Ethernet

Ethernet is the most widely installed local area network (LAN) technology. Ethernet is alink
layer protocol in the TCP/IP stack, describing how networked devices can format data for
transmission to other network devices on the same network segment, and how to put that data
out on the network connection. It touches both Layer 1 (the physical layer) and Layer 2 (the
data link layer) on the OSI network protocol model. Ethernet defines two units of
transmission, packet and frame. The frame includes not just the "payload" of data being
transmitted but also addressing information identifying the physical "Media Access Control"
(MAC) addresses of both sender and receiver, VLAN tagging and quality of
service information, and error-correction information to detect problems in transmission.
Each frame is wrapped in a packet, which affixes several bytes of information used in
establishing the connection and marking where the frame starts.

Specified in the family of standards known as IEEE 802.3, Ethernet was originally developed
by Xerox in the 1970s. Ethernet was initially designed to run over coaxial cables, but a
typical Ethernet LAN now uses special grades of twisted pair cables, or fiber optical cabling.
Wi-Fi standards (IEEE 802.11a, b, g, n and now ac) define the equivalent of Ethernet
for Wireless LANs.) Ethernet standards are steadily evolving to embrace new media, higher
transmission speeds and changes in frame content (e.g., 802.3ac to accommodate VLAN and
priority tagging) and functional requirements (e.g., 802.3af, defining Power Over Ethernet
[POE] crucial to most Wi-Fi and IP telephony deployments).

Ethernet initially assumed a shared medium: multiple devices on each segment of the
network, connected daisy chain at first but later in star topology via Ethernet hubs (which
replicated all traffic received on any port to every other port). It therefore defines a means of
sharing the medium: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).
Ethernet devices will check to see if anyone else is transmitting at the moment (carrier sense
of multiple access) and if so (collision detection) will wait a short time before retrying the
transmission. Over time, though, hubs were replaced by switches, which send to each port
only the traffic directed to the device on that port. That, combined with the migration from
coaxial to twisted pair cabling (with dedicated pairs for sending and receiving data) and
optical fiber, made shared-medium problems a thing of the past.

The most commonly installed Ethernet systems are called 100 BASE-T (the "BASE-T" part
means the systems use twisted-pair cabling) and provide transmission speeds up to 100
megabits per second (Mbps). Gigabit Ethernet provides speeds of 1000 Mbps (1 gigabit or 1
billion bits per second) and 10 GbE, or 10-Gigabit Ethernet, provides up to 10 Gbps, and so
on. Higher speeds are constantly under development for standardization. Network engineers
use 100 BASE-T mostly for the connection of end-user computers, printers and the like; 1000
BASE-T for servers and storage; and higher speeds for network-backbone segments. Over
time, the speed typical in each kind of connection tends upwards.

Types of Networks
In describing the basics of networking technology, it will be helpful to explain the different
types of networks in use.

Local Area Networks (LANs)

A network is any collection of independent computers that exchange information with each
other over a shared communication medium. Local Area Networks or LANs are usually
confined to a limited geographic area, such as a single building or a college campus. LANs
can be small, linking as few as three computers, but can often link hundreds of computers
used by thousands of people. The development of standard networking protocols and media
has resulted in worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout business and educational
organizations.

Wide Area Networks (WANs)

Often elements of a network are widely separated physically. Wide area networking
combines multiple LANs that are geographically separate. This is accomplished by
connecting the several LANs with dedicated leased lines such as a T1 or a T3, by dial-up
phone lines (both synchronous and asynchronous), by satellite links and by data packet
carrier services. WANs can be as simple as a modem and a remote access server for
employees to dial into, or it can be as complex as hundreds of branch offices globally linked.
Special routing protocols and filters minimize the expense of sending data over vast
distances.

Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)

Wireless LANs, or WLANs, use radio frequency (RF) technology to transmit and receive
data over the air. This minimizes the need for wired connections. WLANs give users mobility
as they allow connection to a local area network without having to be physically connected
by a cable. This freedom means users can access shared resources without looking for a place
to plug in cables, provided that their terminals are mobile and within the designated network
coverage area. With mobility, WLANs give flexibility and increased productivity, appealing
to both entrepreneurs and to home users. WLANs may also enable network administrators to
connect devices that may be physically difficult to reach with a cable.

The Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) developed the 802.11
specification for wireless LAN technology. 802.11 specifies over-the-air interface between a
wireless client and a base station, or between two wireless clients. WLAN 802.11 standards
also have security protocols that were developed to provide the same level of security as that
of a wired LAN.
The first of these protocols is Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP). WEP provides security by
encrypting data sent over radio waves from end point to end point.

The second WLAN security protocol is Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA). WPA was developed
as an upgrade to the security features of WEP. It works with existing products that are WEP-
enabled but provides two key improvements: improved data encryption through the temporal
key integrity protocol (TKIP) which scrambles the keys using a hashing algorithm. It has
means for integrity-checking to ensure that keys have not been tampered with. WPA also
provides user authentication with the extensible authentication protocol (EAP).

Wireless Protocols

Specification Data Rate Modulation Scheme Security

802.11 1 or 2 Mbps in the 2.4 FHSS, DSSS WEP and

GHz band WPA

802.11a 54 Mbps in the 5 OFDM WEP and

GHz band WPA

802.11b/High 11 Mbps (with a DSSS with CCK WEP and

Rate/Wi-Fi fallback to 5.5, 2, and WPA
1 Mbps) in the 2.4
GHz band

802.11g/Wi-Fi 54 Mbps in the 2.4 OFDM when above WEP and

GHz band 20Mbps, DSSS with WPA
CCK when below
20Mbps

Types of LAN Technology

Ethernet
Ethernet is the most popular physical layer LAN technology in use today. It defines the
number of conductors that are required for a connection, the performance thresholds that can
be expected, and provides the framework for data transmission. A standard Ethernet network
can transmit data at a rate up to 10 Megabits per second (10 Mbps). Other LAN types include
Token Ring, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10 Gigabit Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and LocalTalk.

Ethernet is popular because it strikes a good balance between speed, cost and ease of
installation. These benefits, combined with wide acceptance in the computer marketplace and
the ability to support virtually all popular network protocols, make Ethernet an ideal
networking technology for most computer users today.

The Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers developed an Ethernet standard known
as IEEE Standard 802.3. This standard defines rules for configuring an Ethernet network and
also specifies how the elements in an Ethernet network interact with one another. By
adhering to the IEEE standard, network equipment and network protocols can communicate
efficiently.

Fast Ethernet
The Fast Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.3u) has been established for Ethernet networks that
need higher transmission speeds. This standard raises the Ethernet speed limit from 10 Mbps
to 100 Mbps with only minimal changes to the existing cable structure. Fast Ethernet
provides faster throughput for video, multimedia, graphics, Internet surfing and stronger error
detection and correction.

There are three types of Fast Ethernet: 100BASE-TX for use with level 5 UTP cable;
100BASE-FX for use with fiber-optic cable; and 100BASE-T4 which utilizes an extra two
wires for use with level 3 UTP cable. The 100BASE-TX standard has become the most
popular due to its close compatibility with the 10BASE-T Ethernet standard.

Network managers who want to incorporate Fast Ethernet into an existing configuration are
required to make many decisions. The number of users in each site on the network that need
the higher throughput must be determined; which segments of the backbone need to be
reconfigured specifically for 100BASE-T; plus what hardware is necessary in order to
connect the 100BASE-T segments with existing 10BASE-T segments. Gigabit Ethernet is a
future technology that promises a migration path beyond Fast Ethernet so the next generation
of networks will support even higher data transfer speeds.

Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet was developed to meet the need for faster communication networks with
applications such as multimedia and Voice over IP (VoIP). Also known as “gigabit-Ethernet-
over-copper” or 1000Base-T, GigE is a version of Ethernet that runs at speeds 10 times faster
than 100Base-T. It is defined in the IEEE 802.3 standard and is currently used as an
enterprise backbone. Existing Ethernet LANs with 10 and 100 Mbps cards can feed into a
Gigabit Ethernet backbone to interconnect high performance switches, routers and servers.

From the data link layer of the OSI model upward, the look and implementation of Gigabit
Ethernet is identical to that of Ethernet. The most important differences between Gigabit
Ethernet and Fast Ethernet include the additional support of full duplex operation in the MAC
layer and the data rates.

10 Gigabit Ethernet
10 Gigabit Ethernet is the fastest and most recent of the Ethernet standards. IEEE 802.3ae
defines a version of Ethernet with a nominal rate of 10Gbits/s that makes it 10 times faster
than Gigabit Ethernet.

Unlike other Ethernet systems, 10 Gigabit Ethernet is based entirely on the use of optical
fiber connections. This developing standard is moving away from a LAN design that
broadcasts to all nodes, toward a system which includes some elements of wide area routing.
As it is still very new, which of the standards will gain commercial acceptance has yet to be
determined.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

ATM is a cell-based fast-packet communication technique that can support data-transfer rates
from sub-T1 speeds to 10 Gbps. ATM achieves its high speeds in part by transmitting data in
fixed-size cells and dispensing with error-correction protocols. It relies on the inherent
integrity of digital lines to ensure data integrity.

ATM can be integrated into an existing network as needed without having to update the
entire network. Its fixed-length cell-relay operation is the signaling technology of the future
and offers more predictable performance than variable length frames. Networks are extremely
versatile and an ATM network can connect points in a building, or across the country, and
still be treated as a single network.

Power over Ethernet (PoE)

PoE is a solution in which an electrical current is run to networking hardware over the
Ethernet Category 5 cable or higher. This solution does not require an extra AC power cord at
the product location. This minimizes the amount of cable needed as well as eliminates the
difficulties and cost of installing extra outlets.

LAN Technology Specifications

Name IEEE Data Media Type Maximum

Standard Rate Distance

Ethernet 802.3 10 10Base-T 100 meters

Mbps

Fast 802.3u 100 100Base-TX 100 meters

Ethernet/ Mbps 100Base-FX 2000 meters
100Base-T

Gigabit 802.3z 1000 1000Base-T 100 meters

Ethernet/ Mbps 1000Base-SX 275/550 meters
GigE 1000Base-LX 550/5000 meters

10 Gigabit IEEE 10 10GBase-SR 300 meters

Ethernet 802.3ae Gbps 10GBase-LX4 300m MMF/ 10km
10GBase- SMF
LR/ER 10km/40km
10GBase- 300m/10km/40km
SW/LW/EW
 Logical Link Control
In the IEEE 802 reference model of computer networking, the logical link
control (LLC) data communication protocol layer is the upper sublayer of the data link
layer (layer 2) of the seven-layer OSI model. The LLC sublayer
provides multiplexing mechanisms that make it possible for several network protocols
(IP, IPX, Decnet and Appletalk) to coexist within a multipoint network and to be transported
over the same network medium. It can also provide flow control and automatic repeat
request (ARQ) error management mechanisms.
The LLC sublayer acts as an interface between the media access control (MAC) sublayer and
the network layer.