TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSING - II

UNIT - I

TEXTILE FINISHING

INTRODUCTION

Textile wet processing can be thought of having three stages, pretreatment (or preparation),
coloration (dyeing or printing) and finishing. Finishing in the narrow sense is the final step in the
fabric manufacturing process, the last chance to provide the properties that customers will value.
Finishing completes the fabric’s performance and gives it special functional properties including
the final ‘touch’.

‘Any operation for improving the appearance or usefulness of a fabric after it leaves the loom
or knitting machine can be considered a finishing step’. This broad definitionincludes
pretreatments such as washing, bleaching and coloration.

CLASSIFICATION OF FINISHES

Textile finishes and finishing are classified in several ways. Persons concerned with end products
(designers, merchandisers and sales personnel) usually categorize finishes as aesthetic finishes
and functional finishes. The former modify the appearance and/or hand (feel) of fabrics, while
the latter improve the performance of a fabric under specific end use conditions.
Persons concerned with textile processing (chemists and finishers) categorize finishes into
chemical finishes and mechanical finishes. These are also called wet finishing and dry
finishing, respectively.

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Finishes are also categorized by their degree of permanence. These finishes are called
permanent, durable, semi-durable and temporary.

Permanent finishes usually involve a chemical change in fibre structure and will not change or
alter throughout the life of a fabric.

Durable finishes usually last throughout the life of the article, but effectiveness becomes
diminished after each cleaning, and near the end of the normal use life of the article, the finish is
nearly removed.

Semi-durable finishes last through several launderings or dry cleanings and many are renewable
in home laundering or dry cleaning.

Temporary finishes are removed or substantially diminished the first time an article is
laundered or dry cleaned.

Mechanical Finishing Treatments

Mechanical finishing processes can be referred to as those processes generally carried out on
open-width dry fabrics, with or without heat application, which give the fabric good dimensional
stability (shrink proof and shape retention) and modify the "hand" of the textile product by
altering its structure (at least its surface structure)

Dry finishing
Calendering: a lustrous, dense and compact appearance can be obtained by means of friction,
pressure and heat.

Ciréing: this calendering operation is carried out using special calenders and exploiting the
combined actions of heat, friction and polishing agents.

Embossing: this particular type of calendering process allows engraving a simple pattern on the
fabric.

Sueding: thanks to this process, the fabric has a much softer hand and an improved insulating
effect thanks to the fibre end pulled out of the fabric surface. This process is carried out by
means of a roller coated with abrasive material.

Raising: he fibre end pulled out to the fabric surface imparts an insulating effect. This process is
carried out by means of hook-needles running in different directions on the fabric.

Shearing: the fibre ends on the fabric surface are cut by using special cutting tools.

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Singeing: the fibre ends pulled out to the fabric surface are burnt by means of a flame

Wet finishing

Wet calendering: this process is quite similar to the dry one. The only difference is the use of
steam.

Fulling: the structure, bulk and shrinkage of wool are modified by applying heat combined with
friction and compression.

Sanforising: the fabric is given an optimum dimensional stability by applying mechanic forces
and water vapour.

Decating: the lustrous appearance of the textile material is eliminated, the surface is smoothed
and the fabric is given an optimum dimensional stability thanks to the action of dry or overheated
saturated vapour.

CALENDERING:

This non-permanent mechanical finishing treatment is applied to fabrics made of cellulose,

protein and synthetic fibres, by means of a calender. This machine generally includes one or a
series of couples of rollers pressed one against the other with adjustable pressure and identical or

similar tip speeds. The cloth passes through one or more couples of rollers, which exert a
smoothing and a pressing action. Some rollers are stiff while some others are made of softer
material. Stiff rollers are generally made of steel or hardened cast iron and the surface can be
chrome-plated, nickel-plated or made of stainless steel and can be subjected to treatments that
give:

 a matt appearance similar to the abrasive blasting;

 a cross-stripe engraving to improve the fabric resistance to sliding;
 a very thin diagonal stripe patterning with silk-sheen appearance;
 a patterned engraving with embossed effects.

The fabric passing through the rollers of the calender is subjected to a very uniform pressure all
along its width; if the rollers rotate at a different speed, a vigorous friction effect is generated.

Steel rollers may be equipped in such a way to be heated from the inside by means of steam,
circulating fluids or electrical power. They are supported by a vertical central frame made of
steel, having the same size of rigid rollers, while the surface is coated with softer material like

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cotton (to stand high temperatures), wool paper (to enhance the glaze finish), or jute, wool or
plastic material such as polyamide.

The rollers coated with paper/wool, containing 45-50% of wool, feature good elasticity and
excellent resistance to wear and are suitable for a wide variety of applications; they can also be
used in embossing calendering units.

Rollers made of paper/cotton, are used almost in friction calenders and for treating hard fibres,
thanks to their high resistance capacity. Cotton rollers, featuring higher elasticity than the paper
ones, are mainly used for cotton and blends finishing and for a final full hand effect.

The life of cotton-polyester or polyamide rollers is considerably longer; in fact they are very
resistant and cannot be easily etched by the passage of creases, knots or sewing. Thanks to their
improved hardness, they produce on the fabric a particularly lustrous appearance and allow
higher operating speeds.

The effects on the cloth can be set permanently by using thermoplastic fibres or by applying
suitable (thermosetting resin or reactive-based substances) finishing products.

The use of different types of calenders gives different effects such as:

Sheen appearance: it can be obtained by smoothing the cloth surface, which ensures a better
reflection of light.

Better coverage: it is due to the compression of the cloth, which generates a flattening of each
single yarn.

Softer hand: it is obtained thanks to a slight ironing effect, which produces a smoother, and softer
cloth surface.

Surface patterns: they can be obtained by means of special effects ("embossing" for example) for
decorative purposes or to modify the surface smoothness.

Yarn swelling and rounding effect: they give a modest glaze finishing to the fabric, a surface
smoothness and above all a full and soft hand.

The main types of calendering units are:

Two-roller calenders: they are made up of a smooth roller coupled with a metallic one, which
can be heated. The tip speeds of the two cylinders can be different: this system architecture
produces a certain friction, which gives a high glaze effect to the fabric. The lustrous effect
depends on the different rotation speed, pressure and temperature.

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Two-roller calender Three-roller calender

Three-roller calenders: the most common combinations are the following:

- smooth-steel-smooth rollers: this structure allows a better lustrous effect and gives the cloth
more bulk.

- steel-smooth-smooth rollers: this combination allows different effects. When the cloth passes
through smooth rollers a matt appearance is given to the cloth together with fuller hand.

Universal calenders: these calenders, equipped with 3-5-7 or even more rollers, are referred to as
universal calenders. They can give the fabric different effects; some of them are detailed below:

roll effect: flattened fabric, high coverage ratio, soft hand and moderate glaze;

matt effect: high coverage ratio, soft hand and matt effect;

lustrous effect: this effect originates from friction created during the passage between a smooth
and a steel roller.

Mercerising-like calenders: by means of a high pressure (300-400 Kg/cm 2) and temperature,

applied during the passage of the cotton cloth (which is still wet when passing through the
rollers) a highly glazy effect can be created, similar to the one obtained with the mercerising
process.

Silk calenders (silky effect): the silky effect is obtained by feeding the cloth between a steel
roller engraved with very thin diagonal stripes and a paper, cotton or rubber roller.

Satin or poplin fabrics are generally treated with this type of calender. The engraved cylinder can
be headed to enhance the modification of the fabric surface.

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Mangling calenders: they exert a strong pressure on a cloth wound in rolls. The effect of such a

pressure between the yarns leads to an accentuated rounding of the yarn with a subsequent
increase of the fabric density and a highly lustrous finish. Mangler calendering can be carried out
by feeding the wound cloth between two or three cylinders, which exert a powerful pressure by
an alternating rolling-off and rewinding motion. This treatment is particularly valuable for pure
linen or linen blend fabrics, which can be subjected to pressures up to 40 t.

Chaising calenders: the arrangement of rollers in chaising calenders allow the fabric to be
wound several times inside the calender in a number of layers ranging from 5 to 13. In this way
the pressure is not exerted directly by the flat surfaces of the cylinders but by the fabric itself.

The warp and weft yarns carry out a progressive rounding action; the result is a precious lustrous
effect, a more bulky, full and compact hand, similar to the one obtained with mangling calenders.

Raising calenders: these calenders are used for finishing wool fabrics.

Winding – Unwinding mangler Chaising Calender

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They are made up of a single roller on which a metal raisers is pressed.The metal raising device
envelops almost half of the whole circumference of the roller. This special calandering process
gives a good lustrous effect, obtained by friction and by a moderate pressure exerted on the
fabric.

Moiré effect: this attractive effect can be produced by means of a process that is essentially one
of minute surface embossing or pressing of a fabric with crenellated, or ridged rollers. The
pattern is imprinted on the raised filling yarns and the luster is produced by the divergent
reflection of light on the lines impressed on the patterned design. This effect can be preferably
given to silk, Rayon, wool, and linen fabrics. A good Moiré effect can be with fabrics with
coarse weft yarns and fine warp ones.

This process produces greater density and stability (e.g. the Sanforset process) and gives the
fabric a controlled compression shrinkage, which eliminates distortions originated during
previous processes. The fabric finished with this treatment keeps its shape also after repeated
washing thus providing an excellent dimensional stability of the textile substrate. The fabric is
fed into an opener/tension-adjusting device, and subsequently passes through a wetting unit
where the quantity of water necessary for bulking the material is sprayed on the fabric.

A steaming treatment can be carried out by passing the fabric onto a heated cylinder, which
allows the water spreading in the fibre bulk and completes its swelling. The textile material
passes to a stenter which gives the fabric the desired width and is then fed into the rubber-belt
squeezing unit.

The fabric shrinkage is carried out with several simple operations: the rubber belt pressed
between the squeezing cylinder and the drum is stretched and, once out of this squeezing unit, it

again takes its original shape. The fabric is made to adhere to the rubber belt in the squeezing
area and, since it can slide more easily on the heated and mirror-polished surface of the drum
than on the rubber one, it is forced to follow it during the subsequent shrinkage.

The resulting effect is a continuous and steady sliding between the drum and the rubber belt and
consequently between the drum and the fabric. Since the stretching of the rubber belt depends
upon the intensity of the pressure exerted by the squeezing cylinder, each pressure variation
corresponds to a shrinkage variation.

Therefore the higher the pressure the greater the shrinking effect.

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Compacting process

After leaving the squeezing unit the fabric is sent out to the drying unit (180°-190°) with the
slightest possible tension. The fabric is fed into a felt calender, which sets the shrinkage. The
fabric immediately after the squeezing compression must be subjected to the slightest tensions
and the moisture must not exceed optimum values.

Shrink area

Tubular knitted goods can be treated on stenters (to impart dimensional stability), only after the
cutting operation and eventual bonding. Drying and dimensional stabilisation of tubular knitted
goods can be obtained by passing the relaxed fabric into belt drying units and by steaming them
in the final path.

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Compacting process for tubular knitted fabrics

The fabric (T), wet or dampened with a solution containing softening agents in a vat (V), is laid
down, overfed by a little calender (C), on metal-mesh vibrating conveyor belts (N) into a drying
unit. On the first two conveyor belts, the fabric is dried with hot air (1) while vibrations make the
fabric shrink freely; the steaming treatment (2), which sets the dimensional stability, increases
the fabric bulk and gives a soft hand to the fabric, is carried out on a third conveyor belt. The
fabric is then folded in a special folding unit (A). In case of further cutting and bonding units, a
shrinking machine can be added to the system.

Chemical Finishing Treatments

By applying chemicals of different origins, a fabric can receive properties otherwise impossible
to obtain with mechanical means.

Chemical finishing treatments:

- allow the stabilisation of fabrics already subjected to mechanical finishing processes, such as
calendering;

- give fabrics some properties (e.g. flame retardancy and water repellency), which would be
otherwise absent

The products used can be classified as follows:

- Natural (adhesives, fats, oils, starches)

- Artificial (modified starches, modified cellulose)

- Synthetic (synthesis products) including: N-methylol derivatives (thermosetting, reactants),

linear reactants (carbamates, epoxy resins), thermoplastic polymers (vinyl, acrylic,
polyethylene), polyurethanes and silicones.

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Application of the finish

The operations to be carried out when applying the finish to a textile substrate are mostly
conditioned by the structural and hygroscopic properties of the material to be processed, by the
desired effects, by the physical and chemical nature of the elements that make up the finishing
substance and by the machine.s output rate. In textile finishing, we can distinguish between five
main application techniques:

a) padding;
b) spraying by means of atomisers;
c) exhaust process in treatment liquor;
d) coating carried out by means of doctor knives;
e) controlled application of low liquor quantities.
Padding is by far the most common among the various finishing techniques.

SOFTENING
As a general rule, each fibre has its specific softness value, which depends on its chemical
composition and physical structure (less crystallinity = greater softness). The fineness of the fibre
or of the filament directly affects the softness of the yarn (woollens, worsteds, microfibres etc.).
The yarn twist ratio is inversely proportional to its softness.
The weave also contributes to reducing (closer weave = cloth) or increasing (looser weave =
satin) the fabric softness. Furthermore, a greater number of yarns per centimetre increase the
stiffness of the fabric, thus reducing its softness.
Softening is carried out when the softness characteristics of a certain fabric must be improved,
always carefully considering the composition and properties of the substrate. It is also worth
underlining that no standard methods have been developed and established to determine exactly
what the softness of a fabric is. This evaluation is therefore almost personal and carried out on
the basis of operator.s experience. It is anyway possible to distinguish between many types of
softness:
a) surface softness,
b) surface smoothness,
c) elasticity (to compression and stretching).
To change the hand properties of a fabric, we can apply mechanical, physical, chemical or
combined techniques; some of these methods (sueding, raising) have already been explained in
detail in previous sections of this handbook, while some others refers to machines that give
different degrees of softness, by means of high-speed rope processing in wet or dry conditions,
with the drying stage carried out during the treatment (with or without softeners or enzymes.)
The functional core of these machines are the two tunnels where the fabric is fed through two
Venturi tubes. The energy applied for drawing the material is produced only by air and pressure.

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The fabric flowing through the Venturi tubes is pushed at high speed against a grid on the
machine rear side; the fabric then slides on Teflon-coated chutes and reaches the machine front
side to start the cycle again; the fabric can reach a speed of 1000 m/min., depending on the type
and weight of the different textiles to be processed and according to the desired results.

Schemes of fabric softening machines

The following picture details an industrial softening system.

A fabric softening machine

This unit applies physical and mechanical principles on fundamental elements such as:
- air, which is the fabric propeller and drawing element;

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- the mechanical stress exerted on the fabric inside the Venturi tubes and the stress due to the
impact against the rear grid;
- the eventual action of heat.
It is also worth noticing that water is not a crucial element for the process; it is only a medium
for carrying dissolved non biodegradable chemical additives (if required.) The combination of all
these elements, almost free of polluting charge, cause the structural modification of the fibres
making up the fabric.
They result in more or less marked surface modifications, which can radically change the
appearance and the sensorial properties of the fabrics.
The complexity of the finishing action starts inside the Venturi tube where the tail of the fabric is
subjected simultaneously to a compressive action and to a subsequent series of vibrating pulses
which tend to "random-modify" and compact the textile structures, eventually giving them
different properties.
The one-way thrusting force is transformed into a impact force against the grid on which the
fabric is pushed when emerging from the Venturi tube; this causes other modifications of the
fabric and add structural and surface effects.
This simple treatment that combines physical and mechanical principles, carried out at a precise
temperature set by the operator, is sufficient to create particular effects on the morphology of
fibres and the weave.
The modifications produced by this treatment are very different and not only affect the colour,
appearance and hand properties of the fabric, but also add new properties, e.g. modifying the
refraction and diffraction of light on the fabric surface.
The most notable effects in terms of style and added value are obtained on linen, a precious
delicate fibre, particularly difficult to process without using chemicals.
The combination of a chemical product or an enzyme liquor with the mechanical treatment can
be carried out not only on linen but also on many other widely used fibres such as Tencel and
polynosic fibres, imparting a draping, full and lively hand.
All these effects are obtained thanks to the air thrust and to the following impact against the grid,
or to the pressure of rollers on the fabric rope.
Comparing the effects of this treatment on a Tencel fabric and on a similar treatment carried out
on a dyeing machine, we can see that, as previously explained, this finishing process not only
affects the appearance of the fabric, but also cleans up. the fabric surface homogeneously, as a
result providing good anti-pilling properties.
The best softness results can be obtained by carrying out the above mentioned
physicalmechanical processes and by applying a special chemical softening agent.
As a general rule, the softening agents applied are hygroscopic or lubricating agents, which
facilitate the fibre sliding within the fabric structure, thus granting easier deformation and
creasing of the fabric. In most cases, the duration of the effect is limited since the products
applied during the treatment are eliminated by subsequent washing; for this reason they must be
applied in the final stage of the treatment. The most common softeners are detailed below:

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Non-ionic softeners: generally ethers and polyglycol esters, oxiethylates products, paraffins and
fats. These softening agents are generally less efficient than anionic and cationic ones but they
withstand the effects of hard waters, acid or basic environment and also in presence of cations
and anions, therefore the normal fabric care conditions.

Anionic softeners: sulphoricinates, anionic surfactants produced by the condensation of fatty

acids. They have good characteristics as lubricating softening agents and give the fabric a full
hand; they are unstable in hard water and acid environment. In addition, they must not cause
yellowing at condensation temperatures.

Cationic surfactants: usually they are quaternary ammonium salts, amino-esters and
aminoamides; they are recommended for all types of fibre, and can be also applied with
exhaustion process in acid environment (pH 4-5). These are the best softening agents and are
also called .molecular velveting. Agents because they form bonds with the cationic group on the
surface of the fibre generally with negative electric potential. They can give some problem in
presence of large anions, and they can cause dye toning, or a reduction in fastness to light values
in the presence of direct and reactive dyes; they also have a high polluting charge as wastewater
(bactericides).
Silicone-based softeners: these are generally polysiloxane derivatives of low molecular weight.
They are insoluble in water, and therefore must be applied on fabrics after dissolution in organic
solvents, or in the form of disperse products. They feature quite good fastness to washing. They
create a lubricating and moderately waterproof film on the surface and give fabrics a velvetysilky
hand (desirable for velvets, upholstery fabrics and emerised fabrics) lipophile chain cationic
group fibre

Distribution of the surfactant on the fibre

Reactive softeners: N-methylol derivatives of superior fatty amides or urea compounds replaced
with fatty acids. The products have to be cross-linked and provide permanent softness and water
repellency.

As explained previously, even though some softeners can be applied with exhaustion processes
on yarns, when softening fabrics, the best technique is the continuous pad-wetting process
followed by a drying stage in a stenter. This treatment must be carried out at the end of the
finishing process; for this reason, softening is usually performed simultaneously with other

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dimensional stability processes (width stabilisation, weft and warp straightening). It is worth
remembering that the use of softeners can reduce the fastness to rubbing of synthetic fibres dyed
with disperse dyes, as the fatty surface layer tend to attract the dye molecules after hot
treatments.

RESIN FINISHING

Wash-and-wear and Permanent-press treatments

Crease-proof treatments represent an outstanding results in finishing technology, since they give
fabrics really new physical and/or chemical properties. The original aim of the researchers who
first developed this process was to create a crease-proof rayon fabric; however, the new
treatment was soon applied to cotton fabrics and linen cloths. The last generation versions of the
treatment produce fabrics that are not only crease-proof when used but also preserve the crease
effect if desired. This treatment can also ensure excellent results on cottonsynthetic blends
(Permanent-press process.)
The auxiliaries used are synthetic thermosetting resins, or, more precisely, their monomers and
their pre-condensates. The resins that react with cellulose are called "cellulose-reactants". A
certain crease resistance can be obtained by adding to fibres complex inorganic compounds of
boron, as well as zinc and barium silicate. However, today the only products applied are
synthetic thermosetting resins. The principle on which this finishing treatment is based consists
of impregnating the fibres with resinogenic compounds of low molecular weight and cause
afterward the formation of the resin in the fibres.
Recently new processes have been developed to chemically modify cellulose, aiming at
improving the springback angle above all in wet substrates.
For a better understanding of what happens during a crease-proof process, it is worth explaining
the mechanism and the reasons for which cellulose fibres tend to crease.
Cellulose fibres are made up of molecule chains formed by hundreds of thousands of glucose
groups.

The molecular chains of cellulose partly consist of crystalline areas rigidly oriented and
compact, and partly of amorphous, loose and random-oriented layers; small covalence forces or
electrostatic bonds cause their cohesion. By drawing the molecular chains, a stretching effect
occurs due to the breaking of weak bonds and to the subsequent sliding of the single chains over
each other, a phenomenon which becomes irreversible whenever the molecular chains (and
therefore the cellulose fibres) assume a new position.

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If we now suppose to transfer the drawing force and therefore the stretching of the external
bending of a certain point in the fibre subjected to creasing,
the bending angle will assume a permanent position as a
consequence of the irreversibility of the phenomenon,
therefore becoming a permanent crease.
Above all, cellulose fibres rich in amorphous areas and
macromolecules, which tend to form bonds in the new
positions imparted by mechanical stresses, can be affected by
these deformation phenomena such as stretching, creasing and
wrinkling.
On the contrary, fibres like wool whose macromolecules are
fixed by strong bonds (cystinic bridges or salt bonds) . as well
as fibres with highly controlled intermolecular structure and
high crystallinity degree (synthetic), will be highly crease-
proof. It is therefore evident and demonstrated the relationship
between crystallinity, the presence of weak or strong bonds
between the chains and the crease-proof quality of the fibres.
In fact, while amorphous areas facilitate the sliding of
macromolecular chains, the presence of weak bonds (hydrogen
bridges) allow the stabilisation of macromolecules in their new
positions and therefore the formation of a permanent crease.
The above mentioned hypothesis lets us suppose that the
replacement of weak bonds (electrostatic) with strong bonds (covalent) . i.e. capable of reducing
the displacement of the chains and bringing them back to their original position when the
bending force ceases its action or when substances blocking the sliding spaces are introduced in
the intra-molecular voids of cellulose . can greatly improve the crease-proof properties of fibres.
These pre-conditions are partly ensured by the so-called .amino-plasts., as well as by cellulose
reactants, which can form large-size molecules of resins, or bridges between
the individual cellulose molecular chains, respectively.
Before the drying stage, fabrics are impregnated with precondensed amino-plasts of low
molecular weight, or with cellulose reactant solutions. Before the 1990.s, these solutions
consisted of N.N-l.3dimethylol-4.5-dihydroxyethylenurea (DMDHEU) combined with
magnesium chloride as acid catalyst, to improve the formation of cross-linking bonds between
the molecules of cellulose chains.
The development of these bonds inside the amorphous areas of the fibre, improves the resistance
to distortion and enhances elasticity properties; unfortunately the chemistry of N-hydroxymethyl
(N-methylol) derivatives has a great drawback due to the reaction: - H 2 NCONH 2 + HCHO,
which produces free formaldehyde.
In fact, during the subsequent hot treatment which favours the formation of the resin, a bond with
an hydroxyl of the cellulose ring sets individually, leaving an N-hydroxylmethyl group non

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reacted and capable, following an hydrolysis process, of releasing formaldehyde, above all at
high temperatures.

Another problem occurring when using these resins is represented by the chlorine absorbed by
the textile material during the washing process, which cause a visible yellowing of the textile
surface. This does not represent an immediate damage, but when the textile is subjected to the
action of heat (ironing, calendering, steaming) it also loses a considerable part of its mechanical
resistance.

Application techniques
Today, a number of treatments are available to give excellent properties to a wide range of textile
products. The "wash-and-wear" finish is particularly effective since treated fabrics not only lose
the creases formed on the dry fabric (i.e. when used) but also the creases which form on the wet
fabric during manual or machine washing. The treatment to eliminate post-finishing creases is
more complicated that the crease-proof treatment.

The cross-linking process can be carried out in three different ways:

1. dry process: with this method it is possible to obtain wide springback angles for dry creases
and only medium springback angles for humid creases; dimensional stability and shape retention
are excellent. The tearing and abrasion resistance loss is proportional to the dry crease angle, and
are therefore generally high;

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2. humid process: the springback angles for humid creases are usually wide (proportional to
residual moisture content), and dry ones are also good. Good dimensional stability and noironing
properties (i.e. no ironing is required after washing). Low loss of tearing and abrasion resistance;
3. wet process: optimum springback angles for humid creases, but very limited for dry creases.
Good no-ironing properties and dimensional stability, with very low loss of tearing and abrasion
resistance.

1 – Dry process
The classic process: the fabric is impregnated by means of a padding unit (the quantity of finish
is tuned by modifying the liquor concentration and the squeezing ratio) and dried at 100-120 °C
in a stenter; the cross-linking process occurs in the stenter, at temperatures varying according to
the type of cross-linking agent used (generally 4-5 minutes at 150-160 °C). At the end of the
process it is recommended to carry out a washing and softening stage (see STK process). Both
self-cross-linking and reactive products can be used; ammonium salts or complex compounds are
used as catalysts. It is a simple and quick process, as well as one of the most cost-effective.

STK: drying and condensation are carried out simultaneously in a single run in the stenter at high
temperatures (140 °C at the entry side, 180 °C at the exit side). The dwelling time inside the
stenter depends on the products and the catalysts used, the temperature, and the substrate. This
method is really cost-efficient but its results are quite uncertain and deterioration of the textile
material may occur during the dwelling time in the stenter due to the high operating temperatures
(resulting from the moisture variation in the fabric). For these reasons, STK is used above all for
viscose. This process still requires a washing cycle to be carried out in order to comply with the
strict regulations on formaldehyde fumes and the release of the metals contained in the catalysts.

Double treatment: the fabric is impregnated with a softener and dried at 100- 130 °C. The
procedure applied is the same as with the STK process. The application of softeners before the
cross-linking or reactive agents provides excellent crease-proof properties and a limited loss of
tearing and abrasion resistance. Permanent-press: the cross-linking step is carried out by the
operator and gives good crease-proof properties and dimensional stability, and is therefore used
to ensure shape retention for the finished garment. Two operating methods can be applied:

Post-curing: the fabric is impregnated with a solution of scarcely reactive cross-linking agents
and special strong catalysts. Then the fabric is dried at low temperature and sent to the maker-up
for cutting and ultimate making-up operations. Then it is hot pressed to assume the final shape
and simultaneously obtain the cross-linking effect. (This method is scarcely applied due to the
problem of formaldehyde fumes released and by non-washed fabrics or during storage.)

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The dry Permanent-press cross-linking process carried out with post-curing

method
Post-curing for blends: used for fabrics containing at least 55% of synthetic fibres. The fabric is
impregnated, dried, condensed and washed for stabilisation, to give a crease-proof properties to
cellulose fibres and eliminate the free formaldehyde. After the cutting and making-up stage, a
high temperature pressing stage will impart the final shape to the finished garment by exploiting
the thermoplastic features of synthetic fibres.

Dry Permanent-press cross-linking process with post-curing system for blends

The same method can be used on fabrics made of cellulose fibres only, using a combination of
two cross-linking agents with markedly differentiated reactivity values as a wetting agent. A first
cross-linking step is be carried out on the fabric at low temperature (120-140 °C), while in the
subsequent high-temperature pressing step (160-180 °C) the less reactive crosslinking agent will
condense to set ultimate shape. (See the section on the post-curing method as far as
formaldehyde is concerned.)

2 – Humid process
The fabric is wetted by means of a padding unit with a cross-linking agent and a catalyst
solution; then 6-8% of residual moisture is removed from cotton (or 10-15% from other staple
goods.) The fabric is then wound up on a roll, covered with a polyethylene sheet and left 16-24
hours to rest at ambient temperature. Strong catalysts must be used for this process and their
quantity is tuned according to the residual moisture content. The final effect depends on the
residual moisture: in case of low residual moisture content, the results will be similar to those
obtained with the dry process whereas if the residual moisture content is high, the result is very
similar to the cross-linking effect on wet substrates. The fabric hand after the treatment is
generally soft. The fabric is then washed, the acids neutralised and the fabric is finally softened.
Obviously this method does not allow continuous processing techniques, and therefore is not as
common as dry cross-linking. However it ensures excellent results in wash-and-wear treatments,
with low loss of resistance.

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3 – Wet process
This process can be carried out in acid or alkaline environment. (The latter is less common as it
gives limited crease-proof properties, though very low loss of tearing and abrasion resistance.)
This method is similar to the previous one, except for the drying stage. The material is dried,
wrapped, wound and covered with polyethylene and it is then kept rotating for 16-24 hours. The
percentage of absorbed liquor vary considerably according to the type of processed fibres:
Cotton: R.S. 100%, Polynosic: R.S. 120%, Staple: R.S. 200%.

Flame-retardant Treatments
The term inflammability refers to the ease of ignition and burning rate of fabrics. The
flammability of fabrics (particularly drapery, textile covering and clothing fabrics) constitutes a
danger in ordinary conditions of use. The flame response of textile fibres is linked to their L.O.I.
(limit oxygen index), which indicates the minimum quantity of oxygen a fibre needs in order to
burn.
Given that the percentage of oxygen in the air is around
21%, it is clear that all fibres with an L.O.I. lower than this
level will burn easily, while those with a higher L.O.I. will
tend not to burn. From the table it can be seen that
polyester, polyamide . both of these melt and form viscous
masses . and cellulosic fibres are highly flammable. The
latter, especially in less compact fabrics in which they have
greater contact with the oxygen in the air, burn rapidly if
heated to around 350°C, temperatures at which they break
down into highly inflammable volatile substances and
carbonaceous residue.

The combustion mechanism and flame-retardant treatments

Cellulose exposed to high temperatures breaks down into flammable substances. Combustion of
these products generates further heat, causing the cellulose degradation and breakdown process
to continue until the cellulose has entirely disintegrated.

Cellulose combustion is a process that occurs in stages:

1) Pyrolysis: the action of an external heat energy source causes the homogeneous breakdown of
the cellulose into liquid gas, tarry and solid products. The temperature at which rapid pyrolysis is
triggered is around 300°C.
2) Combustion of the gases produced: at around 350°C the flammable vapours produced in the
previous stage ignite, giving rise to a strongly exothermal oxidation reaction, which produces
volatilisation, further pyrolysis and combustion of the liquid and tarry substances formed

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previously. From this point on, combustion proceeds spontaneously, resulting in the release of
considerable heat, until such time as the cellulose material is completely burned up.

3) Post-combustion: when the tarry liquids produced in the first stage of combustion have
undergone pyrolysis and combustion, a carbonaceous residue remains that undergoes slow
oxidation (also exothermal) and continues to glow until it has been completely burned up.

To sum up, a fabric undergoing combustion will present the following zones:
a) a zone in which there are no longer any flames in evidence and in which combustion residue
(ash) is present;
b) a carbonaceous zone, glowing but flame-free;
c) a burning zone: it is here that the violent oxidation of the gases produced (a series of reactions)
is taking place;
d) a zone in which it is possible to observe initial carbonisation and where the cellulose is
undergoing the reactions of pyrolysis;
e) an intact zone.

The theory of flame retardant systems

The action of flame retardants on cellulosic fibres can be explained in several ways:
1) Through the formation of non combustible gases, a result of the action of the heat on the
flame-retardant product that has been added. These gases act in two ways: they reduce the
concentration of combustible volatile substances, and they reduce the concentration of oxygen

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needed in order for the combustion process to continue. In decreasing order of efficacy, they act
on the following gases: NH3, HI, HBr, SO2, CO2, H2O, and N2. To achieve this end, the
following substances are used: ammonium salts and organic nitrogenous compounds, like amine;
b) organic halogenated compounds; c) salts containing high quantities of crystallisation water.
2) Through catalytic action on cellulose dehydration, in such a way as to obtain, at temperatures
lower than ignition temperatures, a carbonaceous residue and to reduce the formation of
flammable gases. This dehydration is catalysed by the acids.
3) Through products that prevent the formation of anhydroglucopyranosium. Since it is known
that one stage in the pyrolysis of cellulose is the formation of levoglucosone, one need only
block the hydroxyl groups in position 6 on the glucose molecule in order to reduce considerably
the formation of flammable pyrolysis products. This objective is achieved by replacing the
alcoholic function with the .O-SO2-CH3 group, with bromine, or by making the hydroxyl react
with nitrogenous compounds
4) Through the catalytic action of the derivatives of phosphorous (phosphoric esters). These
compounds reduce or prevent post-combustion of the carbonaceous residue. In the presence of
phosphoric esters, the following reaction is favoured: C + 1/2 O2 → CO + 26.4 Kcal, which is
weakly exothermal in relation to the much more strongly exothermal reaction (94Kcal) that leads
to the production of CO2. As a result, the temperatures reached in this case are low and the post-
glowing phenomenon is absent. To achieve this objective, the following substances are used:
ammonium phosphates, blends of phosphoric acid and amines, organic compounds containing
phosphorous and ammonium.
5) Through catalytic action inhibiting the oxidation of combustible gases. Oxidation in the
vapour phase is a process involving free radicals, some of the most important of which are the
free radicals of H·, OH· and O·. The flame quenching action is often attributed to the capacity of
the added substances to capture these radicals.

The action of bromine compounds, for example, is shown in the following scheme:
RBr + H· → HBr + R·
If the R· radical that is formed is less active than the H· radical, the result is inhibition of
oxidation. In general, removal of the H·, the OH· and similar radicals by other less active radicals
results in suffocation of the flame.
This is similar to the action of antimonium halides, compounds that are very efficient at
capturing free radicals.

The main products used in flame retardant treatments of cellulosic fibres

Soluble inorganic products: ammonium salts, such as chloride, bromide and phosphate, applied
in concentrations ranging from 10-20%, are very widely used. Borax, too, applied in
concentrations of 6-10% and blended with boric acid (ratio 7:3) also confers good flameretardant
properties.

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Soluble organic products: the substances used include ammonium sulphamate, phosphates,
dicyandiamide, and thiourea.
Water-repellent treatments: these treatments are also relatively resistant to domestic washing
and dry cleaning. They include the Perkin treatment (based on the deposition of stannum
hydroxide). The cellulosic fabric is padded with sodium stannate, dried, treated with ammonium
sulphate and dried again.
Treatment based on phosphoric acid and nitrogenous compounds: phosphoric acid, bound to the
cellulose.s hydroxyl group, has good flame retardant properties, however it reduces considerably
the mechanical strength of the cellulose itself. To reduce degradation damage and improve flame
retardancy, bases, like the ones listed here, are added: urea, guanidine, melamine, dicyandiamide,
and nitrogenous resins such as urea-formaldehyde, melamineformaldehyde (the latter also
increase the solidity to washing of the product). A further improvement is obtained using
phosphoric acid condensation products with the abovementioned amines.

Of the various procedures proposed, the Bancroft procedure renders the flame-retardant property
permanent to a degree. It consists of treating the cellulosic fabric with aqueous solutions of
phosphoric acid-urea pre-condensate, applied by means of padding. This is followed by drying
and by a thermal treatment. The latter, carried out at temperatures ranging from 140°C to 160°C
enhances the condensation of phosphoric acid and urea and also fixes the condensate on the fibre
as a nitrogenous phosphoric ester of the cellulose. The fabric is then washed thoroughly and
dried. This flame-retardant product, which has low solidity to domestic washing, severely
reduces the strength of the fabric and sometimes results in a change of colour. The treated fabric
has good hand properties.

Permanent salt- or metallic oxide-based products: these derive from the union of metallic oxides
with organic substances that are thermally unstable and have a high chlorine content (40- 75%).
The metallic oxides can be: antimonium, arsenic, lead, zinc and stannum oxides, while the
organic substances can be polymers of vinyl chloride, vinyldiene chloride, chloroparaffin. The
effect is lasting. This treatment is widely applied the USA, where it is known as .F.W.W.M.R.
Finish. (i.e., flame, water, weather and mildew resistant).

Antimonium trioxide (Sb303) offers little flame retardancy, unlike oxychloride and trichloride;
the latter, however, through hydrolysis, release hydrochloric acid on fabrics, and this attacks the
fibres.
Phosphorous-based products: in this family of compounds, tetrakis hydroxymethylol
phosphorium (THPC) stands out in particular. Being without elements able to form non
combustible gases, it is not used alone but rather with other flame-retardant products containing
nitrogen or halogens (such as the azydirinic derivative APO) or with nitrogen compounds such as
trimethylolmelamine or ureic resins with which it copolymerises.

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THPC
One process that has a particularly important application is the Proban process. This process
exploits the copolymerisation of THPC and methylolmelamine to form a highly flame-repellent
resin that contains phosphorous and nitrogen. The two products are dissolved in the same liquor
to which triethanolamines are added as stabilising agents and urea as a buffer agent. The effect is
permanent and, provided there is not too much alkali present, not affected either by domestic or
industrial washing. The most difficult part of the application of this treatment is the final
polycondensation, which demands well ventilated equipment and perfectly controlled treatment
times, otherwise the mechanical strength of the fabric is severely jeopardised.

THPC-urea process (or process with melamine, dicyandiamide or guanidine). The fabric is
impregnated with THPC and one of the above-mentioned nitrogenous substances, after which it
undergoes a thermal treatment. It is dried, treated with ammonia, rinsed and dried again. A good
and wash-resistant effect is obtained.

Hydrophobic, Oil-proof and Water-proof Treatments

Waterproofing is a treatment that does not allow water or air passing through the fabric. It
consists of the application of substances capable of forming a thin waterproof layer, eliminating
any space between the fibres and yarns in the fabric.
The hydrophobic treatment gives the fibre the ability to repel water, but not air and water vapour.
This treatment does not clog the fabric pores but reduces the capillarity effect by coating the
textile substrate with substances having a low surface tension.
The stain-proof treatment makes the fabrics hydrophobic (thus avoiding aqueous substances to
penetrate them) and oil-proof (which limits or prevents the penetration of fatty substances).

Wetting of the textile substrate

We will now try to explain why a textile surface becomes wet. The natural hydrophilic
characteristics of fibres greatly facilitates all finishing processes, and dyeing in particular, but
this property can represent a problem under certain conditions, e.g. soiling caused by water or oil
soluble substances, or when protecting a person during outdoor work or even when the fabric
must withstand harsh weather conditions.

It is therefore crucial to get a better understanding of these phenomena to improve the water and
oil repellency of textile substrates, above all when they are destined to special uses (for example
working garments.) Since it is impossible to modify the basic chemical structure of fibres or
eliminate the porosity typical of textile products, it is important to modify surface and chemical
structures. The wetting of a textile substrate produces a three-phase modification (solid, wetting
fluid, air),generating simultaneously surface and interfacial tensions.

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Lets imagine a drop of liquid substance deposited on a solid surface: the attraction forces
between its molecules allow the drop to keep its spherical shape.
If great attraction forces generate from the solid surface in contact with the liquid (i.e. in case
that the solid has a great surface energy), the surface tension of the liquid is not sufficient to keep
the spherical shape: the drop consequently spreads on the surface and becomes more similar to a
flat lens. Then it adheres to the surface and wets it.
To cause the surface of a solid not to be wetted by a liquid, the surface energy of the solid must
be inferior to the surface tension of the liquid.
A liquid therefore adheres to a solid because of the attraction forces originating from the
molecules of the surface of the liquid and of the solid (interfacial tension) and is independent
from the underlying molecular layers.
Wetting can be evaluated by measuring the contact angle formed by the intersection of the
surface of the solid and the tangent of the arc surface of the drop. This angle is indicated with the
symbol θ (theta).

Therefore:
If the surface can be wet, we will have θ < 90° and 0 <cos θ < 1;
If the surface is scarcely wettable, we will have θ > 90° and -1 <cos θ < 0.
Since the tendency of the liquid to wet a solid is inversely proportional to the contact angle, cos
θ becomes a direct measure of the wetting property.

Wettability and penetration of a liquid through a fabric

Along with the above mentioned criteria, it will be worth considering that the surface of the
fabric is more or less rough and therefore greater than its apparent surface. The value of cos θ
(which expresses the wetting ability) must be therefore multiplied by the roughness factor .r.
(with r > 1), and therefore the tendency of the fabric to wet becomes proportional to r cos θ .
This relationship shows that if a smooth surface can be excellently wetted, its roughness will
improve its wetting ability while if a smooth surface can be wetted with difficulty, its roughness
will render it even less wettable.
The diameter and the distance between the yarns of a fabric are also very important and must be
carefully evaluated in waterproof and oil-proof applications.

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On a perforated surface like that of a fabric, liquids form contact angles which increase in
proportion with the ratio r + (d / r) (Cassie and Baxter relation) where:
.r. is the yarn diameter,
.d. is the distance between two fabric threads.
Furthermore, the liquid in contact with a porous solid like a fabric, tends to penetrate it like a
capillary fringe, up to a height (h) depending upon the surface tension of the liquid (γ L), its
density ( ρ), the radius (r) of the capillary fringe and the angle of contact (θ ) between the
liquid and the solid:
h = K γ L cos θ / r ρ

Therefore, when the angle of contact is smaller than 90° (coθ > 0) the liquid will show a
capillary diffusion into the solid.
Once the liquid has penetrated the fabric, the surface tension of the liquid no longer contrasts the
flowing of the liquid and a stable flow will establish. Generally speaking, a fabric that has been
made water repellent can better stand wetting and water penetration if yarns are small and the
weave is thick.

Hysteresis of the angle of contact

The angle of contact (θ ) reduces by increasing the contact between the liquid and the solid.
It is therefore necessary to underline the difference between: the advancing angle (formed by a
drop in contact with a dry surface) and the receding angle (formed on a surface previously in
contact with the liquid).
The difference between these two values is the hysteresis of the angle of contact. The higher the
hysteresis, the poorer the tendency of the liquid to .pearl. (i.e. to slip on the surface of the fabric
by forming separated droplets), notwithstanding the high advancing angle. This is an important
factor to be considered, for example in materials that will be exposed to rain and on which, after
a certain period of time, the pearling effect no longer occurs. The hysteresis of the angle of
contact is higher when the fabric is wet with water than with organic liquids. A specific material
after the flame retardant treatment must have high receding angles (at least >90°).
Porous solids, like textile substrates, have a water receding angle that decreases very rapidly
according to the period of immersion. For example, the pearling effect will disappear and water
will form a continuous surface film if a fabric is exposed to the rain action for a certain period of
time.
The supremacy of silicones compared to other waterproofing agents is due to the slow decrease
of the receding angle rather than to a high angle of contact.
In case of surface contact between the fabric and water, the hysteresis of the contact angle can
be originated by different reasons:
- formation of a hydrous layer on the surface of the solid, due to water or water vapour
absorption;
- solubilisation in water of part of the hydrophobic substances (or mechanic removal),

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- the breaking of an hydrophobic film and the subsequent fibre hydration,

- orientation inversion of the hydrophobic film, which (in contact with water) directs polar
groups towards the surface.

Hydrophobic treatments and products

For the above mentioned reasons, to avoid the wetting of the surface of a macromolecular and
porous material like a fibre, the surface must be covered with a film formed by a substance with
a surface tension that is smaller than the textile.

In this way the drops of water will assemble on the surface, isolated from each other, to create
the pearl effect.
A waterproof effect can be also obtained by using non-filmogenic substances that form a sort of
brush of short molecules. By limiting the formation of a hydrophobic state on the surface of the
textile substrate, the basic properties of mechanic resistance and flexibility of the fibres remain
unaltered. If also swelling (mainly due to the presence of amorphous areas) must be strictly
controlled, these amorphous areas can be filled with macromolecular resins.
Both polymer and low chain water-repellent products should have essentially a hydrocarbon
character (with groups having a lower surface tension such as =CH 2, -CH 3 or perfluorinated
chains), to reduce the surface tension of the fibre until making it water-repellent.

Method based on emulsions in single bath

This method is recommended for producing awnings or camping tents and umbrellas but it does
not stand washing in water and solvents. The size of the emulsion particles must range within 0.1
and 2 micron, and can be stabilised, or not, by using protective colloids (hide glue, cellulose
ethers, polyvinyl alcohols). The textile substrate treated with this method is dried in stenters at
80-100°C. Good results can be obtained with medium-weight/light fabrics made of cotton,
cotton-synthetic blends and wool, with a good cost-efficiency ratio. Unfortunately the waterproof
finish is not a durable one. Better results for waterproof ability and solidity to usage and washing
can be obtained by replacing Al salts with Zr salts (ammonium and zirconium dicarbonate,
zirconium oxychloride, etc.), by applying them on fabrics made of cotton, cottonsynthetic blends
and wool, with a technique similar to the above mentioned one. Good results can also be
obtained on cotton, blends and wool, by using chromic chloride stearate emulsions with or
without colloids, in presence of examethylene tetramine, by padding the fabric, drying it and
polymerising at 130°C for 3 minutes.

Durable methods
It is possible to bind hydrophobic chains to cellulose fibres by reacting the primary hydroxyl
groups (etherification, esterification, etc.); the waterproof values reached are generally poor, but
durable, since they do not cause the formation of the surface film.

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The results can be remarkably improved when these products are combined with resins. Usually
the fabric is wetted by dispersing the product; the fabric is then dried and treated at 90- 120°C.

Products made of resins linked to fatty acids

These products feature excellent solidity when washed in water at 60-90°C, though not when
washed with solvents. They are recommended for treating raincoats, uniforms etc. It is possible
to use methylol-ureastearamide derivatives, ether alcohols superior to dimethylolurea, but more
frequently melamine derivatives linked in different ways with lipophile chains. These products
(whatever their formulation) can be used for padding applications in the presence of acid
catalysts (ammonium chloride, ammonium nitrate, aluminium chloride or zirconium
oxychloride), dried and polycondensed at 140-150°C. It is important that fabrics made of
synthetic fibres dyed with dispersed dyes, are dried at low temperatures after the padding
process; this prevents the dyes from migrating toward the hydrophobic surface and maintains the
fabric.s solidity to rubbing.

Silicones
These products are stable to washing in water at 60°C with solvents. They can be used to treat
uniforms, raincoats and sportswear. These products are very popular since they allow excellent
waterproofing properties, optimum solidity (that can also be enhanced if combined with resins)
and a very pleasant and soft hand (they are also used as softening agents.) Starting from silicon
and chloromethane, or from silicon tetrachloride with Grignard reagent, they are made react with
water to release silanols.

The dymethylesilanols obtained in this way can polycondensate in acid environment by forming
linear dimethylpolysiloxanes.
Precondensed products with low molecular weight are generally available on the market as
solutions (in organic solvents such as carbon tetrachloride or n-decane) or contained in aqueous
emulsions; they are recommended for completing the condensation process on fibres at 140-
160% or in milder solutions for longer times (acid hydrolysis of cellulose is avoided with a loss
of tenacity) by adding special catalysts (Zr oxychloride and Zn nitrate).
They are suitable to be applied on all types of fibres and also on emerised or coated fabrics. The
high water-repellent effect and the soft hand are due to the orientation toward the outer surface of
methyl groups induced by positive Zr ions linked to the negatively charged fibres:

Fluorinated products

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They feature an excellent fastness to washing in water and solvents. They are suitable for treating
uniforms, raincoats and sportswear, tablecloths and protection clothes (after washing they must
be ironed to recover their original effect).
These products are resins bound with hydrocarbons having at least the last four atoms of C
perfluorinates.
These products allow excellent waterproofing results also with oil-repellency properties (if stains
have not been pressed onto the fabric.)
The application is carried out by padding the fabric, which is then dried at 100-120°C and
subsequently polymerised at 140-150°C.

Anti-static Treatments
Being characteristically hydrophobic, synthetic fibres present a low electrical conductivity, so
low that, after rubbing against other bodies, they can retain an electrical charge for a long time.
Indeed, when two bodies, characterised by a neutral electrical charge and each having a different
chemical composition, are rubbed together, the electrons of each of them will attract those of the
other in such a way that both bodies acquire an electrical charge.
Generally speaking, the body with the higher dielectric constant takes a positive charge, while
the substance with the lower dielectric constant takes a negative one.
A potential difference, of as much as several hundred millivolts, is created between the two
contact surfaces.
If these two bodies, both charged with electrical energy, are separated, the potential is increased,
even as high as many tens of thousands of volts.
As far as fabrics are concerned, this discharge of energy occurs mainly between the innumerable
fibrils. It is responsible for creating the familiar crackling sound and for the formation of the tiny
sparks and the genuine electrical discharges that can cause perceptible discomfort. To reduce this
phenomenon, one can operate in a controlled environment that has high relative humidity, use
conductors that can discharge the material, ionise the atmosphere, or apply hydrophilic chemical
substances. Chemical products that confer an anti-static effect on synthetic fibres form, on the
fibre surface, a thin film whose electrical conductivity is higher than that of the fibre.
These substances are anionic, cationic, amphoteric, or even non ionogenic. The conductivity of a
synthetic fibre is thus increased when it is covered with a surface-active substance in which the
hydrophobic groups are oriented towards the fibre and the hydrophilic groups are oriented away
from it. The presence of mobile electrical ions is, however, important.
Depending on the substantivity of the chemical products used, it is possible to choose between
different application processes: immersion, exhaust or padding.
Anti-static finishing treatments are rarely applied through spraying. Chemical products that have
the capacity to confer a permanent anti-static effect condense at high temperatures; they can even
condense when stored at ambient temperature in hermetically sealed rooms or containers (as can
epoxy resin-based products).
All the anti-static products available on the market can be applied by padding, while only a few

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can be applied using the exhaust process. The material is immersed in liquor containing the anti-
static chemical product, squeezed (to 40-60% absorption) and finally dried in a stenter at 80-
100°C.
If the stenter is equipped with additional chambers that can be used to carry out heat setting
processes, then it is also possible to condense, at the same time, anti-static products able to
confer permanent effects.

Antimicrobial Treatments
In principle, antimicrobial treatments for fabrics work by limiting the growth of the
microorganism population. This also leads to a reduction in the quantity of unwanted byproducts.
The active principles that limit the growth of the microorganism population are known as
"antimicrobials". Here, a distinction can be drawn between those that have a bacteriostatic effect,
i.e., that limit growth, and those that have a bactericidal (or lethal) effect.

The former have the following aims:

- to prevent the transmission and propagation of pathogenic microorganisms (hygiene sector);
- to reduce unpleasant odours due to bacterial degeneration (deodorisation);
- to prevent loss of an item.s suitability for use (as a result of decomposition of fibres following
attack by microorganisms).
There are various chemical and physical possibilities that can be considered in the production of
antimicrobial fabrics. In practice, the antimicrobial effect is obtained through the application of
specific chemical products during the finishing stage, or through the incorporation of these
substances into chemical fibres during the spinning process.

These possibilities are:

- the addition of bactericidal substances to the spinning solution, prior to the extrusion stage
substances like Triclosan (2,4,4-hydrophenyl trichloro (II) ether), a member of the antiseptic and
disinfectant family. Triclosan is a halogencontaining derivative of phenol, and is used in
cosmetics and toothpastes. It has a wide range of action against gram-negative and grampositive
bacteria. This compound, thanks to the presence of the acaricide benzyl benzoate, also offers
protection against mites and is used in acaricide (spray or powder) formulas, as well as in a
solution (25% concentration) for the treatment of scabies. This compound is non toxic. Benzyl
benzoate is an acaricide that acts, chemically, directly on the mites.
- A different method for the production of antimicrobial and fungicidal fibres has been adopted
by an English company. Its "Stayfresh" fibres exploit the properties of silver and silica, both of
which, on coming into contact with water or humidity, arrest the growth of bacterial populations
in carpets, fabrics, furniture, mattresses and bed linen, by cutting off a source of their nutrition.
As well as having antimicrobial and fungicidal properties, these fibres are safe, non toxic and
inorganic because, they guarantee total mildew and fungus control, preventing the propagation of
bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus.

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- Modification through grafting or other chemical reactions. It is in this sector, that the Institut
Textile de France in Ecully has developed the so-called biotextiles. In these products, the chains
of molecules containing antiseptic substances are grafted onto the base polymers of the raw
fabric. The base polymers are activated by electronic rays and, in the course of the process, they
are refracted in given positions, into which is inserted the first graft molecule.
The chains of polymers, which grow laterally from the first molecule, confer on the fabric its
bactericidal properties. In the event of direct contact, these fabrics act very rapidly against
bacteria and their bactericidal property remains intact even after washing.
- Fibre blends.
- Textile finishing treatments with specific active principles. Following heat treatment (drying,
condensation), these substances, being incorporated into polymeric and resinogenic finishing
products, become fixed to the structure of the textile.

Antimicrobial finishing products

Man has adopted antimicrobial substances since ancient times, a fact that is demonstrated by
their use in Egyptian mummies and in similar applications in other cultures.
In this regard, the protection and preservation of fabrics, too, have long fulfilled a role of the
utmost importance. The need to protect and preserve is still fundamental in many textile
applications today. .Antimicrobials. are protective agents that, being bacteriostatic, bactericidal,
fungistatic and fungicidal, also offer special protection against the various forms of textile
rotting. The main antimicrobials include phenolic active principles, quaternary ammonium salts,
and organic-metallic (Hg) compounds. The chemical products can be used to obtain
antimicrobial effects in fabric finishing and in the production of chemical fibres. A different
method for the production of antimicrobial and fungicidal fibres has been adopted by an English
company. Its "Stayfresh" fibres exploit the properties of silver and silica (silicic acid), materials
that react with water and humidity, cutting off a source of nutrition of the house mite and
shrinking its population.

Ultraviolet protection finishes

the prevention from harmful effects of solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation on human skin. These
effects were recognised in the early 1990s. Longterm exposure to UV light can result in
acceleration of skin ageing, photodermatosis (acne), phototoxic reactions to drugs, erythema
(skin reddening), sunburn, increased risk of melanoma (skin cancer), eye damage (opacification
of the cornea) and DNA damage.1 Numerous publications have appeared concerning the use of
textiles to protect the wearer from these harmful effects; a selection are quoted.1–4 Solar
radiation striking the earth’s surface is composed of light waves with wavelengths ranging from
the infrared to the UV. Table 14.1 gives the wavelengths, relative intensities and average photon
energies of this radiation.
Although the intensity of UV radiation is much less than visible or infrared radiation, the energy
per photon is significantly higher. The very high energy of the UV-C photons is mostly absorbed

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by ozone in the higher regions of the atmosphere decreasing their relative intensity on the earth
surface to almost zero. But the energies of UV-A and UV-B photons that reach the earth surface
exceed the carbon–carbon single bond energy of 335 kJ mol–1, which is why UV radiation can
be used to initiate chemical reactions. The actual damage to human skin from UV radiation is a
function of the wavelength of the incident radiation, with the most damage done by radiation less
than 300 nm. If this erythemal effect is multiplied by the intensity of the incident solar light, as a
function of wavelength, the wavelengths of maximum danger to skin are 305–310 nm.1,4
Therefore, to be useful in protecting the wearer from solar UV radiation, textiles must
demonstrate effectiveness in the 300–320 nm range.
To quantify the protective effect of textiles, the solar protection factor (SPF) is determined. The
SPF is the ratio of the potential erythemal effect to the actual erythemal effect transmitted
through the fabric by the radiation and can be calculated from spectroscopic measurements.3 The
larger the SPF, the more protective the fabric is to UV radiation. In Europe and Australia, the
SPF is referred to as the ultraviolet protection factor (UPF). The SPF is also used with so-called
‘sun blocking’ skin creams, giving a relative measure of how much longer a person can be
exposed to sunlight before skin damage occurs.4 Typically, a fabric with an SPF of > 40 is
considered to provide excellent protection against UV radiation (according to AS/NZS 4399: Sun
protective clothing – Evaluation and classification, Standards Australia, Sydney). It is possible
to realise about 80 % of the theoretical maximum of SPF 200.
Since the most probable time for long-term solar exposure is in the summer, the most likely
candidates for UV protective finishes are lightweight woven and knitted fabrics intended for
producing shirts, blouses, T-shirts, swimwear, beachwear, sportswear, and the like. Industrial
fabrics designed for awnings, canopies, tents and blinds may also benefit from a UV-protective
treatment.

Characteristics of solar radiation striking the earth’s surface

Mechanism of UV protection

When radiation strikes a fibre surface, it can be reflected, absorbed, transmitted through the fibre
or pass between fibres.

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Radiation in contact with a textile surface.

The relative amounts of radiation reflected, absorbed or transmitted depend on many factors,
including the fibre type, the fibre surface smoothness, the fabric cover factor (the fraction of the
surface area of the fabric covered by yarns) and the presence or absence of fibre delustrants, dyes
and UV absorbers.
Solar protection factors (SPF) of undyed fabrics

The effect of fibre type on the SPF of undyed fabrics of similar construction is demonstrated.
Cotton and silk fibres offer little protection to UV radiation since the radiation can pass through
without being markedly absorbed.

Wool and polyester, on the other hand, have significant higher SPFs since these fibres will
absorb UV radiation. Nylon falls in between these extremes. One factor influencing nylon and
polyester absorbance is the presence of the delustrant TiO2, a material that strongly absorbs UV
radiation. If the fibres absorb all of the incident radiation, then the only source of transmitted
rays is from the spacing between the yarns. By definition, the theoretical maximum SPF is the
reciprocal of 1 minus the cover factor.

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Using a SPF value of 50 as the goal, a fabric with a cover factor of 0.98 and composed of fibres
that absorb all of the non-reflected UV radiation will provide its wearer with excellent protection
against solar UV radiation. Of course, tight micro-fibre fabrics provide a better UV protection
than fabrics made from normal sized fibres with the same specific weight and type of
construction.

Many dyes absorb UV radiation as well as visible light. A cotton fabric dyed to a deep shade can
achieve SPF values of 50 or higher just from the presence of the dye.1,4 Since fashion and
comfort often dictate the use of lightly coloured fabrics for summer apparel, the need arose for
UV absorbing materials that could be applied to fibres to provide the desired SPF values in light
shades. Dyestuff and auxiliary manufacturers have responded by developing a variety of
materials suitable for use as UV protection finishes.

Interaction of radiation with fabrics of varying cover factors.

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Chemistry of UV protection finishes

The requirements for a material to be effective as a UV protection finish include efficient absorption of
UV radiation at 300–320 nm, quick transformation of the high UV energy into the vibration energy in the
absorber molecules and then into heat energy in the surroundings without photodegradation. Further
requirements are convenient application to textile fibres and lack of added colour for the treated fibre.
Some typical chemical structures useful for UV protection .By careful choice of substituents, molecules
can be formed that have the required absorbance of UV radiation, lack of added colour and the necessary
affinity to fibres and fastness. In most cases, the UV absorber is applied with the dyes during the dyeing
process.

Standards for UV protection finished fabrics

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UNIT – II

STANDARD METHODS OF ASSESSMENT OF FINISHES

Evaluation Methods for Softener Finish

Fabric hand is defined as the estimated quality of a fabric, evaluated as reaction of the sense of
touch, which is integrated in our brain to a total value. Important components of the sensory
perception are the smoothness, compressibility and elasticity of the textile sample. As the hand
of fabrics is primarily a subjective feeling – similar to the impression of colour – there have been
many efforts to find methods for objective evaluation of the fabric hand. While instrumental
colour measurement is very common in textile quality control, the automated measurement of
fabric hand is still a topic of discussion and subjective manual hand evaluation is still the most
important method. Simple methods to measure some aspects of fabric hand were described by
Dawes and Owen. Many factors such as the colour of the textile, the light and the surroundings,
influence the manual evaluation of fabric hand. The American Association of Textile Chemists
and Colorists has published guidelines for subjective hand evaluation.

In some textile production laboratories single reference standards or a simple set of hand
standards with different hand values is used. This set of standards is produced from the same
fabric as the one being evaluated by applying the same softener at incremental concentrations. If
the softener is used in combination with other finishes, the concentration of the other finishes
must be held constant.
Relatively simple methods to evaluate only the bending properties of fabric (flex rigidity) are the
cantilever method and a similar device called Softometer,

The Handle-O-Meter3 is another method in which different kinds of deformation have a

simultaneous effect on the sample, resulting in a total value for the hand. A rectangular sample of
maximum 20 cm or 8 inches width is pushed by a blade into a variable slit. The maximum
resistance force on the blade is registered, giving a value that depends on the flex rigidity of the
sample and the frictional resistance on the corner of the slit. Thus both the surface smoothness
and the compressibility are included in the measurement. The mean values of both sides of
the fabric in lengthwise and crosswise directions are determined and recorded. In other relatively
simple methods the resistance is measured, when a textile sample is drawn through a ring
aperture19 or a nozzle.20 The measured resistance force consists of components of the flexural
rigidity, the surface friction, the shear rigidity and the compressibility.

The most comprehensive but most expensive method of objective hand evaluation was
developed by Kawabata and co-workers and is called KES-F (Kawabata Evaluation System-
Fabrics). It consists of several different measuring instruments, for example for tensile and shear
properties (KES-F1), bending properties (KES-F2), compressibility (KES-F3), surface (KES-F4)
and thermal (KES-F7) properties. The measured parameters and the area weight are normalised
and correlated to the subjective handle scores. From this correlation, for every hand evaluation a
transformation equation is developed, resulting in a primary hand value between 0 and 10. From
these primary hand values a total hand value can be calculated, ranging from 0 (not acceptable)
to 5 (excellent). For every fabric type new correlation equations have to be developed. Therefore
many users of the KES-F equipment correlate only selected properties with the subjective
assessments of their interest, for example the shear hysteresis with softness. Kawabata
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parameters can also be measured, with some restrictions, with the usual testing machines (such
as Instron) at low stress settings.
FAST (Fabric Assurance by Simple Testing) is another well known system. It was developed for
quality assessment in the wool garment industry. FAST is less expensive and much quicker than
the KES-F because it measures only some aspects of the fabric hand such as compression,
bending, extension and dimensional stability at a few given points in a simplified form. The first
three parameters correlate fairly well with the perceived softness but no quantitative hand values
are calculated. For the evaluation of yarn softness, there are several other devices in use, for
example the μ-Meter (Zweigle), a frictional balance (Reibwertwaage from Schlafhorst) and the
F-meter.
As can be seen, there are numerous instruments available to make objective, but incomplete,
measurements of those physical properties that determine fabric hand. It is fair to say, however,
that the best of these very expensive tools is, in general, not any better for making real time
production decisions than an experienced finisher who knows what his or her customer expects.

Device for the cantilever test method with L = sagged length

Fabric stiffness and drape qualities can be easily quantified by the cantilever method. As shown
in Fig. 4.7, a sample of specified width and length is placed on the top of the test device and
covered with a ruler, preferably a transparent one. The fabric edge, the zero mark of the ruler and
the upper edge of the inclined plane are aligned (inclination angle 41.5°). The fabric sample and
the ruler are moved together over the horizontal plane towards the inclined plane until the
sagging edge of the fabric sample touches the inclined plane. The length indicated on the ruler at
that point is recorded as the bending length. An average of 10 measurements is determined. The
flexural rigidity, G, can be expressed by:

G = (1/8) × W × L3

where W is the fabric weight in g cm–2 and L is the average sagged length of the sample in cm.
The flexural rigidity depends mainly on the internal friction between the fibres and the fabric
construction. In other test methods the bending of the fabric sample is not caused by its own
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weight but by several load weights thereby being better adaptable to different degrees of stiffness
degrees.By the way, most permanent hand builders decrease the water absorbency, which can
easily be proved by the drop test.

Evaluation Methods for Resin Finishing

A variety of test methods are used to evaluate the performance characteristics of fabrics treated
with easy-care and durable press finishes. Some of the more common ones are summarised in

Test methods for finished fabric properties

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Some of the more useful formaldehyde tests are summarised below.

Qualitative test for the presence of formaldehyde in fabrics: Add a small piece of fabric to 2–
3 ml of a solution of 10 mg chromotropic acid per 100 ml of 72 % sulfuric acid. Warm the
solution carefully to not more than 100 °C for 1 min. A red to violet colour in the solution
indicates the presence of formaldehyde.

Quantitative test for formaldehyde in air: This is most conveniently done with testing tubes
designed for this purpose (Dräger tubes from Drägerwerk AG, Lübeck, Germany, are an
example). A colour change to a certain mark after a specified amount of air is drawn through the
tube gives the formaldehyde concentration.

Quantitative tests for formaldehyde in fabrics: There are two types of test for formaldehyde
content of fabric. The first type is designed to imitate dry skin contact with the fabric and
especially for the release of formaldehyde during storage and transportation in closed containers.
During the test the fabric sample is held above water in a sealed jar. Free and easily released
formaldehyde dissolves in the water during the test and can be determined by specific analytical
methods.
The second type of test is intended to simulate extraction of formaldehyde by perspiration. This
test determines mainly the free formaldehyde that is dissolved in the test liquid during a direct
extraction. The test liquid can be water only or water with specific additives like wetting agents
or buffer salts. The pH of the fabric and the solution affects the amount of formaldehyde
extracted. A neutral pH minimises the amount determined. Higher extraction temperatures and
longer extraction times increase the amount of formaldehyde extracted owing to hydrolysis of
the crosslinker bond to cellulose. In many cases the usual order of these formaldehyde content
values related to the determination method is Shirley I > AATCC 112 > Japan Law 112 > DIN
54260.

Evaluation of Textiles treated with Repellent Finishes

Rapid and simple tests for water repellency are the water drop test (method standardised by
TEGEWA)18 and the spray test. If there is insufficient differentiation, even with a higher
distance between sample and nozzle, the water resistance with the hydrostatic pressure test
should be checked. Some of the most important quantitative test methods are given in Table. For
fabrics that require durable repellency performance, the test methods in Table 6.3 can be applied
to fabrics that have been laundered or dry cleaned by standard methods (as AATCC TM 124 and
TM 86) in order to determine the durability of the repellency properties. Three groups of
corresponding test methods may be distinguished, static drop tests, spray tests and hydrostatic
pressure tests.

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Test methods for fabrics with repellent finishes

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Evaluation of flame retardants:

Many factors influence the flammability of textiles, including the fibre type, the fabric weight
and construction, the method of ignition, the extent of heat and material exchange, and the
presence or absence of flame retardants. Differing development of numerous test methods for
evaluating the flame retardancy of textiles.

According to the great variety of textile usage there are numerous test methods with vertical,
horizontal or diagonal arrangement of the samples, methods with and without air ventilation, and
many special tests, for example for carpets and fire protection clothing. Some of the more
commonly encountered tests are given in Table. In the case of military fabrics, each fabric will
have to fulfil the requirements and procedures listed in the MIL specification.

Common flammability tests

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A measure that enables an obvious assessment of flame protection properties is the limiting
oxygen index (LOI), determined according to ASTM D-2863. The LOI is defined as the content
of oxygen in an oxygen/nitrogen mixture that keeps the sample at the limit of burning:

LOI = 100 × O2 : (O2 + N2)

As the oxygen content of air is 20 % corresponding to LOI = 20 all textiles with lower LOI
values will burn quite easily in air and those with LOI values much higher than 20 will not burn.
Table illustrates this readily imaginable measure for the flammability and burnability of
different types of fibres.

Limiting oxygen index (LOI) values of different types of fibres

For all methods, strict adherence to the testing protocol is crucial to obtaining reliable and
repeatable results. However, it is important to recognise that if a fabric passes a particular test, it
just means that the fabric passed this particular test. There are no other performance guarantees.
More detailed information on actual flame retardancy test methods and an outlook on their
development have been published.

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Evaluation of antistatic finishes

All laboratory evaluations of antistatic finishes should be conducted in an environment where the
temperature and especially the relative humidity are thoroughly controlled. The relative humidity
has a great effect on the antistatic effect since the resistivity of the fibre depends on its moisture
content. The higher the relative humidity, the higher the moisture content and the lower the
resistivity. The large variety of electrostatic test methods can be divided in three main groups,
measuring the cling time, the electrical resistance or the electrostatic voltage or charge, often as
half-life time.

Perhaps the simplest test method for the evaluation of antistatic finishes is the ash test. A piece of
the fabric to be evaluated is rubbed briskly on a piece of plastic or rubber (the vinyl covered arms
of a chair, for example). The fabric is then placed over an ashtray containing cigarette ash. The
amount of ash transferred to the fabric is an indication of the amount of static charge imparted to
the fabric. Owing to the difficulty in quantifying the results, this test is mainly used as a
qualitative tool to distinguish between antistatic-treated and untreated fabrics. More quantitative
results based on the same principle of charge build-up can be obtained with AATCC Test
Method 115: ‘Electrostatic clinging of fabrics: Fabric to metal test’, also known as the ‘cling’
test. A fabric that has been electrically charged in a repeatable manner by rubbing is placed next
to a grounded inclined metal plate. Any residual electrical charge causes the fabric to cling to the
plate. The time required for the fabric to be released from the plate is measured. The shorter the
cling time, the better the antistatic properties. However, fabric-to-metal cling times are not
directly related to fabric-to-body cling times.

AATCC Test Method 76 : ‘Electrical resistivity of fabrics’ is used to measure the surface
resistivity of fabrics (units are ohm/square). The voltage drop across a ring electrode system is
used to determine the fabric’s resistivity. A resistivity value of 1011 ohm/square or lower is
considered to be indicative of a fabric with negligible static propensity. The National Fire
protection Association (NFPA) has specified a resistivity of 1011 ohm/square for textiles
intended for use in operating rooms with flammable aneasthetic gases. Table shows a common
assignment of surface resistivity values to practical usage of the finished textiles at 65% relative
humidity (corresponding to DIN 54 345-1: ‘determination of electrical resistance’).

The surface resistivity is easy and relatively reproducible to determine with the ring electrode but
it is limited for various reasons, for example it is based on a static test with no information about
the important charging and discharging behaviour of the textiles. Therefore, combination with a
charge dissipation test is favoured.

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Surface resistivity and practical use of antistatic finished textiles

A charge dissipation test is performed with the Static Voltmeter (Rothschild, Zürich, Switzerland). The
fabric sample is fixed vertically and charged with direct voltage or by rubbing with a glass rod. The Static
Voltmeter measures the maximum charge generated as well as the charge decay. The time necessary for
the charge to fall to one half its maximum value is recorded (field intensity half-life time). The shorter
this half-life, the better the antistatic properties, as shown inTable.

A charge generation test for carpets is given in AATCC Test Method 134: ‘Electrostatic propensity of
carpets’. The body voltage of a person wearing shoes with standard neoprene or leather soles is measured
as they walk across a carpet. The maximum voltage after 30–60 s is recorded. Again, the lower the
voltage, the better the antistatic properties.

Evaluation of UV protection finishes:

Several organisations around the world have developed or have proposed performance standards for UV
protection fabrics. These organisations and their standards are summarized in Table. Although there are
multiple standards for UV protective fabrics, there are significant differences between the various
organisations. The particular standard for the intended market area should be consulted during fabric
development.

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Test methods for UV protective fabrics

Before the development of instrumental methods, SPF values of fabrics were determined by irradiating
human subjects and measuring the critical amount of radiation necessary to cause skin reddening at a
particular wavelength with and without wearing the fabrics. Fortunately, several methods are now
available that do not result in a sunburned participant. These methods all determine the transmittance of
UV radiation through fabrics and calculate the SPF value using standard charts for the solar spectrum and
the erythemal effect.UV Standard 801 considers in addition the effects of usage of the finished textiles
that normally reduce the UV protection.

Evaluation of antimicrobial finishes

The AATCC Technical Manual12 has a number of test methods that are useful for evaluating
antimicrobial finishes on textiles. These tests are summarised in Table. Two types of antimicrobial tests
are dominant, the agar-based zone of inhibition tests and the bacteria counting tests. The relatively new
ISO/DIS 20645 and the corresponding EN ISO 20645 are based on the agar diffusion test and ISO 11721
is a burial test (part 1 for the determination of an antimicrobial finish and part 2 for the determination of
the long-term resistance). A detailed survey and a comparison of the main test methods for evaluating
antimicrobial finishes is given by Dring and summarised in Table. The main difficulties of these tests are
mostly poor reproducibility of the test results and often insufficient correlation between laboratory results
and actual conditions in the field. Careful attention to detail and trained laboratory personnel are essential
for accurate and repeatable results from these methods.

A more rapid test method, developed by the British Textile Technology Group in the late 1980s, is based
on adenosine triphosphate (ATP) luminescence. The growth of microorganisms is assessed by firefly
bioluminescent detection and ATP analysis.

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Antimicrobial test methods used with textiles

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UNIT – III

GARMENT DYEING

Introduction

In the recent years, the garment dyeing has been slowly emerging as a process to meet the ephemeral
fashion trends adopted by the consumers and new machines and methods have made this process to wear
a brighter future for it. However, the garment dyeing is not coming without any strings attached to its, the
cautions are often pronounced in terms of fabrics and their preparation, accessories used in the garments
for safe operation. Along with raw stock dyeing, yarn dyeing and piece dyeing, garment dyeing has also
taken its place as another form of dyeing textiles. In the case of garment dyeing, the volume of popular
and unpopular colours can be increased or decreased as envisaged from the market requirements.

Garment Dyeing

Garment dyeing may be defined [1] as the “application of colour to fully fashioned apparel articles, may
be in the form of garments cut and sewn either prepared or unprepared knitted fabrics and then dyed,
garments and / or components knitted from either prepared or unprepared yarn and then dyed, garments
manufactured from either prepared or unprepared woven fabric and then dyed and mixed fabric garments
i.e. woven and knitted fabrics manufactured from prepared fabrics and then dyed”. The benefits of
processing good through garment dyeing procedure revolve around quick response and improved
inventory control. Differentiation is made between garment dyeing and hosiery dyeing where socks and
ladies stockings have been dyed in the prepared form [2]. Garment dyeing is the obvious way to meet the
needs i.e. quick response to fashion change, lead times have been reduced to 4 to 5 days from 2 to 3
weeks as minimum with other processing routes (Fig. 1) [3].

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Greige / PFD Garments

Garments are made from either “greige” or “prepared” fabrics. The technique involved in garments is the
same as the standard exhaust procedures of the dyes, except for pigments. Garment dyeing articles
include hosiery, socks, sportwear, shirts, T-shirts, trousers, bath robes, bath mats, throw rugs.
Dyeing of garments made from polyamide and their blends [4 - 8], acrylics, polyesters and mixtures of
these fibres have discussed in the past.
Dyeing of cotton is more suitable for relaxed look associated with casual wear and leisure wear garments.
In greige fabric garments, a full scour / bleach procedure is recommended [9] with the following recipe
shown in the Table 1.

In the case of PFD (prepared for dyeing) garments, a small amount of chemicals is used to enhance
the processing such as softeners, anti-curls; lubricants must be removed to ensure proper dyeing.
After 10 minutes run at 80 – 90o F, 5.0 – 8.0% of 50% NaOH is added and treated for 30 – 45 minute at
205o F.

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The dyeing of the garments requires more care than the dyeing of the fabric, though there is very little
difference in the dyeing procedures. This is due to the fact that processing of garments involves value
added goods. The entire garment dyeing activities may be broken down in to four categories namely
fully fashioned garment dyeing carried out by major dyers and finishers, cut and sewn garment covering
woven and knitted fabrics, dyeing of 100% cotton goods for boutique trade suitable for hand washing and
washing, desizing, bleaching denim goods, leading to stone wash, snow wash, over dyeing and
lighlighting effects.
Review on denim garment processing has been carried out many authors in the past [10]. A multicolour
splatter effect called “splatter dyeing” has been made possible on denim garments without necessity of
tieing or knotting, using wash-fast reactive dyes combining, exhaust dyeing, pad-batch and printing
technologies [10]. A technique for estimating the fraction of the total perceived colour depth in the denim
fabrics has been developed where more than one colour is used in the same fabric [3]. Since the majority
of garments, currently, being dyed are constructed from cotton fabrics, reactive and direct dyes are the
most popular classes though other classes are also used to some extent e.g. sulphur and vat dyes [9, 11,
12, 13].
Reactive dyes appear to be very much attractive in the dyeing of cotton garments similar to fabric dyeing
[14, 15]. Dyeing of cotton fabrics with sulphur dyes require more precautions to avoid damage to the
garments; presence of impurities like iron up to 20 ppm may alter the yield [16] and also adversely affects
copper containing buttons.
Exhaust dyeing with pigments is possible only with materials pretreated with a cationic agent which
imparts substantivity to overcome the non-substantitive in nature of the pigments. Exhaust dyeing of
garments with pigment involves prewash-pretreatment-exhaust dyeing-stone wash (optional)-
fixationthermo treatment [17]. Once the goods are prepared it is necessary to apply a chemical auxiliary
that will impart substantivity to the pigment e.g. cationic agent and once the cationic charge is applied to
the cotton piece or garments, the pigments can be applied together with an antifoaming agent and anionic
dispersing agent. The exhaust method is followed by curing operation at 120 – 130o C for 20 min in
presence of the catalyst [18]. Colour differences observed in the selvedges in the case of fabric dyeing can
be sorted out using clustering techniques and shade sorting (555) methods [19].

Garment Dyeing Machines

Unlike fabric dyeing machines where rollers and jets are employed in transporting the fabric through out
the machine and liquor, garment dyeing machine require special arrangements to move piece goods /
garments through the liquor continuously. Also, care needs to be taken to avoid abrasion marks,
stagnation of goods and to reduce tumbling action to reduce the damage to the fabrics. Salient features of
drum type machines, extractors, paddle type and jet circulators have been discussed in the past by many
authors [12, 13, 20, 21, 22]. Garment dyeing and wet processing equipment have evolved from the
combination of traditional textile equipment and industrial laundry equipment. The attributes of ideal
garment dyeing machine would include: automatic controller for cycle repetition and optimization, shade
consistency, centrifugal extraction, heating facility to make the cycle faster, cooling facility, lint filter to
give cleaner look to the garments, sampling device for better shade management, addition tank, tilting
mechanism for faster unloading of the garments, variable speed for processing different garments, volume
level control for shade reproducibility. The first means to ensure success in garment dyeing is to design
the garment to withstand the rigorous to rotary processing.

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The basic designs involved in the garment dyeing machines have been discussed earlier by many authors.
In open pocket dye extractors, cylinder speed determines the amount of agitation and even at very low
cylinder speeds, considerable agitation results from the tumbling action [22]. Cylinder speed influences
the depth of the shade (by agitation), redistribution of the dyes. The availability of equipment with high
temperature capability further expands the potential of garment processing for both PET and its blends. A
variety of machines are available for garment processing can be classified as given in theTable 2
Paddle

Paddle Dyeing Machines

Paddles are widely accepted for sweaters and loosely knitted goods due to their soft dyeing action, which
avoids abrading and pilling the garments. Overhead paddle, lateral paddle and high temperature paddle
machines serve the needs of the entire range of the garments.

Horizontal Paddle Machines (over head paddle machine) consist of a curved beck like lower suction to
contain the materials and the dye liquor. The goods are moved by a rotating paddle, which extends
across the width of the machine. Half immersed paddles cause the material to move upwards and
downwards throughout the liquor. The temperature can be raised to 98oC in such system.
In lateral / oval paddle machines consist of oval tank to enhance the fluid flow and the processing the
goods. In the middle of this tank is a closed oval island. The paddle moves in a lateral direction and is
not half submerged in the liquor and the temperature can be increased up to 98oC.
HT Paddle Machines work according to the principle of horizontal paddle machine, however, the
temperature can be raised up to 140oC. PES articles are preferably dyed on HT paddles.
In paddle machines, the dyeing can be carried out with 30:1 to 40:1, lower ratios reduces optimum
movement of the goods, lead to unlevel dyeing, crease formation. For gentleness, the blades of the
paddle are either curved or have rounded edges and the rotating speed of the paddle can be regulated
from 1.5 to 40 rpm. Circulation of the liquor should be strong enough to prevent goods from sinking to
the bottom. Paddle machines are suitable for dyeing articles of all substrates in all forms of make ups.
The goods are normally dyed using PP/PET bags.
Extractors

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Reduction of the speed results in the reduced movements of the goods within the dyebath, and so the
recirculation of dye liquor becomes important [22]. Recirculation of dye liquor does not create the
abrasion caused by faster cylinder speeds and increased tumbling action. Dye extractors with multipocket
design divide the cylinder into compartments to control garment movements, abrasion due to
mechanical action and in the compartments the garments are carried through the dye liquor in the
compartments. Depending upon the design and construction twin compartments, three or four
compartments can be made in the extractors.
‘D’ type pocket extractors have two compartments while ‘Y’ type pocket extractors have three
compartments and four compartment types of extractors are also available. By making more
compartments the tumbling effects are reduced and so is the abrasion associated with it. ‘D’ type
pocket reduces the drop or tumbling effect by 50% compared to open type pocket and Y type by 2/3.
Side loading and end loading are the two options available for loading the multi-pocket designs.
Drum Type Dyers
In drum type machines, a perforated drum is suspended along lengthwise axis in a horizontal
position, submerged in the dye liquor. The drums are divided into compartments and are capable
rotating at 2 – 20 rpm. High temperature drum machines are capable of processing the garments up
to 140o C.
Washing-Centrifuging Machine is similar in construction to a normal household washing machine.
This machine has a perforated suspended inner drum, which is not divided into compartments and
inner drum is located within an outer drum. Further developments in this machine have led to the drum
dyeing centrifuging machine. In centrifuging type machines, non-foaming agents are to be selected.
Wax used in the knitted yarns need to be removed above the melting point of the wax to avoid
redeposition.
Drum dyeing-centrifuging machines are also called “multipurpose drum machines” or “multi-rapid
dyeing-centrifuging machines” since these machines can perform scouring, dyeing, centrifuging and
conditioning successively with automated controls. The goods are treated in a perforated inner drum
housed within an outer drum (dyeing tank). Inner drums without dividing walls are provided with ribs
that carry the goods along for a certain time, partially lifting them up out of the liquor. These machines
can operate at very low liquor ratios and can dye the goods up to 98 -140o C. This is suitable for knits
as well as other garments. Liquor circulation can be intensified using additional jets. Drums can be
rotated in both the directions and some salient features of a drum dyeing - centrifuging machines
along with processing speeds for various goods are given in the Table 3 and Table4.

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1.Paddle Dyeing Machines

A process of dyeing textiles in a machine that gently move the goods using paddles similar to a paddle
wheel on a boat. This is a slow process, but there is extremely little abrasion on the goods. Horizontal
Paddle Machines (over head paddle machine) consist of a curved beck like lower suction to contain the
materials and the dye liquor. The goods are moved by a rotating paddle, which extends across the width
of the machine. Half immersed paddles cause the material to move upwards and downwards through out
the liquor. The temperature can be raised to 98o C in such system.
In lateral / oval paddle machines consist of oval tank to enhance the fluid flow and the processing the
goods. In the middle of this tank is a closed oval island. The paddle moves in a lateral direction and is not
half submerged in the liquor and the temperature can be increased up to 98oC.
HT Paddle Machines work according to the principle of horizontal paddle machine , however, the
temperature can be raised up to 140o C. PES articles are preferably dyed on HT paddles. In paddle
machines, the dyeing can be carried out with 30:1 to 40:1, lower ratios reduces optimum movement of the
goods, lead to unlevel dyeing, crease formation. For gentleness, the blades of the paddle are either curved
or have rounded edges and the rotating speed of the paddle can be regulated from 1.5 to 40 rpm.
Circulation of the liquor should be strong enough to prevent goods from sinking to the bottom. Paddle
machines are suitable for dyeing articles of all substrates in all forms of make ups. The goods are
normally dyed using PP/PET bags.

2.Rotary Drum Dyeing Machines

These machines work on the principle of “movement of textile material and a stationary liquor”.The
rotary drum dyeing machine consists of rotating perforated cylindrical drum , which rotates slowly inside
a vessel of slightly bigger in size. The internal drum is divided into compartments to ensure rotation of
goods with the drum rotation, and the outer vessel holds the required quantity of dye liquor. High
temperature drum machines are capable of processing the garments up to 140 oC.
Features of modern rotary-dyeing equipment include the following:
1. lower liquor ratio

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2. gentle movement of goods and liquor (minimizes surface abrasion)

3. rapid heating and cooling
4. centrifugal extraction
5. variable drum speed with reversal capability (adaptable to a wide variety of goods)
6. continuous circulation of goods (improves migration control)
7. easy of sampling
8. variable water levels with overflow rinsing capabilities
9. large diameter feed and discharge lines (minimizes filling and draining time)
10. microprocessor controls
11. lint filters
12. pressure dyeing
13. auto-balancing drums

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One feature that can be used to reduce abrasion on delicate garments or to minimize tangling is a
compartmental chamber, sometimes referred to as a "Y" pocke .The rotary drum machines are very simple
to operate and are quite compact in size. The cost of unit is also not high .
Drum dyeing-centrifuging machines are also called “multipurpose drum machines” or “multi-rapid
dyeing centrifuging machines” since these machines can perform scouring, dyeing, centrifuging and
conditioning successively with automated controls. The goods are treated in a perforated inner drum
housed within an outer drum (dyeing tank). Inner drums without dividing walls are provided with ribs that
carry the goods along for a certain time, partially lifting them up out of the liquor. These machines can
operate at very low liquor ratios and can dye the goods up to 98 -140 oC . This is suitable for knits as well
as other garments. Liquor circulation can be intensified using additional jets. Drums can be rotated in both
the directions.
3. Tumbler Dyeing Machines
These machines are being used for small garments either in loose form or in open mesh bags. Design wise
the tumbler dyeing machines are similar to the commercial laundering machines. The principle of
operation is to load the material into perforated inner SS tanks, which rotates round a horizontal shaft
fixed at the back of the drum. The drum is divided into compartments for moving the goods with rotation
of drum. A variety of tumbling machines have higher rotation speeds and can spin dry at the end of the
cycle. These are similar to dry-cleaning machines. Rotating drum machines are more efficient and cleaner
to operate than paddle machines. The more vigorous mechanical action often promotes more shrinkage
and bulking, which may be desirable for some articles. In order to handle higher quantities and large
production of similar pieces the latest machines are provided with several automatic features and
sophistication.

4. Toroid Dyeing Machines

In these machines the garments circulate in the liquor in a toroidal path with the aid of an impeller
situated below the perforated false bottom of the vessel. Movement of the goods depends completely on
the pumped action of the liquor. High-temperature versions of this machine operating at 120 to 130°C
were developed in the 1970s for dyeing fully-fashioned polyester or triacetate garments. The liquor ratio
of such machines is about 30:1.
5.The Gyrobox
The machine has support in the form of a large wheel, which is divided into 12 independent non radial
compartments. The goods are placed in these compartments .The wheel runs at a moderate speed of 2-6
rpm. The main advantage of this machine are,

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1. Reduced M:L
2. Different types of garments can be dyed simultaneously.
3. Flexible loading
4. Fully automatic operation.
6. The MCS Readymade garment dyeing machine
The roto dye machines are suitable for dyeing pure cotton, wool, polyester, cotton blends in the form of T
shirts, sweaters, bath rugs and accessories, socks and stockings.

6. Modified Pegg Toroid Whiteley Garment Dyeing Machine

This is an improved version of Toroid machines , the additional features are

1.The machine is suitable for both atmospheric and pressure dyeing.
2.Full automation upto hydroextraction.
3.The design features,speed and performance is simplified to make the machine more versatile
and free from operating problems.

Preparation of garments for dyeing:

Different machines used in the fabric preparation can result in differences due to the time and temperature
differences. While sewing, it is necessary to keep sewing tensions minimum on lock stitch and chain
stitch operations. About 90 – 95% of the garments that the dyer receives are cut and sewn from previously
prepared cloth. Oils, softeners used in knitting needs to be removed. The various problems observed in
the dyed garments include variation in shade / depth within the garment panels, between garments occurs
due to mixing of panels cut from differently treated fabrics, white undyed / light seams happens mainly
due to tight stitching, which further gets tighter due to the shrinkage during a higher temperature of
dyeing, and prevents dye penetration on seams and underneath the stitches, variation in the shade and
brightness differences within the garment panels happens due mixing fabrics treated with OBA and
without OBA, finish, resin and etc has been added to the garments. Dimensionally stable thread with low
elongation will help prevent seam puckering after dyeing. The dimensional stability of the stitching thread
should be tested prior to stitching and thread with low elongation can prevent seam puckering after
dyeing. Core spun thread also give excellent results. In the case of knitted fabrics, pre relaxation is
employed to avoid the problems of seam pucker and garment distortion and such fabrics can also be used
along with woven fabrics as fabric cut and sewn garment designs.

Size of the filaments also affects the depth of the shade, due to the fact that coarser filaments absorb
more light than finer filaments. As the cross section of fibres becomes more and more non-circular,
the fibres light scattering power increases. Trilobal fibres need about 50% extra dye than circular fibres
for same depth. However, bulked multi-lobal fibres in the yarn “trap the light” within the body of the
textile and increases the depth of the colour. Therefore, light scattering or light trapping can alter the
depth as decided by cross section.
The randomness of orientation of the dyed fibres in a textile material strongly influences the depth of
the colour. The apparent colour of yarns made from filaments tends to be highly dependent on the
angle of viewing, whereas such sensitivity is not obvious in the case of staple fibre yarns. In the fabrics
containing raised surfaces like velour, velvet, corduroy, difference in the side and end arise mainly due
to the optical origin, which is traceable to the path length traversed by the light in the longitudinal and

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transverse directions in fibres. More light is absorbed in the longitudinal direction than in the cross
sectional direction. Side and end effects can give rise to non-uniform colour appearance in the
garments. Significant darkening of the fabrics occurs after subjecting it to calendaring because of the
increased optical contact and reduced light scattering power. Similarly oil or water present in the
fabrics also brings significant darkening effects in the fabrics.
Elasticated areas, waist bands and cuffs must be fairly slack and seams should not be too much
bulky or tightly. Shrinkage behaviour becomes more important where knitted and woven fabrics are
mixed. Pre-relaxed knitted fabrics, pretreated woven fabrics should be fully preshrunk through suitable
process.
The various patterns present in the garments must be adjusted to compensate for shrinkage during
dyeing process. It has been suggested many times to make sample garments before initiating large
scale production to determine the adjustments required in the patterns. Establishing dyeing procedures for
each garments style, dye system and set-controls can help to address the variations in load, water volume,
temperature and cycle time. Garment to garment shade differences can be minimized with machine loads
containing garments made from the same lot of fabric.
Chafe marks / creases are, particularly, related to drum dyeing machines and in many circumstances,
garments are turned inside out and dyed with non-foaming lubricants. Tendency to entangle can be
reduced by tacking and eliminated by bagging the articles which in turn reduces the abrasion, wear and
tear of interior metallic surface. Once formed, a crease may then remain through out the finishing
processes. They lead to unlevel treatment and dyeing effect and of irreparable surface damages to the
goods from. Swollen cellulosic fibres are especially sensitive to mechanical friction, while thermoplastic
synthetic fibres tend to form permanent creases. Fibre type (natural / thermoplastic) fabric construction
(tightly woven crease prone), loading (higher loading-higher creases), addition of lubricant (special
lubricants reduces friction) are some of the parameters that influence chafe marks.
The majority of the problems in dyeing of garments are attributed to pretreatment of garment prior to
dyeing, quality and type of materials used in the making of garments viz fabric construction, sewing
thread, buttons, zippers, pocket lining etc., dyeing process and the machine used for dyeing. Problems
related to electrolysis of ionic processing solutions resulting from galvanic action of bimetallic garment
accessories have been discussed in the past. Anionic organic inhibitors are used to protect metal
accessories such as button, zippers made of non-ferrous, white metals (non aluminium) from oxidation
and tarnishing. The relative merits and demerits of the garment processes have been well discussed in the
past and include the following aspects.

Special considerations to garment dyer

- Very good communications between all parties involved

- Preparation - may be done on piece goods or on garments
. clean substrate for dyeing
. reduced shrinkage (preferably squared)
for wovens should be less than 5%
for knits should be less than 8%
- Metal components should be non-ferrous
nickel plated brass zippers are acceptable
pewter buttons are acceptable

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- Non-metal components that are not sensitive to dye chemistry or

temperatures at a boil are acceptable
polyester zippers, buttons, etc. which are clear or predyed
Velcro - clear or predyed
special polyamide buttons which are dyeable
- Threads must be of same fiber as the fabric in the garment or
"grinning" will occur.
Predyed threads may be used
Corespun threads with a strength or stretch yam in the
Covered threads may be used
core and the desired fiber on the outside
- "Tacking" of sleeves and pant legs to prevent tangling.

Quality Control

Boost in export of ready made garments essentially depends upon exceptional performance of garments.
This requires maintenance of time schedule for shipments and production of high quality garments i n
order t o improve piece realization . Production and marketing of high quality garments thus depend upon
their conformation to rigid standards of export, compliance with the latest fashion changes, appropriate
qual ity control and sale demand. 'Price vs quality' is a major aspect in this concern. Price of finished
garment chiefly depends upon three factors, viz. history of the fabric turned into garment, technical
inputs and use of appropriate processing machineries. The major areas for quality control of garments are
as follows:
Seams, Elasticized Areas, Waist Bands and scurrs
These areas must be fairly loose, and seams should not be prepared taut otherwise this may lead to poor
penetration of dyestuff in heavily swelling fibres. Possible remedy to this problem is the application of
high temperature which results in better diffusion, penetration and running of cloth, facilitating l iquid
flow. This guarantees fruition of migration potential and is essential for multi-layered seams or elasticized
waists. Normally, a temperature of 95°C is maintained before cooling for fixation.

Shrink Behaviour
Excessive or uneven shri nkage of garment where knitted and woven fabrics are mixed, leads to seam
puckering. It is essential to prerelax kn itted fabric and at the same time preshrink woven part. This is
done by ensuring various shrink proof treatments for high quality garments.

Chafe Marks/Creases

These are defects developed particularly on delicate garments due to mechanical stress in drum dyeing
machine, which degrade the final product. As a remedial measure, garments prone to chafe marks or
pilling effect should be turned inside out and dyed in presence of non-foaming lubricant. Additional
preventive measures may also be adopted by avoiding overloading of dyeing drum.

Accessories
Prudent choice of zips and metals accessories. Such as buttons and studs, must be done to prevent their

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corrosion or breakage. Generally, ferrous metals are avoided and preference for nickel and its alloy is
made unless bleaching or reactive dyeing is being carried out with high concentration of electrolyte or
alkali . Choice for cellulosic buttons may lead to its undue breakage while polyester buttons are non
dyeable and are used as neutral colours in coordination with umpteen shades. Nylon buttons can be
coloured in subsequent dyeing process with excess effort. Ribs of garment are generally made of natural
rubber or polyurethane such as Lycra. These materials, on the other hand, have their own disadvantages.
Natural rubber is affected adversely in the presence of certain metals like copper. In contrast,
polyurethane articles are degraded by strong oxidizing agents like chlorine. A solution to these traumas is
achieved by coating the metal accessories with corrosion protection agent. Sandcorin liquid, an anionic
organic corrosion inhibitor, is an obvious choice as corrosion retardant. It prevents non-ferrous and white
metals from oxidation and tarnishing by hindering the action of sensitive dyes onto the metal ions.

Sewing Threads
Sewing threads must be endowed with desirable properties, like strength and fineness to produce a neat
seam and last for the whole life of the product . Unmercerized cotton thread used in manufacturing of
cotton garments produces a sol id dyed inconspicuous seam. Polyester threads purposely enhance the
effects in the seams due to their dye uptake resistance and mercerized cotton threads increase the dye
uptake, resulting in darker appearance in shade. For cotton sewed garments meant for dyeing, it is not
possible to switch-off directly from conventional ply spun polyester or core-spun threads to 1 00% cotton
threads and retain the same seam characteristics. Equivalent seam strengths can be obtained using heavier
cotton threads. Similar degrees of elasticity in seam can be obtained by increasing stitch density. Seam
pucker resulting from thread shrinkage during garment dyeing can be avoided by slacker stitches on lock
stitch and chain stitch operations'. Selection of fibre for the preparation of thread depends on type of
fabric to be sewed. Generally, a common selection is made for the thread used for fabric preparation and
sewing. However, this is applicable mainly for cotton, as sewing threads made of other fibres do not
possess affinity for cotton dyes. This unarguably hikes the cost of garment manufactured and the
production speed.

Foreign Substances

Foremost objective of efficient garment dyeing is its value addition. This objective caters need for
adaptation of preventive measures to hinder value loss of the article. Protection of garments from stains
due to oils, greases and other lubricating agents is thus critical. Other foreign substances, like sizes and
resins containing additives such as elastomers and oil repelling agents could also denigrate the appearance
of garment.

Interlinings
Purpose of interlinings is to stabilize and enhance the appeal of outer fabric. With post-dyed garments,
certain special properties has to be inflicted into the interlinings to ensure better performance. Special
properties inherited by the interlinings include equivalent dye uptake by it as that of outer fabric.
Moreover, the adhesive, bonding the outer fabric to the interlining, must remain intact during and after
dyeing operation. Aftermath of dye sorption should not be adverse on colouration.

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Care Labeling
Augmentation of fastness properties of dyed garments is essential for customers demand. Major
attributes to be taken into consideration are: (i) dimensional stability, (ii) wash fastness, and (iii) rub
fastness. To meet these parameters effectively, care labeling is achieved suitably which tells the
customers precautions to be adopted while cleaning the garment. These care labels are embellished with
specific instructions with respect to method of washing. bleaching, drying, ironing and suitability for dry
cleaning. Various care labeling systems used are American, European, British and Canadians.
Quality level in garment dyeing can be augmented through proper fabric and dyestuff selection to survive
the rigors of processing, proper sizing, effective training of the staffs to ensure skillful garment handling,
good programming of dyeing equipments and innovations to increase production.

The major advantages include:

• Flexibility towards fast changing market trends
• Quick response and rapid turnaround
• Flexibility towards dye shades and finishes
• Flexibility of lot size
• Flexibility of items to be dyed
• Comparatively less rejection
• Low inventory
• Less capital investments
• Fancy effects

The disadvantages of garment dyeing include:

• Labour intensive process and requires thorough checking of every piece
• Higher “seconds” rate
• Poor appearance
• Poor reproducibility of shades
• Special care in the selection of fittings
• More material handling.

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UNIT – IV

Selection of Dye for Cotton Garment Dyeing

Depending upon end uses of garment, the direct, fibre reactive, vat and sulphur dyes are used. Direct
dyes, specifically classes A and B which have similar temperature of maximum exhaustion, are selected
to ensure even application and higher reproducibility. At a dyeing temperature of 95°C, electrolyte is
added to influence excess dye yield. Addition of calgon and a level ling agent is advisable for optimum
results. Key application parameters for direct dyes involve dyebath exhaustion, rinsing, and after-
treatment.
Special requirements of garment dyeing , viz. ( i ) good level dyeing properties, (ii) higher migration and
diffusion properties to assist seam penetration, and (iii) suitability for short/automated process, have
necessitated the use of reactive dyes. This requirement is met particularly with less reactive,
monochlorotriazinyl dyes with their high temperature application to optimize diffusion and migration,
low reactivity to optimize level dyeing and ease of automation using linear addition profiles for both dye
and alkali addition.
Vat dyes have limitations when severe chlorine fastness is required. Hot pigmentation technique is
generally employed in which the dye is dispersed as an insoluble pigment under alkaline conditions at
60-80°C. After a level ling period, dye is reduced to leuco form and penetration into cotton fibre is
affected. After flood rinsing at pH 10, reduced dye is oxidized back to insoluble form to achieve high wet
fastness. Garment handling can be improved by cationic softener after-treatment.

Sulphur dyes represent a broad shade range, having good to excellent wash and light fastness at relatively
low cost as compared to other dyeing systems. Black and medium to heavy shades of brown, blue and
green are most commonly used ; the range does include some fairly bright colours as well. Nowadays.
liquid sulphur dyes, called sodyesul liquids, are used which offer excellent performance and economy in
exhaust dyeing. These are much advantageous than fibre reactive dyes as these have lower costs, shorter
dye cycle, better cotton coverage, and much less salt with comparable fastness properties. ' Sandoz
antioxidant B ' , a sugar based reducing agent, results equally high reduction as sulphides. This al lows an
all-in procedure without the controls needed for sodyesul liquids. Presence of 20 ppm iron may alter dye
yield and shade ; presence of ea and Mg also poses same problem. Sequestering agents such as Sandoz
Sulfalox 100, can overcome problem of weak dyeings, poor crocking and streaks caused by the metal
contamination.

Pigment Dyeing of Cotton Garment

Though pigments are used in printing and pad dyeing since a long time, exhaust dyeing is a recent
development. Being non-substantive in nature, binders are used to fix pigment on fibre surface. It
was believed that the exhaust dyeing with pigments might not be practically possible due to low
exhaustion and poor levelness. Development of suitable auxiliaries has lead to the induction of
necessary affinity to fibres for pigments by pretreating textile for exhaust dyeing with pigments. Exhaust
dyeing can be carried out in the fol lowing sequence:
(i) prewashing, ( i i ) pretreatment, (iii) exhaustion, (v)stone washing (optional ), ( v ) fixation, and ( vi)
thermo-treatment.
Impurities and contaminants are to be removed from garment through pre-washing to ensure best dyeing
results.A critical part of dyeing sequence is pretreatment, where cotton is pretreated with a cationic

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compound to develop affinity for pigment - adequate uptake, and uniform adsorption of the cationic agent
is essential for this purpose. During pretreatment, an ionic attraction is developed between pretreated fibre
and aggregated pigment particles.
Exhaust dyeing is carried out in a pigment dispersion followed by binder fixation to improve fastness
properties of garment as pretreated fibres so prepared have poor fastness property due to surface
adsorption only. Stone washing if required, is carried out before binder fixation. During thermo-treatment,
binder polymerizes to form cross linkages to develop required fastness.

SELECTION OF AUXILLARIES:

Casual wears such as jeans are mostly incorporated with metallic components, like zips, buttons, rivets,
and labels made up of brass/iron/copperialuminumizinc or magnesium. These can cause difficulties
during garment dyeing. Peroxide bleaching is avoided to such prepared fabrics. Certain problems are
encountered, such as dye resist mark or physical breakdown of the fabric, particularly in the area of direct
contact with the metal component. Ferrous based materials have the risk of rust stains. Use of
sequestering agent, such as EDTA, helps to prevent shade alteration due to chromophore sensitivity.
Sandocorin 8 1 60 protects the metal from reaction. Most satisfactory option is the use of nickel
plated brass as metal component. Use of inhibitors based on phosphate ester/triazole gives the protection
against metal component corrosion, although care should be taken to avoid the retardation of dye buildup.

GARMENT WASHING TECHNIQUES

STONE WASH

Type of Stones
 pumice rock
 volcanic rock
 man-made substrates

Hardness
Size
Shape
Porosity
Dusting ability

Applications
. large, hard stones which last longer for heavy fabrics
. smaller, softer stones for lightweight and more delicate fabrics
. ratio of stone weight to fabric weight = 021 up to 3:l

TYPICAL PROCEDURE FOR STONE WASHING

1- Load garments and stones ( load to 30-50% of normal machine capacity)

2- Desize if needed with

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- detergent plus enzyme for starch

- oxidative desize
3- Rinse
4- Stone wash (with or without bleaching agent)
5- Rinse
6- Soften
7- Extract
8- Unload garments, remove stones from garments
9- Tumbledry

Notes:
Backstaining or color deposition can be reduced by
a- adding dispersantlsuspension agent to wash cycle
b- intermediate replacement of wash liquor
c. use of alkaline detergent (sodium perborate with optical brightener as an afterwash

ENZYME WASH:

CELLULASE ENZYME
Stones are not only abrasive to garments but also to the equipment.
Stones can create sludge in waste treatment systems.
Cellulase enzyme is a particular strain of enzyme derived from microorganisms selective to cotton form
of cellulose and not to starch. They attack 1 - 4 beta glucoside linkages resulting in reduced molecular
weight and therefore removal of surface fiber.

Main factors that control enzyme washing:

1 - pH
2- temperature
3- time
4 - concentration
5 - mechanical action
Once the reaction takes place, the mechanical action between garments and equipment as well as between
garments femoves weaker fibers resulting a cleaner, smoother surface. Stones may be added to enhance
the abrasion.

TYPICAL PROCEDURE FOR CELLULASE ENZYME WASHDOWN

(TWO STEP PROCEDURE)
Load garments (addition of stones optional)
Desize for starch
- alpha-amalase enzyme or
- oxidative desize
Rinse
Adjust pH to 4.5 - 5.0 with
- acetic acid or

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- a buffer system
Heat to 50 to 60 C ( 122 - 140 F)
Add cellulase enzyme
Tumble for 30 - 60 minutes
Deactivation step * - rinse hot > 65 C ( 150 F)
Rinse cold
Soften and/or optically brighten
Tumble dry
Deactivation of the cellulase enzyme to prevent further weight reduction
can be done by temperatures in excess of 60 C (140 F) and/or at a pH
higher than 5.0.
Cellulase enzymes may be used as an aftertreatment to clean up surfaces of
garments which have become fuzzy during garment dyeing. The shade
of the dyed garments may change which requires preliminary lab work to
determine if this will be a problem or not.

ACID WASH
- Also known as ICE WASH, SNOW WASH, WHITE WASH, ETC.
- Complete discharge or removal of color possible
- Uses pumice rocks, bleaching agents and dyestuffs that are sensitive to the bleaching agents.
- Porous rocks that have a medium to high dusting capability are soaked in solutions of bleaching agents
such as sodium hypochlorite or potassium permanganate. The chemistry is absorbed and is transferred by
the cutting action of the rocks and deposited with the dust onto the garment surfaces.
Rocks must have ability to
. absorb chemistry in less than 2 hours
. dusteasily
. apply dust evenly on smooth surfaces and on high peaks of garment such around cuffs, waist band, fly,
side seams, etc. and not in recessed spaces in those same areas.
- Load size in pounds of garments should only be 25 - 33% of rated capacity to allow for free tumbling of
the garments and stones and for proper drop distance.

- Ratio of the weight of the stones to the garments should be 0.5 : 1 for a light wash out 3 : 1 for a
complete white out

TYPICAL ACID WASH PROCEDURE

1) Load (25 - 33% rated capacity)
2) Desize for starch with alpha-amalase enzyme or oxidative desize
3) Rinse
4) Extract to a certain uniform moisture
60 - 70% light frost
70 - 90% medium frost
90 - 100% heavy frost (white-out)
5) Add presoaked stones (machine should be dry) with ratio dependent
‘6) Tumble for 10 - 30 minutes

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7) Remove garments
8) Neutralize
9) Soften and/or brighten
upon desired effect (0.5-3.0 : 1 , stones to garments)
10) Tumbledry

* Stones should be allowed to drip or blotted with waste fabric to remove excess solution to prevent
spotting. Stones can be used up to three times in some cases before resoaking is necessary.
* Neutralization usually takes place in another machine and the exact procedure is dependent on the
discharge agent used.
Sodium hypochlorite (NaOC1) with sodium bisulfite (NaHSO ) or hydrogen peroxide (H202 )
Potassium permanganate (KMnO and purple in solution ) converts to manganese dioxide (MnO which is
orange-brown in color) which must be neutralized with sodium bisulfite or hydroxylamine sulfate
((NH OH) H SO ).

Denim Bleaching: -
Laccases enzymes are used to get outstanding contrast look on denim fabrics. They also eliminate all the
negative effects of the indigo dye redeposition at the same time reducing the time of the process necessary
to achieve a highly abraded look. Various effects are obtained on denim fabrics using Laccases.

Peach Skin Effect: -

In classical finishing of lyocell, peach skin effects are produced in rope form using Airflows and Air
tumblers. Alternatives are produced in open - width finishing with special emery finishes e.g. emery
papers coated with diamond dust are recommended which imitate effects comparable with the classical
method.
Apart from Peach Skin effects, various finishes can naturally be applied to fabrics of Lenzing Lyocell
such as calendaring, embossed effects, crepe or other special effects. With a liquor ratio of 1:12 to 1:15,
the preventive agent against running creases, the dispersing agent, acetic acid and sodium acetate (0.5 gpl)
are added initially. It is necessary to choose preventive agents against running crease and dispersing
agents that do not hinder the activity of the selected enzyme (cellulose). The liquor is heated to the given
optimum temperature (45 - 60°C) .The pH is adjusted with acetic acid (pH 5.5 - 4.5) followed by the
addition of enzyme.

Enzymatic treatment: (Machine: Thies Roto Stream)

Fibrolube HML: - 3.0 - 4.0 gpl
Kleerix CR: - 0.5 - 1.0 gpl
Genecel GLA: - 2.0 - 3.0 gpl
pH is adjusted to 5 with acetic acid and sodium acetate. Fabric is treated at 60°C for 60 min. Enzyme
activity is inhibited by heating up to 85°C. Warm and cold rinsing is finaly given to the fabric.

OZONE FADING IN DENIM FINISHING:-

With finishes a hot concept, garment manufacturers and finishing units are innovating and experimenting
with new techniques to get catchy finishes. Ozone fading in denims provides an interesting look to the
garment. However, the procedure and methods to be adopted need to be carefully understood.

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One of the key noxious by-products of urban photochemistry

is ozone and this can reach dangerously high levels of 0.5
ppm. In the presence of UV light, there is an interaction
between the hydrocarbons , oxides of nitrogen and oxygen
that causes release of ozone (in addition to other
compounds). The release is during the day time due to
presence of sunlight. Indigo dyestuff tends to fade or turn
yellow due
to ozone reaction. Ozone is present in atmosphere in most
industrially active and urban dwellings and is
formed in the presence of sunlight or UV light. The levels of
ozone can reach dangerous levels of O.5 ppm and the
deteriorating effect it has on denim apparel (particularly that
stored in retail shelves) is
practically irreversible.
The fading rate of indigo dyestuff is dependent on
(a) The position of the dye in the fibre
(b) Solubility and diffusion of ozone within the fibre and
(c) Absorption of ozone on the surface of the fibre.

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