Piano

This article is about the musical instrument. For other 1 History

uses, see Piano (disambiguation).
“Pianoforte” redirects here. For earliest versions of the
instrument only, see Fortepiano. For the 1984 film, see
Pianoforte (film).
“Grand piano” redirects here. For the 2013 film, see
Grand Piano (film).

The piano (Italian pronunciation: [ˈpjaːno]; an abbre-

viation of pianoforte [pjanoˈfɔrte]) is a musical in-
strument played using a keyboard.[1] It is widely em-
ployed in classical and jazz music for solo and ensemble
performances, accompaniment, and for composing and
rehearsal. Although the piano is not portable and often
expensive, its versatility and ubiquity have made it one of
the world’s most familiar musical instruments.
An acoustic piano usually has a protective wooden case
surrounding the soundboard and metal strings, and a row
of 88 black and white keys (52 white, 36 black). The
strings are sounded when the keys are pressed, and si-
lenced when the keys are released. The note can be sus-
tained, even when the keys are released, by the use of
pedals. Grand piano by Louis Bas of Villeneuve-lès-Avignon, France,
Pressing a key on the piano’s keyboard causes a padded 1781. Earliest French grand piano known to survive; includes
(often with felt) hammer to strike strings. The ham- an inverted wrestplank and action derived from the work of Bar-
mer rebounds, and the strings continue to vibrate at their tolomeo Cristofori (ca. 1700) with ornately decorated sound-
board.
resonant frequency.[2] These vibrations are transmitted
through a bridge to a soundboard that amplifies by more The piano was founded on earlier technological innova-
efficiently coupling the acoustic energy to the air. When tions. The first string instruments with struck strings were
the key is released, a damper stops the strings’ vibra- the hammered dulcimers.[5] During the Middle Ages,
tion, ending the sound. Although an acoustic piano has there were several attempts at creating stringed keyboard
strings, it is usually classified as a percussion instrument instruments with struck strings.[6] By the 17th century,
because the strings are struck rather than plucked (as with the mechanisms of keyboard instruments such as the
a harpsichord or spinet); in the Hornbostel-Sachs sys- clavichord and the harpsichord were well known. In a
tem of instrument classification, pianos are considered clavichord, the strings are struck by tangents, while in
chordophones. With technological advances, electric, a harpsichord they are plucked by quills. Centuries of
electronic, and digital pianos have also been developed. work on the mechanism of the harpsichord in particular
The word piano is a shortened form of pianoforte, the had shown the most effective ways to construct the case,
Italian term for the instrument, which in turn derives from soundboard, bridge, and keyboard for a mechanism in-
gravicembalo col piano e forte[3] and fortepiano. The tended to hammer strings.
Italian musical terms piano and forte indicate “soft” and
“loud” respectively,[4] in this context referring to the vari-
1.1 Invention
ations in volume produced in response to a pianist's touch
on the keys: the greater the velocity of a key press, the
See also: Bartolomeo Cristofori
greater the force of the hammer hitting the strings, and
the louder the sound of the note produced.
The invention of the modern piano is credited to
Bartolomeo Cristofori (1655–1731) of Padua, Italy, who
was employed by Ferdinando de' Medici, Grand Prince

1
2 1 HISTORY

model for the many approaches to piano actions that fol-

lowed. Cristofori’s early instruments were made with thin
strings, and were much quieter than the modern piano,
but much louder and with more sustain in comparison to
the clavichord—the only previous keyboard instrument
capable of dynamic nuance via the keyboard.

1.2 The early fortepiano

Main article: Fortepiano

Cristofori’s new instrument remained relatively unknown

until an Italian writer, Scipione Maffei, wrote an en-
thusiastic article about it in 1711, including a diagram
of the mechanism, that was translated into German and
widely distributed.[8] Most of the next generation of piano
builders started their work due to reading it. One of these
builders was Gottfried Silbermann, better known as an
organ builder. Silbermann’s pianos were virtually direct
copies of Cristofori’s, with one important addition: Sil-
bermann invented the forerunner of the modern sustain
pedal, which lifts all the dampers from the strings simul-
taneously.
Silbermann showed Johann Sebastian Bach one of his
early instruments in the 1730s, but Bach did not like it
at that time, claiming that the higher notes were too soft
Early piano replica by the modern builder Paul McNulty, after
Walter & Sohn, 1805
to allow a full dynamic range. Although this earned him
some animosity from Silbermann, the criticism was ap-
parently heeded. Bach did approve of a later instrument
he saw in 1747, and even served as an agent in selling
of Tuscany, as the Keeper of the Instruments; he was an Silbermann’s pianos.[10]
expert harpsichord maker, and was well acquainted with
Piano-making flourished during the late 18th century in
the body of knowledge on stringed keyboard instruments.
the Viennese school, which included Johann Andreas
It is not known exactly when Cristofori first built a piano.
Stein (who worked in Augsburg, Germany) and the Vi-
An inventory made by his employers, the Medici family,
ennese makers Nannette Streicher (daughter of Stein)
indicates the existence of a piano by the year 1700; an-
and Anton Walter. Viennese-style pianos were built
other document of doubtful authenticity indicates a date
with wood frames, two strings per note, and had leather-
of 1698. The three Cristofori pianos that survive today
covered hammers. Some of these Viennese pianos had
date from the 1720s.[7][8]
the opposite coloring of modern-day pianos; the natu-
Cristofori named the instrument un cimbalo di cipresso ral keys were black and the accidental keys white.[11] It
di piano e forte (“a keyboard of cypress with soft and was for such instruments that Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
loud”), abbreviated over time as pianoforte, fortepiano, composed his concertos and sonatas, and replicas of them
and simply, piano.[9] While the clavichord allowed ex- are built today for use in authentic-instrument perfor-
pressive control of volume and sustain, it was too quiet mance of his music. The pianos of Mozart’s day had a
for large performances. The harpsichord produced a suf- softer, more ethereal tone than today’s pianos or English
ficiently loud sound, but offered little expressive control pianos, with less sustaining power. The term fortepiano
over each note. The piano offered the best of both, com- is now used to distinguish these early instruments from
bining loudness with dynamic control.[8] later pianos.
Cristofori’s great success was solving, with no prior ex-
ample, the fundamental mechanical problem of piano
design: the hammer must strike the string, but not re-
1.3 The modern piano
main in contact with it (as a tangent remains in contact
with a clavichord string) because this would damp the For more details on this topic, see Innovations in the
sound. Moreover, the hammer must return to its rest po- piano.
sition without bouncing violently, and it must be possible
to repeat a note rapidly. Cristofori’s piano action was a In the period lasting from about 1790 to 1860, the
1.3 The modern piano 3

Mozart-era piano underwent tremendous changes that led the double escapement action, which incorporated a rep-
to the modern form of the instrument. This revolution etition lever (also called the balancier) that permitted re-
was in response to a preference by composers and pi- peating a note even if the key had not yet risen to its
anists for a more powerful, sustained piano sound, and maximum vertical position. This facilitated rapid play-
made possible by the ongoing Industrial Revolution with ing of repeated notes, a musical device exploited by Liszt.
resources such as high-quality piano wire for strings, and When the invention became public, as revised by Henri
precision casting for the production of iron frames. Over Herz, the double escapement action gradually became
time, the tonal range of the piano was also increased from standard in grand pianos, and is still incorporated into all
the five octaves of Mozart’s day to the 7-plus range found grand pianos currently produced.
on modern pianos. Other improvements of the mechanism included the use
of felt hammer coverings instead of layered leather or cot-
12 8 7 6

ton. Felt, which was first introduced by Jean-Henri Pape

in 1826, was a more consistent material, permitting wider
9b
5 dynamic ranges as hammer weights and string tension in-
9
4 creased. The sostenuto pedal (see below), invented in
3 1844 by Jean-Louis Boisselot and copied by the Steinway
firm in 1874, allowed a wider range of effects.
One innovation that helped create the sound of the mod-
11 10 2 1 ern piano was the use of a strong iron frame. Also
called the “plate”, the iron frame sits atop the soundboard,
Broadwood square action (click for page with legend) and serves as the primary bulwark against the force of
string tension that can exceed 20 tons in a modern grand.
Early technological progress owed much to the firm of The single piece cast iron frame was patented in 1825
Broadwood. John Broadwood joined with another Scot, in Boston by Alpheus Babcock,[9] combining the metal
Robert Stodart, and a Dutchman, Americus Backers, to hitch pin plate (1821, claimed by Broadwood on behalf
design a piano in the harpsichord case—the origin of the of Samuel Hervé) and resisting bars (Thom and Allen,
“grand”. They achieved this in about 1777. They quickly 1820, but also claimed by Broadwood and Érard). Bab-
gained a reputation for the splendour and powerful tone cock later worked for the Chickering & Mackays firm
of their instruments, with Broadwood constructing ones who patented the first full iron frame for grand pianos in
that were progressively larger, louder, and more robustly 1843. Composite forged metal frames were preferred by
constructed. They sent pianos to both Joseph Haydn and many European makers until the American system was
Ludwig van Beethoven, and were the first firm to build fully adopted by the early 20th century.
pianos with a range of more than five octaves: five oc-
The increased structural integrity of the iron frame al-
taves and a fifth (interval) during the 1790s, six octaves by
lowed the use of thicker, tenser, and more numer-
1810 (Beethoven used the extra notes in his later works),
ous strings. In 1834, the Webster & Horsfal firm of
and seven octaves by 1820. The Viennese makers simi-
Birmingham brought out a form of piano wire made from
larly followed these trends; however the two schools used
cast steel; according to Dolge it was “so superior to the
different piano actions: Broadwoods were more robust,
iron wire that the English firm soon had a monopoly.”[12]
Viennese instruments were more sensitive.
But a better steel wire was soon created in 1840 by the
9 8 7 5 Viennese firm of Martin Miller,[12] and a period of inno-
vation and intense competition ensued, with rival brands
of piano wire being tested against one another at inter-
national competitions, leading ultimately to the modern
form of piano wire.[13]
Other important advances included changes to the way
the piano is strung, such as the use of a “choir” of
three strings rather than two for all but the lowest
notes, and the implementation of an over-strung scale,
in which the strings are placed in two separate planes,
6 1 2
each with its own bridge height. (This is also called cross-
3 4

stringing. Whereas earlier instruments’ bass strings were a

Erard square action (click for page with legend) mere continuation of a single string plane, over-stringing
placed the bass bridge behind and to the treble side of
By the 1820s, the center of innovation had shifted to the tenor bridge area. This crossed the strings, with the
Paris, where the Pleyel firm manufactured pianos used by bass strings in the higher plane.) This permitted a much
Frédéric Chopin and the Érard firm manufactured those narrower cabinet at the “nose” end of the piano, and op-
used by Franz Liszt. In 1821, Sébastien Érard invented
4 1 HISTORY

timized the transition from unwound tenor strings to the mann or Christian Ernst Friderici on the continent, and
iron or copper-wrapped bass strings. Over-stringing was Johannes Zumpe or Harman Vietor in England, and it
invented by Pape during the 1820s, and first patented for was improved by changes first introduced by Guillaume-
use in grand pianos in the United States by Henry Stein- Lebrecht Petzold in France and Alpheus Babcock in the
way, Jr. in 1859. United States. Square pianos were built in great num-
bers through the 1840s in Europe and the 1890s in the
United States, and saw the most visible change of any type
of piano: the iron-framed, over-strung squares manufac-
tured by Steinway & Sons were more than two-and-a-half
times the size of Zumpe’s wood-framed instruments from
a century before. Their overwhelming popularity was due
to inexpensive construction and price, although their tone
and performance were limited by narrow soundboards,
simple actions and string spacing that made proper ham-
mer alignment difficult.

Duplex scaling of an 1883 Steinway Model 'A'. From lower left to

upper right: main sounding length of strings, treble bridge, duplex
string length, duplex bar (nickel-plated bar parallel to bridge),
hitchpins, plate strut with bearing bolt, plate hole.

Some piano makers developed schemes to enhance the

tone of each note. Julius Blüthner developed Aliquot
stringing in 1893 as well as Pascal Taskin (1788),[14] and The mechanism and strings in upright pianos are perpendicular
Collard & Collard (1821). Each used more distinctly to the keys.
ringing, undamped vibrations to modify tone, except
The tall, vertically strung upright grand was arranged like
the Blüthner Aliquot stringing, which uses an additional
a grand set on end, with the soundboard and bridges above
fourth string in the upper two treble sections. While the
the keys, and tuning pins below them. The term was
hitchpins of these separately suspended Aliquot strings
later revived by many manufacturers for advertising pur-
are raised slightly above the level of the usual tri-choir
poses. Giraffe, pyramid and lyre pianos were arranged in
strings, they are not struck by the hammers but rather
a somewhat similar fashion in evocatively shaped cases.
are damped by attachments of the usual dampers. Ea-
ger to copy these effects, Theodore Steinway invented The very tall cabinet piano was introduced about 1805
duplex scaling, which used short lengths of non-speaking and was built through the 1840s. It had strings ar-
wire bridged by the aliquot throughout much of upper the ranged vertically on a continuous frame with bridges ex-
range of the piano, always in locations that caused them tended nearly to the floor, behind the keyboard and very
to vibrate in conformity with their respective overtones— large sticker action. The short cottage upright or pianino
typically in doubled octaves and twelfths. with vertical stringing, made popular by Robert Wornum
around 1815, was built into the 20th century. They are
The mechanical action structure of the upright piano was
informally called birdcage pianos because of their promi-
invented in London, England in 1826 by Robert Wornum,
nent damper mechanism. The oblique upright, popular-
and upright models became the most popular model, also
ized in France by Roller & Blanchet during the late 1820s,
amplifying the sound.[15]
was diagonally strung throughout its compass. The tiny
spinet upright was manufactured from the mid-1930s un-
til recent times. The low position of the hammers re-
1.4 Variations in shape and design
quired the use of a “drop action” to preserve a reasonable
Some early pianos had shapes and designs that are no keyboard height.
longer in use. The square piano (not truly square, but Modern upright and grand pianos attained their present
rectangular) was cross strung at an extremely acute an- forms by the end of the 19th century. Improvements have
gle above the hammers, with the keyboard set along the been made in manufacturing processes, and many indi-
long side. This design is attributed to Gottfried Silber- vidual details of the instrument continue to receive atten-
2.2 Upright (vertical) 5

tion. 2.2 Upright (vertical)

Upright pianos, also called vertical pianos, are more com-
pact because the frame and strings are vertical. The ham-
2 Types mers move horizontally, and return to their resting po-
sition via springs, which are susceptible to degradation.
Modern acoustic pianos have two basic configurations, Upright pianos with unusually tall frames and long strings
the grand piano and the upright piano, with various styles are sometimes called upright grand pianos. Some authors
of each. There are also specialized and novelty pi- classify modern pianos according to their height and to
anos, electric pianos based on electromechanical designs, modifications of the action that are necessary to accom-
electronic pianos that synthesize piano-like tones using modate the height.
oscillators, and digital pianos using digital samples of
acoustic piano sounds. • Studio pianos are around 42 to 45 inches (106 to
114 cm) tall. This is the shortest cabinet that can
accommodate a full-sized action located above the
2.1 Grand keyboard.

In grand pianos, the frame and strings are horizontal, with • Console pianos have a compact action (shorter ham-
the strings extending away from the keyboard. The action mers), and are a few inches shorter than studio mod-
lies beneath the strings, and uses gravity as its means of els.
return to a state of rest.
• The top of a spinet model barely rises above the key-
There are many sizes of grand piano. A rough general- board. The action is located below, operated by ver-
ization distinguishes the concert grand (between 2.2 and tical wires that are attached to the backs of the keys.
3 meters long, about 7–10 feet) from the parlor grand or
boudoir grand (1.7 to 2.2 meters long, about 6–7 feet) • Anything taller than a studio piano is called an up-
and the smaller baby grand (around 1.5 metres (5 feet)). right.
All else being equal, longer pianos with longer strings
have larger, richer sound and lower inharmonicity of 2.3 Specialized
the strings. Inharmonicity is the degree to which the
frequencies of overtones (known as partials or harmonics)
sound sharp relative to whole multiples of the fundamen-
tal frequency. This results from the piano’s considerable
string stiffness; as a struck string decays its harmonics vi-
brate, not from their termination, but from a point very
slightly toward the center (or more flexible part) of the
string. The higher the partial, the further sharp it runs.
Pianos with shorter and thicker string (i.e., small pianos
with short string scales) have more inharmonicity. The
greater the inharmonicity, the more the ear perceives it
as harshness of tone.
Inharmonicity requires that octaves be stretched, or tuned
to a lower octave’s corresponding sharp overtone rather
than to a theoretically correct octave. If octaves are
not stretched, single octaves sound in tune, but double—
Player piano from 1920 (Steinway)
and notably triple—octaves are unacceptably narrow.
Stretching a small piano’s octaves to match its inherent
inharmonicity level creates an imbalance among all the The toy piano, introduced in the 19th century, is a
instrument’s intervallic relationships, not just its octaves. small piano-like instrument, that generally uses round
In a concert grand, however, the octave “stretch” retains metal rods to produce sound, rather than strings. The
harmonic balance, even when aligning treble notes to a US Library of Congress recognizes the toy piano as a
harmonic produced from three octaves below. This lets unique instrument with the subject designation, Toy Pi-
close and widespread octaves sound pure, and produces ano Scores: M175 T69.[16]
virtually beatless perfect fifths. This gives the concert In 1863, Henri Fourneaux invented the player piano,
grand a brilliant, singing and sustaining tone quality—one which plays itself from a piano roll. A machine perfo-
of the principal reasons that full-size grands are used in rates a performance recording into rolls of paper, and
the concert hall. Smaller grands satisfy the space and cost the player piano replays the performance using pneu-
needs of domestic use. matic devices. Modern equivalents of the player piano
6 2 TYPES

include the Bösendorfer CEUS, Yamaha Disklavier and 2.4 Electric, electronic, and digital
QRS Pianomation,[17] using solenoids and MIDI rather
than pneumatics and rolls.
A silent piano is an acoustic piano having an option to
silence the strings by means of an interposing hammer
bar. They are designed for private silent practice.
Edward Ryley invented the transposing piano in 1801. It
has a lever under the keyboard as to move the keyboard
relative to the strings so a pianist can play in a familiar
key while the music sounds in a different key.

Wurlitzer 210 Electric Piano

Electric pianos have conventional strings but use electro-

magnetic pickups similar to those on an electric guitar.
The resulting electrical, analogue signal can then be am-
plified or electronically manipulated if required. Electric
pianos are uncommon.
The minipiano 'Pianette' model viewed with its original matching Electronic pianos are non-acoustic, they do not have
stool; the wooden flap at the front of the instrument has been strings but are a simple type of synthesizer that simulates
dropped revealing the tuning pins at the front. piano sounds using oscillators.[20]
Digital pianos are also non-acoustic and do not have
strings but use digital sampling technology to reproduce
The minipiano, an instrument patented by the Brasted the sound of each piano note. Digital pianos can include
brothers of the Eavestaff Ltd. piano company, was pedals, weighted keys, multiple voices, and MIDI inter-
patented in 1934.[18] This instrument has a braceless faces. Early digital pianos tended to lack a full set of
back, and a soundboard positioned below the keys—
pedals but the synthesis software of later models such as
meaning that long metal rods pulled on the levers to make the Yamaha Clavinova series synthesised the sympathetic
the hammers strike the strings. The first model, known as
vibration of the other strings and full pedal sets can now
the Pianette,' was unique in that the tuning pins extended be replicated. The processing power of digital pianos has
through the instrument, so it could be tuned at the front.
enabled highly realistic pianos using multi-gigabyte pi-
The prepared piano, present in some contemporary art ano sample sets with as many as ninety recordings, each
music, is a piano with objects placed inside it to alter its lasting many seconds, for each key under different con-
sound, or has had its mechanism changed in some other ditions. Additional samples emulate sympathetic reso-
way. The scores for music for prepared piano specify the nance, key release, the drop of the dampers, and simula-
modifications, for example instructing the pianist to in- tions of techniques such as re-pedalling.
sert pieces of rubber, paper, metal screws, or washers in Digital, MIDI compliant, pianos can output a stream of
between the strings. These either mute the strings or alter MIDI data, or record and play via a CDROM or USB
their timbre. A harpsichord-like sound can be produced flash drive using MIDI format files, similar in concept to
by placing or dangling small metal buttons in front of the a pianola. The MIDI file records the physics of a note
hammer. rather than its resulting sound and recreates the sounds
In 1954 a German company exhibited a wire-less piano from its physical properties. Computer based software,
at the Spring Fair in Frankfurt, Germany that sold for such as Modartt’s 2006 Pianoteq, can be used to manipu-
$238. The wires were replaced by metal bars of different late the MIDI stream in real time or subsequently to edit
alloys that replicated the standard wires when played.[19] it. This type of software may use no samples but synthe-
A similar concept is used in the electric-acoustic Rhodes sise a sound based on aspects of the physics that went into
piano. the creation of a played note.
 7

3 Construction and components to bend; rather than isolating the rim from vibration, their
“resonance case principle” allows the framework to more
freely resonate with the soundboard, creating additional
coloration and complexity of the overall sound.[26]

(1) frame (2) lid, front part (3) capo bar (4) damper (5) lid, back
part (6) damper mechanism (7) sostenuto rail (8) pedal mech-
anism, rods (9, 10,11) pedals: right (sustain/damper), middle
(sostenuto), left (soft/una-corda) (12) bridge (13) hitch pin (14)
frame (15) sound board (16) string (17)

Pianos can have upwards of 12,000 individual parts,[21]

supporting six functional features: keyboard, hammers,
dampers, bridge, soundboard, and strings.[22] This view of the underside of a 182 cm (6 foot) grand piano
shows, in order of distance from viewer: softwood braces, ta-
pered soundboard ribs, soundboard. The metal rod at lower right
is a humidity control device.

The thick wooden posts on the underside (grands) or back

(uprights) of the piano stabilize the rim structure, and are
made of softwood for stability. The requirement of struc-
tural strength, fulfilled by stout hardwood and thick metal,
makes a piano heavy. Even a small upright can weigh
136 kg (300 lb), and the Steinway concert grand (Model
D) weighs 480 kg (990 lb). The largest piano available
on the general market, the Fazioli F308, weighs 570 kg
(1257 lb).[27][28]

Outer rim of Estonia grand piano during the manufacturing pro- The pinblock, which holds the tuning pins in place, is an-
cess other area where toughness is important. It is made of
hardwood (typically hard maple or beech), and is lami-
Many parts of a piano are made of materials selected nated for strength, stability and longevity. Piano strings
for strength and longevity. This is especially true of the (also called piano wire), which must endure years of ex-
outer rim. It is most commonly made of hardwood, typ- treme tension and hard blows, are made of high carbon
ically hard maple or beech, and its massiveness serves steel. They are manufactured to vary as little as possi-
as an essentially immobile object from which the flexi- ble in diameter, since all deviations from uniformity in-
ble soundboard can best vibrate. According to Harold A. troduce tonal distortion. The bass strings of a piano are
Conklin,[23] the purpose of a sturdy rim is so that, "... made of a steel core wrapped with copper wire, to in-
the vibrational energy will stay as much as possible in crease their mass whilst retaining flexibility. If all strings
the soundboard instead of dissipating uselessly in the case throughout the piano’s compass were individual (mono-
parts, which are inefficient radiators of sound.” chord), the massive bass strings would overpower the up-
Hardwood rims are commonly made by laminating thin, per ranges. Makers compensate for this with the use of
hence flexible, strips of hardwood, bending them to double (bichord) strings in the tenor and triple (trichord)
the desired shape immediately after the application of strings throughout the treble.
glue.[24] The bent plywood system was developed by C.F. The plate (harp), or metal frame, of a piano is usually
Theodore Steinway in 1880 to reduce manufacturing time made of cast iron. A massive plate is advantageous. Since
and costs. Previously, the rim was constructed from sev- the strings vibrate from the plate at both ends, an insuf-
eral pieces of solid wood, joined and veneered, and this ficiently massive plate would absorb too much of the vi-
method continued to be used in Europe well into the brational energy that should go through the bridge to the
20th century.[10] A modern exception, Bösendorfer, the soundboard. While some manufacturers use cast steel in
Austrian manufacturer of high-quality pianos, constructs their plates, most prefer cast iron. Cast iron is easy to
their inner rims from solid spruce,[25] the same wood that cast and machine, has flexibility sufficient for piano use,
the soundboard is made from, which is notched to allow it is much more resistant to deformation than steel, and is
8 3 CONSTRUCTION AND COMPONENTS

changes, causing problems. More recently, the Kawai

firm built pianos with action parts made of more mod-
ern materials such as carbon fiber reinforced plastic, and
the piano parts manufacturer Wessell, Nickel and Gross
has launched a new line of carefully engineered compos-
ite parts. Thus far these parts have performed reasonably,
but it will take decades to know if they equal the longevity
of wood.

Strings of a grand piano

In all but the poorest pianos the soundboard is made

of solid spruce (that is, spruce boards glued together
along the side grain). Spruce’s high ratio of strength
to weight minimizes acoustic impedance while offering
strength sufficient to withstand the downward force of the
strings. The best piano makers use quarter-sawn, defect-
Cast iron plate of a grand piano free spruce of close annular grain, carefully seasoning it
over a long period before fabricating the soundboards.
This is the identical material that is used in quality acous-
especially tolerant of compression. Plate casting is an art, tic guitar soundboards. Cheap pianos often have plywood
since dimensions are crucial and the iron shrinks about soundboards.[29]
one percent during cooling.
Including an extremely large piece of metal in a pi-
ano is potentially an aesthetic handicap. Piano makers 3.1 Keyboard
overcome this by polishing, painting, and decorating the
plate. Plates often include the manufacturer’s ornamen- Further information: Musical keyboard
tal medallion. In an effort to make pianos lighter, Alcoa “Piano keys” redirects here. For the runway threshold
worked with Winter and Company piano manufactur- markings, see Runway § Runway markings.
ers to make pianos using an aluminum plate during the In the early years of piano construction, keys were com-
1940s. Aluminum piano plates were not widely accepted, monly made from sugar pine. Today they are usually
and were discontinued. made of spruce or basswood. Spruce is typically used in
The numerous parts of a piano action are generally made high-quality pianos. Black keys were traditionally made
from hardwood, such as maple, beech, and hornbeam, of ebony, and the white keys were covered with strips
however, since World War II, makers have also incor- of ivory. However, since ivory-yielding species are now
porated plastics. Early plastics used in some pianos in endangered and protected by treaty, makers use plastics
the late 1940s and 1950s, proved disastrous when they almost exclusively. Also, ivory tends to chip more eas-
lost strength after a few decades of use. Beginning in ily than plastic. Legal ivory can still be obtained in lim-
1961, the New York branch of the Steinway firm incorpo- ited quantities. The Yamaha firm invented a plastic called
rated Teflon, a synthetic material developed by DuPont, Ivorite that they claim mimics the look and feel of ivory.
for some parts of its Permafree grand action in place of It has since been imitated by other makers.
cloth bushings, but abandoned the experiment in 1982 Almost every modern piano has 52 white keys and 36
due to excessive friction and a “clicking” that developed black keys for a total of 88 keys (seven octaves plus a
over time; Teflon is “humidity stable” whereas the wood minor third, from A0 to C8 ). Many older pianos only
adjacent to the Teflon swells and shrinks with humidity have 85 keys (seven octaves from A0 to A7 ). Some piano
3.2 Pedals 9

and shorter distance between the keyboard and the pedals.

These pianos are true pianos with action and strings. The
pianos were introduced to their product line in response
to numerous requests in favor of it.
There is a rare variants of piano that has double keyboards
called the Emánuel Moór Pianoforte. It was invented
by Hungarian composer and pianist, Emánuel Moór (19
February 1863 – 20 October 1931). It consisted of two
keyboards lying one above each other. The lower key-
board has the usual 88 keys and the upper keyboard has
76 keys. When pressing the upper keyboard the inter-
nal mechanism pulls down the corresponding key on the
lower keyboard, but an octave higher. This allow pianist
to easily reach two octave with one hand which was im-
Keyboard of a grand piano possible to do so on a conventional piano. Due to its dou-
ble keyboard musical work that were originally created
0 2 4 6 8
for double-manual Harpsichord such as Goldberg Vari-
ations by Bach become much easier to play, since play-
1 3 5 7
ing on a conventional single keyboard piano involve com-
plex and hand-tangling cross-hand movements. The de-
An 88-key piano, with the octaves numbered and Middle C
sign also featured a special forth pedal which pair the
(cyan) and A440 (yellow) highlighted. lower keyboard with upper keyboard, so when playing
on the lower keyboard the note one octave higher would
also be played as if the pianist had also pressed the up-
per keyboard. Only about 60 Emánuel Moór Pianoforte
manufacturers extend the range further in one or both di-
were made, mostly manufactured by Bösendorfer. Other
rections.
piano manufactures such as Bechstein, Chickering, and
Some Bösendorfer pianos, for example, extend the nor- Steinway & Sons had also manufactured a few.[30]
mal range down to F0 , and one of their models which has
Pianos have been built with alternative keyboard systems,
97 keys even goes as far as a bottom C0 , making a full
e.g., the Jankó keyboard.
eight octave range. These extra keys are sometimes hid-
den under a small hinged lid that can cover the keys to
prevent visual disorientation for pianists unfamiliar with
3.2 Pedals
the extra keys, or the colors of the extra white keys are
reversed (black instead of white).
Main article: Piano pedals
The extra keys are added primarily for increased reso- Pianos have had pedals, or some close equivalent, since
nance from the associated strings; that is, they vibrate
sympathetically with other strings whenever the damper
pedal is depressed and thus give a fuller tone. Only a very
small number of works composed for piano actually use
these notes. More recently, the Stuart and Sons company
has also manufactured extended-range pianos, with the
first 102 key piano. On their instruments, the frequency
range extends from C0 to F8 , which is the widest practi-
cal range for the acoustic piano. The extra keys are the
same as the other keys in appearance.
Small studio upright acoustical pianos with only 65
keys have been manufactured for use by roving pianists.
Known as gig pianos and still containing a cast iron harp
(frame), these are comparatively lightweight and can be
easily transported to and from engagements by only two
people. As their harp is longer than that of a spinet or con-
Piano pedals from left to right: una corda, sostenuto and sustain
sole piano, they have a stronger bass sound that to some pedal
pianists is well worth the trade-off in range that a reduced
key-set offers. the earliest days. (In the 18th century, some pianos used
The toy piano manufacturer Schoenhut started manufac- levers pressed upward by the player’s knee instead of ped-
turing both grands and uprights with only 44 or 49 keys, als.) Most grand pianos in the US have three pedals: the
10 3 CONSTRUCTION AND COMPONENTS

soft pedal (una corda), sostenuto, and sustain pedal (from piano, there is a fourth pedal to the left of the principal
left to right, respectively), while in Europe, the standard three. This fourth pedal works in the same way as the soft
is two pedals: the soft pedal and the sustain pedal. Most pedal of an upright piano, moving the hammers closer to
modern upright pianos also have three pedals: soft pedal, the strings.[31]
practice pedal and sustain pedal, though older or cheaper
models may lack the practice pedal. In Europe the stan-
dard for upright pianos is two pedals: the soft and the
sustain pedals.

Notations used for the sustain pedal in sheet music

The sustain pedal (or, damper pedal) is often simply

called “the pedal”, since it is the most frequently used.
It is placed as the rightmost pedal in the group. It lifts
the dampers from all keys, sustaining all played notes. In
addition, it alters the overall tone by allowing all strings,
including those not directly played, to reverberate.
The soft pedal or una corda pedal is placed leftmost in
the row of pedals. In grand pianos it shifts the entire
action/keyboard assembly to the right (a very few instru- An upright pedal piano by Challen
ments have shifted left) so that the hammers hit two of the
three strings for each note. In the earliest pianos whose
The rare transposing piano (an example of which was
unisons were bichords rather than trichords, the action
owned by Irving Berlin) has a middle pedal that functions
shifted so that hammers hit a single string, hence the name
as a clutch that disengages the keyboard from the mech-
una corda, or 'one string'. The effect is to soften the note
anism, so the player can move the keyboard to the left
as well as change the tone. In uprights this action is not
or right with a lever. This shifts the entire piano action
possible; instead the pedal moves the hammers closer to
so the pianist can play music written in one key so that it
the strings, allowing the hammers to strike with less ki-
sounds in a different key.
netic energy. This produces a slightly softer sound, but
no change in timbre. Some piano companies have included extra pedals other
than the standard two or three. Crown and Schubert Pi-
On grand pianos, the middle pedal is a sostenuto pedal.
ano Co. produced a four-pedal piano. Fazioli currently
This pedal keeps raised any damper already raised at the
offers a fourth pedal that provides a second soft pedal,
moment the pedal is depressed. This makes it possible to
that works by bringing the keys closer to the strings.
sustain selected notes (by depressing the sostenuto pedal
before those notes are released) while the player’s hands Wing and Son of New York offered a five-pedal piano
are free to play additional notes (which aren't sustained). from approximately 1893 through the 1920s. There is
This can be useful for musical passages with pedal points no mention of the company past the 1930s. Labeled left
and other otherwise tricky or impossible situations. to right, the pedals are Mandolin, Orchestra, Expression,
Soft, and Forte (Sustain). The Orchestral pedal produced
On many upright pianos, the middle pedal is called the
a sound similar to a tremolo feel by bouncing a set of
“practice” or celeste pedal. This drops a piece of felt
small beads dangling against the strings, enabling the pi-
between the hammers and strings, greatly muting the
ano to mimic a mandolin, guitar, banjo, zither and harp,
sounds. This pedal can be shifted while depressed, into a
thus the name Orchestral. The Mandolin pedal used a
“locking” position.
similar approach, lowering a set of felt strips with metal
There are also non-standard variants. On some pianos rings in between the hammers and the strings ( aka rinky-
(grands and verticals), the middle pedal can be a bass sus- tink effect). This extended the life of the hammers when
tain pedal: that is, when it is depressed, the dampers lift the Orch pedal was used, a good idea for practicing, and
off the strings only in the bass section. Players use this created an echo-like sound that mimicked playing in an
pedal to sustain a single bass note or chord over many orchestral hall.[32][33]
measures, while playing the melody in the treble section.
The pedalier piano, or pedal piano, is a rare type of pi-
On the Stuart and Sons piano as well as the largest Fazioli
ano that includes a pedalboard so players can user their
 11

feet to play bass register notes, as on an organ. There own, called a partial. A vibrating string has one funda-
are two types of pedal piano. On one, the pedal board is mental and a series of partials. The most pure combina-
an integral part of the instrument, using the same strings tion of two pitches is when one is double the frequency of
and mechanism as the manual keyboard. The other, rarer the other.[36]
type, consists of two independent pianos (each with sepa- For a repeating wave, the velocity v equals the wavelength
rate mechanics and strings) placed one above the other— λ times the frequency f,
one for the hands and one for the feet. This was developed
primarily as a practice instrument for organists, though
v = λf
there is a small repertoire written specifically for the in-
strument.
On the piano string, waves reflect from both ends. The
superposition of reflecting waves results in a standing
wave pattern, but only for wavelengths λ = 2L, L, L/2,
4 Mechanics ... = 2L/n, where L is the length of the string. There-
fore, the only frequencies produced on a single string are
f = nv/(2L). Timbre is largely determined by the content
of these harmonics. Different instruments have different
harmonic content for the same pitch. A real string vi-
brates at harmonics that are not perfect multiples of the
fundamental. This results in a little inharmonicity, which
gives richness to the tone but causes significant tuning
challenges throughout the compass of the instrument.[35]
Striking the piano key with greater velocity increases the
amplitude of the waves and therefore the volume. From
pianissimo (pp) to fortissimo (ff) the hammer velocity
changes by almost a factor of a hundred. The hammer
A pianist playing Prelude and Fugue No. 23 in B major (BWV contact time with the string shortens from 4 ms at pp to
868) from Bach's The Well-Tempered Clavier on a grand piano less than 2 ms at ff.[35] If two wires adjusted to the same
pitch are struck at the same time, the sound produced by
When the key is struck, a chain reaction occurs to pro- one reinforces the other, and a louder combined sound of
duce the sound. First, the key raises the wippen, which shorter duration is produced. If one wire vibrates out of
forces the jack against the hammer roller (or knuckle). synchronization with the other, they subtract from each
The hammer roller then lifts the lever carrying the ham- other and produce a softer tone of longer duration.[37]
mer. The key also raises the damper; and immediately
after the hammer strikes the wire it falls back, allow-
ing the wire to resonate. When the key is released the 5 Maintenance
damper falls back onto the strings, stopping the wire from
vibrating.[34] The vibrating piano strings themselves are Main article: Piano maintenance
not very loud, but their vibrations are transmitted to a Pianos are heavy yet delicate instruments. Over the
large soundboard that moves air and thus converts the en-
ergy to sound. The irregular shape and off-center place-
ment of the bridge ensure that the soundboard vibrates
strongly at all frequencies.[35] (See Piano action for a di-
agram and detailed description of piano parts.)
There are three factors that influence the pitch of a vi-
brating wire.

• Length: All other factors the same, the shorter the

wire, the higher the pitch.

• Mass per unit length: All other factors the same, the
thinner the wire, the higher the pitch. The piano at the social center in the 19th century (Moritz von
Schwind, 1868). The man at the piano is Franz Schubert.
• Tension: All other factors the same, the tighter the
wire, the higher the pitch. years, professional piano movers have developed spe-
cial techniques for transporting both grands and uprights,
A vibrating wire subdivides itself into many parts vibrat- which prevent damage to the case and to the piano’s me-
ing at the same time. Each part produces a pitch of its chanics. Pianos need regular tuning to keep them on
12 6 PLAYING AND TECHNIQUE

pitch. The hammers of pianos are voiced to compensate are present for both pitches and that coincide or nearly
for gradual hardening, and other parts also need periodic coincide.
regulation. Aged and worn pianos can be rebuilt or re-
conditioned. Often, by replacing a great number of their
parts, they can perform as well as new pianos. 6 Playing and technique
As with any other musical instrument, the piano may
5.1 Tuning
be played from written music, by ear, or through
improvisation. Piano technique evolved during the transi-
Main article: Piano tuning
tion from harpsichord and clavichord to fortepiano play-
ing, and continued through the development of the mod-
Piano tuning involves adjusting the tensions of the piano’s ern piano. Changes in musical styles and audience pref-
strings, thereby aligning the intervals among their tones erences, as well as the emergence of virtuoso performers
so that the instrument is in tune. The meaning of the contributed to this evolution, and to the growth of distinct
term in tune in the context of piano tuning is not sim- approaches or schools of piano playing. Although tech-
ply a particular fixed set of pitches. Fine piano tuning nique is often viewed as only the physical execution of a
carefully assesses the interaction among all notes of the musical idea, many pedagogues and performers stress the
chromatic scale, different for every piano, and thus re- interrelatedness of the physical and mental or emotional
quires slightly different pitches from any theoretical stan- aspects of piano playing.[38][39][40][41][42]
dard. Pianos are usually tuned to a modified version of
Well-known approaches to piano technique include those
the system called equal temperament (see Piano key fre-
by Dorothy Taubman, Edna Golandsky, Fred Karpoff,
quencies for the theoretical piano tuning). In all systems
and Otto Ortmann.
of tuning, each pitch is derived from its relationship to a
chosen fixed pitch, usually the internationally recognized
standard concert pitch of A440. 6.1 Performance styles
Many classical music composers, including Haydn,
Mozart, and Beethoven, composed for the fortepiano,
a rather different instrument than the modern piano.
Even composers of the Romantic movement, like Liszt,
Chopin, Robert Schumann, Felix Mendelssohn, and
Johannes Brahms, wrote for pianos substantially differ-
ent from modern pianos. Contemporary musicians may
adjust their interpretation of historical compositions to
account for sound quality differences between old and
new instruments.
Starting in Beethoven’s later career, the fortepiano
evolved into the modern piano as we know it today. Mod-
A piano tuner ern pianos were in wide use by the late 19th century. They
featured an octave range larger than the earlier fortepiano
The relationship between two pitches, called an interval, instrument, adding around 30 more keys to the instru-
is the ratio of their absolute frequencies. Two differ- ment. Factory mass production of upright pianos made
ent intervals are perceived as the same when the pairs them more affordable for a larger number of people.
of pitches involved share the same frequency ratio. The They appeared in music halls and pubs during the 19th
easiest intervals to identify, and the easiest intervals to century, providing entertainment through a piano soloist,
tune, are those that are just, meaning they have a simple or in combination with a small band. Pianists began ac-
whole-number ratio. The term temperament refers to a companying singers or dancers performing on stage, or
tuning system that tempers the just intervals (usually the patrons dancing on a dance floor.
perfect fifth, which has the ratio 3:2) to satisfy another During the 19th century, American musicians playing for
mathematical property; in equal temperament, a fifth is working-class audiences in small pubs and bars, particu-
tempered by narrowing it slightly, achieved by flattening larly African-American composers, developed new mu-
its upper pitch slightly, or raising its lower pitch slightly. sical genres based on the modern piano. Ragtime music,
A temperament system is also known as a set of bearings. popularized by composers such as Scott Joplin, reached
Tempering an interval causes it to beat, which is a fluctu- a broader audience by 1900. The popularity of ragtime
ation in perceived sound intensity due to interference be- music was quickly succeeded by Jazz piano. New tech-
tween close (but unequal) pitches. The rate of beating is niques and rhythms were invented for the piano, includ-
equal to the frequency differences of any harmonics that ing ostinato for boogie-woogie, and Shearing voicing.
 13

8 See also
General

• Jazz piano
• Piano extended technique
• Piano transcription
• Piano trio
• PianoForte Foundation
• Street piano
• String piano
Birthday party honoring French pianist Maurice Ravel in 1928.
From left to right: conductor, Oscar Fried; singer, Eva Gauthier; Technical
Maurice Ravel (at piano); composer-conductor, Manoah Leide-
Tedesco; and composer George Gershwin. • Agraffe
• Aliquot stringing
George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue broke new musi- • Piano acoustics
cal ground by combining American jazz piano with sym-
phonic sounds. Comping, a technique for accompanying Related instruments
jazz vocalists on piano, was exemplified by Duke Elling-
ton's technique. Honky-tonk music, featuring yet another • Digital piano
style of piano rhythm, became popular during the same
era. Bebop techniques grew out of jazz, with leading • Electric piano
composers such as Thelonious Monk and Bud Powell. In • Electronic keyboard
the late 20th century, Bill Evans composed pieces com-
bining classical techniques with his jazz experimentation. • Electronic piano
Herbie Hancock was one of the first jazz pianists to find
• Harmonichord
mainstream popularity working with newer urban music
techniques. • Keyboard instruments
Pianos have also been used prominently in rock and roll • Keytar
by entertainers such as Jerry Lee Lewis, Little Richard,
Keith Emerson (Emerson, Lake & Palmer), Elton John, • Melodica
Ben Folds, Billy Joel, Nicky Hopkins, and Tori Amos, to • Organ
name a few.
• Orphica
Modernist styles of music have also appealed to com-
posers writing for the modern grand piano, including • Piano accordion
John Cage and Philip Glass.
• Pipe organ
• Player piano

Other
7 Role
• Chiroplast
See also: Social history of the piano
• Pianist

The piano is a crucial instrument in Western classical mu- • Pianos

sic, jazz, film, television, and most other complex west- • List of classical pianists
ern musical genres. A large number of composers are
proficient pianists—and because the piano keyboard of- • List of films about pianists
fers an easy means of complex melodic and harmonic
• List of piano brand names
interplay—the piano is often used as a tool for compo-
sition. • List of piano makers
14 9 REFERENCES

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[6] Pollens (1995, Ch.1)
[27] “Fazioli, Paolo”, Grove Music Online, 2009. Accessed 12
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[31] “Fourth pedal”. Fazioli. Archived from the original on
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[34] Macaulay, David. The New How Things Work. From
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 15

[41] Fielden, Thomas (1934). The Science of Pianoforte Tech- • Carhart, Thad (2002) [2001]. The Piano Shop on
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[42] Boulanger, Nadia. “Sayings of Great Teachers”. The Pi-
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ford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
• Dolge, Alfred (1911). Pianos and Their Makers: A ISBN 978-0-19-816171-4.
Comprehensive History of the Development of the Pi-
ano from the Monochord to the Concert Grand Player • Giordano, Sr., Nicholas J. (2010). Physics of the Pi-
Piano. Covina Publishing Company. ano. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-954602-2.
• Isacoff, Stuart (2012). A Natural History of the
Piano: The Instrument, the Music, the Musicians - • Lelie, Christo (1995). Van Piano tot Forte (The His-
From Mozart to Modern Jazz and Everything in Be- tory of the Early Piano) (in Dutch). Kampen: Kok-
tween. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. Lyra.

• Loesser, Arthur (1991) [1954]. Men, Women, and

9.1 General Pianos: A Social History. New York: Dover Publi-
cations.
Most of the information in this article can be found in the
following published works: • Parakilas, James (1999). Piano Roles: Three Hun-
dred Years of Life with the Piano. New Haven,
• Fine, Larry; Gilbert, Douglas R (2001). The Piano Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-
Book: Buying and Owning a New or Used Piano (4th 08055-7.
ed.). Jamaica Plain, MA: Brookside Press. ISBN 1-
• Reblitz, Arthur A. (1993). Piano Servicing, Tun-
929145-01-2. Gives the basics of how pianos work,
ing and Rebuilding: For the Professional, the Student,
and a thorough evaluative survey of current pianos
and the Hobbyist. Vestal, NY: Vestal Press. ISBN
and their manufacturers. It also includes advice on
1-879511-03-7.
buying and owning pianos.
• Schejtman, Rod (2008). Music Fundamentals. The
• Good, Edwin M. (2001). Giraffes, black drag-
Piano Encyclopedia. ISBN 978-987-25216-2-2.
ons, and other pianos: a technological history from
Cristofori to the modern concert grand (2nd ed.). • White, William H. (1909). Theory and Practice of
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0- Pianoforte-Building. New York: E. Lyman Bill.
8047-4549-8. is a standard reference on the history
of the piano.
• Pollens, Stewart (1995). The Early Pianoforte. 11 External links
Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-11155-3. is an authoritative work • History of the Piano Forte, Association of Blind Pi-
covering the ancestry of the piano, its invention by ano Tuners, UK
Cristofori, and the early stages of its subsequent evo-
lution. • Section Table of Music Pitches of the Virginia
Tech Multimedia Music Dictionary
• Sadie, Stanley; John Tyrrell, ed. (2001). The
New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (2nd • The Frederick Historical Piano Collection
ed.). London: Macmillan Publishers. ISBN 0-19-
• The Pianofortes of Bartolomeo Cristofori, Heil-
517067-9. contains a wealth of information. Main
brunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan
article: Edwin M. Ripin, Stewart Pollens, Philip
Museum of Art
R. Belt, Maribel Meisel, Alfons Huber, Michael
Cole, Gert Hecher, Beryl Kenyon de Pascual, Cyn- • Five lectures on the Acoustics of the piano
thia Adams Hoover, Cyril Ehrlich, Edwin M. Good,
Robert Winter, and J. Bradford Robinson. “Pi-
anoforte”.

10 Further reading
• Banowetz, Joseph; Elder, Dean (1985). The pianist’s
guide to pedaling. Bloomington: Indiana University
Press. ISBN 0-253-34494-8.
16 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
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SimonP, Merphant, Camembert, Montrealais, Hephaestos, Olivier, Bdesham, Infrogmation, D, Tubby, PhilipMW, Tim Starling, Sparta-
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Ww, Pladask, Dysprosia, Hydnjo, Fuzheado, Zoicon5, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Hyacinth, Saltine, SEWilco, Paul-L~enwiki, Head,
Morn, Shizhao, Opus33, Gakrivas, EldKatt, Mordomo, UninvitedCompany, Lumos3, PuzzletChung, Robbot, Craig Stuntz, Jwpurple,
Fredrik, Chris 73, TMC1221, Wanwan, Altenmann, Naddy, Hadal, JackofOz, Mandel, HaeB, Tsavage, Lzur, Unfree, Snobot, Giftlite,
Smjg, DocWatson42, Fennec, Qartis, Massysett, Lethe, Lupin, HangingCurve, MSGJ, Angmering, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Leonard
G., Gilgamesh~enwiki, Jackol, Tagishsimon, Christopherlin, Chowbok, Utcursch, Andycjp, Pamri, Latitudinarian, Mike R, SarekOfVul-
can, Knutux, Antandrus, OverlordQ, Jossi, Karol Langner, DragonflySixtyseven, Icairns, Jesta, JHCC, Mschlindwein, Jh51681, Brian-
Willoughby, Ratiocinate, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Acsenray, Jfpierce, Kate, Mike Rosoft, Jwolfe, Jiy, EugeneZelenko, Discospinster,
Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Ld, Ardonik, Mani1, Pavel Vozenilek, ESkog, Kbh3rd, JoeSmack, Dpotter, CanisRufus, Livajo, MBisanz, El C,
Fenevad, Zenohockey, Lankiveil, Mwanner, Shanes, Tom, EurekaLott, Femto, Bobo192, Longhair, Jpceayene, Johnkarp, Func, Keron Cyst,
Wisdom89, Malafaya, Juzeris, Unused0022, Rockhopper10r, Jojit fb, Nk, Bleh fu, NickSchweitzer, Shorne, Sam Korn, Benbread, Dygi-
tuljunky, Jjron, Jakew, ClementSeveillac, Knucmo2, Jumbuck, Schissel, LibraryLion, Alansohn, Gary, Tablizer, Vslashg, Qwe, Wjbean,
Yamla, Bart133, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Velella, CloudNine, Sciurinæ, Mikeo, Deadworm222, LukeSurl, Blaxthos, HenryLi, Killing Vec-
tor, Dismas, Mindmatrix, Georgia guy, LOL, Spettro9, Swiftblade21, JeremyA, Dbolton, MONGO, Miss Madeline, Firien, Mangojuice,
Macaddct1984, MKleid, Noetica, Wayward, Gniw, Manga-kid, Urbanguy1, Pfalstad, Turnstep, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, Buxte-
hude, MC MasterChef, FreplySpang, MauriceJFox3, Edison, Shortenfs, Canderson7, Саша Стефановић, Quale, Gryffindor, Missmarple,
Commander, RiseAbove, Bruce1ee, Stevekeiretsu, InFairness, Boccobrock, Cfortunato, Matt Deres, Sango123, Qaqaq, Yamamoto Ichiro,
Roo60, FlaBot, Moskvax, RobertG, Windchaser, Pfctdayelise, Musser, Gurch, Vilcxjo, Sstrader, GreyCat, M7bot, Press Start, Mstroeck,
King of Hearts, Esslk, Chobot, DVdm, Mhking, Hall Monitor, Gwernol, Melodia, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, Texas-
Android, Sceptre, Taurrandir, Chriskhong, Phantomsteve, Bhny, Aaron Walden, Stephenb, Tenebrae, David Woodward, Zimbricchio,
Rsrikanth05, Sentausa, NawlinWiki, EWS23, Pianoman199, Wiki alf, UCaetano, Grafen, Chick Bowen, Erielhonan, Dforest, Badagnani,
Johann Wolfgang, Exir Kamalabadi, Mesolimbo, Robchurch, Dureo, Nick, Retired username, Ospalh, Wangi, Todeswalzer, Psy guy, Pri-
vate Butcher, Alpha 4615, Bantosh, Nlu, Kelovy, Sandstein, Dmcc, NostinAdrek, J. Van Meter, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, Spondoolicks,
Ketsuekigata, Fang Aili, Ro2nie, Josh3580, Rconroy, Mafal, JuJube, Shawnc, Katieh5584, Hagie, Meegs, Ásgeir IV.~enwiki, SDS, Mjroots,
WeepingElf, Paul Erik, GrinBot~enwiki, Zvika, Draicone, DVD R W, Yeyonghe, Luk, DocendoDiscimus, Veinor, Neier, SmackBot, Yel-
lowMonkey, Teenwriter, FunnyYetTasty, My2cents, Ashley thomas80, KnowledgeOfSelf, DCGeist, Pgk, C.Fred, Blue520, Bomac, Jagged
85, Brucejohn, Chairman S., Jsa23899, WayneConrad, Jab843, Wengrobin, Keakealani, Flameeyes, Alsandro, Evanreyes, Moralis, Yam-
aguchi , Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Skizzik, Andy M. Wang, Theweekly, Qtoktok, Vercalos, Chris the speller, Unint, Keegan, Agateller,
Persian Poet Gal, NCurse, Jprg1966, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Timneu22, SchfiftyThree, Cheesyk1991, Mireut, Ctbolt, Ted87, DHN-
bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Toughpigs, Philip Howard, Springeragh, Salmar, Betsys99, Ishmayl, Zsinj, NYKevin, OrphanBot, Nomen-
clator, Avb, Tommyjb, Rashad9607, Themeparkphoto, Addshore, Kcordina, Robshill, BUF4Life, Znethru, Dirgni1986, Nakon, Annie
L, T-borg, VegaDark, Hoof Hearted, Dreadstar, THD3, Duinemerwen, Astroview120mm, Aotake, Arab bot, Just plain Bill, Copysan,
Bdiscoe, Lph, Edwardywang, The undertow, Dane Sorensen, Gymnopedist, Mgrand, ArglebargleIV, Michelle, Kuru, Rigadoun, JorisvS,
Goodnightmush, Яippawallet, Scetoaux, IronGargoyle, Bella Swan, A. Parrot, Ex nihil, Drumlineramos, The Bread, Rainwarrior, Special-T,
Makyen, Noah Salzman, SQGibbon, Mr Stephen, Bollinger, Bendzh, TastyPoutine, ISBN, AEMoreira042281, Jose77, Kvng, Violncello,
OnBeyondZebrax, Wizard191, Iridescent, Hayttom, D Hill, Saltlakejohn, CapitalR, Blehfu, Silent reverie86, Courcelles, Peteweez, Tawker-
bot2, Alegoo92, Dlohcierekim, Timrem, Lahiru k, Switchercat, Alexthe5th, JForget, Jbusenitz, Wolfdog, AceKingQueenJack, CmdrObot,
Imprimez, Blouis79, AtomBoy, Dgillett, Dycedarg, Tungchit, SupaStarGirl, JohnCD, Desiromeo107, Charvex, GHe, ThePirate, Dgw, Out-
riggr (2006-2009), Moreschi, Moogoogaipan, Bocianski, Tex, Karenjc, Ejeinowski, Lookingforgroup, Alton, Jefchip, Equendil, Dogman15,
Badseed, Jenniferflynn89, Fluence, Brumpz, Carboncopy, Besieged, Jlking3, UncleBubba, Gogo Dodo, Briguychau, Bridgecross, STV0726,
Frosty0814snowman, Corpx, TerranG3, Odie5533, Tawkerbot4, Shirulashem, Walter Humala, DumbBOT, NDCompuGeek, Dinnerbone,
Tuvwxyz, Omicronpersei8, JodyB, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Dancey2, Daniel Newman, Calvinballing,
HappyInGeneral, Hazmat2, Haearnbran, Mojo Hand, Oliver202, Marek69, A3RO, Maxxo, Lakeoftea, Dr. Friendly, Nick Number, Wha-
leyTim, Dawnseeker2000, Natalie Erin, IMPERIAL, Escarbot, Pie Man 360, Gossamers, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Brissone,
Turlo Lomon, QuiteUnusual, Quintote, Kbthompson, Julia Rossi, CPMartin, Tmopkisn, Modernist, LibLord, Christadelphos, Altamel,
Doktor Faustus, 1Si61515, Myanw, Canadian-Bacon, Res2216firestar, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, LadyKeelah, Leuko, Husond, Coolmaned-
ward, Formation, Barek, MER-C, Fetchcomms, Bahar, Boguslavmandzyuk, Andonic, J-stan, East718, MSBOT, தொழில்நுட்பம்~enwiki,
Rothorpe, Ô, LittleOldMe, Steve Bob, Magioladitis, Prof.rick, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, A4, Professor marginalia, Wikidudeman, AtticusX,
JNW, JamesBWatson, -Kerplunk-, Jerome Kohl, Faizhaider, Think outside the box, Outoftunepiano, CTF83!, Rami R, Ilovepiano, Twsx,
Kevinmon, Corporal Tunnel, Drondent, Wisteriapress, Catgut, Indon, KirinX, Crunchy Numbers, Ajcounter, Syphon8, Animum, JJ Har-
rison, Simatbirch, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Allstarecho, LorenzoB, Chris G, DerHexer, Edward321, Cricket02, Giroper, Pax:Vobiscum,
CrookToe, Rverne8, SirVulture, Emil76~enwiki, DancingPenguin, Adriaan, FisherQueen, Hdt83, MartinBot, Moggie2002, Clavecin,
Arjun01, UnfriendlyFire, Pandrews76, Joelthesecond, BShiplet, Illuminatedwax, Gaidheal1, Rettetast, Jay Litman, Mschel, Commons-
Delinker, Tmbg lover, Nono64, Heggy~enwiki, Ajs15, Tammy Tang, LedgendGamer, Paranomia, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards,
Trusilver, Bogey97, Herbythyme, Uncle Dick, All Is One, Benmon1, Tdadamemd, DanielD1980, PianoNanny, Pyrospirit, AntiSpamBot,
(jarbarf), Swhidden, Bushcarrot, NewEnglandYankee, DogcatcherDrew, SJP, TheScotch, Potatoswatter, Fylwind, 2help, Darkwhistle,
WJBscribe, Spiesr, Jamesontai, BILLUS MACGEE, LshIII, Vanished user 39948282, Sparafucil, Doublebassistmagazine, Daviticus82,
Pdcook, WhiteOak2006, Idioma-bot, Spellcast, Daniel Fenn87, Wikieditor06, Lights, X!, Jpsousa4, VolkovBot, CWii, ABF, Pleasantville,
Jeff G., Petertomas, AlnoktaBOT, 88tuner, Bovineboy2008, Ryan032, LeilaniLad, Philip Trueman, JuneGloom07, DoorsAjar, TXiKiBoT,
Zidonuke, WilliamSommerwerck, Cosmic Latte, EricSerge, Technopat, GDonato, Miranda, Buchanae, Anonymous Dissident, DuGly1,
Qxz, Lradrama, Sintaku, Martin451, LoneliestMaster, LeaveSleaves, ^demonBot2, Jack1993jack, Guest9999, BearGuard, Latulla, M
ajith, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Corvus coronoides, MearsMan, Madhero88, Houtlijm~enwiki, Pianoman315, Dumbhead666, Lerdthenerd,
Mrmoocole, Meters, Synthebot, Strangerer, Falcon8765, Tomaxer, Enviroboy, Burntsauce, Draconx, Edwin M. Good, Sesshomaru,
KleptHoeManiac, DSFanatic, Brianga, HiDrNick, AlleborgoBot, Mawkish1983, Funeral, Logan, Michaelsbll, CraigSilver, PericlesofA-
thens, EmxBot, Jacob123321, Billytrousers, Cosprings, Tuyvan, Nguyenngaviet, SieBot, StAnselm, Coffee, Danmayna, Kurtguz, Chimin
07, Waldhorn, Spartan, Azazyel, Scarian, Euryalus, Malcolmxl5, SheepNotGoats, P36ad, Krawi, Gex999, Caltas, RJaguar3, Cb77305,
Iamcool1234567890, Keilana, PookeyMaster, Oda Mari, Arbor to SJ, The juggresurection, Bookermorgan, Prestonmag, Oxymoron83,
12.1 Text 17

Antonio Lopez, RobertMel, Wakted152, Hannahkkk, Tombomp, Poindexter Propellerhead, Jonpaulusa, Hobartimus, Gunmetal Angel,
IdreamofJeanie, Werldwayd, Jongleur100, Pippitherabbit, StaticGull, Anchor Link Bot, Markus liverpool, Dust Filter, WikiLaurent,
Lcarus27, Svizra, Goatselover22, Elassint, ClueBot, LAX, Binksternet, GorillaWarfare, PipepBot, CiudadanoGlobal, Tumblingboulder,
Tucker001, The Thing That Should Not Be, IceUnshattered, Meisterkoch, Witchwooder, Librarian2, Jan1nad, Lawrence Cohen, Gawaxay,
P0mbal, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, Uncle Milty, Wikiwakiwaki, Regibox, Obelix83, Jmn100, Scotwriter, Harland1, Quiescen, Prasadbrg,
Supercko, XXBobertXx, Grunty Thraveswain, DragonBot, Benjpianist, Excirial, Noblestood, Bagworm, Canis Lupus, Jusdafax, Rjbalon,
Cococathy105, Broadwayfreak99, Crushcrushcrushh, Lartoven, Aravis222, Liquidblue8388, Jotterbot, Tyguy123, Jump123, Tnxman307,
RayquazaDialgaWeird2210, Razorflame, Justor15, UomoDiHonore, Dekisugi, Birri85, Cheeseniblets69, Phso2, Newyorxico, Schreiber-
Bike, Shem1805, XxMrs.KerestusXx, La Pianista, Rparucci, Bald Zebra, Thingg, 1ForTheMoney, Nimavojdani, Aitias, 7, Graham1973,
Seviolia, NorCal Bosie, Versus22, Joemacgames1, BlueDevil, MelonBot, SoxBot III, Apparition11, DumZiBoT, UncleAndyBob, Dan-
thur, InternetMeme, Jengirl1988, KANNIBAL, AlanM1, XLinkBot, Shpakovich, Delicious carbuncle, Spitfire, Gnowor, Rodrigo Schejt-
man, Xaltoi, TeppoM, Jovianeye, Rror, Kaitlyn77, Moodie507, Amok116, Musicaline, Little Mountain 5, Avoided, Rod Corkin, John-
nybb~enwiki, Skarebo, Doc9871, NellieBly, Cmr08, J d hurley, Alexius08, Sweetpoet, Yamahamusician, Gazimoff, ZooFari, Wikibob250,
Benechanuk, HexaChord, Baghshy, CalumH93, Tayste, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Freakmighty, Tcncv, CL, Globalsolidarity, Ron-
hjones, Randomized01234, Mww113, Fieldday-sunday, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluffernutter, Rj1200, Lklena, Asphatasawhale, Ka Faraq
Gatri, Download, Morning277, Hoogoo, PranksterTurtle, Glane23, AndersBot, Yoos2me, Favonian, AtheWeatherman, Jasper Deng, Or-
ganic Cabbage, Crstewartjr, Jazzpno, SeymourSycamore, Littlemissnikki1995, Numbo3-bot, Prim Ethics, Permose, Tide rolls, Kxug1234,
Lightbot, Pkarsch, Coolkate1, Luckas Blade, Gail, MusicalAds, Ashandpikachu, Krenakarore, Hellounable123, Quantumobserver, LuK3,
Frehley, Math Champion, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Themfromspace, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, Smaalouf, Newportm, II MusLiM HyBRiD II,
Troyeebarua, Quelasol, Mmxx, Bob Caldwell CSL, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, A Stop at Willoughby, KamikazeBot, Jaquanzxc, MHLU,
MinorProphet, Johncohrs, AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, Kristen Eriksen, Zzxy69, Jim1138, IRP, Cavarrone, Piano non troppo, Fanoftheworld,
AdjustShift, Aditya, Pianiccisimo, Kingpin13, Jailane, Flewis, B137, Materialscientist, Foodisgood123, 90 Auto, The High Fin Sperm
Whale, Danno uk, Citation bot, Taeshadow, Gsmgm, Xqbot, Thousandandone, Intelati, Purveyor of Great Knowledge, Capricorn42, Pi-
anosxxi, Jubileeclipman, A455bcd9, TripLikeIDo, Gregmasterson, Purplebackpack89, Gilo1969, Reggina, Viewwiki, Jmundo, NFD9001,
Soccerpianoluvver, Goawayforeveru, BritishWatcher, Willi Gers07, Hwjh sk8er, GrouchoBot, Carebearac3, Frosted14, Shirik, RibotBOT,
Iloveoliver, Barrrakuda, Majorminormusic, Mathonius, Jeffdougieg, Sparcloud, 78.26, Doulos Christos, Wrestplank, 23pokrzywa, Perry
Hotter, Look Busy, Natural Cut, Safiel, Friedrich von Königsberg, Erathgirl56, E0steven, Jswhit02, Thehelpfulbot, Dan6hell66, Jkt46,
FrescoBot, Redrapidsreadingrats, Kystephkwan3, Pepper, Knezzy9, Stradfan, Michael93555, Athanasius1, D'ohBot, Tavakoli543, Toon
Link 891, HJ Mitchell, Monkeydung95, Rigaudon, Synthdreamer, DivineAlpha, Orangesandham, DarkLover93, Cannolis, Citation bot
1, Monteros, My family123, Pinethicket, Vicenarian, HRoestBot, Edderso, Thecazyandstupidone, Arctic Night, Jack1755, Ruthiedee,
Jonathantrengrove, MJ94, Triplestop, Tomcat7, Number Googol, V.narsikar, Pianodude87, Wikiname1109, RedBot, Sebih1, Space-
Flight89, Σ, Pianoplonkers, Gbag09, Gala4ed, Liarliar2009, Rdouillette, Reconsider the static, Kdmjf12000, Steve2011, SkyMachine, Re-
bekah2, Augustus the Pony, Scythre, Deskford, ItsZippy, Etincelles, Lotje, Vrenator, TBloemink, Zvn, SeoMac, Skylarbblue, Piano Play It,
Aoidh, Reaper Eternal, Specs112, Diannaa, A Jewish Family, Sirkablaam, Tbhotch, Ednerdy, Carchuleta, Minimac, Jritche2, DARTH SID-
IOUS 2, Aniten21, Mean as custard, Alexwill23, Altes2009, TjBot, DexDor, Jackehammond, Regancy42, Shoehornian, Sk8er517, Mid-
hart90, Mandolinface, Deagle AP, DASHBot, Devper94, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, Acather96, ModWilson, WikitanvirBot, Ilikethesnow-
cozitscool, Jello is yummy, Alibarbour, MutantRockGod, Perrypierce10, Billyfisher100, RA0808, Sejunekwon, RenamedUser01302013,
Provedadwrong, Solarra, Slightsmile, Publiceyemedia, Wikipelli, Ornithikos, Erpert, Thecheesykid, Daniel913, ZéroBot, Cucucuconn,
S1ckcacoon, Namco235, Pedromd, Pianogen, Ida Shaw, Dustyrannar123, Weed88980, Austin 88888, Superchick106, RoosterBub-
ble82, Prof.smith10101, RoseSoul, XEZx4Shot, Lamellama, A930913, H3llBot, Befeyalcin, Dice326, Bxj, Lawl95, EWikist, Christina
Silverman, MACKA004083, Furries, Sfhintern, Wayne Slam, Crochet, Music Sorter, OnePt618, Tolly4bolly, Losan33, Mes0h0od,
Teaghan11, EricWesBrown, Teptoria, Ac8720, TyA, Jackjack3000, Lothar Klaic, Brandmeister, L Kensington, Peoplefromarizona, Her-
nelodge, MonoAV, Donner60, Lightningstar101, Upclicks, Damirgraffiti, Autoerrant, Orange Suede Sofa, ChuispastonBot, M here 4 ever,
Matthewrbowker, Peter Karlsen, Giovannibomoll, Mtoto mdogo, Forever Dusk, Lom Konkreta, TYelliot, DASHBotAV, Yaylorclevenger,
Qwerwqerwqer1, Bb3bb3bb, Borat134, Smellltheeglove, ClueBot NG, Rich Smith, Greenshinobi, Jack Greenmaven, Accountforpicture,
Scotland-inch, NewWaveKid, LogX, This lousy T-shirt, Rtucker913, Gilderien, Satellizer, Picklepopper, Gwendal, Baseball Watcher,
Loginnigol, Dacookiemunster, Gott34, Delusion23, Cntras, KarateKid96, OpenInfoForAll, Anniesotm, Joshkorpolinski, 336, Widr, Xbre-
bre15, Newyorkadam, Harrylegendkitty, HappyLogolover2011, Funllama680, Billyfisher, Jadthedestroyer, WickTr, Jk2q3jrklse, MerlIw-
Bot, B-Dubbers, Helpful Pixie Bot, Pianolover1, Robertfisner, Jpuff19, Zaxander, Calabe1992, Thanrattonkansit, Kinaro, PashaTarsius,
Lowercase sigmabot, Aoidh (Away), BG19bot, Nazkaylad, 12345klfdsjkl, Nikita Beriozkin, Bmusician, Xtfcr7, BFolkman, Haroldcamp-
ing, M0rphzone, Ruandpiano, AAP inc., PTJoshua, Billyfisher100100100, Who.was.phone, AvocatoBot, J991, Mark Arsten, Hosseini-
ran, Mailgkhandelwal, OttawaAC, Mivio, Joydeep, Lasjenika daff, Supernerd11, Félix Wolf, Soerfm, Makerman123, Mmedina15, Wil-
helm666666, Hello19971997, JAL78, Emilyabbimayson1, FarleyWiki, Caggymorgan, Glacialfox, Stephaniechung, 220 of Borg, Melo-
dramatically, Eziekiel Summers, Loriendrew, Fairoozrules12345, Anbu121, Cissy15, Oscar45596524, Dmaiolo, Lucy6567, Cameronand-
boas7, BattyBot, Stephanie95519, MatthewCMehrtens, Lukas²³, RichardMills65, Professor N, Sir Dejan Djordjevic, Cyberbot II, Mikerrr,
Abob1234567890, Schafferdude18, Zeroman2468, Cedricsimsmahrlig, Thereoncewasafarmerwholivedonarock, Theo Buckley, Mediran,
JakeOneball, Jionpedia, Ted178, It200, Msteveson, Ducknish, Skittlesroxy111, Momo122yeah, Hilmarleujes, Dexbot, Firepitluke, Zach-
cat, Webclient101, Rikkiapples, Oldenergy, Morgan12345678910, Radiodef, Sydneyrocks247, FAIRYTAILAWESOMENESS, Num-
bermaniac, Lugia2453, SFK2, Soundscapemusic88, Maxmoefoe1, Jonmaveni, Yopogono, Lightfagbolt, Tntrusty17, Agsbphysics, Jake-
jericho94, Tommyyu22, Heather998, Scariap, Paige.Banaszak, Evan.willis, Kayla.Cooper, Zachary.meier, DJTCUTZ, Bachbust100, Bit-
Bus, Abster241, Vanamonde93, Xin-Xin W., Dragonzaid6, Light Peak, Asdfkidasdf, Eyesnore, Van20152708, Bff711, Ryenocerous,
Limefrost Spiral, Everymorning, Danielbb2013, DrTrumpet, EvergreenFir, Cherubinirules, SirEuropeLads, DavidLeighEllis, Babitaarora,
Robert4565, Panpog1, Kharkiv07, Blinggu, Ginsuloft, Dan hardboy, RainCity471, Zenophilius, V44sandy, Kahtar, AddWittyNameHere,
Noyster, Stylishpony123, XdoomdragonX, Ola55555, Narutobi7, Crow, Katyauchter, JaconaFrere, Sol berger, Radiotron, DeManolio5,
Jammin785, Luckshib, Jimmy01234, Jumbosloth140, Muhamad ittal, Rotcinco, Monkbot, Hetaliaobsesser, Zacharyjoseph, Popatarion,
BethNaught, Mysterious.Brain, Zhulu182, Eman235, Vasthekid, Sassypants45, Zacwill16, Chicken in a basket, Chrisppff88, Billywanta,
Mc awesome10101, CloudlessEveryday, Bunting2012, Narnia.Gate7, Biddybob5, Weecher II, James Chen 03, Pianobuilder, Noah305,
ChamithN, Grettaknknknknksdnf, Madeline84, ILikeSandwiches, Qwertzui0717, JahJah007, JPuch19, WCUPA235F14, Seanl226, Ker-
ileake, Personawsome, Chessnut123456789, Dusan22, Sheev Palpatine, John.haslam, Wayne Robson, Oldnewnew, Lena Key, Pououououp,
Mclizard21349999, Aedw3089, Jj1256, Jjfooties, KasparBot, Ninjasloth88, IvanScrooge98 and Anonymous: 2001
18 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

12.2 Images
• File:Audio_a.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Audio_a.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
• 'A'_(PSF).png Original artist: 'A'_(PSF).png: Pearson Scott Foresman
• File:Bechstein_Schriftzug.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Bechstein_Schriftzug.jpg License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: KarlKunde
• File:Broadwood_grand_square_action.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Broadwood_grand_
square_action.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mireut
• File:Clavier_Dodeka_7_SmallRVB.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Clavier_Dodeka_7_
SmallRVB.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wiski
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:D274.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/D274.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: selbst fo-
togrfiert Original artist: KarlKunde
• File:DuplexScale.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/DuplexScale.JPG License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Joel Lidstrom
• File:Erard_double_pilot_action.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Erard_double_pilot_action.svg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: traced, colorized, and reoriented for right hand view by Mireut from plate III - Perfectionnemens ap-
portés dans le mécanisme du piano par les Erard, depuis l'origine de cet instrument jusqu'à l'exposition de 1834. Pierre Erard, Paris, 1834,
http://www.musiques-vivantes.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=57&Itemid=32 Original artist: Pierre Erard
• File:Estonia_klaver_3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Estonia_klaver_3.jpg License: GFDL Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Epp
• File:Fluegel-Rahmen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Fluegel-Rahmen.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: Transferred from de.wikipedia to Commons by Lukas9950 using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The original uploader
was Kassander der Minoer at German Wikipedia
• File:Fortepian_-_schemat.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Fortepian_-_schemat.svg License:
GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Olek Remesz (wiki-pl: Orem, commons: Orem) Made in cooperation with User:Bechstein.
• File:FortepianoByMcNultyAfterWalter1805.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/
FortepianoByMcNultyAfterWalter1805.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons.
Original artist: The original uploader was Opus33 at English Wikipedia
• File:Frederic_Chopin_-_Opus_25_-_Twelve_Grand_Etudes_-_c_minor.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/d/d9/Frederic_Chopin_-_Opus_25_-_Twelve_Grand_Etudes_-_c_minor.ogg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: The Al
Goldstein collection in the Pandora Music repository at ibiblio.org. Original artist: Frédéric Chopin
• File:Frederic_Chopin_-_etude_no._12_in_c_minor,_op._25.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/
Frederic_Chopin_-_etude_no._12_in_c_minor%2C_op._25.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.musopen.com Original
artist: Frédéric Chopin
• File:Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/
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