EE3092

Laboratory Practice V

Fault Study
 OBSERVATION SHEET

 Line-Ground (L-G) fault

Vao = - 26.65 V Iao = 14 mA

Va1 = 37.85 V Ia1 = 14 mA
Va2 = - 11.15 V Ia2 = 14 mA

 Line-Line (L-L) fault

Va1 = 24.00 V Ia1 = + 31 mA

Va2 = 23.96 V Ia2 = - 31 mA

 Line-Line-Ground (L-L-G) fault

Vao = 19.73 V Iao = - 11 mA

Va1 = 19.73 V Ia1 = + 36 mA
Va2 = 19.73 V Ia2 = - 25 mA

 For the DC Network Analyzer

Zbase = 4000 Ω

Vbase = 50 V
CALCULATION

Data given in the diagram

kV LL base = 132kV MVA 3Φ base = 40MVA.

For the AC network

132×103
 Actual phase voltage = Observed voltage × = 1524.2 Vdc (V)
√3×50

(𝑘𝑉𝐿𝐿,𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒)2 1322
 Zbase = = = 435.6 Ω
𝑀𝑉𝐴3𝜙𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 40

𝑀𝑉𝐴3𝜙𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 40
 Ibase = = kA = 174.955 A
√3𝑘𝑉𝐿𝐿,𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 √3×132

Observed Current 40
 Actual phase current = 50 × = 13.996 Idc (kA)
√3×132
4000

Calculation of phase voltage and current for all three types of fault using observed data

I. Single Line –to –Earth Fault (L-G Fault):

Ef Z2 Z0
a Z1 Ia1 Ia2 Ia0
Ia Va = 0
F ~
Supply b
Side Vb Va1 Va2 Va0
Ib
c
Ic Vc

Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 = 14 mA

I a  1 1 1  14
I   1  2 
  14
 b 
I c  1   2  14

If = Ia = 3 × Ia0 = 3 × 14 = 42 mA

Therefore the actual fault currents are

Ia = 42 × 10-3 ×13.996 kA = 587.832 A

Ib = (1 +  2 + α ) × 14 = 0

Ic = (1 + α +  2 ) × 14 = 0
 Va0 = - 26.65 V Va1 = 37.85 V Va2 = - 11.15 V

Va  1 1 1  - 26.65
V   1 2

   37.85 
 b 
Vc  1   2   - 11.15

Actual voltages are,

Va = 1524.2 × ( - 26.65 + 37.85 + - 11.15 )

= 0.076 kV ≈ 0

Vb = 1524.2 × (- 26.65 + 37.85×α2 + - 11.15×α)

= 1524.2 × ( - 26.65 + 37.85 2400 + - 11.15 1200 )

= 88.885 ∠ -133.30 kV

Vc = 1524.2 × (- 26.65 + 37.85×α + - 11.15×α2)

= 1524.2 × ( - 26.65 + 37.85 1200 + - 11.15 2400 )

= 88.885 ∠ 133.30 kV

Ef
II. Line –to –Line –to –Earth Fault (L-L-G Fault): Z1 Ia1

a
Va Va1
Ia
Supply Z2
Ia2
Side b
Vb = 0
Ib Va2
c Z0
Ic Vc = 0 Ia0

Va0
Ia0 = -11 mA Ia1 = 36 mA Ia2 = -25 mA

I a  1 1 1   - 11
I   1 2

   36 
 b 
I c  1   2  - 25

Ia = -11 + 36 + -25 = 0

Ib = ( -11 + 36 2400 + -25 1200 ) = 55.344 ∠-107.30 mA

Ic = ( -11 + 36 1200 + -25 2400 ) = 55.344 ∠ 107.30 mA

 Therefore actual values are,

Ia = 13.996 × 0 = 0

Ib = 13.996 × 55.344 ∠-107.30 × 10-3 kA = 774.595∠-107.30 A

Ic = 13.996 × 55.344 ∠ 107.30 × 10-3 kA = 774.595∠ 107.30 A

Va0 = Va1 = Va2 = 19.73 V

Va  1 1 1  19.73 
V   1  2 
  19.73 
 b 
Vc  1   2  19.73 

Actual voltages are,

Va = 1524.2 × ( 19.73 + 19.73 + 19.73 ) = 90.218 kV

Vb = 1524.2 × ( 19.73+ 19.73×α2 + 19.73×α)

= 1524.2 × ( 19.73 + 19.73 2400 + 19.73 1200 ) = 0

Vc = 1524.2 × ( 19.73+ 19.73×α + 19.73×α2)

= 1524.2 × ( 19.73 + 19.73 1200 + 19.73 2400 ) = 0

III. Line –to –Line Fault:

Ef
a Z1 Ia1
Ia Va
Z0 Ia0
Supply
b
Side Vb Va1
Ib Z2
Ia2 Va0
c
Ic Vc
Va2
Ia0 = 0 Ia1 = 31 mA Ia2 = -31mA

Fault current If = Ib = -Ic

I a  1 1 1  0 
I   1 2

   31 
 b 
I c  1   2  - 31

Ia = 0 + 31 + -31 = 0

Ib = ( 0 + 31 2400 + -31 1200 ) = 53.694 ∠-900 mA

Ic = ( 0 + 31 1200 + -31 2400 ) = 53.694 ∠ 900 mA

Therefore actual values are,

Ia = 13.996 × 0 = 0

Ib = 13.996 × 53.694 ∠-900 × 10-3 kA = 751.501∠-900 A

Ic = 13.996 × 53.694 ∠ 900 × 10-3 kA = 751.501∠ 900 A

Va0 = 0 V Va1 = 24.00 V Va2 = 23.96 V

Va  1 1 1  0 
V   1  2 
  24.00 
 b 
Vc  1   2   23.96 

Actual voltages are,

Va = 1524.2 × ( 0 + 24 + 23.96 ) = 73.100 kV

Vb = 1524.2 × ( 0 + 24×α2 + 23.96×α)

= 1524.2 × ( 0 + 24 2400 + 23.96 1200 ) = 36.550 ∠-179.90 kV

Vc = 1524.2 × ( 0 + 24×α + 23.96×α2)

= 1524.2 × ( 0 + 24 1200 + 23.96 2400 ) = 36.550 ∠179.90 kV

Calculation of Theoretical values for phase voltage and current for all three types of fault

The Network we used in our experiment is shown below.

 All values are in per unit with
 Vbase=132kV
 Sbase=40MVA.

X1 = 0.3
X2 = 0.2
X0 = 0.05

X0 = 0.09
X0 = 0.1

ANURADHAPURA
POLPITIYA

Z = 0.19 + j0.44
X0 = 2.0
Z = 0.002 + j0.005
X0 = 0.02
Z = 0.347 + j0.8
Z = 0.156 + j0.341
X0 = 2.5
Z = 0.017 + j0.04 X0 = 1.1
X0 = 0.15

Z = 0.058 + j0.102 Z = 0.057 + j0.13

X0 = 0.04 X0 = 0.45

LAXAPANA KOLONNAWA BOLAWATTA

XS = 0.051
XT = 0.055
X0 = 0.08
XP = 0.048

X1 = 0.06
F
X2 = 0.04
X0 = 0.01

In power system networks resistive components are much smaller compared to inductive
component. Therefore the resistive component is neglected in the calculation.
 a) Positive sequence equivalent circuit:

0.4
0.09

0.44 ANURADHAPURA
POLPITIYA

0.341 0.8
0.005
0.04

0.102 0.13
LAXAPANA KOLONNAWA BOLAWATT
A
0.048
0.08
0.08

0.055
0.051
F

1 pu

Reference

Positive sequence impedance

Z1= j 0.23760 pu
 b) Negative sequence equivalent circuit:

0.3
0.09

0.44 ANURADHAPURA
POLPITIYA

0.341 0.8
0.005
0.04

0.102 0.13
LAXAPANA KOLONNAWA BOLAWATT
A
0.048 0.08
0.06

0.055
0.051
F
Reference

Negative sequence impedance

Z2= j 0.19094 pu
 c) Zero sequence equivalent circuit:

0.05

0.09
0.1

2.0 ANURADHAPURA
POLPITIYA

1.1 2.5
0.02
0.15

0.4 0.45
LAXAPANA KOLONNAWA BOLAWATTA

0.02 0.048
0.08

0.051 0.055
0.01
F

Reference

Zero sequence impedance

Z0= j 0.44879 pu

I. Single Line –to –Earth Fault (L –G Fault):

 Ef Z2 Z0
a Z1 Ia1 Ia2 Ia0
Ia Va =
F 0
Supply
b
Side Vb Va1 Va2 Va0
Ib
c
Ic Vc

Va = 0 (fault impedance is zero)

Ib = Ic = 0 (load currents are negligible compared to fault currents)

I a0  1 1 1  I a 
I   1 1 α 2 
α  I b  0
 a1  3 
I a2  1 α2 α  I c  0 

Ia
I a0  I a1  I a 2 
3

Va 0   0   Z 0 0 0   I a 0  I a 3
V    E    0 Z1 0   I a1  I a 3 
 a1   f  
Va 2   0   0 0 Z 2   I a 2  I a 3
3E f
I f  Ia 
Z1  Z 2  Z 0

Z1 = j 0.20760 pu , Z2 = j 0.19094 pu , Z0 = j 0.44879 pu , Ef = 1 pu

Fault Current from the diagram,

3 Ef
Ia =
Z1 + Z2 + Z0

If,actual = If,pu × Ibase

Ibase = 174.955 A (Calculated above)

If,actual = Ia
3 ×1
= × 174.955 A = 619.434 A
0.20760+0.19094+0.44879

Ib = Ic = 0

619.434
Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 = = 206.478 A
3

Fault Voltages from the diagram

Zbase = 435.6 Ω (Calculated above)
Va0 = –Z0Ia0 = – 0.44879 × 435.6 × 206.478 = – 40.365 kV
132
Va1 = Ef – Z1Ia1 = ×103 – 0.20760 × 435.6 × 206.478 = 57.538 kV
√3
Va2 = –Z2Ia2 = – 0.19094 × 435.6 × 206.478 = – 17.173 kV

Va  1 1 1  Va 0 
V   1  2    Va1 
 b 
 Vc  1   2  Va 2 

Va = 0

Vb = ( Va0 + Va1 × α2 + Va2 × α )

= ( – 40.365 + 57.538 2400 – 17.173 1200 ) = 88.613 ∠-133.10 kV

Vc = ( Va0 + Va1 × α + Va2 × α2 )

= (– 40.365 + 57.538 1200 + – 17.173 2400 ) = 88.613∠-133.10 kV

II. Line –Line –to –Earth Fault (L –L –G Fault):

Ef
Z1 Ia1

a
Va Va1
Ia
Supply Z2
Ia2
Side b
Vb = 0
Ib Va2
c Z0
Ic Vc = 0 Ia0

Va0

Ia = 0 (load currents are negligible compared to fault current)

Vb = Vc = 0

Z1 = j 0.20760 pu , Z2 = j 0.19094 pu , Z0 = j 0.44879 pu , Ef = 1 pu

Fault current from the diagram

 Ef
Ia1 = × Ibase
Z1 + Z2 // Z0
1
= × 174.955 A = 512.238 A
0.20760+ 0.19094// 0.44879

−(Ef− Z1 ×Ia1 )
Ia2 = × Ibase
Z2
512.238
−(1−0.20760×
174.955
= × 174.955 A = – 359.340 A
0.19094

−(Ef− Z1 ×Ia1 )
Ia0 = × Ibase
Z0
512.238
−(1−0.20760×
174.955
= × 174.955 A = – 152.883 A
0.44879

 I a  1 1 1  I a0 
 I   1  2    I 
 b    a1 
 I c  1   2   I a 2 

Ia = 0

Ib = ( Ia0 + Ia1 × α2 + Ia2 × α )

= (– 152.883+ 512.238 2400 – 359.340 1200 ) = 788.879 ∠-106.90 A

I c = ( Ia0 + Ia1 × α + Ia2 × α2 )

= (–152.883 + 512.238 1200 – 359.340 2400 ) = 788.879 ∠ 106.90 A

Fault voltages from the diagram

Va0 = –Z0Ia0 = – 0.44879 × 435.6 × – 152.883 = 29.888 kV
132
Va1 = Ef – Z1Ia1 = ×103 – 0.20760 × 435.6 × 512.238 = 29.888 kV
√3
Va2 = –Z2Ia2 = – 0.19094 × 435.6 × – 359.340 = 29.888 kV

Va  1 1 1  Va 0 
V   1  2    Va1 
 b 
 Vc  1   2  Va 2 

Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2

 = 3 × 29.888 = 89.664 kV

Vb = Vc = 0

III. Line –to –Line Fault (L-L Fault):

a Ef
Va Z1 Ia1
Ia
Supply Z0 Ia0
b
Side Vb
Ib Va1
Z2
c Ia2 Va0
Ic Vc
Va2

Ia = 0 (load currents are negligible compared to fault current)

Vb = Vc
Ib = - Ic
Z1 = j 0.20760 pu , Z2 = j 0.19094 pu , Z0 = j 0.44879 pu , Ef = 1 pu

Fault current from the diagram

Ef
Ia1 = × Ibase
Z1 + Z2
1
= × 174.955 A = 438.990 A
0.20760+ 0.19094

Ia2 = – Ia1 = – 438.990 A

Ia0 = 0

 I a  1 1 1  I a0 
 I   1  2    I 
 b    a1 
 I c  1     I a 2 
2

Ia = 0

Ib = ( Ia0 + Ia1 × α2 + Ia2 × α )

= ( 0 + 438.990 A 2400 – 438.990 1200 ) = 760.353 ∠-900 A

I c = – Ib = – 760.353 ∠-900 = 760.353 ∠ 900 A

Fault voltages from the diagram

 Va0 = –Z0Ia0 = – 0.44879 × 435.6 × 0 = 0
132
Va1 = Ef – Z1Ia1 = ×103 – 0.20760 × 435.6 × 438.990 = 36.512 kV
√3
Va2 = –Z2Ia2 = – 0.19094 × 435.6 × – 438.990 = 36.512 kV

Va  1 1 1  Va 0 
V   1  2    Va1 
 b 
 Vc  1   2  Va 2 

Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2

= 0 + 36.512 + 36.512 = 73.024 kV

Vb = ( Va0 + Va1 × α2 + Va2 × α )

= ( 0 + 36.512 2400 + 36.512 1200 ) = 36.512 ∠1800 kV

Vc = Vb = 36.512 ∠1800 kV

RESULTS
 Comparison of Theoretical results and Calculated results

 Line-Ground (L-G) fault

For L-G fault Practical Theoretical

Ia 587.832 A 619.434 A

Ib 0 0

Ic 0 0

Va 0.076 kV 0

Vb 88.885 ∠ -133.30 kV 88.613 ∠-133.10 kV

Vc 88.885 ∠ 133.30 kV 88.613 ∠ 133.10 kV

 Line-Line-Ground (L-L-G) fault

For L-L-G fault Practical Theoretical

Ia 0 0

Ib 774.595∠-107.30 A 788.879 ∠-106.90 A

Ic 774.595∠ 107.30 A 788.879 ∠106.90 A

Va 90.218 kV 89.664 kV

Vb 0 0

Vc 0 0

 Line-Line (L-L) fault

For L-L fault Practical Theoretical

Ia 0 0

Ib 751.501∠-900 A 760.353 ∠-900 A

Ic 751.501∠ 900 A 760.353 ∠ 900 A

Va 73.100 kV 73.024 kV

Vb 36.550 ∠-179.90 kV 36.512 ∠1800 kV

Vc 36.550 ∠ 179.90 kV 36.512 ∠1800 kV

DISCUSSION

1. Assumptions made in fault study

Following assumptions are usually made in fault analysis in three phase
transmission lines.

i. All sources are balanced and equal in magnitude and phase.

ii. Sources represented by the Thevenin’s voltage prior to fault at the fault point.
iii. Large systems may be represented by infinite bus-bars.
iv. Transformers are on nominal tap position.
v. Resistances are negligible compared to reactance.
vi. Transmission lines are assumed fully transposed and all three phase have same
impedance.
vii. Loads currents are negligible compared to the fault currents.
viii. Line charging currents can be completely neglected.

2. Reasons for the deviation of practical results and theoretical results

The possible reasons for slight deviations of practical results and theoretical
results are listed below

 The above assumption we made in our calculations are not exactly correct. Therefore
lot of deviations might occur due to those assumptions.
 Human errors encountered while taking readings
 Resistances of the connection wires and instruments but we assumed that the devices
we used are ideal.
 The resistance of the connection wires and of the connected points in the experiment
may introduce errors
 Impedance values that we used are not same as the calculated value. The instrument
only can supply the approximated values
 Calculation errors (rounding and chopping errors) introduce some deviation.
 Accuracy of the analyzer may be declined with the use of it for a longer time.
 The conversion between AC and DC in the calculations could cause deviations in the
values.
3. Practical problems encountered during the experiment and the steps taken to solve
them

 The resistance values that give from DC analyzer are not exactly correct. So we have to
use Ohm meter for further corrections.
 Some of the resistances of the DC network analyzer were not working and we had to
measure the resistance manually and avoid them.
 As one bus bar can only have 4 connections we had to combine 2 bus bars in certain
occasions where more than 4 connections needed.
 Once the three sequence networks are connected the circuit becomes very complex and
hard to trouble shoot. Therefore proper numbering had to be used to conduct the
experiment

REFERENCES

 Power System Fault Analysis by Prof. J.R. Lucas

 D. C NETWORK ANALYSER THEORY (cindulkar.tripod.com/lab5.pdf)

 Symmetrical Components and Unbalanced Faults

(www.ece.umd.edu/class/enee474.F2003/PDF%20Files/chp10_1.pdf)

 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07313569508955651
THEORY

1. Importance of a fault study

Electrical power system has a dynamic and complex behavior. Different

types of faults can interrupt the healthy operation of the power system. The fault analysis of
a power system is required in order to provide information for the selection of switchgear,
setting of relays and stability of system operation. A power system is not static but changes
during operation such as switching on or off of generators and transmission lines and during
planning, addition of generators and transmission lines.
Some of the major Electrical faults are phase faults include phase to phase
faults and phase to ground faults and three phase faults in a symmetrical manner, or may be
asymmetrical where usually only one or two phases may be involved. Other Electrical faults
are not major significance but still are considered, Open circuit faults occurs due to the
parting of the overhead line or failure operation of the circuit breaker, Inter-turn fault occurs
due to the overvoltage or insulation breakdown, Electrical Faults results in the overloads is
due to the passing the current through the conductor which is above the permissible value
and faults due to real power deficit occurs due to mismatch in the power generated and
consumed and results in the frequency deviation and collapse of grid.
Therefore It is necessary to know the maximum short circuit currents that can
occur at the different points of a system in order that circuit breakers may be selected that are
adequate to withstand currents and operate successfully to cut out the faulty section, and also
in order that the protective relays may be selected for correct operation. The design of
machines, bus-bars, isolators, circuit breakers etc., is based on the considerations of normal
and short circuit currents.
It is also necessary to be able to calculate, approximately at least, the size of
protective reactors which must be inserted in the system to limit the short circuit current to a
value which is not beyond that capable of being withstood by the circuit breakers.

2. Analogue methods of studying the fault flow in a system

 Symmetrical component method

The method of symmetrical components is used to simplify analysis of
unbalanced three phase power systems under both normal and abnormal conditions. In a
three phase system, one set of phasors has the same phase sequence as the system under
study (positive sequence), the second set has the reverse phase sequence (negative
sequence), and in the third set the phasors A, B and C are in phase with each other (zero
sequence). Essentially, this method converts three unbalanced phases into three independent
sources, which makes asymmetric fault analysis more tractable.
  Bus component method
This method can be used for analyzing both symmetrical and unsymmetrical
faults with the use of bus-bar impedance of the system though a Bus Impedance Matrix is
normally a full matrix; very few of its elements are utilized during fault analysis of
electrical system networks. So, the purpose of fault analysis can be served by a sparse Bus
Impedance Matrix only.

3. Method of use of DC network analyzer for studying the fault flow (For both
symmetrical and asymmetrical faults)

Fault currents and fault MVA must be known for the appropriate part of a
supply system when selecting circuit breakers. Values can be found analytically but the
calculations become tedious as the system becomes more complicated.
Under fault conditions the system is largely inductive so that it is practicable
to neglect the system resistance and capacitance. If the generators in the system are
assumed to be in phase and equal in output to the system voltage, they can be represented
by a single D.C. supply in a circuit, which uses resistance to simulate the system
inductance. Normal system currents are assumed negligible. Only in feeds are included in
the fault calculation, feeders are neglected.
Here we have the facility to interpret any actual power system network with
its corresponding three symmetrical networks using corresponding components where
reactance and sources are represented by resisters and dc power supply respectively. Then
to analyze faults we can connect the constructed symmetrical networks according to the
fault condition and the position. The corresponding voltages required to calculate the fault
currents and voltages can be measured using dc measuring equipments
The values of the phase voltage and phase current can then be calculated by
applying to the matrix equation. These values should be multiplied by a common
multiplication factor.
 4. Importance of using sequence components

When an unbalanced three-phase fault occurs, we can solve the three-phase

circuit using ordinary circuit theory. This is much more numerically complicated than the
single- phase circuit normally used in balanced three phase circuits. The degree of
difficulty increases with the third power of the system size. For this reason, it is apparent
that if we were to solve three different single-phase circuits, it would be numerically
simpler than solving the one three-phase circuit in one set of equations.

c1
b2 a2
c

a
a0, b0, c0
b1 a1
c2
b

Unbalanced system Positive Sequence Negative Sequence Zero Sequence

In power systems balance systems are not exist every time, especially in fault
conditions. Most of the power system faults are unsymmetrical faults. For full and proper
analysis of unbalanced conditions in a three-phase network for any given set of unbalanced
three-phase vectors, which may be voltages or currents, can be represented by the sum of
three sets of balanced or symmetrical vectors, namely: the positive-sequence set,
consisting of three vectors all equal in magnitude and symmetrically spaced, at 120 °
intervals, phase with a stated phase order equal to the phase order of the system generated
voltages; the negative-sequence set, consisting of three vectors all equal in magnitude and
symmetrically spaced, at120 ° intervals, in time-phase, their phase-order being the reverse
of the positive sequence phase-order; and the zero-sequence set, consisting of three
vectors, all of which are equal in both magnitude and phase.
Therefore symmetrical component method provides a useful analytical tool
for the protection engineer in system analysis.
5. The relationships between the sequence impedances for generators, transformers and
transmission lines with suitable reasons.

 Generator:
The generator has a specific direction of rotation and the sequence considered
either have the same direction or the opposite direction. Because of that the rotational emf
developed for the positive sequence, negative sequence would also be different. So the
generator has different values for positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence
impedance.

 Transformer
Since the transformer is passive and stationary do not have an inherent
direction, positive and negative sequence impedances are same. The equivalent circuit of
the transformer would be a single reactance in the case of positive sequence and negative
sequence for a two-winding transformer. But highly dependent on the winding connection
and even grounding impedance for the zero sequence. The transformer would be a
combination of single windings. The magnetizing impedance is taken as open circuit for
fault studies.

 Transmision Lines
The conductors of a transmission line, being passive and stationary, do not
have an inherent direction. Thus they always have the same positive sequence impedance
and negative sequence impedance. However, as the zero sequence path also involves the
earth wire and or the earth return path, the zero sequence impedance is higher in value. The
transmission line may be represented by a single reactance in the single-line diagram.
Transmission lines are assumed to be symmetrical in all three phases.
However, this assumption would not be valid for long un-transposed lines (say beyond 500
km) as the mutual coupling between the phases would be unequal, and symmetrical
components then cannot be used.