techniques used for collection and analysis of data,
there are two types of research.

 Quantitative research - is a research based on the measurement of quantity or amount-

number. E.g. height, weight & yield.
 Qualitative research - is conducted mainly in social sciences and is concerned with
qualitative phenomena. Interviews are used in these types of researches.

Differences between quantitative and qualitative researches:

Qualitative paradigm Quantitative paradigm

Concerned with understanding behaviour from Seek the facts/causes of phenomena
actor’s own frames of reference
Naturalistic and uncontrolled observation Obtrusive and controlled measurement
Subjective Objective
Grounded, discovery-oriented, exploratory, Ungrounded, verification oriented, deductive
descriptive, inductive
Process-oriented Outcome-oriented
Ungeneralizable, single case study Generalizable, multiple case studies

Research can be grouped as:

 Experimental
 Non-experimental

Experimental research: - is a type of research in which at least one variable called the
experimental variable is deliberately manipulated or varied by the researcher to determine the
effect of that variation. Experimental research is conducted under controlled condition to observe

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the behavior of the variable(s) of interest. It is carried out in laboratory, greenhouse or in the
field.

When we say controlled experiment, it means a situation is created which enables us to control
all factors that are not under the interest of the study or research, and measures the influence of
the factor(s) of interest.

For example, “Effects of Irrigation Water Management on Sugarcane Yield at Wonji-Shoa Sugar
Estate.” In this experiment the research interest is irrigation water management. All other factors
like soil type and fertility, fertilizer type and rate, variety type and seed rate, moisture/irrigation
application time and method, chemical application rate, type and method, weeding type and
frequency, etc. all are out of the interest of this study/research and they are equally applied. Then
we can see irrigation water effect on the yield from the data we collected and analyzed after the
completion of the experiment.

Under laboratory and greenhouse conditions it is possible to control all factors, thus the effects of
the treatments/experimental variables can be measured more precisely. For example, we can
control temperature, light, relative humidity (RH), moisture, etc. But under field condition, there
are numerous variables, which cannot be controlled. However, their effects are minimized by
employing certain statistical techniques (i.e., blocking, replication, covariance analysis, etc).

Non-experimental research: - Here the data are obtained not from actual laid out experiments,
but from survey research where respondents are either interviewed or provided with
questionnaire to generate data. The researcher collects data on the existing variables using the
techniques of sample survey. Gathering information from secondary sources such as archives,
libraries, personal communications do not involve experimentation and they are non-
experimental researches.

Both the interview and questionnaire techniques of data collection in a non-experimental

research involve careful questionnaire format construction (closed/open end type), careful
sample selection (representativeness of the sample), should be supplemented by secondary data
(from Libraries, Industries, Research Institutes, Federal and Regional Bureaus of Water
Resources and Irrigation, Central Statistics Agency/CSA, etc.)

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In survey, the researcher collects data on existing variables (e.g. Irrigation water availability,
crops, farmers, etc.) using the techniques of sample survey. For example, a survey on Sugarcane
landraces type and distribution in Ethiopia, measuring width and height of Mango tree samples
in an existing orchard farm is not experimental, but non-experimental research.

At least two major types of surveys are used by researchers:

 Descriptive
 Analytical.
A descriptive survey attempts to picture or document current conditions or attitudes, that i.e., to
describe what exists at the moment.
An Analytical survey attempts to describe and explain why certain situations exist. In this
approach two or more variables are usually examined to test research hypothesis. The results
allow researchers to examine interrelationships among variables and to draw explanatory
inferences.

1.4 Research Motives

Research might have one or more of the following motives:

 Desire to get research degree along with its consequential benefits.

 Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problem, i.e., concern over practical
problems might initiate research.
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work, desire to get respectability.
 Desire to be of service to society and employment conditions.

1.5 Importance Aspects of Scientific Research Methods in Engineering

From engineering points view, research can be describe as the process of using tools and
techniques to generate and adapt new technologies, by sophisticated empirical study.
Procedures to be followed in inventing new technologies:
 Designing of prototype
 Measuring the parameters
 Testing of the parameters vs. the existing technology
 Validation of the findings

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1.6 Steps in Scientific Research Methods

1.6.1 Definitions

Scientific research may be defined as a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical

investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among observed
phenomena. This definition contains the basic terms necessary in defining the method of
scientific research, and describes a procedure that has been accepted for centuries.
Scientific research method is a systematic body of procedures and techniques applied in
carrying out investigation or experimentation targeted at obtaining new knowledge.
Scientific research can be summarized as follow:
 A process of rigorous reasoning based on interaction among theories, methods and
findings;
 Builds on understandings derived from the objective testing models or theories;
 Accumulation of scientific knowledge is laborious/tedious plodding, circuitous and
indirect;
 Scientific knowledge is developed and honed through critique contested findings,
replication and convergence;
 Scientific knowledge is developed through sustained efforts, and
 Scientific enquiry must be guided by “fundamental principles”.

1.6.2 Fundamental Principles of Scientific Research

1. Ask significant questions that can be answered empirically.
2. Link research to relevant theory.
3. Select and apply research designs and methods that permit direct investigation of the
question.
4. Provide a coherent and explicit chain of reasoning that can be replicated.
5. Replicate and generalize across studies.
6. Report research publicly to encourage professional scrutiny, critique and replication.

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1.6.3 Components in Scientific Research

1. Logical: Based on reasoning

2. Deterministic: All events have causes; nothing just happens without reason or is based on
probabilistic form of determination.
3. General: General understanding rather than explaining individual events.
4. Parsimonious: Discovering both factors that determine the events as well as those don’t.
5. Specific: To generalize, research must be specific and precise in measuring events.
6. Empirically verifiable: quantifiable
7. Open for modification: Utility rather than ultimate truth. No scientist has yet discovered
or will discover “The Truth”.

1.6.4 Characteristics of the Scientific Method

Five basic characteristics, or principles, distinguish the scientific method from other methods of
knowing. A research approach that does not follow these principles cannot be considered to be a
scientific approach.
1. Scientific research is public. Scientific advancement depends on freely available
information.
2. Science is objective. Science tries to rule out peculiarities of judgment by researchers.
3. Science is empirical. Researchers are concerned with a world that is knowable and
potentially measurable. Empiricism is derived from the Greek word for experience.
4. Science is systematic and cumulative. No single research study stands alone, nor does it
rise or fall by itself. Researchers always utilize previous studies as building blocks for
their own work. One of the first steps taken in conducting research is to review the
available scientific literature on the topic so that the current study will draw on the
heritage of past research. This review is valuable for identifying problem areas and
important factors that might be relevant to the current study.
5. Science is concerned with relating the present to the future. In fact, scientists strive to
develop theories because, for one reason, they are useful in predicting behaviour. A
theory’s adequacy lies in its ability to a phenomenon or event successfully. If a theory
suggests predictions that are not borne out by data analysis, that theory must be carefully

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 reexamined and perhaps discarded. Conversely, if a theory generates predictions that are
supported by the data, that theory can be used to make predictions in other situations.

1.6.5 Criteria for good research

 Systematic: structured with specified steps or specified sequences in accordance with
well defined rules.
 Logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the
logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the
process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very
premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of
decision making.
 Empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real
situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to
research results.
 Replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the
study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

1.6.6 Characteristics of good research

 Purpose of the research clearly defined
 Research procedure described in detail
 Research design thoroughly planned
 Limitations frankly revealed
 High ethical standard applied
 Analysis of the data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance
 Findings presented unambiguously
 Conclusions justified

Greater confidence in the research is warranted if the researcher is experienced

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1.6.7 Research Procedures
The use of the scientific method of research is intended to provide an objective, unbiased
evaluation of data.
The typical eight-steps in scientific research process include:
1. Select a problem
2. Review existing research and theory (when relevant)
3. Develop hypotheses or research questions
4. Determine an appropriate methodology/research design
5. Collect relevant data
6. Analyze and interpret the results
7. Present the results in appropriate form
8. Replicate the study (when necessary)

Schematically, the following is a research model appropriate to all areas of scientific research
(see fig. 1 below).

Fig. 1. A Research Model

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1.6.8 Research Process

The research process is cyclic in nature and consists of series of actions or steps necessary to
effectively carry out research. The followings are desired sequencing of these steps (see fig. 2
below).

Fig. 2. Research process

1.6.9 Research methods/techniques and methodology

Research methods refer to the behaviour and instruments used in selecting and constructing
research technique.
Research techniques refer to the behaviour and instruments we use in performing research
operations such as making observations, recording data, techniques of processing data and the
like.
For instance, the difference between research methods and techniques of data collection can
better be understood from the details given in the following chart (see table 1 below).

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Table 1. Difference between research methods & techniques

From what has been stated above, we can say that methods are more general. It is the methods
that generate techniques. However, in practice, the two terms are taken as interchangeable and
when we talk of research methods we do, by implication, include research techniques within
their scope.
Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the
collection of data. These methods will be used where the data already available
are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for
establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the
accuracy of the results obtained.

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Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the analytical
tools of research.

Research methodology. Is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be

understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.
In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his/her
research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not
only the research methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to
know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or
the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also
need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what
would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also need to understand the assumptions
underlying various techniques and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that
certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. All
this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design his/her methodology for the problem
as the same may differ from problem to problem.

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Chapter Two: Research Planning

2.1 Introduction

Research required at any level and then planning is required for research. Research planning
involves detailed description of:

 Activities to be undertaken;
 Manpower, funds and facilities required, and
 Methods of implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the project.

Therefore, properly planned experiment is said to be half- executed or completed (as illustrated
in the fig. 3 below).

Fig. 3. Research design

Research design is a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research study and
hence scheme of the research. It is a planned sequence of the entire process involved in
conducting a research. It is a mapping strategy.

It is essentially a statement of the object of the inquiry and the strategies for collecting the
evidences, analyzing the evidences and reporting the findings. A research proposal must tell a

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reader, reviewer, supervisor or donor what is proposed to be done, how to proceed about it, and
why the proposed strategy is needed.

The general principles to be followed for planning research are:

 Identification, definition and selection of problems and areas on which research is

focused;
 Identification of the key activities involved in the proposed research;
 Arrangement of the program, and
 Coordination, monitoring and evaluation of the implementation of the project.

Based on the above general principles, there are about seven steps in the planning
processes:

 Step 1. Problem identification is required.

 Step 2. Rank each of the problems with respect to their distribution (importance) - who
suffer most, importance of the technology and severity of the problem, helps us to identify
the most important one.

 Step 3. To identify the causes of each problem and construct a flow diagram for each one.
The cause and effect relationship was drawn for further analysis.

 Step 4. Analyzing of intervention points based on cause and effect relationship.

 Step 5. Possible solution should be forwarded to the problems.

 Step 6. Evaluation of the possible solutions if available elsewhere in terms of profitability,

compatibility with the system in the area and ease of technology used by end-users.

 Step 7. For researchable solutions, prepare outline for trials and diagnostic studies and
estimate the resources required.

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2.2 Writing Research Proposal

Most students and beginners/young researchers do not fully understand what a research proposal
means, nor do they understand its importance.

To put it directly, one’s research is only as good as one’s proposal.

Proposal lexically means a course of action, activity, etc., proposed. Thus, a research proposal
may be defined as “a written document requesting both authorizations and funds to undertake a
specific project in the laboratory, library, field, etc.” It is a plan which contain steps what must
be done, is a document that describes an idea that has not been researched.

The theoretical setting of research has consequences for scientific proposal writing. It enables a
universe of discourse, which mandates accuracy and clarity, and objective-oriented points of
view. There is no a hard and fast format in scientific research writing. It varies from one
organization to another. Though the format varies, the essence expressed in different format
remains the same.

All research proposals must address the following question:

 What you plan to accomplish?

 Why you want to do it?
 How you are going to do it?

The proposal should have sufficient information to convince your reader that you have an
important research idea, that you have a good grasp of the relevant literature and the major
issues, and that your methodology is sound.

2.2.1 Purpose of Proposal Writing

 Ideas and procedures are clearly defined and spelled out.

 Gaps and errors are easier to recognize and correct when the plan is seen on paper than
the plan is in one’s mind.
 A written proposal can be studied by anyone whose advice is desired or whose approval
is required.

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  A written proposal constitutes a permanent record of the procedures that should be
followed and referred in the course of the study.

2.2.2 Quality of a Research Proposal

 The research proposal should not be too long, nor should it be crowded with too many
technical terms or scientific jargons - it have negative effect on the decision of the
reviewers.
 Research proposal should be:
 clear, simple, and carefulness, brief, should be financially and economically
feasible - more impressive than voluminous ones;
 technically capable;
 the proposed budget should be reasonable - not ambitious or too low, and
 soundness of the methodology to be adopted.

The researcher should also give a serious thought to the style and language of the proposal.
Commonly accepted standards of proposal preparation should be employed. It must also be
prepared in such a way that grammatically correct sentences are used. The proposal should/must
be edited for style and language.

No matter how important it is in terms of soundness of methodology and financial feasibility, a

proposal with grammatical errors would have unavoidable effect on the decisions made by
reviewers.

2.2.3 Choose a Topic

The first step in a research process is the choice of researchable problem for investigation. A
topic may be defined as an area within a given field of study that the researcher would like to
explore in his/her research.

Potential sources of research topics are:

 Own personal/professional experiences;

 Inference from theory and professional literature, and
 Technological and social changes.

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Things to bear in mind when choosing research topics:

 How much choice you have?

 Your motivation
 Regulations and expectations
 You subject and field of study
 Previous examples of research projects
 The size of your topic
 The time you have available
 The cost of the research
 The resources you have available
 Your need for support
 Access issues
 Methods for researching

Research topics may be of:

 Indicative type
 Hanging type
 Question type

Indicative titles: - are the most common type of research titles. They state the subject of the
proposal rather than expected output.

Examples;

 Minimum tillage practice as an alternative on furrow irrigation system at Metahara and

Tendaho Sugar Factories
 Rainwater harvesting as an adaptation strategy to climate change
 Managing water in agriculture for food production and other ecosystem services

Hanging titles: If the title written in the form of indicative form becomes too long, it can be
written in the hanging form. Hanging titles have two parts: a general first part followed by a
more specific second part separated by a colon (:) or hyphen (-).

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Examples;

 Alleviation of poverty in low-potential areas of Ethiopia: the impact of agricultural credit

 Performance of irrigation: an assessment study at different small scales in Ethiopia
 Integrated water management: emerging issues and challenges

Question types: are titles that are used less commonly than others. However, they are acceptable
where it is possible to use few words.

Example;

 Does irrigation water matters for rural poverty alleviation?

 Does agricultural credit alleviate poverty in low-potential areas of Ethiopia?

2.3 Basic Components of a Research Proposal

Research proposals may differ in style of presentation depending upon the financing agencies;
however, all share some common features as regarding their contents. The following are the major
components of research proposals.

2.3.1 Title/Project Title

2.3.2 Abstract/Summary
2.3.3 Study Background
2.3.1.1 Introduction
2.3.1.2 Problem Identification and Formulation
2.3.1.3 Research Questions/Hypothesis
2.3.1.4 Objectives Setting
2.3.1.5 Significance of the Study
2.3.1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study
2.3.4 Literature Review
2.3.5 Research Methodology/Research Methods and Materials
2.3.6 Work Plan/Time Frame
2.3.7 Research Budget
2.3.8 References

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2.3.1 Title
It is also known as the topic. The title is the most widely read part of the proposal. It should be
concise enough to easily capture the attention of the reader. It should be clear, short,
unambiguous and explicit (reflect content and the problems to be solved).

The title should contain the key words. The words you use in your title should clearly reflect the
focus of your proposal. The most important words come first, and then the less important words.
It should contain the name of the author/researcher and advisor.

 Try to remove words from your title that really are not necessary for understanding.

 Try and use only a single sentence for your title.

 A good title contain as few words as possible, describe the contents of the paper
accurately, describe the subject as specifically as possible.

 Easy to understand and does not promise more than what is in the paper.

Example;

 Land degradation (this title is very broad). To make this title more specific we write as:
“Current Status and Future Trends of Land Degradation in the Arsi-Bale Massifs.”

2.3 2 Abstract/Summary – Optional

It is the executive summary of the research proposal. It should present highlights of the main
aspects of the proposal concisely and clearly. A good informative abstract starts by starting the
problem to be solved through the work proposed, specifying the significance of the problem.

It covers the purpose, expected outputs, beneficiaries, and expected impacts of the work. A good
technique is to write a draft abstract/concept note before writing the main proposal. This gives
you an outline for your proposal of the key component and thus guides the writing of the
complete proposal.

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2.3.3 Study Background

2.3.3.1 Introduction

It provides a brief and concise theoretical background with regard to the existing knowledge/the
issues at hand to our title. The theoretical background should cover the importance or
significance of the study, its rationale or justification. The problem(s) to be addressed should be
clearly stated, including what has been done and why it should be addressed urgently. The
introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem area, with a focus on a
specific research problem.

Statement of the problem constitutes the scientific justification for the study. The problem
statement should make convincing argument that there exists not sufficient knowledge to explain
the problem and its possible alternative solutions.

The significant content of the justification is that no work has been carried out to solve the stated
problem, or that little work has been carried out to try to solve the stated problem. Set the
delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research. Cite previous projects and studies that are
similar to what you are proposing.

2.3.3.2 Problem Identification and Formulation

Once the topic is identified the next step will be to clearly define the research problem.

Points to be considered when selecting a problem:

 A subject that is overdone should be avoided.

 Controversial subjects are not recommended.
 Too narrow or too broad or vague problems should not be selected.
 The subject selected should be familiar and feasible.
 The importance of the subject should be considered.
 The qualification and training of the researcher.
 The cost involved and the time factor.

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Note that a problem well defined is half solved! Effective problem statement answers the
question why does the research need to be conducted. If the problem is well defined, it helps the
researcher to:

 Differentiate relevant data from irrelevant ones.

 To lay boundaries within which to study.
 To be on the right track.

Steps in defining research problem:

 Understanding the nature of the problem more clearly (by discussing it with others…).
 Survey of available and relevant literature.

This enables the researcher to:

 Find out what data available for operational purposes.

 Find out if there is a gap in theories.
 Find out whether the existing theory is applicable to the problem under study.
 Develop the idea through discussion.
 Rephrasing and formulating research problems - researchable questions.

2.3.3.3 Research Questions and/or Hypothesis

After a general research area has been identified and the existing literature reviewed, the
researcher must state the problem as a workable hypothesis or research question. A hypothesis
is a formal statement regarding the relationship between variables, and it is tested directly. The
predicted relationship between variables is either true or false.

On the other hand, a research question is a formally stated question intended to provide
indications about something, and it is not limited to investigating relationships between
variables. Research questions are generally used in situations where a researcher is unsure about
the nature of the problem under investigation. The intent is merely to gather preliminary data.

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However, testable hypotheses are often developed from information gathered during the research
question phase of the study.

2.3.3.4 Objectives

The next step after the statement of the problems is setting up the objectives. Informs the
reader/evaluators what the researcher wants to achieve through the study. It must be stated
clearly and specifically under the heading of major and specific objectives. The general objective
provides a short statement of the scientific goal to be pursued by the research. The specific
objectives are operational in nature. These are the objectives against which the success of the
research will be judged. Specific objectives should originate from the general objective and may
be stated in action-oriented such as:

 to determine
 to find out
 to assess
 to measure
 to express

The wording of objective determines the type of research design you need to adopt to achieve
them. Make sure that the objectives are SMART (as described in fig 4 below).

Fig. 4. Mode of objectives setting

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2.3.3.5 Significance of Study

Indicate how your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the area under
investigation.

2.3.3.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study

Explain things that you are not doing and why you have chosen not to do them – boundary of the
problem to be investigated.

2.3.4 Literature Review

It means locating literature in a variety of sources, reading it carefully and thoroughly, evaluating
the content, breaking it down themes and organizing it into themes along the investigation.
Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the introduction section. However, most
scholars/professors prefer a separate section, which allows a more thorough review of the
literature.

Some questions that a literature review can answer see fig. 5 below).

Fig. 5. Configuration of questions that literature review can answer

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  Reviewing literature: - builds on the platform of existing knowledge (as described in the
figs. 6 & 7below).

Fig. 6. Platform of existing knowledge vs. expected new research finding

Fig. 7. Platform of existing knowledge vs. expected new research finding

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Sources of Information:

 Books
 Journals
 Summaries or abstracts
 Proceedings
 Dissertations
 Reports and policies
 Knowledgeable persons
 Publications of international organizations
 Unpublished sources

Importance of literature review:

 To gain background knowledge of the research topic - to know whether the problem has
been studied - identification of knowledge gaps.
 To know the recommendations of the previous researchers for further study.
 To identify data sources, appropriate methodology, research design and methods of
measuring.
 To learn how others structured their reports.

Plan your literature review like this:

 Decide on what information is useful.

 Determine how you should organize what is gathered.
 Set up an ordinary recording or note-taking system.
 Skim or read the material.
 Summary of important points should be recorded on the card.

Thus, literature review serves several important functions: ensures that you are not ‘reinventing
the wheel’, gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research. It
demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem and your ability to critically evaluate
relevant literature.

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It also demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to your
research question. Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature.
Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual framework for your
research.

Literature review convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and
substantial contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving important theoretical issues or filling a
major gap in the literature). Always refer to the original source!

It is generally best to start globally and then narrow it down to the specific research question you
have.

GENERAL

SPECIFIC

You want to synthesize and merge what others had done, not just string a bunch of quotes
together.

E.g. ---- (Kebede, 2010; Abebe, 2009; Jemal, 2008) => Yes

 Kebede (2010) says --------

 Abebe (2009) believes ------ Not good
 Jemal (2008) says ----------

Most students’ literature reviews suffer to the following problems:

 Lacking organization
 Lacking focus, unity and coherence
 Being repetitive and verbose

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  Failing to cite influential papers
 Failing to keep up with recent development
 Failing to critically evaluate cited papers
 Citing irrelevant or trivial references
 Depending too much on secondary sources

Therefore, your scholarship and research competence will be questioned if any of the above
applies to your proposal. Literature review should be concerned with literature that is specific to
the topic of the research proposal. Only pertinent information should be included in the review.
Any relevant local information obtained from formal literature and personal communications
should be included as long as the researcher feels that it would have positive contribution
towards the overall development of the proposal.

It is very important that the researcher refer all activities in the bibliography. Otherwise, if he/she
uses somebody’s work without acknowledgment, he/she would be accused for plagiarism or
intellectual piracy. Moreover, any person who wants to read and know more about the quoted
idea can do so if the source is properly indicated.

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2.3.5 Materials and methods/methodology
 This part is the heart of the proposal.
 The methods are central to scientific research, and are largely descriptive.
 Methodology generally addresses issues related to data collection, sample size and
sampling techniques, data analysis, etc. It should explain how each specific objective
will be achieved.
 This section is an essential prerequisite for validating the results because of
interpretation, explanation and meaningfulness.
 An accurate, clear and valid methodology is required so that Peers can
 Replicate the experiments described.
 Modify them with the assurance that the modification is different from
the original in particular way.
 Apply them under different methods, or
 Compare the research and so extend the research reported with other
and so extend the research further.
 Give full details to show with what and how the research activity is to be carried out.
 The materials and methods to be employed vary according to the type of investigation
being made.
 Make sure that the experimental design or methodology selected is the best to meet the
objectives of the research.
 Materials and methods normally include:
 Site/location characterization
 Equipment and tools
 Procedure of investigation
 Data to be collected: methods of data collection and analysis
 Design to be used
 Replication number over sites and years
 Meteorological data
 Number of people/farmers participating
 Duration of the study

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 2.3.6 Work Plan/Time-frame
 There are three steps in the formulation of work plan.
i) Analysis of tasks
ii) Time estimate of each tasks
iii) Synthesis of the plan

Table 1. A sample to synthesis a 12-month research project plan

Months
Activity July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Literature search x x x x x x x x x x x x
Develop proposal x
Research designing x x
Pilot study x
Field work data x x x
collection
Data analysis x
Report write up x x
Report circulation x x
for comments
Dissemination x x x
workshop

2.3.7 Research Budget

 The steps in presentation of budget should proceed in the following manner.
i) Study the sequences of research activities or work plan.
ii) Estimate the cost of each activity.
iii) Group similar expenditure items together.
iv) Allow for inflation.
v) Present a detailed periodic budget.
vi) Present a budget summary covering all years of the project.

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Examples for logistics preparation

Table 2. Personal cost

Qualification Quantity Duration Payment rate Total cost

(No.) (in days, months) (per day/month) (Birr)
Technical assistant
Daily laborer
Guard
Sub-total

Table 3. Equipment and supplies cost

Item Unit Quantity Unit cost Total cost

(Birr)
Seed
Pesticides
Fertilizers
Glassware
Barrels
Meters
Sub-total

Table 4. Stationery

Item Unit Quantity Unit cost Total cost

(Birr)
Record books
Lined paper
CD
Flash
Computer and
accessories
Printer
Sub-total

Table 5. Travel cost and perdiem

Description Rate per day Total days Total costs

(Birr)
Researcher
Technical assistants
Field assistants
Enumerators
Driver
Sub-total

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Table 6. Field offices and laboratories

Description Area m2 Cost per m2 Total area Total costs

(Birr)
Field offices
Laboratory
Green house
Sub-total

Table 7. Human resource development and training

Description Number Budget per person Total costs

(Birr)
Ph.D
M.Sc
B.Sc
Development agents
Farmers
Sub-total

Table 8. Transportation facilities

Item Unit Quantity Unit cost Total cost

(Birr)
Land cruiser
Toyota pickup
Motorcycles
Bicycles
Sub-total

Budget for consultancy

 Estimated budget is allocated for different consultancy work.

Miscellaneous expenses

 Any other expenses, as required

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Table 9. Budget Summary

SUB-TOTALS
ITEMS (Birr)
Personal cost
Equipment and supplies cost
Stationery cost
Travel cost and perdiem
Field offices and laboratories
Human resource development and training
Transportation facilities
Budget for consultancy
Miscellaneous
Total
Contingency (5-10%)
GRAND TOTAL

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2.3.8 References (bibliography/literature cited)
Cite references for individuals who carried out the researches. We are going to acknowledge
individuals, give responsibility for individuals in reference section.
Two points are important to consider in reference section.
1. List only significant and published references - not write unpublished materials, need to be
published in journals, sometimes we use unpublished materials, short note is not used in
scientific paper, handout also not used in scientific paper.
2. Check all parts of every reference as against the original publication before the manuscript is
submitted.
There are generally three types of reference styles.
1. Name and Year System (Harvard system) - is very popular & used in many journals and
books.
E.g. Young, S.K. 2000. How to write and publish a scientific paper. 4th ed. Phoenix: Oryx
Press.
2. Alphabet (Number system) - is citation by number from an alphabetized list of references in
the main text, modification of name & year system, alphabetized list of reference & the
author name.
E.g. 1. Abebe, 2000, 2. Bekele, 2004
3. Citation Ordered System – is the system of citing references in order that they appear in the
paper and year of publication.

Journal article:

1. Author (s)
2. Year
3. Title of journal article
4. Name of journal (italics)
5. Volume number of the journal
6. Pages range in journal article

Book:

It is similar with journal but different in:

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  Instead of name of journal we use publisher, place of publisher (specific place &
country), and page of books.
 If the book is editor we use in place of author we use editor (eds.) (both editor &
author exists).

Conference report:
• It is used for local & domestic publisher
• Editors (eds.)
• Name of proceeding
• Volume number
• Pages
• At the end: in the proceeding-----------------

Electronic sources/internet sources:

 Start using website- http//www.------ acceded date & year

Citation in the text:

 At the beginning. E.g. Author (2000) stated that--------------.

 At the middle. E.g. ------ (Kebede, 2005) -------.
 At the end. E.g. ----------- (Kebede, 2005).

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