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1) The document discusses forced vibrations of single degree of freedom spring-mass-damper systems under harmonic excitation. 2) It provides the governing differential equation and derives the expressions for steady state response amplitude (X) and phase angle (φ) between displacement and excitation force. 3) The total response is the sum of transient response, which dies out over time, and steady state response, which is a harmonic oscillation at the excitation frequency. 4) Frequency response curves are presented to illustrate how the magnification factor (response amplitude ratio) and phase lag vary with frequency ratio and damping.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

736 views173 pages

t235 1blk8.5

Uploaded by

Karl Angelo

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www.bookspar.

com | VTU NOTES | QUESTION PAPERS | NEWS | RESULTS | FORUMS

FORCED VIBRATIONS
INTRODUCTION
When a mechanical system undergoes free vibrations, an initial force (causing some
displacement) is impressed upon the system, and the system is allowed to vibrate under the
influence of inherent elastic properties. The system however, comes to rest, depending upon
the amount of damping in the system.
In engineering situations, there are instances where in an external energy source
causes vibrations continuously acting on the system. Then the system is said to undergo
forced vibrations, as it vibrates due to the influence of external energy source. The external
energy source may be an externally impressed force or displacement excitation impressed
upon the system. The excitation may be periodic, impulsive or random in nature. Periodic
excitations may be harmonic or non harmonic but periodic. The amplitude of vibrations
remains almost constant. Machine tools, internal combustion engines, air compressors, etc
are few examples that undergo forced vibration.
3.2 FORCED VIBRATIONS OF SINGLE DOF SYSTEMS UNDER HARMONIC
EXCITATION
Consider a spring mass damper system as shown in Figure 3.1 excited by a sinusoidal forcing
function F=Fo Sinϖt

k kx Cx∙
C
F x

m
F = F0 Sin ωt
F

Figure 3.1

Let the force acts vertically upwards as shown in FBD. Then the Governing Differential
Equation (GDE) can be written as

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES |

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 1 of 173

mx88 = - Kx8 - C x8 + F
8
m x8 + C x8 + Kx = F --------------- (3.1)
is a linear non homogeneous II order differential equation whose solution is in two
parts.

1. Complementary Function or Transient Response

Consider the homogenous differential equation,
8
m +x8C x8 = 0 which is incidentally the GDE of a single DOF spring mass damper-
+ Kx
system. It has been shown in earlier discussions that for different conditions of damping,
the response decays with time. Thus the response is transient in nature and therefore
termed as transient response.
For an under damped system the complementary function or transient response.
ω t
ζ n
x c = X1 ē Sin (ωdt + φ)
ω t
xc = X1 ēζ n (A Sin ωdt + B Cos ωdt) ------------ (3.2)

2. Particular Integral or Steady State Response

This response neither builds up nor decays with time. It is steady state harmonic
oscillation having frequency equal to that of excitation. It can be determined as
follows.
Consider non-homogenous differential equation

mx88 + Cx8 + Kx8 = Fo Sin ωt ----------- (3.3)

The particular integral or steady state response is a steady state oscillation of the same
frequency ω as that of external excitation and the displacement vector lags the force vector
by some angle.

Let x = X Sin (ωt - φ) be the trial solution

X: Amplitude of oscillation
φ: Phase of the displacement with respect to the exciting force (angle by which the
displacement vector lags the force vector).

∴Velocity = x8
x8 = ωX. Cos (ωt - φ)
= ωX Sin [90 + (ωt - φ)]
Acceleration
x88 = - ω2 X. Sin (ωt - φ), substitute these values in GDE, (equation 3.1)
We get
-m ω2 X Sin (ωt - φ) + Cω Sin [90 + (ωt - φ)]
+ KX Sin (ωt - φ) = Fo Sin ωt
m ω2 X Sin (ωt - φ) - Cω Sin [90 + (ωt - φ)]
- KX Sin (ωt - φ) + Fo Sin ωt = 0 ---------- (3.4)

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The four terms in the above equation represent both in magnitude and direction, the
four forces namely: inertia force, damping force, spring force and impressed force, taken in
order, acting on the system and their sum is equal to zero. Thus they satisfy the D’Alemberts
principle. ΣF = 0. Now, if vector representation as shown in Figure 3.2, is employed to
denote these forces the force polygon shown in Figure 3.3 should close.
Represent the force vectors and draw the force polygon as given below.

Figure 3.2

B X
) (ωt - φ)
O Reference axis

Figure 3.3

Impressed force: Fo Sin ωt: acts at an angle ωt from the reference axis.

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Displacement vector X: Lags the force vector by an angle φ and hence shown at (ωt - φ) from
the reference axis.

Spring force: - KX Sin (ωt - φ): which means that the vector – KX acting at (ωt - φ) or KX
acting in opposite direction to (ωt - φ) = at [90 + (ωt - φ)]

Damping force: - CωX [Sin (90 + (ωt - φ)]

- CωX acting at 90 + (ωt - φ) or CωX acting in opposite direction to [90 +
(ωt - φ)]
Inertia force: mω X Sin (ωt - φ)
2

Vector mω2X acting at (ωt - φ)

From the force polygon, in figure 3.3

Consider the triangle OAB.

OA2 = OB2 + BA2
= (CωX)2 + (KX-mω2X)2
Fo2 = X2 (Cω)2 + x2 (K-mω2)2
Fo2 = X2 [(K-mω2)2 + (Cω)2]

F0
X= --------- (3.5)
√(K-mω2)2 + (cω)2

and tan φ = OB = Cωx = Cω

BA KX-mω2x K-mω2

Cω
tan φ =
K-mω2

∴φ = tan-1 Cω -------- (3.6)

K-mω2

If X and φ are expressed in non-dimensional form it enables a concise graphical presentation

of results. Therefore, divide the numerator and the denominator by K.

F0 /K
Cω /K
∴X = tan φ =
√ mω 22
cω 2 mω2 )
(1- ) +( ) (1-
K K K

Further, the above equations can be expressed in terms of the following quantities

Fo
K = Xst - Zero frequency deflection

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∴Deflection of spring mass system under the steady force Fo should not be mistaken as Δst =
mg
m K1
=
K ωn2
C 2ζ
K = Kωn

Thus X = Xst
√(1 - ω2 )2 + (2 ζ. ω)2
ωn2 ωn

ω = r = frequency ratio
ωn
Xst
X=
√ (1 - r2)2 +( 2 ζ. r)2 --------- (3.7)
X
where is called magnification factor, amplification factor, or amplitude ratio.
Xst

X
M= : It is the term by which Xst is to be multiplied to get the amplitude.
Xst

2ζ
ωn ω 2ζr
tanφ = = 1-r2
ω2
(1 - ωn2 )
2ζr
... tanφ = -------- (3.8)
1-r2
Thus the steady state response xp = X Sin (ωt - φ), in which
X and φ are as given above.
Total solution x = xc + xp

For under damped conditions:

as t ∞, xc 0 i.e., the transient response dies out. Complete solution consists only
steady state response only.
∴x = X Sin (ωt - φ) --------- (3.9)
As mentioned above, the transient vibrations die out very soon and hence the system vibrates
with steady response amplitudes. The behaviour of the system can be best understood by
plotting frequency response curves as given below, in figure 3.4 and 3.5.
Frequency Response Curves:
Magnification Factor vs Frequency Ratio for Different amounts of Damping

ζ=0 ζ=0

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Figure 3.4

Phase lag vs frequency ratio for different amounts of damping.

ζ=0
ζ = 0.25
ζ = 0.5
ζ = 0.707

ζ = 1.0
Phase Angle, φ, ζ = 2.0

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Figure 3.5
Frequency Ratio r = (ω/ωn)
The following characteristics of the magnification factor (M) can be observed.
1) For damped system (ζ =0); M as r 1.
2) Any amount of damping (ζ >0) reduces the magnification factor (M) for all values of
forcing frequency.
3) For any specified value of r, a higher value of damping reduces the value of M
4) When the force is constant (r =0), M =1.

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5) The amplitude of the forced vibrations becomes smaller with increasing value of forced
frequency. i.e M 0,as r ∞.
6) For 0< ζ < 1/ √2 (0 < ζ <0.707), the maximum value of M occurs when r=√(1-2ζ 2) or
ω= ωn√(1-2ζ 2), which is lower than the Undamped natural frequency ωn and the
damped natural frequency ωd = ωn√(1-2 ζ 2),
7) The maximum value of X (when r=√ (1 - 2 ζ 2) is given by (X/Xst)= 1/[2 ζ√ (1-ζ2)] and
the value of X at ω= ωn is given by (X/Xst ) = 1/2 ζ
8) For ζ >1/√2, the graphs of M decreases with increasing values of r.

The following characteristics of the phase angle φ can be observed from the graph
1) For undamped system the phase angle is 00 for 0<r<1, and 1800 for r>1. This implies
that the excitation and response are in phase for 0<r<1 and out of phase for r>1 when
ζ =0.
2) For ζ >0 and 0<r<1 the phase angle is given by 00<φ<900, implying that the response
lags excitation.
3) For ζ >0 and r>1, the phase angle is given by 900<φ< 1800, implying that the response
leads excitation.
4) For ζ >0 and r=1, the phase angle is φ=900 implying that the phase difference between
the excitation and response is 900.
5) For ζ >0 and large values of r, the phase angle φ ω approaches 1800 implying that the
response and excitation are out of phase.

The damping factor ζ has a large influence on amplitude and phase angle in the region where
r = 1(resonance).The phenomenon represented be frequency response curve can be further
better understood by means of vector diagram as follows. Consider three different cases as
(1) ω/ ωn << 1 (2) ω/ ωn = 1 (3) ω/ ωn >> 1

Case (1): ω/ ωn << 1 for which ω should be very small

At very low frequencies, when ω is very small, the inertia for m ω2x and the damping force
Cωx are very small.
Fo
Kx φ
x
CωX φ
(ωt-φ)
2
mω X

Figure 3.6

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This results in small values of φ as shown in fig .The impressed force F0 is almost equal and
opposite to spring force KX. Thus for very low frequencies, the phase angle tends to zero and
the impressed force wholly balance the spring force

Case (2): when ω/ ωn = 1

Kx
Fo
x

CωX
mω2X

Figure 3.7

With increased value of ω, the damping force Cωx and inertia force m ω2 x increase. The
phase angle also increases. If ω is increased to such an extent that phase angle φ=900, the
force polygon becomes a rectangle as shown. The spring force and inertia vectors become
equal and opposite.
KX = m ω2 x
ω = √(K/m) = ωn
ω = ωn
ω / ωn =1
This is the response condition of the system during which the forcing frequency is equal to
natural frequency of the system. Also the impressed force is completely balanced by the
damping force.
CωX= F0
X= F0 /Cω = F0/K/ Cω/K
X=Xst / 2 ζ (ω/ ωn)
X=Xst / 2 ζ (ω/ ωn) = 1
Xr /Xst = 1/2 ζ Xr = Amplitude at resonance

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Case (3): when ω / ωn >>1

x
Fo
KX
mω2X
CωX

Figure 3.8

At very large values of ω >φ approaches 1800, the inertia force becomes very large, where as
the spring force and damping force vectors becomes negligibly small. The improved force is
wholly utilized in balancing the inertia force.
φ 1800 i.e., Fo = m ω2x
X = Fo / m ω2

NUMERICAL EXAMPLES:
3.1) A machine part of mass 2.5 Kgs vibrates in a viscous medium. A harmonic exciting
force of 30 N acts on the part and causes resonant amplitude of 14mm with a period of
0.22sec. Find the damping coefficient. If the frequency of the exciting force is changed to
4Hz, determine the increase in the amplitude of forced vibration upon removal of the damper.

Data: m = 2.5Kg, F0 = 30N, X = 14mm, τ = 0.225sec

Part 1: At Resonance
ωn = forcing frequency = 2π/ τ = 28.56 rad/sec

At resonance: ω = ωn = 28.56 rad/sec

ωn = √(K/m) = 28.56 rad/sec
K = 2039 N/m
Amplitude at resonance
Fo/K
X=
√ [1 - r2] 2 + [2ζr] 2

As ω/ ωn = 1, X = (F0/K)/2ζ = 0.014
... ζ = 0.526

Damping coefficient = C = Cc ζ = 2m ωn ζ
= 2*2.5*28.56*0.526
= 75.04 N/m/s

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C = 0.07504 Ns/m

Part (2): When f = 4 Hz

Forcing ω = 2π*fn = 25.13 rad/sec
Frequency ωn = 28.56 rad/sec, unchanged
Amplitude of vibration with damper
Xa = Fo/K
√ [1 - r2] 2 + [2ζr] 2
= 0.01544m

Amplitude of vibration without damper

Xb = (30/2039)/(0.2258)
= 0.0652m
Increase in Amplitude = 0.0652 – 0.0155 = 0.0497m
Amplitude = 49.7mm

3.2) A body having a mass of 15 kgs, is suspended from a spring which deflects 12mm due to
the weight of the mass. Determine the frequency of free vibrations. What viscous damping
force is needed to make the motion a periodic at a speed of 1mm/sec.
If when, damped to this extent, a disturbing force having a maximum value of 100N
and vibrating at 6Hz is made to act on the body. Determine the amplitude of ultimate motion.

Solution:
Data: m = 15Kg; F0 = 100 N; f = 6Hz; Δst = 12mm;

(a) fn = (1/2π)√(g/ Δst) = 4.55Hz

(b) The motion becomes aperiodic, when the damped frequency is zero or when it is critically
damped (ζ = 1).
ω = ωn = √(g/ Δ) = 28.59 rad/sec
C = Cc = 2m ωn = 2*15*28.59 = 857 N/m/s
= 0.857 N/mm/s
Thus a force of 0.857 N is required at a rate of 1mm/s to make the motion a periodic.

√(K-mω2)2 + (cω)2
ω = 2πf = 2π*6 = 37.7 rad/sec, f0 = 100 N
fn = (1/2π)(√(K/m) ... K = 12,260 N/m
X = 0.00298m
= 2.98mm.

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Condition for peak amplitude of vibration

(Expression for peak amplitude)
The frequency at which the maximum amplitude occurs can be obtained as follows.
X Xst
Xst
M= ∴ X = √ [1 - r2] 2 + [2ζr] 2
i.e., for a system acted upon by a known harmonic force, the amplitude depends only on (ω/
ωn). Hence for X to be maximum √ [1 – r2] 2 + [2ζr] 2 should be minimum.
dx dx
∴ d(ω/ ωn) ∴ d(r) ([1 - r2] 2 + [2ζr] 2) = 0

2(1 - r2) 2 (-2r) + 4ζ2r = 0

2(1 - r2) + 4ζ2r = 0
42ζ2r = 0 = 2(1 - r2)
2ζ2 = 1-r2
r2 = 1 -2ζ2
r = √1 -2 ζ2
(ω/ ωn) peak = √1 -2 ζ2
ω
( ωn ) peak = √1 -2 ζ2

ωp
( ωn ) peak
= √1 -2 ζ2 ---------- (3.10)
ωp = frequency at which peak amplitude occurs.
Where ωp refers to the forcing frequency corresponding to the peak amplitude. No maximum
or peak will1occur when the expression within the radical sign becomes negative i.e., for ζ >
or for ζ > 0.707.
√2

ωp
( ωn ) = √1 -2 ζ 2

and peak amplitude is given by

(X/Xst)max = 1/[2 ζ(√1- ζ)] --------- (3.11)

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3.3) A machine of mass 25 kgs, is placed on an elastic foundation. A sinusoidal force of

magnitude 25N is applied to the machine. A frequency sweep reveals that the maximum
steady state amplitude of 1.3mm occurs when the period of response is 0.22sec. Determine
the equivalent stiffness and damping ratio of the foundation.
Solution:
Data: F0 = 25N; m = 25 Kgs; Xmax = 1.3mm; τ = 0.22sec
For a linear system, the frequency of response is same as frequency of excitation.
... Excitation frequency = ω = 2πf = 2π/ τ = 28.6 rad/sec
thus Xmax = occurs, when ω = 28.6 rad/s
Condition for maximum amplitude to occur:

r = √1 -2 ζ2 = ω/ωn

... ωn = ω /(√1 -2 ζ2 ) = 28.6/(√1 -2 ζ2 ) --------------(1)

also we have,
X/Xst = 1 for Xmax = r =√1 -2 ζ2

√ [1 - r2] 2 + [2ζr] 2

Xmax/Xst = 1

√ [1 – (1 -2 ζ2 )] 2 + [4ζ2(1 -2 ζ2 )]
= 1
2 ζ √ (1 -ζ2 )

Xmax/(F0/K) = 1
2 ζ √ (1 -ζ2 )

Xmaxmωn2/F0 = 1
2 ζ √ (1 -ζ2 )

25*0.013* ωn2/25 = 1
2 ζ √ (1 -ζ2 )

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Now substitute for ωn2 from eq.(1);

0.013*28.6/(√1 -2 ζ2) = 1
2 ζ √ (1 -ζ2)
1.0633/(√1 -2 ζ2) = 1
2 ζ √ (1 -ζ2)
Squaring and rearranging,

ζ4 - ζ2 +0.117 = 0
Z2 – Z + 0.117 = 0 where ζ2 = Z.
Solving the quadratic equation

ζ = 0.368, 0.93

The larger value of ζ is to be discarded because the amplitude would be maximum only
for ζ < 0.707 ... take ζ = 0.368

... natural frequency ωn = ω

√ (1 – 2(0.368)2 )
ωn = 33.5 rad/sec
stiffness of the foundation,
K = mωn2 = 25(33.5)2
= 28.05*103 N/m

3.4) A weight attached to a spring of stiffness 525 N/m has a viscous damping device. When
the weight is displaced and released, without damper the period of vibration is found to be
1.8secs, and the ratio of consecutive amplitudes is 4.2 to 1.0. Determine the amplitude and
phase when the force F=2Cos3t acts on the system.

Solution:
Data: K = 525 N/m; τ = 1.8secs: x1 = 4.2; x2 = 1.0; F = F0sinωt = 2cos3t
... F0 = 2N, ω = 3 rad/sec
X= Fo/K
√ [1 - r2] 2 + [2ζr] 2

ωn = 2π/ τ = 3.49rad/sec
δ = ln(4.2/1.0) = 1.435
ζ= δ = 0.22
√ (4π + δ )
2 2

r = ω/ωn = 2/3.49 = 0.573

r2 = 0.328

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X= 2/525
√ [1 – 0.328] 2 + [4*0.484*0.328]
X = 5.3mm

φ = tan-1(2ζr)
(1-r2)
φ = tan (2*0.22*0.573)
-1

(1-0.328)
φ = tan (0.375)
-1

φ = 20.560

3.5) The damped natural frequency of a system as obtained from a free vibration test is 9.8
cps. During a forced vibration test with a harmonic excitation on the same system, the
frequency of vibration corresponding to peak amplitude was found to be 9.6 cps.
Determine the damping factor for the system and natural frequency.

ωd = 9.8 cps, (ωp / ωn) = √1 -2ζ2

ωp = 9.6 cps.
ωn = ωd/√1 -2ζ2

∴ ωp√1 -2ζ2 /ωd = √1 -2ζ2

Solving for ζ: ζ = 0.196

ωn = ωd/ √1 -2ζ2 = 10 cps.

3.6) A reciprocating pump of mass 300 Kgs is mounted at the middle of a steel plate of
thickness 12 mm and width 500 mm and length 2.5 m damped along two edges as shown.
During the operation of the pump, the plate is subjected to a harmonic excitation of F(t) = 50
cos 60 t N. Determine the amplitude of vibration of the plate.

.
12

m = 300 Kgs
F0 = 50 N 2.5 m 500
ω = 60
K = 192EI/l3 = 176.94*103 N/m

ζ=0 X = F0 /(K-m ω2)2

X = 6.13*10-8mm

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Vibrations Due to Reciprocating and Rotating Masses

Unbalance in rotating machine is one of the common causes of vibration. The centrifugal
force generated (meω2) due to the rotation of the body is proportional to the square of the
frequency of rotation. This CF varies with speed of rotation and is different from the
harmonic excitation discussed in previous articles in which the maximum force is
independent of frequency.

ω
ω

Fig. 3.9 Model of Reciprocating Machine Fig. 3.10 Model of Rotating Machine

Let: m: mass of unbalanced mass.

M: Total mass including unbalanced mass.
e = eccentricity of unbalanced mass.
= crank radius of reciprocating machine
= stroke / 2.
The force due to the unbalanced mass is as shown in the FBD.

The GDE
∴mx8 + Cx8 + Kx = meω2 Sin ωt
= F0 Sin ωt
where F0 = meω2

Let the steady state response be

x = X. Sin (ωt - φ)

from the previous discussion we have

X 1
Xst = √[1-mr ] + [2 ζ r]2
2 2

where Xst = F0 / K, r = ω/ωn

here F0 = meω2.
meω2 /K
∴X =
√[1-mr2]2 + [2 ζ r]2

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meω2 M
X=
M K
√[1-mr ] + [2 ζ r]2
2 2

MX ω2 M/K ω2 * 1 ω2
= =
] + [2ωζn r]2
2
me √[1-mr2]2 + [2 ζ r]2 (K/M)
√[1-mr 2 2

MX r2
me √[1-mr2]2 + [2 ζ r]2 --------- (3.12)

and
2ζr
φ = tan-1 -------- (3.13)
1-r2

The variation of MX/me with (r = ω/ωn) for different values of ζ is shown in figure 3.11
However, the variation of φ and r remains as earlier.

ζ=0

ζ = 0.1
MX/me
ζ = 0.15
ζ = 0.25
ζ = 0.5

ζ = 1.0

r = ω/ ωn
Figure 3.11

The following observations can be made.

Case (i) when ω<<<ωn, say r ≈ 0
MX/me = 0 (independent of ζ, effect of damping is negligible)
Case (ii) when ω = ωn ; r = 1
∴MX/me = 1/2 ζ, dependent on ζ

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 16 of 173

if ζ = 0, MX/me = ∞, it is a case of resonance.

Case (iii) when ω>>>ωn, r>>1, r ≈ ∞.
MX/me = 1 (independent of ζ, effect of damping is negligible)
At low speed meω2 is zero and hence the curve starts from zero. It increases with increase in
(ω/ωn) until the condition of resonance is achieved. At resonance MX/me = 1/2 ζ and thus the
amplitude X is limited, by the damping present in the system. When ω/ωn is very large
MX/me approaches unity.
Numerical Examples
Unbalanced Rotating and Reciprocating Masses and Force Transmissibility.
1) A reciprocating machine of mass 75 Kgs is mounted on springs of stiffness 11.76*105 N/m
and a damper of damping factor 0.2. The slider of mass 2 Kgs within the machine has a
reciprocating motion with a stroke of 0.08 m. The speed is 3000 rpm. Assuming the motion
of the piston to be harmonic, determine
1. Amplitude of vibration of the machine.

Solution:
M = 75 Kgs; m = 2 Kgs, K = 11.76*105 N/m.

For vibrations due to rotating unbalance

Amplitude of vibration
MX = r2
me √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2

e = stroke/2 = 0.08/2 = 0.04 m

ω = 2π (3000) / 60 = 314 rad/sec.

ωn = √K/m = √11.76*10.5 /75 = 125 rad/sec.

ω/ωn = r = 314 /125 = 2.51

75 (X)/2(0.04) = (2.51)2 / √(1-2.52)2 + (20.22.51)2

X = 0.00125 m = 1.25 mm

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Vibration Isolation and Transmissibility

In machines vibrations are caused due to unbalanced masses. These vibrations are
transmitted to the foundation upon which the machines are installed. If the transmission of
vibrations to the foundations is not avoided the adjoining machines also set to vibrate.
To minimize the forces transmitted to the foundation machines are usually mounted on
springs or dampers or some other vibration isolation material. Vibration isolation is measured
in terms of the motion or force transmitted to the foundation. The lesser the force or motion
transmitted the greater the vibration isolation.
Force Transmissibility or Transmissibility Ratio
In the case of forced vibrations, it is defined as the rating force transmitted to that impressed
upon the system. it is a measure of the effectiveness of a isolating material.
For a spring mass damper system under harmonic excitation

X= Xst --- (a) and

√[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2

φ = tan-1 ( 21-rζ r )
2 --- (b)

The forces are transmitted to the foundation or structure through the springs and dampers
provided in the system. Thus the force transmitted to the foundation are the spring force KX
and the damping force cωx. Hence the total force transmitted to the foundation is the vector
sum of KX and CωX as shown in the Figure.

Impressed
force

Spring force Damping force

(KX) (CωX)

Ft = Force transmitted Foundation

= √(KX)2 + (CωX)2

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= √(KX)2 + (CωX)2. (KX)2 / (KX)2 = (KX) √1 + (Cω/K)2

Substituting for X from (a)

Ft = K.
F0
√1(Cω/K)2 = F0 √ 1+ (2 ζ r)2
K √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2
√[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2

Ft
= √ 1+ (2 ζ r)2 = Transmissibility Ratio (TR)
F0 √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2
A plot of transmissibility ratio ω/ωn is shown in figure given below.

ζ=0

ζ = 0.2
ζ = 0.5
Ft/F0
ζ = 0.6 ζ = 0.6
ζ = 0.2

ζ=0
Frequency Ratio r = (ω/ωn)
The following observations can be made.
Case (i) when ω/ωn = 0, r = 0, TR = 1, (independent of ζ )
(ii) ω = ωn, r = 1, resonance.
√ 1+ 4 ζ 2
TR = , dependent on ζ
2ζ
If ζ = 0, TR = ∞

Case (iii) when ω/ωn = √2, Ft/F0 = 1, independent of ζ

Case (iv) when ω/ωn >>> , r ∞

Ft / F0 = TR = 0

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Discussions: When ω/ωn = 0, i.e., the force is steadily applied, TR = 1, irrespective of the
amount of damping produced in the systems. When ω/ωn = 1, it is condition of resonance.
The force transmitted is infinity. If damping is used the magnitude of transmitted force is
reduced. When ω/ωn < √2 the transmitted is always greater then the impressed force. When
ω/ωn = √2, for all the values of damping the force transmitted is equal to impressed force.
When ω/ωn > √2, the transmitted force is always less than the impressed force. it also implies
that TR decreases with decreasing values of ζ. Thus, an undamped spring is superior to a
damped spring in reducing force transmissibility. But certain amount of damping is necessary
for ω to pass through the resonance condition.
As seen from the above order to isolate vibrations due to external force, ω/ωn should be very
large, i.e., >√2. For a given value of ω/ωn should be very small. The static deflection of the
spring should be as high as possible. These conditions will be satisfied by materials like steel
springs, rubber, cork, felt etc., which are generally used as vibration isolators.
Numerical Examples on
Unbalanced Rotating and Reciprocating Masses and Force Transmissibility.
1. A reciprocating machine of mass 75 Kgs is mounted on springs of stiffness 11.76*105 N/m
and a damper of damping factor 0.2. The slider of mass 2 Kgs within the machine has a
reciprocating motion with a stroke of 0.08 m. The speed is 3000 rpm. Assuming the motion
of the piston to be harmonic.
2. Amplitude of vibration of the machine.
3. Transmissibility ratio.
4. Force transmitted to the foundation.
5. Is vibration isolation achieved? If so how.

Solution:
M = 75 Kgs: m = 2 Kgs, K = 11.76*105 N/m.

For vibrations due to rotating unbalance

Amplitude of vibration
MX = r2
me √[1- r ] + [2 ζ r]2
2 2

e = stroke/2 = 0.08/2 = 0.04 m

ω = 2π (3000) / 60 = 314 rad/sec.

ωn = √K/m = √11.76*10.5 /75 = 125 rad/sec.

ω/ωn = r = 314 /125 = 2.51

75 (X)/2(0.04) = (2.51)2 / √(1-2.52)2 + (20.22.51)2

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X = 0.00125 m = 1.25 mm

Transmissibility Ratio: (TR)

TR = Ft = √ 1+ (2 ζ r)2
F0 √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2

TR = √1 + (2*0.2*2.51)2
√(1-2.52)2 + (2*0.2*2.51)2

√ 1+ 1.0080 √ 2.008
= =
√28.09 + 2.008 √29.09
TR = 0.1861
Force transmitted to the foundation
Ft
Also TR =
F0
Ft = (TR) F0 = (0.1861) * meω2
= (0.1861) * 2 * 0.04 (314)2
Ft = 1467.9 N

Vibration Isolation: Vibration isolation is achieved as only 18.6 % of the maximum shaking
force (F0) is transmitted to the foundation. This is because the operating range of frequency
ratio ω/ωn = r < √2 (2.51> 1.41).
Ft
As r >>>>> √2, 0
F0
2. A mass of 100 Kg, is mounted on a spring support having a spring stiffness of 20000 N/m
and a damping coefficient of 100 NS/m. The mass is acted upon by a harmonic force of 39 N
at the undamped natural frequency of the set up. Find
1. Amplitude of vibration of the mass.
2. Phase difference between the force and displacement.
3. Force transmissibility ratio.

3. A refrigerator of mass 35 Kgs operating at 480 rpm is supported on 3 springs. If only 10%
of the shaking force is to be transmitted to the foundation what should be the value of K.
Ft = √ 1+ (2 ζ r)2
F0 √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2
assuming that no damped used ζ = 0

TR = 1/√(1- r2)

0.1 =

∴± 0.1 – 0.1 (16 π/ωn)2 = 1

When positive sign is considered

- 0.1 (16 π/ωn)2 ± 1 – 0.1

(16 π/ωn)2 = 0.9/-0.1 = - 9

∴(16 π/ωn) = √-9 which is not possible

Taking the negative sign

- 0.1 + 0.1 (16 π/ωn)2 = 1

16 π/ωn = (1+0.1/0.1) = √11

∴ωn = 15.15 rad/sec.

ωn K = √K/m ∴Keq = 8.037 N/m

∴K = 8.037/3 = 2.679 N/m.

4. A machine supported symmetrically on four springs has a mass of 80 Kgs. The mass of the
reciprocating mass is 2.2 Kgs which move through a vertical stroke of 100 mm with SHM.
Neglecting damping, determine the combined stiffness of the springs so that the force
transmitted to the foundation is 1/20th of the impressed force. the machine crank shaft rotates
at 800 rpm.
If, under actual working conditions, the damping reduces the amplitudes of successive
vibrations by 30%, find (a) The force transmitted to the foundation at 800 rpm (b) The force
transmitted to the foundation at resonance. (c) The amplitude of vibrations at resonance.
M = 80 Kgs, m 2.2 Kg TR = 1/20 = 0.05 N = 800 rpm

e = 100/2 = 50 mm. ω = 2 πN/60 = 83.78 rad/sec.

1. In the absence of damping

TR = 1/ (r2 – 1)
1
0.05 = 2 - 1 ∴ ωn = 18.28 rad/sec
83.78
( ωn )
ωn2 = K/m
K = Mωn2 = 26.739 N/m

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2. When damping is present

δ = In (X1/x2) = In (1/1-0.3) = 2 π ζ / √1 – ζ2

∴ ζ = 0.0567
Ft = Force transmitted to foundation at 800 rpm.
Ft = √ 1+ (2 ζ r)2 = 0.0563 = TR
F0 √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2
Ft = F0 * TR = TR * meω2 = 43.47 N

3. At resonance ω/ωn = 1

TR = √ 1+ (2 ζ r)2 = 8.875
2ζ
Ft = TR
F0
∴(Ft) Res = F0 * TR
= meωn2 * TR
= 2.2 * 0.05 * (18.78)2 * 8.875
(Ft)Res = 326.25 N

4. Amplitude of vibration at resonance.

Force transmitted at Resonance
= Stiffness
= 32.6.25/26.739 = 12.2 mm

Forced Vibrations due to Excitation of Base

Some times the base or support of a spring-mass damper system undergoes harmonic
excitation as shown in figure.

+x
M
y = Y Sin ωt

Base
Let y: denotes the displacement of the base and x: denotesBase excitation of the mass from
the displacement
static equilibrium position at a given instant t; such that

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Absolute Amplitude of the Mass (X) y = Y sin ωt

x y x

. Ky
.
Cy KX
.
CX
KX CX
Ky
.
Cy

. .
K (x-y) C(x – y)
Now from NSL

mx88 = - K (x-y) – C(x8 - y8 )

= - Kx + Ky – C x8 + y8
8
∴mx88 + C x + Kx = C y8 + Ky governing differential equation.

Let the steady state response

x = X Sin (ωt - φ)
x8 = ωX cos (ωt - φ)
= ωX Sin [90 + (ωt - φ)]
x88 = - ω2 X Sin (ωt - φ)

also y = Y Sin ωt
y8 = ω Y Cos ωt
= ω Y Sin [90 + ωt]
8y8
= - ω2 Y Sin (ωt), substituting these values in GDE

- m ω2X Sin (ωt - φ) + CωX Sin [90 + (ωt - φ)] + KX Sin (ωt - φ)
= Cω Y Sin [90 ωt] + K Y Sin ωt.

m ω2X Sin (ωt - φ) - CωX Sin [90 + (ωt - φ)] – KX Sin (ωt - φ)
+ Cω Y Sin [90 ωt] + K Y Sin ωt = 0

Thus Σƒ = 0. The forces can be represented as shown, and the force polygon should close.

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From the triangle OAB.

KY
CωY
Y
KX-Cω2X Mω2X
A
ωt X
(ωt - φ) CωY
φ
Y
KX KY X
B F 0

KX (ωt - φ)
0
CωX
mω X CωX
2

OA2 = AB2 + BO2

F02 = (KX - mω2X)2 + (CωX)2

= [KX - mω2X (KX/KX)]2 + [CωX (KX/KX)]2

F02 = (KX)2 [(1- mω2/K)2 + (Cω/K)2]

Also F02 = (KY)2 + (CωY)2 = (KY)2 [1 + CωY/ KY)2]

= (KY)2 [1 + Cω/ K)2]

∴(KY)2 [1 + Cω/ K)2] = (KX)2 [(1 - mω2/ K)2 + (Cω/ K)2]

Taking square roots and rearranging the terms

KY √[1 + Cω/ K)2] = KX √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2

The ratio X/Y is called displacement transmissibility. This equation is similar to that of
transmissibility ratio, and all the observation and discussions are same as that discussed
under transmissibility ratio and the frequency response curve given below.
Displacement transmissibility is defined are the ratio of displacement transmitted to the mass
to the displacement impressed upon the base.

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ζ=0

ζ = 0.2
X/Y ζ = 0.5
ζ = 0.6
ζ = 0.2 ζ = 0.5

ζ=0

r = (ω/ωn)
Relative Amplitude: If Z represents the relative motion of the mass with respect to the
support we have Z = x-y
∴x = (z + y)

Substituting this in the governing differential equation.

mx88+ Cx8 + Kx = Cy8 + Ky

88
mZ + CZ8 + KZ = - m8y8
and substituting for ‘y’ from y = Y Sin ωt
88 8
mZ + CZ + KZ = m ω2Y Sin ωt
Comparing this with
8 8
mx8 + Cx + Kx = meω2 Sin ωt, of reciprocating and rotating unbalance.

The steady state relative amplitude Z and the phase angle lag φ between the excitation and
relative displacement. The relative motion frequency response which is similar to
reciprocating and rotating unbalance as given below, can be used in designing vibration
measuring instruments.

Z/ Y = r2 / √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2

φ = tan-1 [2 ζ r/ 1- r2]

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Z/Y
ζ = 0.1

ζ = 0.15
ζ = 0.25
ζ = 0.5

ζ = 1.0

r = ω/ ωn
Force Transmitted: Force is transmitted to the base through the spring and dampers. If ‘Z’
represents the relative displacement then

Force transmitted = Ft = √(KZ)2 + (CωX)2

Ft = Z√K2 (Cω)2

The force transmitted to the base is also determined by Ft = m ω2X

Numerical Examples on Base Excitation

1. Figure (given in problem No.3) shows a simple model of motor vehicle that can vibrate in
vertical direction while traveling over a rough road. The vehicle has a mass of 1200 Kg. The
suspension system has a spring constant of 400 KN/m and a damping ratio of ζ = 0.5. If the
vehicle speed is 100 Km/hr. Determine the displacement amplitude of the vehicle. The road
surface varies sinusoidally with an amplitude Y = 0.05 m and a wave length of 6 m.
Given m = 1200 Kg Speed 100 Km/hr
K = 400 * 103N/m Y = 0.05 m
ζ = 0.5 wave length = 6 m
= period

Model: Single degree freedom damped system base excitation.

Frequency of base excitation: ƒ = Speed/ Length of one cycle

(100*1000)/3600 m/sec
=
6m

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ƒ = 4.63 Hz.
∴Frequency of base excitation

ω = 2πƒ = 2π (100*1000) = 29.0087 rad/sec.

3600 * 6 m
Natural frequency = ωn = √ K/m
= √400* 103 / 1200 = 18.2574 rad/sec.
∴Frequency ratio = r = ω/ωn = 1.5903

∴ X = √ 1+ (2 ζ r)2 = 0.8493
Y √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2

∴Displacement amplitude of the vehicle

X/Y = 0.8493 ∴ X = 0.8493 * (0.05)

X = 0.0425 m

2. A precession grinding machine is supported on an isolator that has a stiffness of 1 MN/m

and a viscous damping constant of 1KN-S/m. The floor on which the machine is mounted is
subjected to a harmonic disturbance due to the operation of an unbalanced engine in the
vicinity of grinding machine. Find the maximum acceptable displacement of the floor if
resulting amplitude of vibration of grinding wheel is to be restricted to 10-6m. Assume that
the grinding wheel and machine are rigid bodies of total weight 5000 N.

Grinding
Wheel
. x = X sin(ωt - φ)
X= 10-6 m
Grinding
Machine

y = Y sin10πt
Isolators
Y =?

Solution:
W = 5000 N ∴m = w/g = 509.6 Kg
K = 1*106 N/m W = mg;m = 5000/9.81 Kg
X = 10-6m C = 103 N-S/m
Y=?
y = Y Sin 10πt

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X √ 1+ (2 ζ r)2
Y = √[1- r ] + [2 ζ r]
2 2 2 ∴ω = 10 π
ω = 31.4 rad/sec

ωn = √K/m = √106/509.6

ωn = 44.29 rad/sec ≈ 423 rpm

C = Cc ∴ζ = C/Cc = 1032.mωn = 1032509.644.29

Ζ = 0.0222

ω = 10 π = 31.4 rad/sec

r = 31.4 / 44.29 = 0.7093

X √ 1+ [2(0.0222*0.7093)]2
∴ = = √1+(0.0314)2
Y √(1- 0.7093 2 2
) + (2 ζ r)2

= 1/ √(0.246 + 1.0) = 1.1166

X
= 1.1166 given that X = 10-6m
Y

∴Y = X/1.1166 = 10-6/1.1166 = 8.955*10-7m

Y = 8.95*10-7 mm

3. A trailer has 1000 Kg mass when fully loaded and 250 Kg when empty. The suspension
has a stiffness of 350 kN/m. The damping factor is 0.5. The speed of the trailer is 100 Km/hr.
The road varies sinusoidally with a wave length of 5 m. Determine the amplitude ratio of the
trailer:
1.When fully loaded.
2.When empty.

Data:
Mass of empty trailer = 250 Kg,
ζ = 0.50 Mass of loaded trailer = 1000 Kg,
k = 350 kN/m
Speed of trailer = 100 Km/hr
= 100*1000/3600 = 27.77 m/sec

Time period = τ

= wave length /velocity

= 5/27.77 sec.

= 0.18 sec

Forcing frequency, w = 2π/ τ = 2π / 0.18

= 34.896 rad/sec.

1. Empty trailer: Natural frequency of empty trailer

wn = √(k/m) = √(350*103/250) = 37.416 rad/sec

Frequency ratio, r = w/wn = 34.896/37.416 = 0.933

The ratio of amplitude of vibration of empty trailer to that of road surface is given as

X = √ 1+ (2 ζ r)2
Y √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2

= 1.3676/0.9419 = 1.4518

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2. Loaded trailer: When the trailer is fully loaded the natural frequency is given by

wn = √(k/m) = √(350*103/1000) = 18.708 rad/sec

Frequency ratio r = w/wn = 34.896/18.708 = 1.8653

X = √ 1+ (2 ζ r)2
Y √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2

= 2.116 / 3.1026 = 0.6819

[X/Y]empty = 1.4518
[X/Y]loaded = 0.6819
The amplitude of vibration reduces as the mass of the system (loaded trailer) is increased.

4. An aircraft radio of mass 20 Kgs is to be isolated from engine vibrations, which is

vibrating with amplitude of 0.05 mm at 500 cpm. The radio is mounted on four isolators,
each having a spring scale of 31400 N/m, and damping factor of 392 NS/m.
a. What is the amplitude of vibration of the radio?
b. What is the amplitude of vibration of the radio relative to the engine.
c. What is the dynamic load on each isolator due to vibration.

Part A

m = 20 Kgs
K = 4*31400 = 125600 N/m
C = 4*392 = 1568 NS/m
y = Y Sin ωt

∴ Y = 0.05 mm, ω = 2πƒ = 2π* 500/ 60 rad/sec

ω = 52.5 rad/sec.

ωn = √K/m = √125600/20 = 79.2 rad/sec.

ω/ωn = 52.5 / 79.5 = 0.662

ζ = C/2 √Km = 0.496

X
= X = 0.069 mm = 6.9*10-5m
Y

Part B

X √ 1+ (2 ζ r)2
=
Y √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2

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Z = 0.025 mm = 2.5*105m

Part C

Ft = Z √K2+ (Cω)2 = 2.510-5 √(156852.4)2 + 1256002

Ft = 3.8 N ∴Total force transmitted.

∴Ft on each isolator = 3.8/4 = 0.95 N

The dynamic load can also be computed using

Ft = mω2X

= (20) (52.4)2*6.9*10-5
Ft = 3.8 N

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Chapter 5
Vibration Measuring Instruments

5.1 Introduction
In practice the measurement of vibrations becomes necessary due to following reasons.
1. To determine natural frequencies, modal shapes and damping ratios. The
measurement of frequencies of vibration and forces developed is necessary to design
active vibration isolation systems.
2. The theoretically computed vibration characteristics of a machine or structure may be
different from the actual values due to the assumptions made in the analysis. (To
verify the analytical models).
3. Periodic measurement of vibration characteristics of machines and structures
becomes essential to ensure adequate safety margins. (Preventive maintenance).
4. Measurement of input and resulting output vibration characteristics of a system helps
in identifying the system in terms of its mass, stiffness and damping.
5.2 Vibration Measurement Scheme
Figure 5.1 shows the basic features of a vibration measurement scheme.
1. Vibrating machine or structure.
2. Vibration transducer or pick up.
3. Signal conversion instrument.
4. Display / recording.
5. Data analysis.

2 3 4

1 5

Figure 5.1 Vibration Measurement Scheme

The motion of a vibrating body is converted in to an electrical signal by the vibration

transducer or pick up. The transducer transforms changes in mechanical quantities such as
displacement velocity, acceleration in to changes in electrical quantities such as voltage or
current. (Electrodynamic pick up, electromagnetic pick up, piezo electric pick up, inductive
displacement pick up, LVDT pick up, capacitive pick up). Since the output signal of a
transducer is too small to be recorded directly, a signal conversion instrument is used to
amplify the signal to the required value (Amplifier). The output from the signal conversion

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instrument can be displayed on a display unit or stored in a computer for later use
(Oscilloscope, A to D converters, milli voltmeters, computers etc., the data can then be
analyzed to determine the desired vibration characteristics of the machine. Depending upon
the quantity measured the vibration measuring instrument is called a vibrometer, a velocity
meter, an accelerometer, a phase meter or a frequency meter. To summarise, following are
the guidelines.
1. Displacement measurements may be useful for studying low frequency vibrations,
where corresponding velocity and acceleration measurements are too small for
practical purposes.
2. Velocity measurements may be useful at intermediate frequencies where
displacement measurements are likely to be small to measure conveniently.
3. Acceleration measurements may be useful at high frequencies.
Instead of the above, vibration analyzers can also be used. Several commercial vibration
analyzers are available today. They consist of a vibration pick up and an FFT (Fast Fourier
Transformation) analyser, a balancing kit for phase measurement and an inbuilt computer.
The pick up essentially a piezo electric type with a natural frequency of 25 kcps. (KHz). Built
in double integration is also available for displacement plots. FFT converts time domain
signal to a signal in frequency domain to identify the frequencies of concern.

5.3 Vibration pick ups: Seismic Instruments

The commonly used vibration pick ups are called seismic instruments. The basic element of
many vibration measuring instrument is a seismic unit which is basically a spring mass-
damper system mounted on a vibrating body on which measurements are to be made as
shown in Figure 5.2.

x
Casing

C
y

Figure 5.2Seismic Unit

Depending on the frequency range utilized displacement, velocity or acceleration is

indicated, by the relative motion of the suspended mass with respect to the case.

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Behaviour of Seismic unit

Consider the equation of motion of spring-mass-damper system, subjected to base excitation,
as shown in Figure 5.3.
x = X Sin (ωt-φ)
M

y = Y Sin ωt

Base

Figure 5.3
mx = - C (x-y) – K (x-y)
.. ..
if..
Z = x-y; relative displacement the equation of motion becomes
. .
mZ + CZ + KZ = mω2Y Sin ωt
from this
Z r2
= √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2
Y
φ = tan-1 [2 ζ r/1-r2]

The parameters that influence Z/Y and φ are: (1) frequency ratio r = ω/ωn. (2) Damping
factor ζ, as shown in the Figure 5.4.

Range for Range for Vibrometer

Accelerometer
ζ=0

Figure 5.4.
ζ = 0.1 Frequency
response
Z/Y ζ = 0.15 curves
ζ = 0.25
ζ = 0.5

ζ = 1.0

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Figure 5.4 also shows the range of frequencies corresponding to which a seismic instrument
act as a vibrometer or an accelerometer. Type of instrument is determined by the useful range
of frequencies with respect to the natural frequency (ωn) of the instrument. The relative
displacement Z, may represent the displacement or acceleration depending upon ωn of the
seismic unit and frequency of vibrating body, ω.
5.4 Vibrometer or Seismometer
It is an instrument with low natural frequency. Therefore,
ω >>>>> ωn
r >>>> 1, r is very large.
Z/Y ≈ 1, in particular when r > 3
Z/Y ≈ 1, (independent of ζ )
∴Z=Y
Relative displacement of the seismic mass = displacement of base.
∴Z = X-Y, X = 0, ∴Z=Y
Hence the seismic mass remains stationary. It remains undisturbed in space. The supporting
casing moves the vibrating body. Thus the relative displacement between the casing and the
mass is the true displacement of the casing. Like wise, the relative velocity between the
casing and the mass is the true velocity of casing. Usually, the relative motion Z is converted
into electric voltage. The seismic mass is a magnet moving relative to the coils fixed to the
case, as shown in Figure 5.6.

x 0 0
0 0
0 0 Seismic mass

Figure 5.6

The voltage generated is proportional to the rate of cutting of magnetic field. Therefore the
output of the instrument is proportional to the velocity of the vibrating body. Such
instruements are called velometers. A typical instrument of this kind may have a natural
frequency of 1 Hz to 5 Hz and a useful range of 10 Hz to 2000 Hz. The sensitivity of such
instruments may be in the range of 20 mV/cm to 350 mV/cm. Both the displacement and
acceleration are available from the velocity type transducer by means of the integrator or the
differeniator provided in most signal conditioner units.

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Limitation of Vibrometers
In order to have r >>>1, ωn should be very small. This means that, the mass must be very
large and the spring must have a very low stiffness. Therefore, a vibrometer is a spring-mass-
damper system with a very large mass and a flexible spring. This results in bulky instrument,
which is not desirable in many applications.
In practice, a vibrometer may not have a large value of r, and hence the value of Z, may not
be exactly equal to Y. In such cases the true value of Y, can be computed from:
Z = r2
Y √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2
5.5 Accelerometer
It is an instrument with high natural frequency. When the natural frequency of the instrument
is high compared to that of the vibrations to be measured, the instrument indicates
acceleration.
Then
ω <<<< ωn,
r <<<<< 1,
the factor √[r – (ω/ωn)2]2 + (2 ζr)2 approaches unity.

∴Z (ω/ωn)2.Y

(1/ωn2). ω2Y

Hence, Z α ω2 Y, which implies that Z is proportional to the acceleration of the vibrating

body. Thus in order to make r <<<< 1, ωn should be very large. Hence K should be very large
and m should be small. This means that, the instrument needs a small mass and spring of
large stiffness. Therefore, the instrument will be very small in size and compact.
Due to their small size and high sensitivity accelerometers are preferred in vibration
measurements. The acceleration measured can be integrated once or twice with the help of
modern electrical circuits to obtain velocity and displacement of the system.
Thus the difference between a vibrometer and an accelerometer is in its natural frequency. In
vibrometer it is very small where as in accelerometer it is very high. The principle of
construction remains same.
5.6 Useful Frequency Range
The useful range of accelerometer can be seen from the following graph for different
amounts of damping ζ. Useful frequency range is that range of r between which the
maximum error is less than 0.01 %. The useful frequency range for un damped accelerometer
is very much limited. However, with ζ = 0.7 the useful frequency range is quite large, that is,
between 0 ≤ ω/ωn ≤ 0.20, as shown in Figure 5.7.

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Figure 5.7. Useful frequency range

Thus an instrument with a natural frequency of 100 Hz has a useful frequency range of 0 to
20 Hz with negligible error. (Up to 20 Hz the error is less than 0.01%). Figure 5.8 shows
accelerometers.

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Figure 5.8. Accelerometers

Numerical Examples on Vibration Measuring Instruments

1. A vibrometer having a natural frequency of 4 rad/sec and ζ = 0.2 is attached to a structure
that executes harmonic motion. If the difference between the maximum and minimum
recorded value is 8 mm, find the amplitude of vibration of structure when its frequency is 40
rad/sec.

ωn = 4 rad/sec, ζ = 0.2
Z = Relative amplitude Z 4 mm
= 8/2 = 4 mm 8 mm
Mean
ω = 40 rad/sec
r = ω/ωn = 40/4 = 10
Z r2
= = 1.0093
Y √[1- r ] + [2 ζ r]2
2 2

Z/Y = 1.0093 ∴ Y = 3.9631 mm

2. A vibrometer has a natural frequency of 10 cps and has a damping ratio of 0.7. It is used,
by mistake, to measure vibrations of a fan base at an exciting frequency of 180 rpm. The
measured vibration velocity of the fan base is 3 mm/s. What is the actual velocity of the fan
base?

For a vibrometer,
Z = r2
Y √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2
In the present case, ωn = 10 cps = 62.8 rad/sec.
Exciting frequency ω = 180 rpm = 18.84 rad/sec.
Hence
r = ω/ωn = 0.3
(Z/Y) = 0.09/(0.8281 + 0.1764) = 0.089

Hence Y = Z/0.089 = 33.6 mm/s.

It may be noted that the actual velocity is beyond permissible limits, whereas what is
read is well below the permissible limit. Hence one should be very careful in selecting
the proper instrument.

3. A seismic instrument is fitted to measure the vibration characteristics of a machine running

at 120 rpm. If the natural frequency of the instrument is 5 Hz and if it shows 0.004 cm
determine the displacement, velocity and acceleration assuming no damping.

ƒn = 5 Hz ; ωn = 2πƒn = 10π rad/sec = 31.4 rad/sec

N = 120 rpm ω = 2πN/60 = 12.56 rad/sec
r = ω/ωn = 12.56/31.4 = 0.4

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 39 of 173

Z = 0.004 cm
= 0.0004 mm

For seismic instruments

Z = r2 , ζ=0
Y √[1- r ] + [2 ζ r]2
2 2

Z r2 r2
= =
Y √[1- r2]2 [1- r2]

∴Displacement Y = Z(1-r2) / r2 = 0.021 cm

Velocity V = ω Y = 2πN/60* 0.021 = 0.26 cm/sec

Acceleration a = ω2Y = ω(ωY) = 3.265 cm/sec2

4. A vibrometer indicates 2 percent error in measurement and its natural frequency is 5 Hz. If
the lowest frequency that can be measured is 40 Hz, find the value of damping factor.

Solution:
Data: ωn = 5Hz, ω = 40 Hz, error = 2%

r = ω/ωn = 40/5 = 8

Z/Y = 1.02 (since the error is 2%)

Z r2
=
Y √[1- r ] + [2 ζ r]2
2 2

(1.02)2 = 82/(1-64)2 + (16 ζ)2

ζ = 0.35

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 40 of 173

Session-VIII (6.5.05) BKS

5.6 Useful Frequency Range of Vibration Measuring Instruments:

Useful frequency range is that range of r between which the maximum error is less than 0.01
%.

Vibrometer: As evident from Figure 5.4 for value of ζ far greater than 1, Z/Y ≈1 for any
value of ζ. This means that the mass remain un disturbed in space. Hence the relative
displacement between the casing and the mass is the true displacement of casing. Similarly
the relative velocity between the casing and the mass is the true velocity of the casing. The
instruments which have natural frequency ωn such that r >>>> 1, can read displacement or
velocity directly. They are vibrometers and velometers, respectively.

The accuracy of these instruments depend upon the amount of damping and frequency ratio
at which they are used. Figure 5.6 shows the values of ζ close to 1, plotted against Z/Y. It is
seen that when ζ varies from 0.6 to 0.7 the percentage error in Z as compared to Y is less
than 4. For ζ = 0.707, and r >>>1. Z ≈ Y and thus the error is less than 0.01%. Thus there is a
lower cut-off frequency for a vibrometer, beyond which it gives readings with error less than
0.01% (concept demonstrated in numerical examples)

Z/Y

Figure 5.7. Useful frequency range for vibrometer

Accelerometer:
Z r2
= √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2 = r2 λ
Y

where λ = 1 = amplitude distortion factor.

√[1- r ] + [2 ζ r]2
2 2

Therefore Z/Y = (ω2/ωn2) λ

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 41 of 173

Z = Y (ω2/ωn2) λ

For r <<<< 1, λ approaches unity.

Therefore, Z α ω2 Y, (i.e., relative displacement is proportional to the acceleration). The

amplitude distortion factor λ should remain constant over the desired range of frequency of
the accelerometer.
Thus for r <<< 1, ζ = 1/√2 = 0.7, λ would remain constant at ≈ 1, in the range

λ = 1/√[1+r4] ≈ 1, i.e., 0 < r < 0.25.

The useful range of accelerometer can be seen from the following graph in Fig 5.8 for
different amounts of damping ζ. The useful frequency range for undamped accelerometer is
very much limited. However, with ζ = 0.7 the useful frequency range is quite large, that is,
between 0 ≤ ω/ωn ≤ 0.25, as shown in Figure 5.8.

Figure 5.8. Useful frequency range for accelerometer

Thus an instrument with a natural frequency of 100 Hz has a useful frequency range of 0 to
20 Hz with negligible error. (Up to 20 Hz the error is less than 0.01%). Figure 5.9 shows
accelerometers.

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 42 of 173

Figure 5.9. Accelerometers

Numerical Examples on Vibration Measuring Instruments

1. A vibrometer having a natural frequency of 4 rad/sec and ζ = 0.2 is attached to a structure

that executes harmonic motion. If the difference between the maximum and minimum
recorded value is 8 mm, find the amplitude of vibration of structure when its frequency is 40
rad/sec.

ωn = 4 rad/sec, ζ = 0.2
Z = Relative amplitude Z 4 mm
= 8/2 = 4 mm 8 mm
Mean
ω = 40 rad/sec
r = ω/ωn = 40/4 = 10
Z = r2
= 1.0093
Y √[1- r ] + [2 ζ r]2
2 2

Z/Y = 1.0093 ∴ Y = 3.9631 mm

For a vibrometer,
Z = r2
Y √[1- r ] + [2 ζ r]2
2 2

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 43 of 173

In the present case, ωn = 10 cps = 62.8 rad/sec.

Exciting frequency ω = 180 rpm = 18.84 rad/sec.
Hence
r = ω/ωn = 0.3, Z = 3 mm/sec
(Z/Y) = 0.09/(0.8281 + 0.1764) = 0.089

Hence Y = Z/0.089 = 3/0.089 = 33.6 mm/s.

It may be noted that the actual velocity is beyond permissible limits, whereas what is read is
well below the permissible limit. Hence one should be very careful in selecting the proper
instrument.

3. A seismic instrument is fitted to measure the vibration characteristics of a machine running

at 120 rpm. If the natural frequency of the instrument is 5 Hz and if it shows 0.004 cm
determine the displacement, velocity and acceleration assuming no damping.

ƒn = 5 Hz ; ωn = 2πƒn = 10π rad/sec = 31.4 rad/sec

N = 120 rpm ω = 2πN/60 =
r = ω/ωn = 2πN/60*10π = 0.4 r = 0.4

Z = 0.004 cm
= 0.0004 mm

For seismic instruments

Z = r2 , ζ=0
Y √[1- r ] + [2 ζ r]2
2 2

Z r2 r2
= =
Y √[1- r2]2 [1- r2]

∴Displacement Y = Z(1-r2) / r2 = 0.021 cm

Velocity V = ω Y = 2πN/60* 0.021 = 0.26 cm/sec

Acceleration a = ω2Y = ω(ωY) = 3.265 cm/sec2

4. A vibrometer indicates 2 percent error in measurement and its natural frequency is 5 Hz. If
the lowest frequency that can be measured is 40 Hz, find the value of damping factor.

Solution:
Data: ωn = 5Hz, ω = 40 Hz, error = 2%

r = ω/ωn = 40/5 = 8

Z/Y = 1.02 (since the error is 2%)

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 44 of 173

Z r2
=
Y √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2

(1.02)2 = 82/(1-64)2 + (16 ζ)2 ζ = 0.35

5. A commercial vibration pick-up has a natural frequency of 5.75 Hz and a damping factor
of 0.65. What is the lowest frequency beyond which the amplitude can be measured with in
(a) 1% error (b) 2% error.
Part (a).
2
Z r
Y = √[1- r 2 2
] + [2 ζ r]2 Error = [Z-Y]/Y*100
1 = (Z/Y-1)100
Given that error is to be 1% ∴Z/Y = 1+0.01 = 1.01
∴Z = 1.01 times Y

∴ r2 = 1.01,
√[1- r ] + [2 ζ r]2
2 2

r2
Z/Y
√[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2 ζ = 0.65
1.01
Simplification leads to 1.00 * *
0.02 r4 – 0.31r2 + 1 = 0
giving r = 3.30 and 2.02
1.00
2.02 3.00
r
These are the two values at which Z/Y = 1.01 in between these two values Z/Y will be
greater than 1.01, as shown.

∴ The lowest value of r beyond which the amplitude can be measured with in 1% error is r =
3.30.
∴ω/ωn = ƒ/ƒn = r = 3.30

∴ƒ = 3.30 * 5.75 = 10 Hz

ƒ = 10 Hz.

Part (b).
When the error is 2% Z/Y = 1.02
When solved for r, for the given value of damping, we get imaginary value of r2. This means
that, for ζ = 0.65, the curve Z/Y v/s r, does not go as high as Z/Y = 1.02. Thus to get the
frequency for 2% error we have to consider Z/Y = 0.98 Solving for r
r = 1.55
ƒ = 8.9 Hz.

6. Specify the lowest frequency of a vibrometer that can be measured with 1% error, if its
natural frequency is 4 Hz and damping ratio is 0.2

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 45 of 173

ζ = 0.2
ƒn = 4 Hz
Z r2
=
Y √[1- r ] + [2 ζ r]2
2 2

1.01 = r2
√[1- r ] + [2 ζ r]2
2 2

on simplification
r4 – 2r2 + 1 + 4 ζ2r2 = r4 / (1.01)2 Z/Y

error = 1%
∴Z/Y = 1.01 1.01
1.00 * *
We get r4-93.38r2 + 50.75 = 0
Solving, we get
r = 9.635 and 0.739 0.739 1.00 r 9.63

These are the two values at which Z/Y = 1.01. In between these two values Z/Y will be
greater than 1.01

at r1 = 0.739
ƒ/ƒn = r1,
ƒ = 2.9 Hz.
at r2 = 9.635
ƒ/ƒn = r2, ƒ = 38.54 Hz.

The lowest frequency beyond which the amplitude can be measured with 1% error is 38.54
Hz.

7. An accelerometer is made with a crystal of natural frequency 20 kHz. The damping ratio
of accelerometer is found to be 0.71. Determine the upper cut off frequency of the
accelerometer for 1% accuracy.
Z r2
Y = √[1- r ] + [2 ζ r]
2 2 2 ƒn = 20 kHz
ζ = 0.71
error = 1 %

1.01 = r2 , imaginary value

√[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2
0.99 = r2
√[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2
solving r = 0.3667

∴upper cut-off frequency

f = r* fn = 0.3667*20k Hz
= 7.335 k Hz.

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 46 of 173

8. A device used to measure torsional acceleration consists of a ring having a moment of

inertia of 0.049 Kg-m2 connected to a shaft by a spiral spring having a scale of 0.98 Nm-/
rad, and a viscous damper having a constant of 0.11 Nm-sec/rad. When the shaft vibrates
with a frequency of 15 cpm, the relative amplitude between the ring and the shaft is found to
be 20. What is the maximum acceleration of the shaft?

Solution:
Data:

J = 0.049 Kg-m2 Ct = 0.11 Nm-sec/rad

Kt = 0.98 Nm/rad ω = 2π*15/60 = π/2 rad/sec

ωn = √Kt/J = 4.47 rad/sec

ζ = Ct/2√KtJ = 0.11 / 2√0.98*0.049 = 0.25

θz = 20 , = 2/57.3 = 0.0349 rad

ω/ωn = 0.352

∴ θz = (ω/ωn)2
θy √[1- r2]2 + [2 ζ r]2
θy = 0.253 rad

∴Maximum acceleration of the shaft = ω2 θy

= (π/2)2 * 0.253 = 0.62 rad/sec.

9. A vibrometer having a mass of 10 Kgs is used to measure the vibration amplitude of a

machine which is vibrating with a frequency of 1000 cpm. If the error in the reading of the
dial indicator is not to be more than 3% of the actual amplitude of the vibrating machine
determine the stiffness of the vibrometer spring?

10. Show that an undamped seismic instrument will show the true response at a frequency
ratio r = 1/√2.

Solution: Z/Y = r2/(1-r2), ζ = 0,

For true response Z=Y ∴ r2 /(1-r2) = 1

2r2 = 1 or r = 1/√2

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 47 of 173

Session-IX (10.5.05) BKS

5.7 Whirling of Shafts
In many practical applications such as turbines, compressors, electric motors and pumps, a
heavy rotor is mounted on a light weight flexible shaft that is supported between bearings.
The mass centre of rotor do not coincide with the centre line of the shaft. Thus there will be
unbalance in the rotor due to manufacturing errors. When the shaft rotates centrifugal force is
induced on the shaft, which makes it to bend in the direction of eccentricity of rotor. In
addition to this other effects such as stiffness and damping of the shaft, hyrtersis damping,
gyroscopic effects, and fluid friction in bearings also cause the shaft to bend. This bending
further increases eccentricity and hence the centrifugal force. This effect is cumulative and
ultimately the shaft may even fail. The extent to which the shaft bends depends upon the
eccentricity of the rotor mass and speed of the shaft.

At certain rotational speeds the shaft tends to vibrate violently in transverse direction. At
these speeds the shaft has a tendency to bow-out and whirl in a complicated manner as shown
in Figure 5.10 and 5.11.
Bearing centre
Undeflected Position O O
XC Deflected Position C
G G
e

Figure 5.10 Whirling of Shaft

Bearing centre line

Bearing Bearing

ω
Bent up shaft axis Rotor or Disc

Figure 5.11 Whirling of Shaft

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 48 of 173

This phenomenon is called whirling or whipping of shafts and the corresponding speeds are
referred as whirling or whipping or critical speeds of shafts. These critical speeds are found
to coincide with the natural frequencies of lateral (transverse) vibrations of the shaft.

The excessive vibrations associated with critical speeds may cause permanent deformation
resulting in structural damage. Eg: The rotor blades of a turbine may come in contact with
stator blades. Larger shaft deflections produce larger bearing reactions, which may lead to
bearing failure. The amplitude build up is a time dependent phenomenon and therefore, it is
very dangerous to continue to run the shaft at it critical speed.

The whirling motion of a shaft consists of two components of motion as shown in Figure
5.12.
a. Spinning of the shaft along with rotor about the bent up shaft axis.
b. Rotation of plane A made by the centre line of the bearings and bent up-shaft, about
the centre line of the bearings.

Bearing centre line

Plane A Plane APlane A

Plane A
Bearing Bearing
Rotation of plane A
ωplane A
Bent up shaft axis Rotor or Disc

Figure 5.12 Whirling of Shaft

The rotation of plane A, which is generally referred as whirling, may take place in the same
sense as that of spinning of the shaft or in the opposite sense. Further the speed of whirling
may or may not be equal to the speed of spinning of the shaft. When the whirling speed is
equal to the speed of rotation of shaft it is called “synchronous whirl”.

5.7.1 Critical speed of a shaft with a single rotor (with out damping):
Consider a shaft on which a rotor in symmetrically located between two bearings. The
expression for the deflection of the shaft in terms of frequency ratio and eccentricity can be
obtained as follows based on the following assumptions.
1. Shaft is light and flexible.
2. Gravity effects are negligible.
3. Friction at shaft centre is small.
4. Damping due to air is neglected.

Let m: mass of the disc in Figure 5.10.

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 49 of 173

ω: Angular rotation of the disc (uniform angular velocity of shaft)

e: eccentricity of the disc: radial distance of the mass centre of the disc from its geometric
centre- G.
K: Stiffness of the shaft in transverse direction
C: Geometric centre of the disc.
G: C.G of disc (mass centre)
X: Lateral deflection of the shaft centre from 0. (OC) (deflection of the geometric centre of
the disc).
ωc: Critical speed of the shaft.

The rotor, (disc) is in equilibrium under the action of two forces.

Centrifugal force, which acts radially outwards through G = mω2 (x + e)
Restoring force which act radially inwards through C = KX
∴For equilibrium restoring force = Centrifugal force
KX = mω2 (X + e)
= mω2 X + mω2e
KX - mω2X = mω2e
(K - mω2) X = mω2e

X/e = mω2/[k-mω2]
= 1/[(k/mω2)-1] = 1/[(ωn/ω2) – 1]
when
ω = ωn, X/e ratio is infinite. This particular value of ω is called critical speed.
But, ω/ωn = r ∴(ωn/ω = 1/r)
X/e = 1/[(1/r2) –1]

5.7.2 Discussions:
The relation between X/e and ωc/ω can be plotted as shown below in Figure 5.13.

+
r<

X/e
ωn
1.0

- ve
r

Figure 5.13 Relation between X/e and ωn /ω

Case (i): When ω =ωn (r =1)

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 50 of 173

• Forcing frequency coincides with the natural frequency of transverse vibration of the
shaft. X/e – approaches infinity i.e., the deflection of geometric centre of the disc tends to
infinity.
• The disk has a tendency to fly out, if the damping is insufficient. There will be severe
vibrations of the shaft thereby producing huge bearings reactions.
• At ω = ωn, the above undesirable effects would occur and therefore ω = ωn = ωc is called
the critical speed of the shaft.

Case (ii): ω < ωc, r < 1

ω <<< ωn, r < 1
∴X/e = is positive. The deflection x and eccentricity ‘e’ are in the same sense. This condition
of disc is referred as “Heavy side outside” i.e.,. The disc rotates with heavy side outside.
Thus C will lie between O and G. Positive sign indicates that X is in phase with CF.

O
·
·
·C
G

Figure 5.14 Disk with Heavy side outside

Case (iii): When ω > ωc, r > 1

ω >>> ωn
X/e = negative, the deflection x and the eccentricity e are in opposite sense. This condition of
the disc is referred as “Heavy side inside”. G falls between O and C. Negative sign indicates
that X is out of phase with CF.

O
·
·G
·
C
Figure 5.15 Disk with Heavy side inside

When ω is very large, ω/ωn = r ∞

G tends to coincide with O. The disc tends to rotate about its mass centre and hence
vibrations are very minimum. This is the principle used for stabilization of aircrafts at high
speeds.

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 51 of 173

5.7.3 Dynamic force transmitted to the bearings.

Fd = KX ωn2 = K/m, K = mωn2 at the critical speed
2
= mω nX
= mω2X, at ω
Note:
1. ω < ωn, r < 1, X/e is positive, Fd = mω2 (X + e)
2. ω > ωn, r > 1, X/e is negative, Fd = mω2 (X – e)
If the shaft is vertical dynamic load on each bearing FB = Fd/2
If the shaft is horizontal dynamic load on each bearing = FB = (mg/2 + Fd/2)

Numerical Examples

Critical speeds with out damping

1. A rotor has a mass of 12 Kg and is mounted midway on a horizontal shaft of 24 mm φ

supported at the ends by two bearings. The bearings are 1 m apart. The shaft rotates at 1200
rpm. The mass centre of the rotor is 0.11 mm away from the geometric centre of the rotor due
to certain manufacturing errors. Determine the amplitude of steady state vibrations and
dynamic force transmitted to the bearings if E = 200 GN/m2.

Solution:
Data:
m = 12 Kgs, l = 1m, d = 24 mm = 0.024 m.
e = 0.11 mm, E = 200*109N/m2

Amplitude of steady state vibrations

X/e = 1/[(ωn/ω)2 – 1] = 1/[(1/r)2 – 1]

Assume the bearings are short. ∴Shaft is simply supported.

I = πd2/64 = 16.3*10-9 = 16.3 * 10-9 m4;
δst = mgl3/48EI = 0.000752 m
ωn = √g /δst = 114.2 rad/sec.
ω = 2πN/60 = 125.66 rad/sec

r = ω/ωn = 125.66/114.2 = 1.1

X/e = - 5.76, e = 0.11 mm

X = - 0.634 mm, Negative sign indicates that the displacement is out of phase with the
centrifugal force.

Dynamic force: Fd = mω2 (X-e) as r > 1

Fd = 12 * (125.66)2 (0.634 – 0.11) * 10-3
Fd = 99.29 N
Total load on each bearing (shaft horizontal)

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 52 of 173

F = = mg/2 + Kd/2 = (12* 9.81)/2 +99.29/2 = 108.5 N

2. A rotor having a mass of 5 Kgs is mounted midway on a 10 mm diameter shaft supported

at the ends by two bearings. The bearing span is 400 mm. Due to certain manufacturing in
accuracies the CG of the disc is 0.02 mm away from the geometric centre of the rotor. If the
system rotates at 3000 rpm determine the amplitude of steady state vibrations and dynamic
force transmitted to the bearings. Neglect damping. Take E = 1.96 * 105 N/mm2

Solution:
K = 72000 N/m
ωn = 120 rad/sec
ω = 100 π rad/sec
X = - 0.0234 mm
Fd = 1.68/2 = 0.84 N on each bearing

3. A shaft of 14 mm φand the length 1.2 m is held in long bearings. It carries a rotor of 16
Kgs at its midspan. The eccentricity of the mass centre of the rotor from the shaft centre is
0.4 mm. The shaft is made of steel for which E = 200 GN/m2 and permissible stress is 70
MPa
Determine the critical speed of the shaft and range of speed over which it is unsafe to run the
shaft. Assume the shaft is mass less, (a) When the shaft is horizontal (b) When the shaft if
vertical.

Data:
m = 16 Kgs, l = 1.2 m, e = 0.0004 m, d = 14 mm = 0.014 m, E = 2*105 MPa
Allowable bending stress: σb = 70 MPa

Solution:

(i) Critical speed

ωc = ωn = √(g/δst)
δst = mgl3/192 EI
(For long bearing: both ends are fixed)
δst = 0.00375 m.
ωn = √(g/ δst) = 51.17 rad/sec
ωn = 2πN/60, ∴N = 489 rpm

∴Critical speed = 489 rpm.

(ii) Range of speed

Bending load:
When the shaft rotates additional dynamic load acts on the shaft which causes additional
deflection and induces bending stress.

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 53 of 173

Bending stress induced:

σb = My/I, = [(Wbl/8) * d/2]/(πd4/64)

Wb = Bending load
d = diameter of shaft, l = span
M = (Wbl/8) = Bending moment (Both ends fixed)
Given allowable bending stress = 70 MPa
Substitute σb = 70 MPa in the above
We get Wb = 125.7N
∴Wb = 125.7N, additional load due to bending
Additional deflection due to this Wb (whirling effect)
δ1 = (Wb/W) * δst
= (125.7/mg) * 0.00375
δ1 = 0.003 m

(ii) (a). Range of speed when the shaft is vertical

When the shaft is vertical

X = δ1 (Static deflection can be neglected)
X = 0.003 m
We have
X= ± e/[(r2 – 1)] = ± e / [(ωn/ω)2-1]
X = ± e /[{(2πNn/60}/{2πN/60)2}-1], But Nn = 489 rpm

0.003 = ± 0.0004/ (489/N)2 – 1

(489/N)2 = ± 0.1333

N = 459 and 525 rpm.

Thus the range of unsafe speed is 459 and 525 rpm. This range is unsafe because the stress
induced exceeds 70N/mm2

(ii) (b) Range of speed when the shaft horizontal

When the shaft is horizontal

x = δst + δ1
= 0.00375 + 0.003
= 0.00675 m
∴ X = ± e/ [(Nn/N)2 – 1]

0.00675 = ± 0.0004/[(489/N)2 – 1]
(489/N)2 –1 = ± 0.059

When + ve sign is considered

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 54 of 173

4892/N2 = 1 + 0.059 = 1.059

N = 475.18 rpm

When – ve sign is considered

4892/N2 = 1 - 0.059 = 0.941

N = 504 rpm

Thus the range of unsafe speed is 475 and 504 rpm. This range is unsafe because the stress
induced exceeds 70N/mm2

4. A shaft of 25 mm diameter is freely supported on bearings 750 mm apart carries a rotor of

20 Kgs, midway between the bearings. Determine the critical speed of the shaft, if the shaft
material has a density of 8000 Kg/m3 and E = 2.1 * 105N/mm2.

Solution:
Data:
d = 25 mm, l = 750, m = 20 kgs, E = 2.1 * 105N/mm2, ρ = 8000 Kg/m3

Critical speed = ωn = √(g/δst)

Considering the weight of the shaft

δst = (Wel3)/48 EI

We = [(W/g + (17/35) ρl) l3]/48EI

= 0.0468 * 10-5m

ωn = 4578 rad/sec, fn = 729 Hz.

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 55 of 173

Session-X (13.5.05) BKS

5.7.4 Critical Speed of a Shaft with a Single Rotor with Damping

In engineering applications, rotors are subjected to air-resistance or structural damping.

However, for analytical purposes, equivalent viscous damping may be considered with a
viscous damping coefficient C and damping ratio ζ.

It has been shown that, in a viscously damper system subjected to forced vibrations the
displacement lags behind the forcing function by an angle φ which is given by
tan φ = 2ξr/(1-r2), r = ω/ωn ξ = damping ratio.

Due to damping the points O, C and G no longer remain collinear and take up the
configuration given below as shown in Figure 5.16. The point C is pulled back due to
damping. Thus the rotor will be in equilibrium under the action of the following forces.
a. Centrifugal force = meω2, due to the eccentricity of mass of the rotor.
b. Spring force = KX.
c. Centrifugal force mXω2 due to whirling.
d. Damping force CωX.

The above forces are shown both in magnitude and direction as given below in Figure 5.16.

meω2 meω2 Sin φ

G meω2

O KX C
. )φ
mXω 2 2
(K -mω )x
)φ
meω2 Cos φ
X
CωX
CωX

Figure 5.16

Resolve these forces in horizontal and vertical direction and for equilibrium.

(K-mω2) X = meω2 Cosφ -- (a)

CωX = meω Sin φ
2
-- (b)
Squaring and adding
(K-mω2)2X2 + (CXω)2 = (meω2)2 (Cos2φ + Sin2φ)
X [(K-mω2)2 + (Cω)2] = (meω2)2
2

∴X = meω2/√[(K-mω2)2 + (Cω)2];
Divide both numerator and denominator by K

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 56 of 173

X/e =[ m/Kω2]/√[(1-m/Kω2)2 + (Cω/K)2], But: K/m = 1/ωn2 C/K = 2ζ/ωn

X/e = r2/ √[(1-r2)2 + (2ζr)2] and tan φ = Cω/(K-mω2) = 2ξr/(1-r2)

These expressions are very much similar to frequency response curve of single DOF system
subjected to harmonic excitation due to rotating unbalance. The frequency response curves
are as shown in Figure 5.17 and 5.18.

ζ=0

ζ = 0.1
X/e ζ = 0.15
ζ = 0.25
ζ = 0.5
ζ = 1.0

r = ω/ ωn

Figure 5.17

ζ = 0.25 ζ=0
ζ = 0.5
ζ = 0.707

ζ = 1.0
Phase Angle, φ, ζ = 2.0

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Discussions Frequency Ratio r = (ω/ωn)

a. When ω<<< ωn, r <<< 1.

tanφ ∞, φ 900
Disc rotates with heavier side outside i.e., G outside C as shown in figure (a)

Gφ
C
O

(a) φ < 90

b. When ω = ωn, r = 1
tanφ ∞, φ 900

G φ
C
O

(b) φ = 90

Resonance occurs: Deflection X is maximum. As damping increases deflection

reduces. Severe lateral vibrations occurs.

c. ω>>>> ωn, r >>> 1

900 < φ < 1800

φ
G C
O

(c) 900 < φ < 1800

Disc rotates with heavy side inside.

d. When φ = 1800

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 58 of 173

Irrespective of amount of damping, the point G approaches O. The system tends to be more
stable and it is the desirable conditions.

φ
G
C
O

(d) φ = 1800

Figure 5.19 shows the phase at different rotational speeds.

Gφ G φ φ φ
G G
C C C C
O O O O

(a) φ < 90 (b) φ = 90 (c) 900 < φ < 1800 (d) φ = 1800

Figure 5.19
Numerical Example

5. A disc of mass 5 kg is mounted midway between two bearings which are 480 mm apart, on
a horizontal steel shaft 9 mm in diameter. The CG of the disc is displaced by 3 mm from its
geometric centre. Equivalent viscous damping at the centre of the disc is 48 Ns/m. If the shaft
rotates at 675 rpm determine (a) the maximum stress in the shaft. (b) What is the power
required to drive the shaft at this speed. (c) Also compare the maximum bending stress with
the dead load stress in the shaft.

Data:
m = 5 kgs, l = 480 mm, d = 9 mm, E = 200 GPa (assumed)
e = 3 mm, C = 48 Ns/m, N = 675 rpm,

Part (a)
ωn = √(g/δst);

δst = Wl3/48EI = 1.79 mm = 1.79 * 10-3m

ωn = √[9.81/1.79*10-3] = 74.03 rad/sec

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 59 of 173

ω = 2πN/60 = 70.686 rad/sec

r = ω/ωn = 0.955

K = mωn2
= 27402.2 N/m
= 27.4 * 103 N/m
C = 48 Ns/m
ζ = C/2mωn = 0.0648

∴X/e = r2/√ [(1 –r2)2 + (2ζ r)2]

X = 15.8 mm = 15.8 * 10-3 m

Dynamic load
Fd = √[(KX)2 + (CωX)2] = 497.56 N

Total bending load = FB = (5 * 9.81) + 497.56 = 546.6 N

Maximum bending stress

σb = (32 M)/πd3, M = Wl/4 (bending moment, simply supported)
W = Fb = 546.6 N

σb = (32546.6480)/π (4) (9)3

= 916.4 N/mm2

Part (b)

T = Torque: Damping force * X

= Damping torque
= (CωX) X = CωX2
= (48*70.686*15.8*10-3) * 15.8*10-3

T = 1.102 Nm

Power = 2πNT/60

N = 675 rpm

P = 77.9 Watts

Part (c)

Bending stress due to dead load.

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 60 of 173

σb = (32 M)/πd3, M = Wl/4 (bending moment, simply supported)

W = mg = 5 * 9.81 = 49.05 N

σb = 82.24 N/mm2
σbmax/σb, dead load = 916.4/82.04 = 11.14

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 61 of 173

Session-XI (17.5.05) BKS

6.Vibrations of Two Degree of Freedom Systems

6.1 Introduction

The modeling method discussed in previous chapters employed only one coordinate to
describe the motion of the system completely. But general mechanical systems require
several degrees of freedom for a meaningful model. Systems modeled with two independent
co-ordinates to describe their motion are called two Degree of Freedom systems.

There are two equations of motion for a two DOF system, one for each mass. They are
generally in the form of coupled differential equations- i.e., each equation involves all the co-
ordinates. If a harmonic solution is assumed for each co-ordinate, the equations of motion
lead to a frequency equation that gives two natural frequencies for the system. If a suitable
initial excitation is given the system vibrates at one of these natural frequencies. During free
vibrations at one of the natural frequencies, the amplitude of two degrees of freedom (co-
ordinates) are related in a specific manner and the configuration is called principal mode, or
normal mode or natural mode of vibration. Thus a two DOF system has two normal modes of
vibration corresponding two natural frequencies.

6.2 Free vibrations of two DOF system:

Consider a two DOF system as shown in Figure 6.1, executing free vibrations. Let an initial
displacement X1 be given to mass m1 and X2 to mass m2. Figure 6.2 shows the corresponding
free body diagram.

X1
K2

X2
K3

Figure 6.1

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 62 of 173

K1 X1 Let X2 > X1
K1 X1

m1
m1
X1
X1
K2 X2 K2 X1
K2 (X2 – X1)

K2 X2
K2 X1
K2 (X2 – X1)

m2
m2
X2
K3 X2 X2
K3 X2

Figure 6.2

Based on Newton’s second law of motion ∑ƒ = mX

For mass m1 ..
..
m1x1 = - K1x1 + K2 (x2-x1)
..
m1x1 + K1x1 – K2 x2 + K2x1 = 0
..
m1x1 + x1 (K1 + K2) = K2x2 ----- (1)

for mass (2)

..
m2x2 = - K3x2 – K2 (x2 – x1)
..
m2x2 + K3 x2 + K2 x2 – K2 x1
..
m2 x2 + x2 (K2 + K3) = K2x1 ----- (2)

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 63 of 173

Let us assume that under steady state conditions the solutions for x1 and x2 be harmonic
therefore, assume x1 = X1 sin ωt, x2 = X2 sin ωt
..x1= - ω2X1 sin ωt, ..x2 = - ω2 X2 sin ωt

Substitute these in (1) and (2)

- m1ω2X1 sin ωt + (K1 + K2) X1 sin ωt = K2 X2 sin ωt
- m2 ω2X2 sin ωt + (K2 + K3) X2 sin ωt = K2 X1 sin ωt.

Removing sin ωt through out and re arranging the terms.

X1/X2 = K2/(K1 + K2 – m1ω2) = [(K2 + K3) – m2ω2]/K2

Cross multiplying

K22 = (K1 + K2 – m1ω2) (K2 + K3 – m2ω2)

On simplification we get
m1m2 ω4 – [m1 (K2 + K3) + m2 (K1 + K2)] ω2
+ [K1K2 + K1K3 + K2K3] = 0

The above equation is quadratic in ω2 and gives two values of ω2 and therefore the two
positive values of ω correspond to the two natural frequencies ωn1 and ωn2 of the system. The
above equation is called frequency equation since the roots of the above equation give the
natural frequencies of the system.

Discussions:
Let K1 = K3 = K
m1 = m2 = m
Then the frequency equation becomes
m2ω4 – 2 m (K + K2) ω2 + (K2 + 2KK2) = 0

Let: ω2 = Ω ∴Ω2 = ω4,

m2 Ω2 – 2 m (K + K2) Ω + (K2 + 2 KK2) = 0

∴m2 Ω2 – 2 m (K + K2) Ω + (K2 + 2KK2) = 0

The roots of the above equation are as follows:

Let a = m2, b = -2 m (K + K2); c = (K2 + 2KK2)

∴Ω1,2 = [- b ± √(b2 – 4ac)]/2a

= [- (-2m) (K + K2) ± √[-2m (K+K2)]2 – 4 (m2) (K2 + 2KK2)]/2m2

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 64 of 173

= [+ 2m (K +K2)]/2m2 ± [√4m2[(K2 + k22 + 2 KK2) – (K2 + 2KK2)]/4m4

= (K+ K2) /m ± √(K22/m2)

= (K +K2) /m ± K2/m

∴Ω2 = (K + 2K2) /m

ωn22 = (K + 2K2) /m ∴ωn2 = √[(K + 2K2) /m]

Ω1 = (K + K2) /m – K2 / m = K/m

ωn12 = K/m

∴ωn1 = √(K/m)

ωn1 is called the first or fundamental frequency or I mode frequency, ωn2 is called the second
or II mode frequency. Thus the number of natural frequencies of a system is equal to the
number of degrees of freedom of system.

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 65 of 173

Session-XII (18.5.05) BKS

Two DOF System (contd.)

Modes Shapes:

From X1/X2 = K2/(K+K2) -mω2 = (K2 + K) - mω2/K2

Substitute ωn1 in any one of the equation.

(X1/X2)ωn1 = K2 / K+ K2 – m . K/m

(X1/X2)ωn1 = 1

(X1/X2)ωn2 = K2 / K + K2 – m(K+ 2K2/m) = K2/-K2 = -1

(X1/X2)ωn2 = -1

The displacements X1 and X2 corresponding to the two natural frequency of the system can
be plotted as shown in Figure 6.3, which describe the mode in which the masses vibrate.
Such a diagram is called principal mode shape of the system. When the system vibrates in
principal mode the masses oscillate in such a manner that they reach maximum
displacements simultaneously and pass through their equilibrium points simultaneously or all
moving parts of the system oscillate in phase with one frequency. Since the ratio X1/X2 is
important rather than the amplitudes themselves, it is customary to assign a unit value of
amplitude to either X1 or X2. When this is done, the principal mode is referred as normal
mode of the system.
m1 m2

K1
X1 X2
m1

K2 I Mode
m1
m2

6.3 Discussion on Natural frequencies and mode shapes:

Observation 1: It can be seen from the figure when the system vibrates in first mode, the
amplitude of two masses remain same. The motion of both the masses are in phase i.e., the
masses move up or down together. When the system vibrates in II mode the displacement of
two masses have the same magnitude with opposite signs. Thus the motions of m1 and m2 are
1800 out of phase.

Observation 2: When the system vibrates in first mode, the length of the middle spring
remains constant, this spring (coupling spring) is neither stretched nor compressed. It moves
bodily with both the masses and hence totally ineffective as shown in Figure 6.4. Even if the
coupling spring is removed the two masses will vibrate as 2 SDOF system with ωn = √(K/m).
Where as when it vibrates in II mode, the midpoint of the middle spring remains stationary
for all the time. Such a point which experiences no vibratory motion is called a node, as
shown in Figure 6.5.

Observation 3: When the two masses are given equal initial displacements in the same
direction and released, they will vibrate in I mode. When they are given equal initial
displacements in opposite direction and released they will vibrate in II mode as shown in
Figures 6.4 and 6.5

K1
K1
K1
m1
X1
m1
X1
K2 m1
K2
K2
m2
X2
m2 X2
m2
K3

K3 K3

Figure 6.4

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 67 of 173

K1
K1
K1
m1
X1
m1
K2 m1
K2
Nod . Nod .
m2
K2

m2 X2
m2

K3 K3 K3

Figure 6.5

If unequal displacements are given in any direction, the motion will be superposition of two
harmonic motions corresponding to the two natural frequencies.

Numerical Example

1. Obtain the frequency equation for the system shown in Figure. Also determine the natural
frequencies and mode shapes when K1 = 2K, K2 = K, m1 = m, m2 = 2m.

K1 X1
K1 X1

K1
m1 m1
X1 X1
m1 K2 (X2 – X1)
X1
K2 X2 K2 X1

K2 K2 (X2 – X1)
K2 X2
K2 X1

m2 m2
X2 m2
X2 X1

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 68 of 173

From
NSL
.. for mass (1)
m1X1 = - K1X1 + K2 (X2 – X1)
.. = - K1X1 + K2 X2 – K2X1
m1X1 + X1 (K1 + K2) = K2 X2 ----- (1)

For..mass (2)
m2X2 = - K2 (X2 – X1)
.. = - K2 X2 + K2 X1
m2 X2 + K2X2 = K2 X1 ----- (2)

ωt X2 = B Sin ωt
..XLet=X-1 ω=2AASin
Sin ωt, X2 = - ω2 B Sin ωt
1

Substitute these in (1) and (2)

-m1ω2 A Sin ωt + (K1 + K2) A Sin ωt = K2 B Sin ωt

A (K1 + K2 – m1ω2) = K2B
A/B = K2 / [(K1 + K2 – m1ω2)] ----- (3)
- m2 ω2B Sinωt + K2B Sin ωt = K2 A Sin ωt
(K2 – m2ω2) B = K2 A
A/B = [K2 – m2ω2] / K2 ----- (4)

Equating (3) and (4)

K2 / (K1 + K2 – m1ω2) = [K2 – m2ω2] /K2

K22 = (K1 + K2 – m1ω2) (K2 – m2ω2)

K22 = (K1 + K2) K2 – m1ω2 K2 – m2ω2 (K1 + K2) + m1 m2ω4

m1 m2 ω4 - ω2 [m1 K2 + m2 (K1 + K2)] + K1 K2 = 0

Put ω2 = Ω

m1 m2 Ω2 – Ω [m1 K2 + m2 (K1 + K2)] + K1K2 = 0

Or
Ω = [[m1 K2 + m2 (K1 + K2)] ± √ [{m1K2 + m2(K1+K2)}2]- 4 m1 m2K1K2]] / 2m1m2

Frequency equation of the system

To determine the natural frequencies

Given K1 = 2 K, K2 = K
m1 = m, m2 = 2m

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 69 of 173

Ω = [mK + 2m (2K +K) ± √[mK + 6mK)2 – 4m 2mK2K]] / 2m . 2m

= [7 mK ± √[(7mK)2 – 4 (4m2K2)]] / 4m2

= [7mK ± √(49m2K2 – 16m2K2] / 4m2

Ω = [7mK ± 5.744 mK] /4m2

Ω1 = ωn12 = [7 mK – 5.744 mK] /4m2 = 1.255 mK /4m2 = 0.3138 K/m

ωn1 = 0.56 √(K/m)

Ω2 = ωn22 = [7mK + 5.744 mK] /4m2 = 3.186 K /m

ωn2 = 1.784 √(K/m)

To determine the mode shapes:

I mode shape: Substituting ωn12 = 0.3138 K/m

A/B = [K2 – m2 ω2] /K2 = [K2 –m2. ωn12]/K2

A/B = (K – 2m.0.3138 K/m)/K = 1-2(0.3138)]

A/B = 0.3724

If A = 1, B = 2.6852

II mode: Substituting ωn22 = 3.186 K/m

A/B = [K2 –m2ωn22] /K2

= (K – 2m. 3.186 K/m) / K = (1 – 3.186 *2) = - 5.372

A/B = - 5.372, if A = 1, B = - 0.186

A =1
. A =1

B = 2.6852

. . . B = -0.186
I Mode

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 70 of 173

2. Determine the natural frequency and the corresponding mode shapes for the system shown
in figure

X1 X2

K1 K2 K3
m1 m2
• • • •

Given K1 = 3K, K2 = 2K, K3 = K

m1= m, m2 = 2m

Free body diagram

X1 X2
K2X1 K2X1
K1X1 K3X2
m1 m2
K2X2 K2X2

K2 (X2 –X1)

K1X1 K2 (X2 –X1) K3X2

ωn1 = √(K/m) ωn2 = √(5.5 K/m)

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 71 of 173

Session-XIII (20.5.05) BKS

Two DOF systems (contd.)

3. Determine the Natural frequencies and ratio of amplitudes of the system shown in Figure.

Solution similar to example No. 1

ωn1 = 0.517 √(K/m) ωn2 = 1.931 √(5.5 K/m)

K
(A/B)ωn1 = 0.731 (A/B)ωn2 = -0.2732

4. Same as above

Given

m1 = 1.5 kg m2 = 0.8 kg
K1
K1 = K2 = 40 N/m

ωn1 = 9.39rad/sec ωn2 = 3.88 rad/sec

m1
(A/B)ωn1 = -0.765 (A/B)ωn2 = 0.696

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 72 of 173

5. Determine the natural frequencies of the system shown in figure. Also determine the ratio
of amplitudes and locate the nodes for each mode of vibration. Assume that the tension ‘T’ in
the string remains unchanged, when the masses are displaced normal to the string.

l l l

m1 m2

m1 T T x1 - x2
T x1 m2 T x2
β
α γ

Masses in displaced position

x1
m1 T sin β
T cos α T cos β
x2
β T m2
T α (x1 - x2) T T cos γ
β
x1 T sin β T cos β
γ T
T sin α
T sin γ

Free body diagram

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 73 of 173

NSL. For mass (1)

..
mx1 = - T Sin α - T Sinβ Sin α = x1/l, Sinβ = x2/l (x1 – x2/l

= - T x1 /l – T (x1-x2)/l = - Tx1/l – Tx1/l + Tx2/l

..1 + 2Tx1/l = Tx2/l
∴mx ----- (a)

NSL. For mass (2)

..2 = - T Sinγ + T Sinβ
mx

= - Tx2/l + T. (x1 –x2)/l

..
∴mx2 + 2Tx2/l = Tx1/l ----- (b)

Let x = A Sin ωt, x = B Sin ωt

..x11 = - ω2 A Sin ωt ..x22 = -ω2 B Sin ωt,

Substitute in (a) and (b)

- m1ω2 A Sin ωt + (2T/l) A Sin ωt = (T/l) B Sin ωt. Removing sin ωt throughout

A [(2T/l) – m1ω2)] = B. (T/l)

∴A/B = (T/l)/ [(2T/l) – m1ω2)] ----- (a1)

Similarly
- m2 ω2. B Sin ωt + (2TB Sin ωt)/l = (T. A Sin ωt)/l

B [(2T/l) – m2ω2)] = A. (T/l)

∴A/B = [(2T/l) – m2ω2)]/T/l ----- (a2)

Equating (a1) and (a2) and cross multiplying

(T/l)/ [(2T-lm1ω2)/l] = [(2T – lm2ω2)/l]/(T/l)

∴T2 = (2T – lm1 ω2) (2T – lm2ω2)

T2 = 4T2 – 2Tlm1ω2 – 2Tlm2ω2 + l2m1m2ω4

∴l2m1m2 ω4 – 2Tl (m1 + m2) ω2 + 3T2 = 0 Frequency Equation

Let Ω = ω2

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 74 of 173

∴l2m1m2 Ω2 – 2Tl (m1 + m2) Ω + 3T2 = 0

Ω1, 2 = [2Tl (m1 + m2) ± √[{2T (m1 + m2)l}2 – 4 l2m1 m2 3T2)] / 2 m1 m2 l2

Let = m1 = m2 = m

∴Ω1.2 = [2Tl (m + m) ± √[2T (2ml)2 – 4l2m2. 3T2)] / 2. m2. l2

= 4mTl ± √[(4mTl)2 – 12 m2 l2 T2] / 2m2l2

On further simplification
Ω1 = ωn12 = T/ml ∴ωn1 = √(T/ml)
Ω2 = ωn = 3T/ml
2
∴ωn2 = √(3T/ml)

Mode Shape:
A/B = (T/l)/[(2T/l) – m1 ω2]

I mode:
A/B = 1 if A = 1, B = +1

II mode:
A/B = -1
A/B = -1 if A = 1, B = -1

m1 m2
(A/B)ωn1 = 1

X1 X2
I Mode

Node
X1
. (A/B)ωn1 = -1

Semi Definite Systems or Degenerate System

Eg: Coupled locomotive

Systems for which one of the natural frequencies is equal to zero are called semi definite
systems.

X1 X2

K
m1 m2
• • • •

FBD:
x2 > x1
X1 X2
KX2 KX2
m1 m2
KX1 KX1

K (X2 –X1)
m1 m2
K (X2 –X1)

Mass (1)
..
∴ m1 x1 = K (x2 –x1)
..
m1 x1 + Kx1 = Kx2 ----- (1)
..
m2 x2 = - K (x2 – x1)
..
m2 x2 + Kx2 = Kx1 ----- (2)

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 76 of 173

Let x = A Sin ωt, x = B Sin ωt

..x11 = - ω2 A Sin ωt ..x22 = - ω2 B Sin ωt,

Substitute in (1) and (2)

m1 (- ω2 A Sin ωt) + K A Sin ωt = K B Sin ωt

Further simplifications leads to

A/B = (K)/ [K – m1 ω2] ----- (3)

m2 (- ω2 B Sin ωt) + K B Sin ωt = K A Sin ωt

Further simplifications leads to

A/B = [K – m2 ω2] / (K) ----- (4)

Cross multiplying and simplifying further

m1 m2 ω4 – K (m1 + m2) ω2 = 0 Frequency equation

ω2 [m1 m2 ω2 – K (m1 + m2)] = 0

Finding the roots we get the natural frequencies

ω1 = ωn1 = 0

ω2 = ωn2 = √[{K(m1 + m2)}/(m1 * m2)]

When one of the roots of the frequency equation is zero, one of the natural frequencies is
zero. Such systems are referred as semi definite systems. The system will move as a rigid
body without any distortion of spring. The amplitudes of two masses are equal. They are also
referred as free-free system.

Mode Shapes: m1 m2
0 0
I mode:
A =1 B =1
(A/B)ωn1 = (K)/ [K – m1 ω2]
I mode
ωn1 = 0

(A/B)ωn1 = 1

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 77 of 173

II mode:
0 m1
(A/B)ωn2 = (K)/ [K – m1 ω ]2
A=1

ωn2 = √[{K(m1 + m2)}/(m1 * m2)]

Node
. B=-1

II mode 0 m2
if m1 = m2 =m
Then

(A/B)ωn2 = -1

6. Determine the natural frequency and mode shapes of the system shown in Figure. Given
m1 = 10 kgs, m2 = 15 kgs, K = 320 N/m

X1 X2

K
m1 m2
• • • •

Solution: It is a free –free system

Free body diagram

x2 > x1
X1 X2
KX2 KX2
m1 m2
KX1 KX1

K (X2 –X1)
m1 m2
K (X2 –X1)
Frequencies

∴ωn1 = 0

ωn2 = √[K (m1 + m2)/(m1 * m2)]

ωn2 = √[{320(10 + 15)}/ (10*15)]

= 7.30 rad/sec

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 78 of 173

Mode Shapes

I mode

(A1/A2)ωn1 = 1.0, if A = 1, B = 1
m1 m2
0 0
A =1 B =1

I mode

II mode

(A1/A2)ωn2 = (K)/[K – m1ωn22]

= 320 / [320 – 10 * (7.30)2]

= - 1.49
if A = 1, B = -0.671

0 m1
A=1

Node
. B = - 0.671
0 m2
II mode

7. An electric train made of two cars each of mass 2000 kgs is connected by couplings of
stiffness equal to 40 * 106 N/m. Determine the natural frequency of the system.

m1
m2

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Coupled Cars

Solution: This is an example similar to problem No. 6 only the answer are given here.
Given m1 =m2 = 2000 kgs. K = 40* 106 N/m

ωn1 = 0

ωn2 = √(2K/m)
= √(2*40*106) /2000

ωn2 = 200 rad/sec

Analysis of Two DOF Torsional Systems

Figure above shows a two rotor system which can be represented as follows.

Kt
J1 J2

Free body diagram is as given below.

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θ2
θ1

Kt θ2 Kt θ1

J1 J2

Kt θ2
Kt θ1

θ1
θ2

Kt (θ1 - θ2)

θ2

θ1 Kt (θ1 - θ2)
Kt (θ1 - θ2)

θ1 and θ2 in CCW direction looking from left.

NSL for Rotor (1)

..
J1 θ
..1 = - Kt (θ1 - θ2)
J1 θ1 + Kt θ1 = Kt θ2 ----- (1)

For rotor (2)

..
J2 θ2 = + Kt (θ1 - θ2)
..
J2 θ2 = + Kt θ1 – Kt θ2
..
J2 θ2 + Kt θ2 = Kt θ1 ----- (2)

Let,

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..θθ1 == A sin ωt,

- ω2 A sin ωt,
..θθ2 == B- Bω
sin ωt
2
sin ωt
1 2
Substituting the above in 1 and 2 and simplifying we get the amplitude ratios and frequency
equation as follows.

A/B = Kt/[Kt – J1ω2] ----- (a1)

A/B = [Kt – J2ω2] / Kt ----- (a2)

Frequency equation

J1 J2 ω4 – (J1 + J2) Kt ω2 = 0

ω2[J1J2ω2 – (J1 + J2) Kt] = 0

∴ω2 = 0, ωn1 = 0

and or

J1 J2 ω2 – (J1 + J2) Kt = 0

ωn22 = [(J1 + J2) Kt] /J1 * J2

ωn2 = √[{(J1 + J2) Kt}/ J1 *J2]

8. Determine the natural frequency of Torsional vibrations of a shaft with two circular disks
of uniform thickness at its ends. The masses of the discs are m1 = 500 kgs and m2 = 1000 kgs
and their outer diameter D1 = 125 cm and D2 = 190 cm. The length of the shaft is 3 m and its
diameter = 10 cm. Modulus of rigidity for shaft material of the shaft G = 0.83 * 1011 N/m2

Also determine in what proportion the natural frequency of the shaft gets changed if along
half the length of the shaft the diameter is increased from 10 cm to 20 cm.

Solution:
Part (1) For free body diagram and expression for frequencies refer previous discussion.

m1 = 500 kg m2 = 1000 kg
D1 = 1.25 m D2 = 1.9 m
l = 3.00 m
d = 0.10 m
G = 0.83 * 1011 N/m2

Two rotor system is a semi definite system whose natural frequency is given by
ωn1 = 0
ωn2 = √[{(J1 + J2) Kt}/ J1 *J2]

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ωn = √[Kt(J1 +J2)/J1J2]

J1 = ½ m1 R12 = 98 kg – m2, J2 = ½ m2 R22 = 453 kgm2

Kt = GIp/l = [0.83 * 1011 / 3.00] *[π (d4)/ 32] = 2.725 * 105 N-m/ rad

ωn2 = 58.1 rad/sec

Part (2): Since the diameters are different along the length equivalent stiffness is to be
determined as follows.

J1 J2
Kt1 Kt2

Kte

J1 J2

Equivalent System

Given,
d1 = 10 cm, d2 = 20 cm, l1 = l2 = 1.5 m

∴1/Kte = 1/Kt1 + 1/Kt2

Kte = 5.13 * 105 N-m/rad

ωn2 = 79.597 rad/sec

∴Hence there is 37% increase in the natural frequency of the system.

9. Determine the frequency equation, natural frequency and mode shapes for a double
pendulum shown in figure.

Given m1 = m2

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l1 = l2 = l

Free body diagram

l1
θ1

T1 m1
T2
l2
θ2 m2
T2
x1 m1g
x2
m2g

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T1
T1Cos θ1

θ1
T2Sin θ2
T1Sin θ1
θ2 T2 T2Cos θ2
T2
m1g θ2

T2Cos θ2 T2Sin θ2

m2g
Considering only the oscillation

Applying NSL for mass (1)

..
m1 x1 = - T1 sin θ1 + T2 sin θ2
..
..1 = lθ1, x2 = lθ1 + lθ2
but x1 =lθ1 ∴x
..x2 = lθ..1 + lθ
..
2

..
m1 lθ1 = - T1 sin θ1 + T2 sin θ2 ----- (a)

At mass (1) T1 cosθ1 = mg + T2 cosθ2 ----- (1)

At mass (2) T2 cosθ2 = mg

θ2 being very small cosθ = 1

T2 = mg ----- (2)

∴T1 = mg + mg

T1 = 2mg ----- (3)

∴mlθ1 = - 2 mg sin θ1 + mg sin θ2

..
lθ1 + 2gθ1 - gθ2 =0 ----- (b)

Similarly for mass (2)

..2
mx = - T2 sin θ2 T2 cos θ2 = m2 g, T2 = mg

= - mg sin θ2 = - mgθ2
.. ..
ml (θ1 + θ2) + mg θ2 = 0
.. ..
lθ1 + lθ2 + gθ2 = 0 ----- (c)

Equations (b) and (c) represent GDE

Let θ1 = A sin ωt θ2 = B sin ωt

.. ..
θ1 = - ω2 A sin ωt, θ2 = - B ω2 sin ωt

Substitute in (b) and (c)

- lω2 A sin ωt + 2 g A sin ωt – g B sin ωt = 0

A (2g - lω2) = Bg

A/B = g/[2g-lω2] ----- (b1)

-lω2 A sin ωt - lω2 B sin ωt = - g B sin ωl

A/B = (lω2 – g)/lω2

A/B = [g - lω2] / lω2 ----- (c1)

Equating b1 and c1 and cross multiplying we get frequency equation.

l2ω4 – 4glω2 + 2g2 = 0 frequency equation

Let
Ω = ω2

∴l2 Ω2 – 4glΩ + 2g2 = 0

The roots are

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Ω1 = 0.5857 g/l = ωn12

ωn1 = 0.7655 √(g/l)

Ω2 = ωn22 = 3.414 g/l

∴Ω2 = ωn2 = 1.847 √(g/l)

Mode shapes

I mode

(A/B)ωn1 = g /[2g - lωn12] = 1/1.4143

A/B = 1/1.4143 ∴A = 1, B = + 1.4143

II mode

(A/B)ωn2 = g /[2g - lωn22] = 1/-1.4143

A = 1, B = -1.414

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Session- ()CSM –Ch-1

1.INTRODUCTION
1.1 The study of vibration

A body is said to vibrate if it has periodic motion. Mechanical vibration is the study of
oscillatory motions of bodies. Vibrations are harmful for engineering systems. Some times
vibrations can be useful. For example, vibratory compactors are used for compacting
concrete during construction work. Excessive vibration causes discomfort to human beings,
damage to machines and buildings and wear of machine parts such as bearings and gears.
The study of vibrations is important to aeronautical, mechanical and civil engineers. It is
necessary for a design engineer to have a sound knowledge of vibrations. The object of the
sixth semester course on mechanical vibrations is to discuss the basic concepts of vibration
with their applications. The syllabus covers fundamentals of vibration, undamped and
damped single degree of freedom systems, multidegrees of freedom systems and continuous
systems.

1.2 Examples of vibration

1.Beating of heart
2. Lungs oscillate in the process of breathing
3. Walking- Oscillation of legs and hands
4. Shivering- Oscillation of body in extreme cold
5. Speaking - Ear receives Vibrations to transmit message to brain
6. Vibration of atoms
7. Mechanical Vibrations

1.3 Classification of vibrations

One method of classifying mechanical vibrations is based on degrees of freedom. The

number of degrees of freedom for a system is the number of kinematically independent
variables necessary to completely descibe the motion of every particle in the system. Based
on degrees of freedom, we can classify mechanical vibrations as follows:
1.Single Degree of freedom Systems
2.Two Degrees of freedom Systems
3.Multidegree of freedom Systems
4.Continuous Systems or systems with infinite degrees of freedom

Another broad classification of vibrations is:

1. Free and forced vibrations
2. Damped and undamped vibrations.

Sometime vibration problems are classified as:

1.Linear vibrations
2. Non-linear vibrations
3. Random vibrations
4.Transient vibrations

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A system is linear if its motion is governed by linear differential equations. A system is

nonlinear if its motion is governed by nonlinear differential equations. If the excitation force
is known at all times, the excitation is said to be deterministic. If the excitation force is
unknown, but averages and standard derivations are known,the excitation is said to be
random. In this case the resulting vibrations are also random. Some times systems are
subjected to short duration nonperiodic forces. The resulting vibrations are called transient
vibrations. One example of a nonperiodic short duration excitation is the ground motion in an
earthquake

The main causes of vibrations are:

1. Bad design
2. Unbalanced inertia forces
3. Poor quality of manufacture
4. Improper bearings (Due to wear & tear or bad quality)
5. Worn out gear teeth
6. External excitation applied on the system

The effects of vibrations are as follows:

1. Unwanted noise
2. Early failure due to cyclical stress(fatigue failure)
3. Increased wear
4. Poor quality product
5. Difficult to sell a product
6. Vibrations in machine tools can lead to improper machining of parts

1.4 Basic terms associated with vibrations

FREE VIBRATIONS
Vibrations under free or natural conditions. No disturbing forces.

Example: - Simple Pendulum

Fig 1.1 (a) Simple pendulum

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FORCED VIBRATIONS

Vibration due to impressed disturbing force

Examples
1.Electric bell-clipper oscillation under electromagnetic force.
2.I.C Engines-vibrations due to unbalanced inertia forces

DEGREES OF FREEDOM

m1 m1

m1 m2 m2

Single D.O.F Two D.O.F

m3
Fig 1.1 (a) Fig 1.1(b)
Three D.O.F
Fig 1.1( c)

Cantilever Beam

Continuous system

Infinite Degrees of Freedom

Fig 1.1( d )

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1.5 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (S H M)

The oscillations of the mass shown in fig 1.1 (a) are described as simple harmonic motion. .
Simple harmonic motion is represented graphically in fig 1.2

X-Displacement
X A-amplitude
A T-Periodic Time
t f-Frequency
f=1/T
ω=Frequency in radians per
second
t= time

ωA
x t

ω ²A
t
X
X= A sin ωt

Fig 1.2 SHM

Simple harmonic motion is characterized by periodic oscillation about the equilibrium

position. Each oscillation is one cycle. For S.H.M the time taken to execute one cycle, the
period, is constant. The frequency of motion is the number of cycles executed in a fixed
period of time, usually 1 second. The amplitude, the maximum displacement from
equilibrium position, is also constant in S.H.M.

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.
X=Velocity
= A ω cos ωt
=A ω sin ( ωt + π /2 )

..
X=Acceleration
= - ω² A sin ωt
= ω² A sin (ωt + π )
= -ω² x

PROPERTIES OF OSCILLATORY MOTION

Peak value- Indicates space requirement.

An indication of maximum stress in the vibrating part
Average Value - Average value for complete sine wave is zero

For half sine wave X = 2A / π

A-Amplitude
Mean square value - For sine wave X² =1/2 A²

RMS Value = A /√ 2

Problem 1
The frequency of Vibrations of a machine is 150 Hz. Determine a) Its frequency in rad/sec.
b)Time Period of oscillations. If the amplitude of vibrations is 0.8 mm, determine the
acceleration
a) In m/s² b) In terms of g
Solution:
Given f = 150 Hz , A= 0.8 mm w= ? T=?
a = ? (in m/s²) a = ? (in terms of g)
w=2 π f = 2 π (150) = 942 Rad/sec
T= 1/f=1/150= 0.0066 sec = 6.66 milli seconds
x = A sin (ω t +Φ )
= 0.8 sin ( 942 t + Φ )
.
x = 0.8 (942) cos (942 t +Φ )
.x.= - 0.8 (942)2 Sin (942 t + Φ)
a = (x ) max = 0.8 (942)2 mm/s2
= 710.61 m/s2
= 710.61/9.81= 72.43 g
Problem 2.

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A body suspended from a spring vibrates vertically up and down between two positions 3
and 5 cms above the ground. During each second it reaches the top position (5 cms above
ground) 15 times. Find the time period, frequency, circular frequency and amplitude of
motion.
Solution:

Amplitude = (5-3)/2 =1 cm.

f = Frequency =15 cps
T = Period = 1/15 Sec

5
ω = Circular Frequency
ω = 2 π f = 2 π (15) =30 π rad/sec
3
3

1.6 Addition of harmonic motions of same frequency

x1= A1 Sin ωt
x2 = A2 Sin (ωt + Φ)
X = x1+ x2 = A1 Sin ωt + A2 Sin (ωt + Φ)
X = Sin ωt (A1+ A2 Cos Φ ) + Cos ωt (A2 Sin Φ)
Let A1+ A2 Cos Φ = A Cos θ -------- 1
A2 Sin Φ = A Sin θ -------- 2
X = Sin ωt (A Cos θ) + Cos ωt (A Sin θ )
X= A Sin (ωt + θ)

A2 (Sin2 θ+ Cos2 θ ) = (A1 + A2 Cos Φ)2 + (A2 Sin Φ)2

A = √ A12 + A22 + 2 A1 A2 Cos Φ)

From equations 1 and 2 we also get
Tan θ = A2 Sin Φ/ (A1 + A2 Cos Φ)

Graphical Method for addition of two harmonic motions

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θ
φφ A1

ωt

SUM OF HARMONIC
MOTIONS

Sum of two harmonic motions of

Same frequency but slightly different frequencies and
different phase same amplitude
angles

Beats

Is also a harmonic
motion of the Continuous build up
same frequency and decrease in
amplitude

1.7 BEATS
The phenomenon of beats occurs when two harmonic motions of slightly different
frequencies and same amplitude are added. When the two harmonic motions are in the same
phase, the resultant amplitude will be maximum. On the other hand, when the two motions
are out of phase, they will provide minimum amplitude vibration.

Let X1 = A Sin ω1t

X2 = A Sin ω2t
X = X1+ X2 =A Sin ω1t + A Sin ω2t
= 2 A Sin (ω1+ ω2)t Cos (ω1- ω2)t
X = Sin [(ω1+ ω2)t ]/2 When B= 2 A Cos [(ω1- ω2)t]/2

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The Frequency of beats is (ω1- ω2)/2 π Hz

Amplitude

Graphical representation of Beats

1.8 Fourier series analysis

Forces acting on machines are generally periodic but this may not be harmonic for example
the excitation force in a punching machine is periodic and it can be represented as shown in
figure 1.3. Vibration analysis of system subjected to periodic but nonharmonic forces can be
done with the help of Fourier series. The problem becomes a multifrequency excitation
problem. The principle of linear superposition is applied and the total response is the sum of
the response due to each of the individual frequency term.

Example :- Excitation force is periodic

Force

5000 N

0.2 0.5 0.7 1 1.2

Time in sec

Force Developed during punching operation

With the help of Fourier series vibration analysis of such problems can be done

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Fourier Series

∞
X(t)= ao/2 + ∑ (an cos nωt) + bn sin nωt)
n=1

ω= 2 π / T = Fundamental frequency
ao, a1,a2,……b1,b2….. are coefficients of infinite series
(a1cos ωt+ b1sin ωt) is First Harmonic
2π/ω
2π/ω
ao= ω/ π ∫ an= ω/ π
o
x(t) dt ,
o
∫ x (t) cos (nωt)dt

2π/ω

∫
bn= ω/ π x(t) sin(nωt)dt
o

Problem 1.

Develop the Fourier Series for the curve shown in figure

The function is defined as y=x (t) - π < t < π

X(t)= ao/2+ a1cos ωt+ a2 cos 2ωt + ……+ b1Sin ωt+ b2 Sin 2ωt + ……
The equation for the curve for one cycle
for AB , X(t)= t - π<t< π
ω= 2π / T = 2 π / 2 π = 1
π
ao= 1/ π
∫ tdt =0
-π

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∫
-π
an= 1/ p t cos nt dt = 0

The graph is symmetrical about the origin and the function is odd
ao= an = 0
π
bn= 1/ π
∫
-π
t sin nt dt

= - (2/n) Cos n π = (2/n) (-1) n+1

X(t) = (2/1)(-1)2 Sin ωt +(2/2) (-1)3 Sin 2ωt + …

X(t) = 2 ( Sin ωt – (Sin 2 ωt)/2 + (Sin 3ωt) /3 -... )
= 2 (Sin t –(Sin2t) / 2 + (Sin 3t) / 3 - ……)

The first four harmonics of the series are 2Sint, - Sin 2t ,(2/3) Sin 3t, - (1/2) Sin 4t

They are plotted as numberd curves in the figure. The sum of the first four harmonies is
y = x(t) = 2 Sin t – Sin 2t + (2/3) Sin 3t– (1/2)sin 4t

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Since this is a partial sum of the Fourier series, it may be expected to approximate the
function x. The sum of the four terms is shown in figure

Problem:
Find the Fourier series of the periodic function shown in figure

f(x)

x
-2π -π 0 π 2π

f(x)=0 if - π ≤ x ≤ 0
f(x)= π if 0 ≤ x ≤ π
0

a0 =1/π ∫
-π
( 0 dx + π dx ) = π

0
πCos nx dx n≥1
an = 1/π
∫
-π
=0

π
bn=1/π
0
∫ π sin nx dx = 1/n(1-cosnπ)

The factor (1-cos n π) assumes the following values as n increases

n 1 2 3 4 5 ……

(1-cos nπ) 2 0 2 0 2 ……

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f(x) = π/2 + 2sin x +(2/3)sin3x + (2/5)sin 5x +…..

= /2 + 2 ( (sin x)/1 + (sin 3x)/3 +(sin 5x)5 +...

1.Shows sum of one term i.e y= π/2

2.Shows sum of two terms i.e y= π/2 + 2 sin x
3.Shows sum of three terms i.e y= π/2 + 2(sin x +(1/3) sin x )

1.9 SOLVING A VIBRATION PROBLEM

The following steps are involved in solving a vibration problem

1. Problem Identification
2. Mathematical modeling
3. Setting up the differential equation of motion
4. Interpretation of results

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Session- ()CSM –Ch-2

2. UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATION

2.1 Introduction

Free vibrations are oscillations about a systems equilibrium position that occur in the absence
of an external excitation force. If during vibrations there is no loss of energy, it is known as
undamped vibration.
The first step in solving a vibration problem is setting up the differential equation of motion.
The three approaches to setting up differential equation of motion are as follows

SETTING UP THE EQUATION OF MOTION

1.Use D’Alembert’s Principle

..
∑ Forces -m x = 0

..
∑ Torques - I θ = 0

m = Mass x = Displacement

..
m x = Inertia Force, θ = Angular Displacement
I = Mass Moment of Inertia,
..
I θ = Inertia Torque

D’Alembert’s Principle states that the resultant of all forces acting on a body along with the
inertia force is equal to zero. For a rotational system we have to consider torques instead of
forces. Using D’Alembert’s Principle we can setup the differential equation of motion.
Alternatively, we can get the differential equation of motion by applying Newton’s second
law of motion. The third approach to setting up the equation of motion is to apply energy
method.

2.2 Spring mass system

Fig 2.1 shows a one degree of freedom simple spring mass system. It represents several
practical systems. Free vibrations of a system with a single degree of freedom is one of the
most important topics. In fig 2.1 the co-ordinate x is used to describe the position of the
mass. The mass and spring are the basic building blocks for vibrational analysis. Spring
stiffness is defined as the force required to elongate or compress the spring by unit length.
The differential equation of the spring mass system is set up by considering all the forces and
applying D’Alembert’s Principle

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Spring mass system represents several practical systems

Examples:
1. Machine mounted on isolators
2. Mass m attached to the end of a cantilever beam

m K

K-Spring stiffness in N/m m

m-Mass in Kg

Kδ

mg
Free body diagram x
mg
.. Kδ
mx Figure 2.1
Kx

..
m x = Inertia Force
Kx = Spring Force, δ = Static deflection of spring
K δ = Force due to static deflection
mg = Gravitational pull

..
m x + Kx + K δ - mg = 0

..
m x + Kx = 0

Linear homogeneous second order differential equation

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X=A sin ωn t + B cos ωn t

= C sin (ωn t +φ )

ωn= √ K /m
= Natural Frequency of vibrations

This is the only frequency with which the system vibrates when disturbed and let free. The
natural frequency is a characteristic property of the vibrating system. The amplitude of
oscillations C and the phase angle Φ can be determined by applying the initial conditions.

Problem

A small Pelton wheel rotating at 1500 rpm has a rotor of mass 10 Kg mounted at the centre
of a steel shaft which has a span of 0.4 m between bearings. What should be the diameter of
the shaft , so that the transverse natural frequency is 50 percent higher than the running
speed? Assume E for steel as 2x1011 pa.

Rotor

Steel shaft

0.4 m

Equivalent system

K= Equivalent stiffness
m = Mass of rotor
δ = Deflection at centre
= Wl3/ 48EI
K K=W/ δ = 48EI / l3
E=Modulus of Elasticity
= 2x1011 Pa

m
I = π d4/64
K = (48x2x1011 x π d4)/ (0.43x64)
= 3.68x1012 d4 N/m

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ωn= √ K/m = √ (3.68x1012xd4)/10 ----1

But ωn = (1.5x1500x2 π)/60 Rad/sec---2

Equating 1 & 2
d= 0.0197 m= 1.97 Cm

2.3 NATURAL FREQUENCY IN TERMS OF STATIC DEFLECTION

The figure2.2 shows how a spring elongated by δ when a mass is placed at the end of a
spring. δ is known as static deflection. The natural frequency of vibration can be expressed in
terms of static deflection as shown below

δ = Static deflection
K= mg / δ

K K ωn= √ K/m = √ (mg) / (δ m )

δ ωn= √ g / δ

Fig 2.2

2.4 EQUIVALENT STIFFNESS OF SPRINGS IN PARALLEL

K1 K2 Ke

m m
x
F
Fig 2.3

F= Force applied x = Elongation of spring

F= K1x + K2x = x(K1+ K2)
Ke=F/x = K1+ K2 = Equivalent stiffness

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SPRINGS IN SERIES

F= Applied Force
1 K1 x1= Elongation of Spring 1
x2= Elongation of Spring 2
x= x + x2 = F/K1 + F/K2
2 K2 = F(1/K1 +1/K2)
x = F( (K1+K2)/ (K1 K2))
Ke= Equivalent Stiffness
= F/x = ((K1 K2)/ (K1+K2))
F
2.5 ROTATIONAL SYSTEMS

In the case of rotational systems,the differential equation of motion is obtained by adding the
inertia torque to the sum of external torque and equating the sum to zero

∑ External Torques + Inertial Torque = 0

Compound Pendulum

O is Point of Suspension
h is distance from O to G
G is Centre of Gravity
I is M.I about O
= mk2 + mh2, m is mass of the pendulum
K is Radius of Gyration
θ is angular displacement
Restoring Torque = hW sinθ CW
..
Inertia Torque = I θ CW

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Reference Point for taking torques is O

..
I θ + h mg sinθ = θ
For small amplitude oscillation sin θ ≈ θ

..
I θ + mgh θ = 0

ωn = √ mgh / I = √gh /( k2 + h2 )

Problem

The mass of the slender uniform rod shown in the figure is small compared to the mass
attached to it. For small oscillations, calculate the natural Frequency of vibrations of the mass

Ka θ

F.B.D θ
mg

..
∑Mo +I0 θ = 0

..
m l2 θ +Ka θ a cos θ + mg sin θ x l = 0

For small θ, cos θ ≈1 & sin θ ≈ θ

..
θ + (Ka2 θ +mgl θ)/ml2 = 0

..
θ + ((Ka2 +mgl)/ml2) θ = 0

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ωn = √ (Ka2 +mgl)/ ml2

Problem

A connecting rod of mass 2Kg oscillates 53 times in 1minute when suspended as shown in
fig. Determine its moment of inertia about its centre of gravity, which is located 25 cm from
the point of support

m = 2 Kg, fn= 53 cpm,

ωn= 2πfn = (2 π 53 )/60 = 5.55 rad/sec

ωn= √ (gh)/(K2+h2)

5.55 = √ ( (9.81x 0.25)/(K2 + 0.252)

K2 = 0.017126

I G = m K2 = 2x 0.017126

= 0.034252 Kg m2

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Problem

Determine the effective mass at a point o of a uniform rod of mass m and length l pivoted at a
distance nl from o as shown in figure.

nl A
O

IA θ
A
θ
X θ
R

Knl θ
Free body diagram
Treated as rotational system
Inertia torque + ∑ External torque = 0

..
IA θ +Knl θ (nl) = 0

IA= Mass M.I. about A

= ml2/12 + m (l/2-nl)2 = ml2/3(3n2-3n +1)
x= nl θ
.. ..
θ = x / nl

..
x IA / (n2l2) + Kx = 0

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..
Equivalent system me x + K x = 0 me
me= Effective mass at 0
me= IA/( n2l2)
= ml2 (3n2-3n +1)/ (3n2l2) K
me= m ((3n2-3n +1)/3n2)

Problem

The contour of a bumpy road is approximated as y(x) = 0.03 sin(0.125x) mts.

What is the amplitude of vertical acceleration of the wheels of an automobile as it travels
over the road at a constant horizontal speed of 40 m/s ?

y Bumpy road

A
x

50.26

Body

Wheels

y(x) = 0.03 sin(0.125x) mts.

A = Amplitude = 0.03 m
sin(0.125x) = 0
for x = 0
0.125x = 2π

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x = 2π/0.125 = 50.26 m
T = Periodic time = 50.26/40 = 1.256 sec.
ω = 2π/T = 2π/1.256 = 5.002 rad/sec

y = ASin ωt
.

y= Aω Cosωt

..
y = - ω2 A Sinωt

Maximum vertical acceleration of wheels

= ω2A
= (5.002)2 (0.03)
= 0.75 m/s2

2.6 ENERGY METHOD

The differential equation of motion can also be derived using energy method. In a
conservative system the total energy is constant. In a vibrating system the energy is partly
potential and partly kinetic.

For a conservative system

Total energy = Constant
T + U = Constant
T = Kinetic Energy
U = Potential Energy K

x
.
T=mx2/2

= Energy stored in the spring

=
0
∫( Spring force) dx - mgx
x

= ( mg + Kx) dx – mgx

= mgx + Kx2 /2 – mgx = Kx2 /2

d/dt (T + U) = 0

.
d/dt (m x2 /2 + Kx2/2 ) = 0

..
mx +Kx=0

2.6.1 RAYLEIGH’S METHOD

Rayleigh’s method is also an energy approach to solving vibration problems. In this method
we equate the maximum kinetic energy at one extreme position to the maximum potential
energy at another extreme position. The motion is assumed to be simple harmonic and the
natural frequency is obtained as indicated below.

Total Energy of the system = ( K.E)max = ( P.E)max

x
x= A Sin ωt x = A ω Cos ωt
..
(x)max = A ( x)max = A w

.
( K.E)max = m x2max /2 = m(A ω)2/2
( P.E)max = Kx2 max /2 = K A2 /2

m(A ω)2/2 = K A2 /2
m ω2 = K

ω = √ K/m rad/sec

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2.7 EFFECT OF MASS OF SPRING

ρ = Mass per unit length of spring

K.E. of the system = K.E of mass + K.E of spring
. 1 .
K.E. of the system = mx2 /2+
0
∫ (ρ dy)(y x /l )2 /2
. . 1

= m x 2 /2+( ρ x / 2l2 )
0
∫ (y dy)
2

. .
= m x2 /2+( ρ x2 / 2l2 )(y3/3) l
0

. .
= m x2 /2+( ρ l3/ 6l2) x2
.
= (m + ρ l/3)x 2 / 2

Total Energy= K.E + P.E

.
= (m + ρ l/3) x2 / 2 +Kx2 /2

d/dt( K.E + P.E ) =0

. ..
2/2(m+ ρ l/3) x x + 2/2 K x x =0

.
(m+ ρ l/3) x + Kx = 0

ωn= √ K / (m + ρl /3)
ρ l =Mass of Spring

2.8. Problems

U Tube Problem

ρ = Density of liquid, A= Cross sectional Area of tube, l= Length of liquid column in tube

. .
K.E = m x 2 /2 = (lA ρ) x2 /2

P.E = (ρA x)gx = ρ A g x2

d/dt[ K.E + P.E ] = 0

.
d/dt [ (lA ρ) x 2 /2+ ρ A g x2] = 0

. .. .
lA ρ x x+2ρgx x =0

..
lx+2gx=0

ωn = √ (2g/l) rad/sec

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Problem

A circular cylinder of mass m and radius r is connected by a spring of stiffness K as shown in

figure. If it is free to roll on the rough surface which is horizontal without slipping, find its
natural frequency

Let m = Mass of the cylinder

I = Mass M.I of cylinder = mr2/2
x= Linear displacement of cylinder
θ = Angular motion of cylinder
x=rθ

Total Energy of the system = K.E of translation +K.E of rotation + P.E

. .
= m x2/2 + I θ 2 /2 + K x2 /2

. .
= m(r θ )2 /2 + I θ2 /2 + K (r θ)2 /2

. .
=mr 2 θ2 /2+ I θ 2 /2+ K r2 θ2/2

d/dt( K.E + P.E) = 0

. .. . .. .
mr2 (2 θ θ )/2 + I (2 θ θ) /2+ K r2 (2 θ θ)/2 =0

.. ..
mr2 θ +I θ + Kr2 θ = 0
..
(mr 2
+ mr /2) θ + Κ r 2 θ = 0
2

ωn = √ 2K / 3m Rad/sec

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Contents
1. Introduction
2. Methods of Obtaining Governing equations
3. Equations in Matrix Form
4. Influence Coefficients
5. Methods of Finding Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes

8.1. Introduction
8.1.1. Definition: - The number of degrees of freedom of any structural system is the number
of kinematically independent coordinates required to describe the motion of every particle
that constitute the system. It is determined by the number of inertial elements and the number
of coordinates required to describe the motion of each inertial element.
Examples of M-D-F Systems

θ
y
Inertial element

Fig.8.1 (a): Two-degree-of freedom system with one inertial element and two independent coordinates y and
θfor one inertial element.

y
k1 k2 y
m1 m2

Fig. 8.1(b) : Two degree-of-freedom system with two inertial elements each having independent coordinate y1
and y2 to describe their motion.

8.2. GoverningEquations
1. Force-Balance Method and Moment Balance Method
2. Energy Method (Lagrange’s Equations)
Note: - We restrict our discussion only to the force-balance method/moment balance method
for obtaining the equations of motion of the given sys0\tem

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Force Balance Method

This method is nothing but the application of D’Alembert’s principle for rectilinear motion
(Eg. Linear Spring-Mass Systems). It states that for dynamic equiibrium, the algebraic sum
of all the forces including the inertia forces is equal to zero.
Moment Balance Method
This method is the application of D’Alembert’s principle for angular motion (Eg. Torsional
Systems), which states that for dynamic equilibrium, the algebraic sum of all the moments
including the inertial moment about any point in the system is equal to zero.
Note: - Certain systems can have both rectilinear and angular motions. For such systems both
the methods have to be used to get the required equations of motion

Equations for ALinear Spring-Mass-Damper System

Force balance for m1 gives the following equation :
m1ÿ1 + k1y1 + k2(y1 – y2) + c1ý1 +c2(ý1 – ý2) = F1(t) …………….[8.1(a)]
Force balance for m2 gives the following equation:
m2ÿ2 – k2(y1 – y2) + k3y2 –c2(ý1 – ý2) + c3ý2 = F2(t) …………..[8.1(b)]

8.3. Equations In Matrix Form

The two equations 8.1(a) and 8.1(b) can be written in matrix form as shown below.
Equation 8.2 is normally written in short form as [mij]{ÿi}
+ [cij]{ýi} + [kij]{yi} = {Fi(t)} …………..(8.3)

m1 0 (c1 + c2) −c2

Where [mij] ; [cij] =
0 m2 −c2 (c2 + c3)

(k1 + k2) − k2 ÿ1 ý1
[kij] = −k2 (k2 + k3) ; {ÿi} = ;{ýi}=
ÿ2 ý2

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m1 0 (c1 + c2) −c2

Where [mij] ; [cij] =
0 m2 −c2 (c2 + c3)

(k1 + k2) − k2 ÿ1 ý1
[kij] = −k2 (k2 + k3) ; {ÿi} = ;{ýi}=
ÿ2 ý2

Governing Equations (contd)

The matrix [mij] is called the mass matrix, the matrix [cij] Is called the damping matrix, the
matrix [kij] is called the stiffness matrix. The column vector {yi} is called the displacement
vector, {ýi} is called the velocity vector, and {ÿi} is called the acceleration vector. The mass
matrix, the damping matrix and the stiffness matrix are symmetric matrices. A matrix [aij] is
called a symmetric matrix if it is a square matrix with aij = aji. The off-diagonal elements of
the mass matrix are zero, where as the off-diagonal elements of the damping matrix and the
stiffness matrix are not zero.

Equations for a Torsional System

Oil housing with damping ct1

Rotor with inertia J1

kt1
kt2 Oil housing with
damping ct2

Rotor with Inertia J2

Fig.8.4: Torsional system with two degrees of freedom

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Free-body diagrams

θ1

θ2

Equations for system shown in Fig.8.4

Moment balance for J1 gives the following equation:
.. .
J1θ1 + kt1θ1 + kt2 (θ1 – θ2) = M(t) ………………8.4(a)
Moment balance for J2 gives the following equation:
.. .
J2θ2 + ct2θ2 +kt2 (θ2 – θ1) = 0 ……………………8.4(b)

J1 0 θ1 ct1 0 θ1

+
0 J2 .. .
0 ct2
θ2 θ2

(kt1+kt2) − kt2 θ1 M(t)

+ =
…………(8.5)
−kt2 kt2
θ2 0
Equations 8.4(a) and 8.4 (b) can be written in matrix form as follows.

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Eq. 8.5 can be written in a more compact form as:

.. .
[Jij] {θi} + [ctij] {θi} + [ktij] {θi] = {Mi(t)} …………………..8.6.
As in the case of spring mass system, here also, the moment of inertia matrix [Jij], the
damping matrix, [Ctij], and the stiffness matrix, [ktij] are symmetric matrices and the off-
diagonal terms of the inertia matrix are zero.
General Form of Equations for an N-Degree-of - Freedom System
The general form of equations for an N-degree-of-freedom system can now be written as
follows:
[M]{ÿ } + [C] {ý} + [K] {y} = {F(t)}…………8.7
for a spring-mass-damper system, and
.. .
[J] {Θ} + [Ct]{Θ} + [Kt] {Θ} = {M(t)} ………8.8
For a torsional system.

8.4. Influence Coefficients

Stiffness Influence Coefficients: - The elements of the stiffness matrix [kij] are called
“stiffness influence coefficients”. The physical interpretation of kij is that −kij represents the
restraining force at station i due to unit displacement at station j, all the other mass stations
except station j is held fixed at the equilibrium position.
Flexibility Influence Coefficients: - The governing equations of motion for a M-D-F
system can also be expressed in terms of the flexibility influence coefficients. The flexibility
influence coefficient aij is defined as the displacement at station i due to a unit force acting at
station j.
It can be shown that [aij] = Inverse of [kij]
 Maxwell’s Reciprocal Theorem :- The theorem states that the displacement at any point
i in the system due to a unit load acting at any other point j in the same system is equal
to the displacement at the point j due to a unit load acting at i in the same system.i.e.aij
= aji
 Proof of Maxwell’s Theorem: - Consider a system shown in Fig. 8.6.

Fi Fj

point i point j
Fig. 8.6: A general system to prove Maxwell’s theorem

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Let i and j be two points on the system where loads Fi and Fj can be applied. Now imagine
that the two loads are applied as follows. (i) First load Fi is applied gradually from zero to its
full value and then load Fj is applied at j gradually from zero to its full value with Fi acting
all the time. For this arrangement the total work done by both the forces is calculated as
follows.
When load Fi is applied gradually at point i, the final displacement at i would be aiiFi. Since
the load is applied gradually, the work done is given by
(W)Fi = (1/2)Fi aiiFi
Now when the load Fj is applied at point j gradually from zero to its full value with Fi acting
at i all the time the work done is given by
(W)Fj = Work done by Fi + Work done by Fj
= Fi aijFj + (1/2)Fj ajjFj
Total work done = Wtotal = (W)Fi + (W)Fj
= (1/2)Fi aiiFi + Fi aijFj + (1/2)Fj ajjFj
Similarly when Fj is first applied gradually and then Fi is applied gradually with Fj acting
all the time the total work done is given as follows:
Total = (1/2)Fj ajjFj + Fi aji Fj + (1/2)Fi aiiFi
The total work done should be the same for both the cases as the final deflection curve is
same in both the cases. Therefore equating the two expressions for the total work done we
have
aij = aji

Determination of Influence Coefficients(Illustrative

examples)
Example 8.1: To find the stiffness influence coefficients for the system shown in Fig.E8.1

k1 k2 k3
m1 m2

Fig. E8.1 : Schematic for example 8.1

To find k11 and k12:- By definition −kij represents the force at station i due to unit
displacement at j, all other stations being held fixed.Let m1 be displaced by a distance X1,
keeping m2 held fixed. Then the free body diagram for m1 and m2 will be as shown in
Fig.E8.1(a).

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m1 m2
k1X1 k2X1

X1
Fig. E8.1(a): Free-body diagram when a displacement X1 is effected at m1 with m2 being held fixed.
Resultant force at station 1 = F11 = −k1X1 −k2X1
= −(k1 + k2)X1
Therefore −k11 = F11 / X1 = − (k1 + k2)
Or k11 = (k1 + k2)
Resultant force at station 2 = F21 = k2X1
Therefore −k21 = F21 / X1 = k2
Or k21 = −k2.
By Maxwell’s theorem k12 = k21
To find k22:- Let a displacement X2 be effected
at m2 with m1 held fixed. Then the free-body diagram for m1 and m2 will be as shown in
Fig.E8.1(b).

m1 m2 k3X2
k 2 X2

Fig.E8.1(b): Free-body diagram when a displacement X2 is effected at m2 holding m1 fixed.

Total force acting on m2 = F22 = −k2X2 −k3X2 = −(k2 + k3) X2
Therefore −k22 = F22 / X2 = −(k2 + k3)
Or k22 = (k2 + k3)
Also Total force on m1 = F12 = k2X2
Therefore −k12 = F12 / X2 = k2
Or k12 = −k2 = k21
(as obtained earlier)

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Example 8.2
To obtain the flexibility influence coefficients for the system given in example 8.1
Let a force F1 be applied at station 1. Let X11 and X21 be the displacements at station 1 and
station 2 due to this force. Then the free-body diagram for m1 and m2 will be as shown in
Fig.E8.2(a).

F1
m1 K2(X11−X21) m2
k1X11 k3X21

X11 X21
Fig. E8.2(a): Free-body diagram when F1 acts on m1

Force balance for m1 gives, F1 = k1X11 + k2(X11 − X21)

Or F1 = (k1 + k2)X11 − k2X21…………….(1)
Force balance for m2 gives k2(X11 − X21) −k3X21 = 0
Or X21 = k2X11 / (k2 + k3)………………..(2)
Substituting this in Eq.(1) we get
(k22X11)
F1 = (k1 + k2)X11 − -----------------
(k2 + k3)
Or F1 = X11[k1k2 + k2k3 + k3k1] / (k2 + k3) ………….(3)
Therefore a11 = X11 / F1 = (k2 + k3) /[k1k2 + k2k3 + k3k1]
a21 = X21 / F1 = [X21 / X11] / [F1/X11]
k2 / (k2 + k3)
= ----------------------------------------
[k1k2 +k2k3 +k3k1]/ (k2 +k3)
k2
a21 = --------------------------------------- = a12
[k1k2 + k2k3 + k3k1]

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• To find a22:- Let a force F2 be applied at m2. The free-body diagram for the two
masses will be as shown in Fig. E8.2(b)

k1x12 m1 K2(x22 −x12) m2 k3x22

Fig. E8.2(b): Free-body diagram when F2 is applied at m2
Force balance for m1 gives
k1x12 − k2(x22 − x12) = 0
k2x22
Or x12 = ------------------- …………..(3)
(k1 + k2)
Force balance for m2 gives
F2 = k2(x22 −x12) + k3x22
Or F2 = (k2 + k3)x22 − k2x12.
Substituting for x12 from Eq. (3) we get
k22 x22
F2 = (k2 + k3)x22 − ----------------------------
( k1 + k2)
x22[(k2 + k3)(k1 + k2) − k22]
Or F2 = -----------------------------------
( k1 + k2)
(k1k2 + k2k3 + k3k1)
Therefore a22 = x22 / F2 = ----------------------------
(k1 + k2)

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Example 8.3 :
To determine the flexibility influence coefficients for the system shown in Fig. 8.3

L1
θ1 m1

θ2 L2
m2

θ3
L3
m3
Fig.8.3: Triple pendulum
• Let a force F1 be applied at m1 in the horizontal direction as shown in Fig. E8.3(a).

T1
θ1
θ1
x11 F1
m1

x21

(m1 + m2 + m3)g
x31 Fig. E8.3(a): Free body diagram

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Force balance in horizontal direction at m1 gives

F1 = T1sin θ1
and in vertical direction gives
(m1 + m2 + m3)g = T1cos θ1.
For small oscillations, sin θ1 = tan θ1 and cos θ1 = 1.
Therefore F1 = (m1 + m2 + m3)g tan θ1
= (m1 + m2 + m3)g x11 / L1
L1
Or a11 = x11 / F1 = ------------------------------
(m1 + m2 + m3)g
It can be seen from the free body diagram that
x21 = x31 = x11. Therefore a21 = a31 = a11. Also by Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem, a12 =
a21 and a13 = a31.
Therefore L1
a11 = a21 = a12 = a31 = a13 = -------------------------
(m1 + m2 + m3 )g
Now let a horizontal force F2 be applied on m2. Then the free body diagram will be as
shown in Fig. E8.3(b).

θ1 θ2

L2 F2
θ2 m2
x12 F2

X22 = x32
(m2 + m3)g
Fig. E8.3(b): Free body diagram when F2 acts on m2

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Force balance in horizontal direction gives

F2 = T2 sin θ2
and force balance in vertical direction gives
T2 = (m2 + m3) g.
For small oscillations sin θ2 = tan θ2 and cos θ2 = 1
Therefore F2 = (m2 + m3)g tan θ2
= (m2 + m3)g (x22 − x12) / L2
Or x22 / F2 − x12 / F2 = L2 / (m2 + m3)g
Therefore a22 − a12 = L 2 / (m2 + m3)g
Or a22 = a12 + L 2 / (m2 + m3)g
L1 L2
a22 = -------------------------- + ------------------------
(m1 + m2 + m3)g (m2 + m3)g
Also a32 = a22
• Let a force F3 be applied horizontally on m3. The free body diagram will be as shown
below.

T3
θ3
θ1

x13 θ2
L3 m3g
θ3
x23 F3
x33

• Force balance in the horizontal direction gives

• F3 = T3 sin θ3
• and in vertical direction it gives
• m3g = T3 cos θ3.

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• For small oscillations, sin θ3 = tan θ3 and cos θ3 = 1

• Therefore F3 = m3g tanθ3 = m3g (x33 − x23) / L 3
• Or x33 / F3 − x23 / F3 = L 3 / m3g
• Or a33 − a23 = L 3 / m3g
• Therefore a33 = a23 + L 3 / m3g = a32 + L 3 / m3g
L1 L2 L3
Or a33 = ----------------------- + --------------------- + -----------
(m1 + m2 + m3)g (m2 + m3)g m3g
Example 8.4:
Three equal springs of stiffness k are joined at one end and the other ends are arranged
symmetricaly at 1200 from each other. Show that the stiffness influence coefficients of the
junction in a direction making an angle θ with any spring is independent of θ and equal to 1 /
(1.5 k).
Solution to example 8.4

k
1200
o
k 1200 k

Fig. E8.4: Schematic for example 8.4

• Let point o be displaced by a distance x in the direction oo’ making an angle θ with
one of the springs as shown in Fig. E8.4(a).

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o’ Spring 3
600
θ
o
600 Spring 2

Spring 1

Fig. E8.4(a) : Directions of the three springs with respect to oo’

Component of the displacement x in the direction of spring1 = x cos θ.
Spring force due to this displacement in the direction of spring 1 = kx cos θ.
Component of this spring force in the direction oo’
= kx cos2θ.
The direction of spring 2 with respect to oo’ = 60 − θ
Componenet of the displacement x in the direction of spring 2 = x cos (60 −θ).
Spring force due to this displacement = kx cos (60 −θ)
• Component of spring force in the direction oo’
• = kx cos2(60 −θ)
Spring 3 makes an angle of (60 + θ) with oo’.
Therefore the component of spring force 3 in the direction oo’ = kx cos2(60+θ).
Total spring force due to all the three springs in the direction oo’ is given by
Fx = kx cos2θ + kx cos2 (60 −θ) + kx cos2(60+θ)
= kx[cos2θ +{cos 600cos θ – sin 600sin θ}2
+{cos 600cos θ + sin 600sin θ}2]
Or Fx = kx[cos2θ + ¼ cos2θ −(√3/2)cos θ sinθ + (¾) sin2θ
+ ¼ cos2θ +(√3/2)cosθ sinθ + ¾ sin2θ]
= kx [1.5 cos2θ + 1.5 sin2θ]
= 1.5 kx
Therefore displacement influence coefficient = x / Fx
= 1 / (1.5 k)
Example 8.5:

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Determine the flexibility influence coefficients for the cantilever beam shown in Fig. E8.5

2m m

L/2 L/2
Fig.E8.5:Schematic for example 8.5
Solution:- Let the location at which m is acting be designated as station 1 and the location at
which 2m is acting be designated as station2. Now let only m be acting at station 1. Then the
deflection curve and the bending moment diagram will be as shown in Fig. E8.5(a).

2 1
y21
y11

L/2 L/2

mgL mgL / 2

Fig. E8.5 (a) : Deflection curve and B-M diagram when only mg is acting
Using moment-area method,
y11 = Moment of the area of the B-M diagram about 1 / (EI)
y11 = (1 / EI) ½ (mgL) x L x 2/3 L = mgL3 / (3EI)
Therefore a11 = y11 / mg = L3 /(3EI)
Y21 = Moment of the area of B-M diagram up to 2 about 2
= (1 / EI) [½mgL x L/2 x L/4 + ½ (mgL/2) x L/2 x (2/3)L/2]
= 5mgL3 / (48 EI)
Therefore a21 = y21 /mg = 5L3 / (48 EI)

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By Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem a12 = a21 = 5L3 / (48 EI)

Now let only the load 2mg act at station2. The deflection curve and the B-M diagram will be
as shown in Fig. E8.5(b).

8.6.Matrix Iteration Method

1. Introduction: - This is the most commonly used method among the iterative methods for
determining the natural frequencies (eigen values) and the corresponding mode shapes(eigen
vectors)
If we are using the flexibility coefficients to write the equations of motion, then this
method will lead to the lowest natural frequency of the system and the higher natural
frequencies are obtained by using the orthogonal property between any two principal modes
and the sweeping matrix. On the otherhand if we use the stiffness influence coefficients to
write the governing equations of motion, this method will lead to the highest natural
frequency and using the sweeping matrix method the remaining natural frequencies can be
obtained.
2.Orthoganality between principal modes :- Let us consider the equations of motion for an
‘n’ degree-of-freedom system expressed in terms of stiffness influence coefficients. These
equations in matrix form for free harmonic oscillations can be written as follows.
−ω2[mi]{xi} + [kij]{xi} = {0} ……….8.6.1.
Where [mi] = mass matrix with off-diagonal elements equal to zero,
{xi} = Amplitude vector, and [ki j] = Stiffness matrix.
Or ω2 [mi]{xi} = [ki j]{xi} …………………………8.6.2
For one of the natural frequencies say ω = ωr, the above equation can be written as
ωr2 [mi] {xi}r = [ki j] {xi}r ……………………..8.6.3
where {xi}r is the amplitude vector corresponding to the natural frequency ωr. Similarly for
another natural frequency ωs, we can write the equation 8.6.2 as follows:
ωs2 [mi]{xi}s = [ki j] {xi}s ………………………8.6.4.
Pre-multiplying Eq. 8.6.3 by by transpose of {xi}s
and Eq. 8.6.4. by transpose of {xi}r we get
ωr2 {xi}sT[mi] {xi}r = {xi}sT [ki j] {xi}r .............................8.6.5
and ωs2 {xi}rT [mi] {xi}s = {xi}rT [ki j] {xi}s ……………………8.6.6
Since [mi] and [ki j] are symmetric matrices the following relations hold good.
{xi}sT[mi] {xi}r = {xi}rT[mi] {xi}s ………………..8.6.7
and {xi}sT [ki j] {xi}r = {xi}rT [ki j] {xi}s ……………….8.6.8
Subtracting Eq. 8.6.6 from Eq. 8.6.5 we get
(ωr2 – ωs2) {xi}rT [mi] {xi}s = 0 …………………………............8.6.9
If ωr ≠ ωs, then it follows that {xi}rT [mi] {xi}s = 0 ………………8.6.10

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And {xi}rT [ki j] {xi}s = 0 …………………..8.6.11

Equations 8.6.10 and 8.6.11 define the orthogonal properties of the
normal modes of vibration.For example, for a three degree-of-freedom system Eq. 8.6.10 can
be written in expanded form as follows:

{x1 x2 x3}r m1 0 0 x1 0

0 m2 0 x2 = 0 …………..8.6.12

0 0 m3 x3 s 0
After performing the matrix multiplication the above equation reduces to
(x1)rm1(x1)s + (x2)rm2(x2)s + (x3)rm3(x3)s = 0 ……………………8.6.13
Where (x1)r, (x2)r and (x3)r are the amplitudes of vibration of masses m1, m2, and m3
respectively when the system is vibrating with natural frequency ωr and (x1)s, (x2)s, and
(x3)s are the amplitudes of masses m1, m2, and m3 respectively when the system is vibrating
with the natural frequency ωs.
When ωr = ωs, {xi}rT [mi] {xi}s = Mr .................................8.6.14
And {xi} r [ki j] {xi}s = Kr ……………………….8.6.15
Where Mr and Kr are referred to as “generalized mass” and “generalized stiffness”
respectively.Mr and Kr are actually 1 x 1 matrices.
3.To determine the lowest natural frequency :-
To determine the lowest natural frequency, the governing equations for free vibrations has
to be written in terms of flexibility influence coefficients as follows:
x1 = a11F1 + a12F2 + ……….a1nFn
x2 = a21F1 + a22F2 + ……….a2nFn …………..8.6.16
xn = an1F1 + an2F2 + ………. annF
For free vibrations, Fi = − mi xi , i = 1 to n. Substituting this in Eq. 8.6.16 we have
.. .. ..
x1 = − a11m1x1 − a12m2x2 …………….−a1nmn xn
.. .. ..
x2 = − a21m1x1 − a22m2x2 ……………..− a2nmnxn ………8.6.17
: .. .. ..
xn = − an1m1x1 − an2m2 x2 ……….........− annmnxn
Assuming harmonic oscillations i.e. xi = xi sinωt, Eqs.8.6.17 reduces to
{xi} = ω2 [aij] [mi] {xi} ………………………8.6.18

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Where x1 a11 a12 …...a1n m1 0……...0

x2 a21 a22 …...a2n 0 m2……..0
{xi} = : ; [ai j] = : [mi] = :
: : :
xn an1 an2…….ann 0 0……mn
Eq. 8.6.18 can be simplified as :
{xi} = ω2 [bi j]{xi} …………………………8.6.19
Where [bi j] = [ai j] [mi] ………………………….8.6.20
Equation 8.6.19 is the starting point for the iteration process which is as follows. The
iteration process is started by assuming a set of displacements for {xi} and substituting on the
RHS of Eq. 8.6.19. After performing the multiplication, the RHS reduces to a column vector.
This is then normalized and the procedure is repeated with the normalized column vector
itself as the new estimate. The iteration process is continued till the first mode repeats itself.
The iteration process described above converges to the lowest value of ω2 so that the
fundamental mode of vibration is obtained. For the next higher modes and the natural
frequencies, the orthogonality principle is applied to obtain a matrix equation that does not
contain the lower modes. Then the iterative process is repeated as before to get the other
modes.
4. Calculation of Higher Modes :- Since the governing differential equations are linear, we
can use the principle of superposition, which in this case can be stated as follows : If {xi}1,
{xi}2 , …….{xi}n are the amplitude vectors corresponding to the natural frequencies ω1, ω2,
……..ωn then the linear combination of these vectors will also be a solution of the governing
differential equations. That is
{xi} = C1{xi}1 + C2 {xi}2 +……….. + Cn {xi}n ……………………8.6.21
If we want to obtain the second mode, then we have to eliminate the first normal mode by
letting C1 = 0. This is done as follows :
Pre-multiplying the above equation by {xi}1T[mi] we have
{xi}1T[mi] {xi} = C1{xi}1T[mi]{xi}1 + C2 {xi}1T [mi] {xi}2 + …….Cn{xi}1T [mi]{xi}n
…………………..8.6.22
Introducing the orthogonality principle (Eq. 8.6.10) in Eq. 8.6.22 we get
{xi}1T [mi] {xi} = C1 {xi}1T [mi] {xi}1
By letting C1 = 0 we have {xi}1T [mi] {xi} = {0} ……………8.6.23(a)
The expanded form of the above equation for a three degree-of-freedom system will be as
follows:

m1 0 0 x1 0
{ x1 x2 x3 }1 0 m2 0 x2 = 0 …..8.6.23(b)

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0 0 m3 x3 0
Eq. 8.6.23(b) simplifies to
(x1)1m1(x1) + (x2)1m2(x2) + (x3)1m3(x3) = 0 …………..8.6.23(c)
Solving for (x1) from the above equation we get
(x2)1 m2 (x3)1 m3
(x1) = − ------------- (x2) − -------------- (x3)
(x1)1 m1 (x1)1 m1
Also we can write (x2) = (x2)
and (x3) = (x3)
…........................8.6.24
Equations 8.6.24 can be written in matrix form as :
{xi} = [si j] {xi} ………………………….8.6.25
−(x2)1m2 −(x3)1m3
0 ---------- -----------
Where x1 (x1)1m1 (x1)1m1
{xi} = x2 [si j] = 0 1 0
x3 0 0 1
Since Eq.8.6.25 is the result of putting C1 = 0, the first mode of vibration is eliminated or
swept out by the sweeping matrix [si j]. Therefore replacing {xi} on the right hand side of
Eq.8.6.19 we get
{xi} = ω2 [bi j] [si j] {xi} ………………………..8.6.26
The above equation is used for the iteration process to get the second lowest mode of
vibration. For obtaining the third lowest mode the following equations, which will eliminate
the first and second modes are used.
(x1)1m1(x1) + (x2)1m2 (x2) + (x3)1m3(x3) = 0 ………………8.6.27(a)
(x1) 2m1(x1) + (x2) 2m2 (x2) + (x3) 2m3(x3) = 0………………8.6.27(b)
Eq.8.6.27(b) is obtained by introducing orthogonality relationship by pre-multiplying
Eq.8.6.21 by {xi}2T [mi] and setting C2 = 0.The sweeping matrix [si j] is formed by using
the Eqs. 8.6.27(a) and 8.6.27(b) along with the identity
(x3) = (x3) …………..8.6.27(c)

Equations 8.6.27 (a) to (c) can be rewritten as follows:

(x1) = 0 − [(x2)1m2 / (x1)1m1](x2) − [(x3)1m3 / (x1)1m1] (x3)
(x2) = −[(x1)2m1/(x2)2m2](x1)− [(x3)2m3 / (x2)2m2] (x3)
and (x3) = (x3) …………….8.6.28

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Equations 8.6.28 can be written in matrix form as:

{xi} = [sij] {xi} ……………………………………………..8.6.29
Where [sij] is given by
0 − [(x2)1m2 / (x1)1m1] − [(x3)1m3 / (x1)1m1]
[sij] = −[(x1)2m1/(x2)2m2] 0 − [(x3)2m3 / (x2)2m2]
0 0 1
Now {xi} is replaced by [sij]{xi} on the right hand side of Eq. 8.6.19 and
The iteration process is repeated as done earlier to obtain the second lowest mode shape.
5. To Find the Highest Natural Frequency:-
..
[mj] {xi} + [kij] {xi} = {0} ……………………. 8.6.21
Pre-multiplying by [mi]−1 we get
..
[I] {xi} + [mi] [kij] {xi} = {0}
..
Or [I] {xi} + [dij] {xi} = {0} ………………………8.6.22
Where [dij] = [mi]−1 [kij]
Assuming harmonic oscillations, i.e., {xi} = {xi} sin ωt, Eq. 8.6.22 reduces to
− ω2 {xi} + [dij] {xi} = {0}
Or {xi} = ( 1 / ω2) [ d I j ] {xi} ……………8.6.23
The expanded form of the above equation would be
x1 d11 d12 … d1n x1
x2 d21 d22 … d2n x2
: : : : :
xn dn1 dn2 … dnn xn
Using Eq. 8.6.24, the iteration process as described above is started and this converges to the
lowest value of (1 / ω2) so that the highest mode of vibration is obtained.
For the next lower modes and the natural frequencies the orthogonality principle is applied to
obtain a modified matrix equation that does not contain the higher modes. The process is
repeated as before.
The method is illustrated by the following examples.
Illustrative Examples on Matrix Iteration Method
Example 8.6.1:- Find the fundamental frequency and the corresponding mode shape for the
system shown in Fig. E8.6.1 by the method of matrix iteration. Also obtain the higher modes
by applying the principle of orthogonality.

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3k 3k k k
4m 2m m

Fig. E8.6.1 : Schematic for example 8.6.1.

Solution to example 8.6.1

For finding the lowest natural frequency using matrix iteration method, the first step is to
write the governing equations in terms of flexibility matrix [ai j]. For the given system we
have

(1/3k) (1/3k) (1/3k) 4m 0 0

[ai j] = (1/3k) (4/3k) (4/3k) [mi j] = 0 2m 0

(1/3k) (4/3k) (7/3k) 0 0 m

(1/3k) (1/3k) (1/3k) 4m 0 0
[bi j] = [ai j] [mi] = (1/3k) (4/3k) (4/3k) 0 2m 0

(1/3k) (4/3k) (7/3k) 0 0 m

4 2 1
Or [bi j] = (m/3k) 4 8 4
4 8 7

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{xi} = ω2 [bi j] {xi}. In expanded form this equation gives

x1 4 2 1 x1
x2 = ω2m / (3k) 4 8 4 x2 ……………(1)
x3 4 8 7 x3
Eq.(1) is the starting point for the iteration process.
Trial 1 :- Assume x1 = 1.0, x2 = 1.0 and x3 = 1.0. Substituting on the RHS of equation (1)
and simplifying we get
x1 7 1
x2 = (ω2m / 3k) 16 = (7ω2m / 3k) 2.29
x3 9 2.71
Since the calculated amplitude vector is different from the assumed vector one more trial is
required for which the assumed values will be the calculated values of the previous trial.
Trial No. 2 :- Let x1 = 1.0 , x2 = 2.29, and x3 = 2.71. Substituting these values on the RHS of
Eq. (1) and simplifying we have
x1 11.87 1.0
x2 = (ω2m / 3k) 33.11 = (11.87 ω2m / 3k) 2.79
x3 41.29 3.48
The calculated values of the amplitude are different from the assumed values and hence one
more trial is required.
Trial No. 3:- Assume x1 = 1.0, x2 = 2.79, and X3 = 3.48. Substituting these values on the
RHS of Eq.(1) and simplifying we get
x1 1.00
x2 = (13.06 ω2m / 3k) 3.08
x3 3.88
Since the calculated values of the amplitude are still not matching with the assumed values
one more trial is required.
Trial No. 4:- Assume x1 = 1.0, x2 = 3.08, and x3 = 3.88.
Following the same procedure we get
x1 1.00
x2 = (14.04 ω2m / 3k) 3.15
x3 4.00
The calculated values of the amplitudes agree with the assumed values within 2.5 % and the
iteration is stopped.
Therefore 14.04 ω2 m / 3k = 1.0
_____________ _____

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Or ω = √ [(3k) / (14.04m)] = 0.462 √ (k/m) = ω1

Calculation of higher modes:- First step in finding the higher modes is to form the sweeping
matrix using the principle of orthogonality between principal modes. Orthogonality principle
for a three-degree-of-freedom system can be stated as
(x1)1m1(x1) + (x2)1m2(x2) + (x3)1m3(x3) = 0
Where (x1)1, (x2)1 and (x3)1 are the amplitudes of vibration corresponding to the lowest
natural frequency, ω1, which have already been determined.Substituing these values and also
the values for m1, m2, and m3 we have
4m(x1) + 3.15 x 2m (x2) + 4.0 x m (x3) = 0
Or (x1) = − 1.57 (x2) − 1.0 (x3)
Also (x2) = (x2) (Identity) ………………..(2)
And (x3) = (x3) (Identity)
Eqs.(2) can be written in matrix form as {xi} = [si j] {xi},
0 − 1.57 − 1.0 x1
Where [si j] = 0 1.0 0 and {xi} = x2
0 0 1.0 x3
Substituting for {xi} on the RHS of Eq. (1) we have
x1 4 2 1 0 − 1.57 − 1.0 x1
x2 = (ω2 m / 3k) 4 8 4 0 1.0 0 x2
x3 4 8 7 0 0 1.0 x3

The above equation simplifies to

x1 0 − 4.28 − 3.0 x1
x2 = (ω2m / 3k) 0 1.72 0 x2 …………(3)
x3 0 1.72 3.0 x3
Eq.(3) is the starting point for iteration process.
Trial 1:- Assume x1 = 1.0, x2 = 1.0, and x3 = 1.0. Substituting these values in RHS of Eq. (3)
and simplifying we get
x1 − 7.28 − 1.0
x2 = (ω2m / 3k) 1.72 = (7.28 ω2m / 3k) 0.24
x3 4.72 1.02
Since the calculated amplitudes are different from the assumed values one more trial is
required.
Trial 2:- Assume x1 = − 1.0, x2 = 0.24, and x3 = 1.02. Substituting these values in RHS of
Eq.(3) and simplifying we get

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x1 − 4.087 − 1.0
x2 = (ω2m / 3k) 0.413 = (4.087ω2 / 3k) 0.10
x3 0.85 0.85
Once again the calculated values of the amplitudes do not agree with the assumed values and
the iteration has to be continued further.
Final Trial :-

2mg
L/2

y22 y12

L/2

Fig. E8.5(b) : Deflection curve and B-M diagram when only load 2mg is acting at station2.
Y22 = ½ mgL(L/2) 2/3(L/2)
= mgL3/(12EI)
a22 = Y22 /2mg
Or a22 = L3 / (24 EI)
y22 = (1/EI) ½ (mgL x L/2 x (2/3)L/2 = 2mgL3 / (24EI)
Therefore a22 = y22 / 2mg = L3 / (24 EI )
Also y12 = (1/EI) ½ (mgL) x L/2 x {L/2 + (2/3)L/2}
= (5/48) 2mgL3 / (EI)
Therefore a12 = y12 / (2mg) = 5L3 / (48 EI) = a21 as shown earlier

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Example 8.6:

Obtain the stiffness influence coefficients for the

system given in example 8.5.

P2 P1

y2
y1

y1 = a11P1 + a12P2 and

y2 = a21P1 + a22P2
Solving for P1 and P2 we have
P1 = (a22y1 – a12y2) / (a11a22 – a21a12) …………………(1)
And P2 = (a11y2 – a21y1) /(a11a22 – a12a21) …………….(2)
When y1 = 1 and y2 = 0 then P1 = −k11 and P2 = −k21.
a22 L3 / (24 EI)
Therefore k11 = ------------------------- = --------------------------
a21a12 – a11a22 [ {5L3/48EI}2
– {(L3/3EI)(L3/24EI)}]
Or k11 = − 96EI/(7L3)
a21 5L3 / 48 EI
And k21 = ----------------------- = -----------------------------
(a11a22 – a21a12) [{(L3/3EI)(L3/24EI)
−{5L3/ 48EI}2]
Therefore k21 = 240 EI / (7L3)
When y2 = 1 and y1 = 0 then P2 = − k22.
a11 1
Therefore k22 = ----------------------- = ------------------------
[(a12)2 – a11a22 ] [(a12)2 / a11 – a22]
1
= ---------------------------------------------

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[(5L3/48EI)2 /(L3 /3EI) – (L3 / 24EI)]

= - (768 EI) /(7L3)

Example 8.7
A string fixed at both ends carries three point masses m1, m2, and m3 equidistant from each
otheras shown in Fig. E8.7. Determine (i) the flexibility influence coefficients and (ii) the
stiffness influence coefficients using basic principles.

m1 m2 m3

L L L L
Fig. E8.7:- Schematic for example 8.7
Solution to Example 8.7
(i) To find displacement coefficients
Let m1 be displaced by a distance y11 by applying a force F1 at m1. Then the free-body
diagram will be as shown in Fig. E8.7(a).

L L L L
θ β
y11 y21
T
T y31

F1
Fig. E8.7 : Free-body diagram when F1 acts at m1

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Force balance in vertical direction at m1 gives

F1 = T sin θ + T sin β
And in horizontal direction we have
T cos θ = T cos β.
For small oscillations we can assume sinθ = tanθ, cos θ =1,
sin β = tanβ and cos β = 1. Therefore
F1 = T(y11 / L) + T (y11 / 3L) =(4/3)Ty11 / L .
Or a11 = y11 / F1 = (3/4)(L/T).
By law of similar triangles, a21 =(2/3) a11= (1/2)(L/T)
By Maxwell’ theorem, a12 = a21 ; a13 = a31
When a force F2 is applied at station 2, the displacements y12, y22, and y32 will be as shown
in Fig. E8.7(b).

L L L L

θ β
y12 y32
y22

F2
Fig.E8.7(b): Free-body diagram when F2 acts at station2.
Force balance at station 2 in vertical direction gives
F2 = T sin θ + T sinβ = 2T sin θ
= 2T tan θ = 2T (y22 / 2L)
= T y22 / L.
Therefore a22 = y22 / F2 = L / T.
By law of similar triangles, a12 = a32 = ½ a22 = L / (2T).
Because of the symmetry of the problem a33 = a11= ¾ (L/T).

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(ii) To find the stiffness influence coefficients :- Let a displacement y1 be effected at station
1, holding the remaining stations at their respective equilibrium positions. Then the free-body
diagram for the system will be as shown in Fig. E8.7(c).

θ θ
T y1 T

Fig. E8.7(c): Free-body diagram when a displacement y1is effected at station1.

Total restoring force at 1 in vertical direction due to unit displacement at 1 is given by
F11 = - 2T sin θ = - 2T tan θ = - 2T(y1/ L)
Therefore - k11 = F11 / y1 = - 2T / L, or k11 = 2T / L.
By symmetry k33 = k11 = 2T / L.
Restoring force at 2 is given by F21 = T sin θ = T tan θ = T(y1 / L)
Therefore - k21 = F21 / y2 = T / L or k21 = - T / L = k12
Restoring force at 3 = F31 = 0. Therefore k31 = 0 = k13.
Let a displacement y2 affected at station 2 holding the stations 1 and 3 at their respective
equilibrium position. Then the free-body diagram will be as shown in Fig. E8.7(d).

L L L L
θ
T
T y2

Fig. E8.7(d): Free-body diagram when a displacement y2 is effected at

2 holding stations 1 and 3 in their equilibrium position.
Total restraining force at 2 = F22 = 2T sin θ = 2T tan θ = 2T(y2 / L)
Therefore - k22 = F22 / y2 = 2T / L
Or k22 = - 2T / L
Similarly F32 = T sin θ = T tan θ = T y2 / L
Therefore -k32 = F32 / y2 = T / L
Or k32 = - T / L = k23.

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8.5 Numerical Methods for M-D-F systems

For Determining Natural Frequencies and the corresponding mode shapes

• 8.5.1. Introduction: - The exact solution of the determinants of higher order becomes
more and more difficult with increasing number of degrees of freedom. It is more
convenient to use numerical methods to find the natural frequencies of an M-D-F
system especially when the number of degrees of freedom exceeds three. A number
of numerical methods are available, each method having its own merit. Some of the
methods which will be discussed are :
1.Rayleigh’s Method
2.Stodola’s Method
3.Dunkerly’s Method
4.Matrix Iteration Method
5.Holzer’s Method
6.Rayleigh-Ritz Method

8.5.2. Rayleigh’s Method

Introduction :- This method was developed by Rayleigh and is very handy for finding the
first natural frequency (fundamental frequency) of a M-D-F system. Though this is a
numerical method, it does not require any iteration process, because , the first trial itself
gives values which are very close to the fundamental frequency. The method is based on
equating the maximum kinetic energy of the system to the maximum potential energy.
• Procedure:- (i) Assume a deflection curve of the system that is consistent with the
boundary conditions. (the static deflection curve itself can be assumed)
• (ii) Find the maximum kinetic energy and the maximum potential energy for the
assumed deflection curve
• (iii) Equate the two to get the natural frequency
Frequency equation for Rayleigh’s Method:-Consider a beam having concentrated loads
W1,W2,….. …..Wn acting at different locations as shown in Fig.8.8.
W1 W2 W3 Wn
Let the corresponding displacements under each load be y1, y2, y3, …………… yn.
The total potential energy of the system = Sum of the work done by
all the loads acting on the beam.
That is U = Σ(½)Wiyi , i = 1,2,3, ……….n
…………..8.8(a)
The total kinetic energy of the system is given by

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T = Σ(1/2)(Wi / g)ýi2, i = 1,2,3,……n

………8.8(b)
Assume harmonic oscillations; i.e. yi = Yi sin ωnt.
Substituting this in Eqs.8.8(a) and 8.8(b) we have
U = (1/2)ΣWiYi sin ωnt , i = 1 to n
Therefore Umax = (1/2) ΣWiYi , i = 1 to n……8.9(a)
and T = (1/2)Σ(Wi / g) ω2 Yi 2 cos2 ωnt, i = 1 to n
Or Tmax = (1/2)gωn2 ΣWiYi 2 , i = 1 to n ….8.9(b)
Equating Eqs.8.9(a) and 8.9(b) and solving for ωn2 , we get
g ΣWiYi
ωn2 = ------------------- ………………….8.10
ΣWiYi2
Illustrative Examples on Rayleigh’s Method
Example 8.8 :- To find the fundamental frequency of the system shown in Fig. E 8.8.
m1 = 250 kg m2 = 150 kg

1.5 m 5.0 m 1.5 m

Fig. E8.8: Schematic for example 8.8

Solution to Example 8.8
The static deflections Y1 and Y2 are calculated as follows:
Y1 = Y11 + Y12 ; Where Y11 = Deflection at 1 due to load at 1
and Y12 = Deflection at 1 due to load at 2
Similarly Y2 = Y21 + Y22 ; Where Y21 = Deflection at 2 due to
load at 1 and Y22 = deflection at
2 due to load at 2
To find Y11 and Y21:- The loading arrangement to find Y11 and Y21 will be as shown in
Fig. E8.8(a)

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y11 y21

Fig. E8.8(a): Deflection of the beam due to load W1at station 1.

When a concentrated load W acts on the beam as shown below, the deflection at any
location x from one end of the beam is given by

W
a b

x
yx =(Wbx)(L2 − x2 − b2) / (6EIL) ; (0 ≤ x ≤ a) ………..8.11
Therefore Y11 =( W1ba)(L2 − a2 − b2) / (6EIL)
250 x 9.81 x 6.5 x 1.5
Y11 = ----------------------------- [ 82 − 1.52 − 6.52]
6EI x 8
= 9714 / (EI)
250 x 9.81 x 6.5 x 1.5
Similarly, Y21 = ------------------------------- [82 − 1.52 − 1.52]
6EI x 8
= 6840 / (EI)

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Similarly when W2 acts at station 2, the deflections at stations 1 and 2 are calculated as
Y12 = 4104 / (EI), and Y22 = 5823 / (EI).
Therefore Y1 = Y11 + Y12 = (9714 + 4104) / (EI)
=13818 / (EI)
And Y2 = Y21 + Y22 = (6840 + 5828) / (EI)
= 12669 / (EI)
g [ W1Y1 + W2Y2]
ωn2 = ----------------------------
[W1Y12 + W2Y22]
9.81 x [250 x13818 + 150 x 12669]
= ------------------------------------------------ (EI)
[250 x 138182 + 150 x 126692]
____
Or ωn = 0.085 √ EI
Examples on Rayleigh’s method
Example 8.9:
To find the fundamental frequency for the lateral vibrations of the cantilever beam shown in
Fig. E8.9.

75 kg 50 kg

1m 1m
W2 W1

Y2
Fig. E8.9 : Schematic for example 8.9.

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Fig. E8.9(a): Deflection curve when both the loads are acting on the beam.
Y1= Y11 + Y12 ; Y2 = Y21 + Y22
To find Y11 and Y21 :- The deflection curve for the beam and the bending moment
diagram when W1 acts at 1 is shown below.

L/2 L/2 W1

Y21
Y11

W1L/2

W1L
From moment-area method we have
Y11 = [1/(EI)]Moment of the area of B-M diagram about station1
= [1/(EI)] (1/2)(W1L)L (2/3)L = (W1L3) / (3EI)
= (50 x 9.81 x 23) / (3EI) = 1308 / EI
Similarly, Y21 = [1/(EI)] [(½ )(W1L x L/2) x L/4 +
(½ (W1L/2)(L/2)(2/3)(L/2)]
= (5/48)(W1L3/EI) = (5/48) (50 x 9.81 x 23 / EI)
= 409 / (EI)
To find Y12 and Y22 :- Let the load W2 act at station 2. Then the deflection curve
and the corresponding B-M diagram will be as shown below
Y22 = (1/EI) (W2L/2)(L/2)(2/3)(L/2)
= W2L3/(12 EI)
= 75x9.81 x 23 /(12EI) =245/EI
Y12 = (1/EI)1/2 (W2L/2)(L/2)[(2/3)L/2+ L/2]
=5W2L3/(48 EI)

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= 5 x75 x 9.81 x 23 / (48 EI)

= 613 / (EI)
Y1 = Y11 + Y12 = (1308 + 613) /(EI) = 1921 / (EI)
Y2 = Y21 + Y22 = (409 + 245) / (EI) = 685 / (EI)
g [W1Y1 + W2Y2] 9.81 x [50 x 1921 + 75 x 685] / (EI)
ωn2 = ------------------------ = --------------------------------------------------
[W1Y12 + W2Y22] [50 x 19212 + 75 x 6852] / (EI)2
Or ωn = 0.0811 √ (EI)

8.5.3. STODOLA’METHOD
Introduction:- This method is an iterative method and used for finding the fundamental
(lowest) natural frequency of un-damped free vibrations of M-D-F systems
Procedure:- (i) Assume a reasonable deflection curve of the system. The static deflection
curve itself can be assumed as in the case of Rayleigh’s method.
(ii) Using the above deflection curve, the inertia loading of the system is
determined. This loading will be in terms of ωn2, where ωn is the fundamental natural
frequency of the system.
(iii) Considering the system is loaded with the inertia loads, the new deflection
curve is determined. This also will be in terms of ωn2.
If the assumed deflection curve of (i) above is similar to the calculated deflection curve of
(iii), then the assumed shape of the deflection curve is correct and (iii) gives the value of
ωn2. If the deflection curve of (i) and (iii) are not similar, then the calculated deflection curve
of (iii) is used as the assumed deflection curve for the next iteration and the procedure is
repeated till the assumed deflection curve and the calculated deflection curve are similar.
It can be shown that whatever deflection curve was assumed initially, we finally end up with
the deflection curve corresponding to the fundamental mode.
Example 8.10 :- To determine the lowest natural frequency for the lateral vibrations of the
beam shown in Fig. E8.10.

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250 kg 150 kg
1.5 m 5.0 m 1.5 m

m1g = 250 x 9.81 N

Y11 Y21

Fig. E8.10: Schematic for example 8.10.

Fig. E8.10(a): Deflection curve when only m1g is acting on the beam.
a11 = Y11 / m1g = 3.96 / (EI) ; a21 = Y21 / m1g = 2.79 / (EI)
Similarly when m2g alone acts at location 2 we have
a22 = Y22 / m2g = 0.188 / (EI) ; a12 = a21 by Maxwell’s theorem.
Trial 1 :- Assume Y1 = 1.0 and Y2 = 1.0
Inertia force at location 1 = F1 = m1ω2Y1 = 250 ω2.
Similarly F2 = 150 ω2. Therefore Y1’ = a11F1 + a12 F2
Or Y1’ = [3.96 x 250 + 2.79 x 150 ] ω2 / (EI) = 1408.5 ω2 / (EI)
Similarly Y2’ = a21F1 + a22F2 = [2.79 x 250 + 0.188 x 150] ω2 / (EI)
= 725.7 ω2 / (EI)
Therefore Y1’ : Y2’ = 1 : 0.515. This is different from the assumed deflection. Hence
one more trial is required.
Trial 2 :- Assume Y1= 1.0 and Y2 = 0.515.
Then F1 = 250ω2 and F2 = 150 x 0.515 x ω2 = 77.25ω2
Therefore Y1’’ =[3.96 x 250 + 2.79 x 77.25] ω2 / (EI) = 1205.5 ω2 / (EI).
Similarly Y2’’ = [2.79 x 250 + 0.188 x 77.25] ω2 / (EI) = 712 ω2/ (EI)
Therefore Y1’’: Y2’’ = 1 : 0.590.

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Trail 3 :- Assume Y1 = 1.0 and Y2 = 0.590. Then the calculations as shown in trial 2
will give Y1’’’ = 1.0 and Y2’’’ = 0.577.
Trial 4 :- Assume Y1 = 1.0 and Y2 = 0.577. Then Y1”” = 1231.5 ω2/ (EI) and Y2”” =
713.8 ω2 / (EI).
Y1”” : Y2”” = 1.0 : 0.580 which is same as the assumed deflection within the
acceptable accuracy. Hence iteration may be stopped.
Therefore 1231.5ω2 / (EI) = 1.0 or ω = 0.028 √ (EI).

Examples on Stodola’s Method

Example 8.11:- Determine the fundamental frequency for the system shown in Fig. E8.11
using Stodola’s method.

3k k k
4m 2m m

Fig. E8.11: Schematic for example 8.11.

Solution : The displacement coefficients for the given system are determined as :
a11 = 1/ 3k ; a2 = a31= a12= a13= 1/3k ; a22 = a32 = a23= 4/3k
a33 = 7/ 3k .
Trial 1:- Assume x1 = x2 = x3 = 1.0. Then F1 = 4mω2 , F2 = 2mω2 and
F3 = mω2.
X1’= a11F1 + a12F2 + a13F3 = 4mω2 /(3k) + 2mω2/(3k) + mω2 / (3k)
= 7mω2 / (3k)
X2’ = a21F1 + a22F2 + a23F3 = 4mω2 /(3k) + 8mω2/ (3k) + 4mω2/(3k)
= 16mω2/(3k), and
X3’ = a31F1 + a32F2 + a33F3 = [4/3 + 8/3 + 7/3] mω2/ k = 19mω2/(3k)
Therefore X1’ : X2’ : X3’ =7/3 : 16/3 : 19/3 = 1 : 2.3 : 2.7, which is not the same as the
assumed deflection. Hence one more trial is required.
Trial 2 :- Assume X1 = 1.0, X2 = 2.3 and X3 = 2.7.
Following the procedure as shown in trial 1 we get
X1” : X2” : X3” = 1 : 2.94 : 3.66 which is not the same as assumed profile.
Hence the iteration has to be continued.
Final trail (Trial No. 4):- Assume X1 = 1, X2 = 3.11, and X3 = 3.93
Then X1”” = 14.15mω2/(3k), X2”” = 44.6 mω2/(3k);

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X3”” =56.39mω2/(3k)
Therefore X1”” : X2”” : X3”” = 14.15 : 44.6 : 56.39 = 1 : 3.15 : 3.93 which is very close to
the assumed deflections.
Hence 14.15 mω2 / (3k) = 1.0 or ω = √[3k/ (14.15m)] = 0.46√(k/m)
8.5.4. Dunkerley’s Method
Introduction :- In beam vibrations the natural frequencies of the second and higher modes
are often considerably greater than that of the fundamental frequency. This fact will enable
us to approximate the fundamental frequency with acceptable accuracy.
Dunkerly’sEquation:- In order to illustrate the Dunkerly’s method, let us consider the free
vibrations of a three degree-of-freedom system. The governing equations in terms of
flexibility influence coefficients can be written as
x1 = a11F1 + a12F2 + a13F3
x2 = a21F1 + a22F2 + a23F3 ……………………………. 8.12
x3 = a31F1 + a32F2 + a33F3
For free vibrations the forces F1, F2 and F3 can be replaced with the
.. .. ..
inertia forces − m1x1, - m2x2 and – m3x3.. If the system is vibrating
..
harmonically with frequency ω, then – mixi= miω2xi. Therefore equations
8.11 can be written as follows:
x1 = a11(m1ω2x1) + a12 (m2ω2x2) + a13(m3ω2x3)
x2 = a21(m1ω2x1) + a22(m2ω2x2) + a23(m3ω2x3) …………………….8.12
x3 = a31(m1ω2x1) + a32(m2ω2x2) + a33(m3ω2x3)
Equations 8.12 can be written in matrix form as follows:
x1 a11m1 a12m2 a13m3 x1
x2 a21m1 a22m2 a23m3 x2 ………….8.13
x3 a31m1 a32m2 a33m3 x3
Dividing by ω2, the above set of equations may be rearranged as follows:
(a11m1 – 1/ω2)x1 + (a12m2)x2 + (a13m3)x3 = 0
(a21m1)x1 + (a22m2 – 1/ω2)x2 + (a23m3)x3 = 0 …………8.14
(a31m1)x1 + (a32m2)x2 + (a33m3 – 1/ω2)x3 = 0
Equations 8.12 are satisfied if the determinant of these equations vanishes:
(a11 – 1/ω2) (a12m2) (a13m3)
(a21m1) (a22 – 1/ω2) (a23m3)
(a31m1) (a32m2) (a33 – 1/ω2)

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Expanding the determinant we have the following frequency equation.

(1/ ω2)3 – [a11m1 + a22m2 + a33m3] (1/ω2)2
− [a12m2a21m1 + ……….](1/ω2) − [ ………] = 0 ………….8.14
We know from a theorem in algebra which states that if the coefficient of the highest term of
the nth-degree equation is reduced to unity, the coefficient of the second highest term will be
equal to the sum of the roots of the equation.
If the roots of Eq. 8.14 are 1/ω1, 1/ω2, and 1/ω3, the above equation can be factored into the
following form:
(1/ω2 – 1/ω12) (1/ω2 – 1/ω22) (1/ω2 – 1/ω32) = 0
Or (1/ω2)3 – [ 1/ω12 + 1/ω22 + 1/ω32] (1/ω2)2 – [...](1/ω2) – […] = 0………….…8.15
Comparison of equations 8.14 and 8.15 indicates that
1/ω12 + 1/ω22 + 1/ω32 = a11m1 + a22m2 + a33m3
= m1/k1 + m2 /k2 + m3 / k3
= 1/ω112 + 1/ω222 + 1/ω332 …………..8.16
Where the terms ω11, ω22, and ω33 are the natural frequencies of the system, with each
mass acting separately in the absence of other masses.
Since ω2 and ω3 are natural frequencies corresponding to the higher modes and are larger
than the fundamental frequency Eq. 8.16 can be approximated as
1 1 1 1
----- ≈ ------- + -------- + ---------- ...........8.17
ω12 ω112 ω222 ω332
Eq.8.17 is called as the Dunkerly’s equation and has many useful applications as illustrated
in the following examples.
Examples
Example 8.12:- Determine the fundamental frequency of a uniformly loaded cantilever beam
with a concentrated mass M at the end equal to the mass of the uniform beam
Solution:-

L
M

M
Let ω11 be the natural frequency of the uniformly loaded beam by itself and ω22 be the
natural frequency of the same beam when a mass M is acting at the end of the beam,
neglecting the weight of the beam.

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Example 8.12
For a uniformly distributed load of a cantilever beam we have
ω112 = 3.515 2 [(EI) / (ML3)]
For the concentrated mass at the end of the mass less cantilever we have
ω222 = 3.00 [(EI) / (ML3)]
From Dunkerly’s equation we have
1/ω12 = 1/ω112 + 1/ω222
ω112ω222 3.515 2 x 3.0 (EI)
Or ω12 = ----------------- = --------------------------- = 2.41[(EI) / (ML3)]
(ω112 + ω222) (3.515 2 + 3.0 ) (ML3)
Example 8.13
The natural frequency of a given airplane wing -
In torsion is 1600 cpm. What will be the new natural frequency if a 500-kg bomb is hung at a
position one-sixth of the semi span from the centre line of the airplane such that its moment
of inertia about the torsional axis is 1800 N– cm – s2 ? The torsional stiffness of the wing at
this point is 60 x 10 6 N – cm / rad.
Solution: Frequency of the bomb attached to the weightless wing is
√ (60 x 106)
f22 = (1 / 2π) √ (kt / J) = (1/2π)----------------------
√ (1800)
Or f22 = 29.1 c.p.s. = 1745 c.p.m.
The new natural frequency with the bomb will be
1 1
1 / f12 = 1 / f112 + 1 / f222 = ------------ + -------------
1600 2 1745 2
Or f1 = 1180 c.p.m.
Example 8.13:- The fundamental frequency of a uniform beam of mass M, simply supported
is equal to π2 √ (EI / ML3). If a lumped mass m0 is attached to the beam at
x = L/ 3, determine the new fundamental frequency.

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Solution:-

x L
By Dunkerly’s equation we have
1 / ω12 = 1 / ω112 + 1 / ω222.
The above equation can be written as follows:
1 / ω12 = 1 / ω112 + a22 m2 ...............................(1)
Where m2 is the mass of the concentrated weight or exciter and a22 is the influence
coefficient of the structure at the point of attachment of the exciter. Multiplying Eq. (1)
through by ω12 and rearranging we can write
1
(ω1 / ω11)2 = ----------------------- ……………..(2)
[ 1 + a22m2ω112]

a22 is the influence coefficient at x = L / 3 due to a unit load applied at the same point and
from the knowledge of strength of materials
a22 = 8L3 / (6 x 81 EI)

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7.Vibrations of Continuous Systems

7.1. Introduction:- If in a mechanical system the inertial elements and the elastic forces are
located at discrete points in the system, then such systems are referred to as “discrete systems
or lumped mass systems” and they are further classified as single degree and multi degree-
of- freedom systems. In these systems a finite number of independent coordinates are
required to completely describe the vibratory characteristics of such systems. The number of
natural frequencies for such systems will be equal to the number of degrees of freedom for
the system. But there are many mechanical systems where in it is not possible to assume that
the inertial elements and the elastic forces are concentrated at discrete points within the
system but they are distributed throughout the system. Cables, rods, beams, plates etc. are
some of the examples and such systems are called “continuous systems”.
Continuous systems consist of an infinitely large number of particles and therefore require an
infinitely large number of coordinates to study the vibratory characteristics of the system.
The system will therefore have a infinite number of natural frequencies and normal modes of
vibrations. In general, vibrations of continuous systems are governed by partial differential
equations and while analyzing these systems all materials are assumed to be homogeneous
and isotropic and obey Hooke’s law.

7.2. Longitudinal Vibrations of Bars

7.2.1. Governing Equation :- Consider a bar which is vibrating in the longitudinal direction
as shown in Fig. 7.1. Let the displacement at any section which is at a distance ‘x’ from one
end of the rod at any time ‘t’ be represented by ‘u’ [u = u(x,t)], ρ be the mass density and

x dx
Position of the
rod at time ‘t’

u+du
du = dx + (∂u /
u ∂x) dx

Position of the rod at

Fig.7.1: Longitudinal Vibrations of a bar time at time t + dt

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A be the area of cross section of the bar.

u(x,t)

σA σA + [∂(σA) / ∂x] dx

dx
Fig. 7.2 : Free body diagram for an elemental length dx of the bar
Applying Newton’s second law for elemental length dx of the bar we have
ρAdx (∂2u / ∂t2) = σA + [∂(σA) / ∂x]dx − σA
Since A is constant and assuming that the material of the bar obeys Hooke’s law ( σ = E ε , E
is the modulus of elasticity and ε is the longitudinal strain), the above equation can be
simplified as :
ρ (∂ 2u / ∂t 2) = E (∂ε /∂x) …………………..7.2.1
[dx + (∂u / ∂x) dx] − dx
But ε = ------------------------------- = ∂u / ∂x
dx
Substituting this in Eq. 7.1 we get
∂2u / ∂t2 = c2 ∂2u /∂x2 …….7.2.2
Where c= √(E / ρ).
7.2.2. General Solution for Eq.7.2.2 :- Equation 7.2.2 is a linear, homogeneous, second-order,
partial differential equation whose solution can be found by the method of separation of
variables, where the solution is assumed to be a product of two functions, one purely a
function of one independent variable x and the other purely a function of other independent
variable t : that is
u(x, t) = X(x) T(t) ----------------------7.2.3.
Substituting this solution in Eq. 7.2.2 we get
X (d2T / dt2) = c2 T (d2X / dx2)
Dividing throughout by XT, we get
(1 / T) (d2T / dt2) = (c2/ X)(d2X / dx2) ……………….7.2.4.
In Eq. 7.2.4, LHS is a function of t only and RHS is a function of x only.
They can be equal only if they are equal to constant, say − ω2 , where ω2 is a positive real
constant ( Later on it will be shown that ω is a natural frequency of vibrations) . Now we will
have two second order ordinary differential equations given by

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(1 / T ) (d2T / dt2) = − ω2 …………………….7.2.5(a)

and ( c2/ X ) (d2X / dx2) = − ω2 …………………..7.2.5(b)
Or (d2T / dt2) + ω2T = 0 …………………………7.2.6(a)
and (d2X / dx2) + (ω2 / c2)X = 0 …………………..7.2.6(b)
Eqs. 7.2.6(a) and 7.2.6(b) are linear homogeneous second order ordinary
differential equations whose solutions are given by
T(t) = A cos ωt + B sin ωt …………………7.2.7(a)
and X(x) = C cos [(ω/c)x] + D sin [(ω/c)x] ……..7.2.7(b)
Substituting these expressions for T(t) and X(x) in Eq. 7.2.3 we get the
general solution as follows:
u(x,t) = (A cos ωt + B sin ωt) [ C cos{(ω/c)x} + D sin {(ω/c)x} ] …………7.2.8
In the above solution ω is the natural frequency. Since for a continuous system there are
infinite number of natural frequencies, the general solution can be written as ∞
u (x,t) = Σ [An cos ωnt + Bn sin ωnt ] [ Cn cos{(ωn / c)x} + Dn sin {(ωn/c)x}]
n = 1,2, …………..…………7.2.9
An, Bn, Cn,and Dn are arbitrary constants which can be determined by the initial and
boundary conditions of the problem and ωn the natural frequencies of the system.
7.2.3. Illustrative examples:
1.Determine the natural frequencies and the mode shapes of longitudinal vibrations of a bar
with both ends free with zero initial displacement.
Solution:- The boundary and initial conditions for the given problem are as follows.
(i) At x = 0, ∂u / ∂x = 0 (free end and hence strain is zero)
(ii) At x = L, ∂u / ∂x = 0 (free end)
(iii) At t = 0, u = 0.
From Eq. 7.9 we have
∂u /∂x = Σ(ωn / c) [An cos ωnt + Bn sin ωnt] [− Cnsin (ωnx / c)
+ Dn cos (ωnx / c)] ………………(1)
Condition (i) in Eq. (1) gives
0 = Σ(ωn/c) [ An cos ωnt + Bn sin ωnt ] [ 0 + Dn]
The above equation has to be satisfied for all values of t.
Therefore, it follows that Dn = 0.
Similarly condition (ii) in Eq. (1) gives
0 = Σ(ωn/c) [ An cos ωnt + Bn sin ωnt ] [ −Cn sin (ωnL /c)]
For non-trivial solution Cn cannot be zero.

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Hence it follows that sin (ωnL / c) = 0……………(2)

Or (ωnL / c) = nπ, n = 1, 2, 3, ……..to ∞
The natural frequencies are given by
nπ _____
ωn = (nπ / L)c = --------- √ (E / ρ) ……….(3)
L
Substituting Dn = 0 in the general solution (eq. 7.9) we have
u(x,t) = Σ ( En cos ωnt + Fn sin ωnt ) cos (ωnx /c) …………………….(4)
Where ωn is given by Eq. (3), En = Cn An and Fn = Cn Bn
Condition (iii) in Eq. (4) gives : 0 = Σcos (ωnx / c) [ En + 0 ].
This equation has to be satisfied for all x. Therefore it follows that
En = 0. Hence the final expression for u(x,t) is given by
u(x,t) = Σ Fn sin ωnt cos (ωnx / c).
The constants Fn can be determined if we know one more initial condition.

Example 7.2:- Derive an expression for the free longitudinal vibrations of a uniform bar of
length L, one end of which is fixed and the other end is free.

Solution : The boundary conditions for the given problem are :

(i) At x = 0, u = 0 (fixed end)
(ii) At x = L, ∂u / ∂x = 0 (free end)
The general solution for longitudinal vibrations of a bar is given by
u(x,t) = Σ [ An cos ωnt + Bn sin ωnt ] [ Cn cos(ωnx/c) + Dn sin (ωnx/c)] ……..(1)
Condition (i) in Eq. (1) gives 0 = Σ [ An cos ωnt + Bn sin ωnt ] [ Cn + 0 ]
The above equation should be valid for all values of ‘t’.
Therefore, Cn = 0. From Eq. (1) we have

∂u / ∂x = Σ [ An cos ωnt + Bn sin ωnt ] Dn cos (ωnx/c)] (ωn/c)…………..(2)

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As Dn cannot be zero for non-trivial solution, Condition (ii) in Eq. (2)

gives
cos (ωnL / c) = 0 ……………………….(3)
Or ωnL / c = (nπ / 2 ), n = 1, 3, 5, …..to ∞
Or ωn = (nπc / 2L) = (nπ/2L) √ (E / ρ) ……(4)
Therefore the displacement u(x,t) is given by
u(x,t) = Σ [ En cos ωnt + Fn sin ωnt ] sin (ωnx / c) ……………………(5)
The constants En ( En = An Dn ) and Fn ( Fn = Bn Dn) can be determined using the initial
conditions of the problem.

Example 7.3:- A uniform bar of length L is fixed at one end and Connected at the other end
by a spring as shown in Fig. E 7.3. Derive the frequency equation for the bar.

x k

L
Fig. E 7.2 : Schematic for example 7.3.

Solution:- For the given problem the boundary conditions are:

(i) At x = 0, u(0,t) = 0 (free end) ;
(ii) At x = L, k (u)x = L + A (σ)x = L = 0
i.e., k (u)x = L + A E (∂u / ∂x )x = L = 0
For longitudinal vibrations of a bar the displacement u(x,t) is given by
u(x,t) = Σ [ An cos ωnt + Bn sin ωnt ] [ Cn cos(ωnx/c) + Dn sin (ωnx/c)]……...(1)
Condition (i) in Eq. (1) gives 0 = Σ [ An cos ωnt + Bn sin ωnt ] Cn.
The above equation has to be valid for all values of t. Therefore it follows that Cn = 0.
Hence the solution now reduces to
u(x,t) = Σ [ En cos ωnt + Fn sin ωnt ] sin (ωnx/c) ……………………(2)

Where En and Fn are constants which can be evaluated using the initial conditions. To find
the natural frequencies ωn, boundary condition (ii) is used.
From Eq. (2) (u)x = L = Σ [ En cos ωnt + Fn sin ωnt ] sin (ωnL/c)

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And (∂u / ∂x)x = L = Σ (ωn / c)[ En cos ωnt + Fn sin ωnt ] cos (ωnL/c)
Therefore condition (ii) gives
k {Σ [ En cos ωnt + Fn sin ωnt ]
sin (ωnL/c)} + A E {Σ (ωn / c)[ En cos ωnt + Fn sin ωnt ] cos (ωnL/c)}

=0
Or Σ { k sin(ωnL / c) + AE (ωn/c) cos (ωnL/c)} (En cos ωnt + Fn sin ωnt)

= 0 for all values of t.

Therefore k sin(ωnL / c) + AE (ωn / c)cos (ωnL / c) = 0

Or tan (ωnL / c) = − (A E ωn) / (kc) ……….(3)

Eq. (3) is the required frequency equation.

Example 7.4.
A bar of length L is fixed at one end and has a concentrated mass m as shown in Fig. E 7.4.
Derive the frequency equation.

x
m

L
Fig. E 7.4
The general solution for longitudinal vibrations of a bar is given by
u(x,t) = Σ [ An cos ωnt + Bn sin ωnt ] [ Cn cos(ωnx/c) + Dn sin (ωnx/c)]

…………………..(1)
The boundary conditions for the given problem are:
(i) At x = 0, u(x,t) = 0 (fixed end)
(ii) At x = L, m (∂2u / ∂t2)x = L = − AE (∂u / ∂x)x = L
0 = Σ [ An cos ωnt + Bn sin ωnt ] [ Cn + 0]
The above equation is to be satisfied for all values of t.
Therefore Cn = 0 and
u(x,t) = Σ [ En cos ωnt + Fn sin ωnt ] sin (ωnx/c) ………………………(2)
Therefore

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− AE (∂u / ∂x)x = L = − AE Σ(ωn/c)[ En cos ωnt + Fn sin ωnt ] cos (ωnL/c)

Also m (∂2u / ∂t2)x = L = Σ−mωn2 sin (ωnL/c) [ En cos ωnt + Fn sin ωnt ]

Therefore condition (ii) gives

(A E ωn/c) cos (ωnL /c) = m ωn2 sin (ωnL /c)

Or tan (ωnL /c) = [ (AE) / (mωnc)] …………………(3)

This is the frequency equation which can be solved to get the natural
frequencies of the given system.

Example on Forced Vibrations:

Example 7.5 :- Determine the longitudinal forced vibration of a

uniform bar of Length L subjected to a sinusoidal force F0 sin ωt at the
free end as shown in Fig. E 7.5.

F0 sin ωt

Fig. E 7.1 : Schematic for example 7.1

Solution to example 7.5

The equation of motion for longitudinal vibration of uniform bars is given
by
( ∂2u / ∂t2 ) = c2 ( ∂2u / ∂x2)………………..(1)

For steady state vibration, let u(x,t) = X(x) sin ωt………………………(2)

Substituting this solution in Eq.(1) we get

−ω2 X(x) = c2 (d2X / dx2)

Or d2X / dx2 + (ω2 / c2) X = 0 ………………(3)

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 160 of 173

Eq.(3) is a linear, homogeneous, second order, ordinary differential Equation whose solution
is given by
X(x) = A1 cos (ωx / c) + A2 sin (ωx / c)
And hence
u(x,t) = [A1 cos (ωx / c) + A2 sin (ωx / c)] sin ωt ………..(4)
The boundary conditions for the problems are:
(i) At x = 0, u = 0 ; (ii) at x = L, AE (∂u / ∂x)x = L = F0 sin ωt
Condition (i) in Eq. (4) gives 0 = [ A1 + 0] sin ωt , for all values of ‘t’
Therefore A1 = 0.
Now AE (∂u / ∂x)x = L = A2AE(ω/c) cos (ωL/c) sin ωt
Hence condition (ii) gives, A2 AE (ω/c) cos (ωL/c) = F0
F0 c
Or A2 = ------------------------
{ AE ω cos (ωL/c)}

7.3. Vibrations of strings

7.3.1. Governing Equation :- A flexible string of mass ρ per unit length is stretched under
tension T. Assuming that the lateral deflection ‘y’ of the string to be small, the change in
tension T is negligible and hence neglected.

x y(x,t)

A free-body diagram of an elementary length dx of the string

is shown in Fig. 7.3

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 161 of 173

dx T
x

θ y(x,t)
T
Fig. 7.3 : String element in lateral vibration.

Applying Newton’s second law for the string element we have

ρ dx (∂2y / ∂t2) = T sin { θ + (∂θ /∂x) dx} − sin θ
For small oscillations y(x,t) is small and hence sin θ = θ.
Therefore the above equation reduces to
ρ (∂2y / ∂t2) = T (∂θ / ∂x)
But θ = ∂y / ∂x. Therefore ρ (∂2y / ∂t2) = T (∂2y / ∂x2)
Or ∂2y / ∂t2 = c2 (∂2y / ∂x2) ……………………7.3.1
Eq. 7.3.1 is a linear partial homogeneous differential equation whose
solution can be obtained by the method of separation of variables.
Let y(x,t) = X(x) T(t)……………………….7.3.2
Substituting this in Eq. 7.3.1 we get
X(x) (d2T / dt2) = c2 T(t) (d2X / dx2)
Or (1 / T) (d2T / dt2) = (c2 / X ) (d2X / dx2)
LHS of the above equation is a function of t only and RHS is a function of x only. They can
be equal provided they are equal to a constant. Therefore we have
(1 / T) (d2T / dt2) = (c2 / X ) (d2X / dx2) = − ω2

Where ω2 is a positive real constant. Therefore we get two ordinary differential equations,
namely,
(1 / T ) (d2T / dt2) = − ω2 ,
and (c2 / X ) (d2X / dx2) = − ω2
Or (d2T / dt2) + ω2T = 0 ………………………7.3.3.(a)
and (d2X / dx2) + (ω2/c2) X = 0 ……………….7.3.3.(b)

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 162 of 173

The solutions to Eqs. 7.3.3.(a) and 7.3.3.(b) are given by

T(t) = A1 cos ωt + A2 sin ωt ……………..7.3.4.(a)
And X(x) = B1 cos (ωx / c) + B2 sin (ωx / c) ………………..7.3.4.(b)
Substituting these solutions in Eq. 7.3.2 we get
y(x,t) = [A1 cos ωt + A2 sin ωt ] [B1 cos (ωx / c) + B2 sin (ωx / c)]
……………………7.3.5.
Equation 7.3.5 is the general solution for the lateral vibrations of strings and the constants
A1, A2, B1, and B2 can be determined for the given initial and boundary conditions. This is
illustrated in the few examples below.

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 163 of 173

8.7.HOLZER’S METHOD
8.7.1 Introduction:- When only one coordinate is associated with each lumped mass of the
multi-degree-of-freedom system, we have a Holzer-type problem which can be solved by
proceeding numerically from one end of the system to the other. Both the linear spring-mass
and the torsional lumped mass system can be solved by this method.The method
is a trial and error method which can be represented in a tabular form as illustrated in the
examples to follow.

8.7.2. Governing Equations :

(i) Equations for a Free-Free system (Systems with both ends free)
The governing equations are derived by considering a four-degree-of-freedom system as
shown in Fig. 8.7.1.

Fig. 8.7.1: Four Rotor Torsional System

The differential equations of motion for the four rotors are:

..
J1θ1 = − kt1 (θ1 − θ2)
..
J2θ2 = kt1(θ1 − θ2) − kt2 (θ2 − θ3)
.. …………………….8.7.1
J3θ3 = kt2 (θ2 − θ3) − kt3 (θ3 − θ4)
..
J4θ4 = kt3 (θ3 − θ4)

Assuming θ1 = Θ1 sin ωnt, θ2 = Θ2 sin ωnt, θ3 = Θ3 sin ωnt, and

θ4 = Θ4 sin ωnt, the above equations reduce to

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 164 of 173

−J1ωn2Θ1 = − kt1 (Θ1 – Θ2)

−J2ωn2Θ2 = kt1(Θ1 – Θ2) – kt2(Θ2 – Θ3)

…………………8.7.2
−J3ωn2Θ3 = kt2(Θ2 −Θ3) – kt3(Θ3 – Θ4)

−J4ωn2Θ4 = kt3(Θ3 – Θ4)

Adding all the above equations we get ∑Jiωn2Θi = 0, i = 1 to 4 ……………….8.7.3.

Therefore, for a free-free system, ωn is found out by trial and error such that Eq. 8.7.3 is
satisfied. From Eqs. 8.7.2 We have

Θ2 = Θ1− J1ωn2Θ1/ kt1

Θ3 = Θ2 − (J1ωn2Θ1 + J2ωn2Θ2) / kt2
and Θ4 = Θ3 − (J1ωn2Θ1 + J2ωn2Θ2 + J3ωn2Θ3) / kt3
i-1
Thus in general, Θi = Θi −1 − (∑Jkωn2Θk) / kt i −1 …………..8.7.4
k =1
The method consists in assuming ωn and displacement of one of the rotors, say Θ1. Then,
Eq.8.7.4 is used to find the displacement of the other rotors and hence the sum of the inertia
forces.The condition to be satisfied is ∑Jωn2Θ = 0. A graph of ∑Jωn2Θ vs ωn is drawn. The
frequency ωn which gives ∑Jωn2Θ = 0 is the natural frequency.
(ii) Equations for a Fixed-Free System: - If the system is fixed at any point, then the
displacement at that point should be zero. Starting from the free end the displacement at the
fixed end is calculated assuming ωn. A graph of displacement at the fixed end vs ωn is
drawn. The frequency at which the displacement of the fixed end is zero is the natural
frequency.
(iii) Fixed-Fixed System: - If both ends of the system are fixed, then the displacement at both
the ends must be zero. Consider a fixed – fixed system as shown in Fig. 8.7.2.

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 165 of 173

Then the equations of motion for the three rotors can be written as
..
J1θ1 = − kt1θ1 − kt2 (θ1 – θ2) ……………………8.7.5(a)
..
J2θ2 = kt2 (θ1 – θ2) − kt3(θ2 −θ3) ……………..8.7.5(b)
..
J3θ3 = kt3 (θ2 – θ3) − kt4θ3 ……………………..8.7.5(c)

Assuming harmonic oscillations the above equations reduce to

−ω2 J1θ1 = − kt1θ1 − kt2 (θ1 – θ2) ……………………8.7.5(a)

−ω2 J2θ2 = kt2 (θ1 – θ2) − kt3(θ2 −θ3) ……………..8.7.5(b)

−ω2 J3θ3 = kt3 (θ2 – θ3) − kt4θ3 ……………………..8.7.5(c)

From Eq. 8.7.5(a) we have θ2 = θ1 − [kt1θ1 − ω2J1] / kt2

Adding Eqs. 8.7.5(a) and (b) and solving for θ3 we get

2
θ3 = θ2 + [kt1θ1 − ∑ ω2Ji θi ] / kt3 …..8.7.6
i=1

Eq. 8.7.6 can be generalised to a system having ‘n’ rotors. In that case the displacement of
the nth rotor is given by
n-1
θn = θn – 1 + [kt1θ1 − ∑ω2 Ji θi ] / ktn ...................8.7.7
i=1
For a fixed-fixed system with n rotors the displacement at the (n+1)th station should be zero :
that is

n
θn+1 = θn + [kt1θ1 − ∑ω2 Ji θi ] / ktn+1 = 0 ............8.7.8

i=1

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 166 of 173

8.7.3. Illustrative Examples

1. Using Holzer’s method determine the natural frequencies of the spring-mass system shown
in Fig. E 8.7.1., if m1 = m2 = m3 = 1kg and k1 = k2 = 1N/m

Fig. E 8.7.1 : Schematic for example 8.7.1 Holzer method is shown in the form of a table.

Position m X mω2X ∑mω2X k ∑mω2X

Assume ω = 0.5 ------------
k
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 1 1.00 0.25 0.25 1 0.25
2 1 0.75 0.19 0.44 1 0.44
3 1 0.31 0.07 0.51
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Assume ω = 0.75
1 1 1.00 0.56 0.56 1 0.56
2 1 0.44 0.24 0.80 1 0.80
3 1 − 0.36 −0.20 0.60

Position m X mω2X ∑mω2X k ∑mω2X

Assume ω = 1.0 -----------
k
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 0 0 1 1 1
3 1 −1 −1 0
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Since ∑mω2X = 0, the assumed value ω = 1.0 is one of the natural frequencies.

Position m X mω2X ∑mω2X k ∑mω2X

Since ∑mω2X changes sign from +ve to −ve when ω is changed from

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 167 of 173

1.5 to 2.0, it is obvious that another natural frequency should lie

between 1.5 and 2.0 rad /s.
Assume ω = 1.75 rad / s.
Position m X mω2X ∑mω2X k (∑mω2X)/ k

1 1 1 3.06 3.06 1 3.06

2 1 − 2.06 −6.31 −3.06 1 −3.06

3 1 1.06 3.25 0.19

Assume ω = 1.72 rad /s

Position m X mω2X ∑ mω2X k (∑ mω2X )/k
1 1 1.00 2.96 2.96 1 2.96

1 1 − 1.96 − 5.80 − 2.84 1 −2.84

1 1 0.88 2.60 −0.24

Therefore ω2 ≈ 1.72 rad / s. The other natural frequency is ω3 = 0 (semi-definite system)

Example 8.7.2 (Fixed – Free System)

Determine the natural frequencies of the system shown in Fig. E 8.7.2 using Holzer’s
method.

2J J
4J 3J
Fig. E8.7.2 : Schematic for example 8.7.2

To assume the order of ωn, the order of magnitude of ωn can be approximated by Dunkerly’s
equation.

1/ωn12 = 1/ω112 + 1/ω222 + 1/ω332 + 1/ω442

Here ω112 = 4k / J ; ω222 = 3k / 2J ; ω332 = 2k / 3J ; ω442 = k / 4J

Therefore 1 / ωn12 = J / 4k + 2J / 3k + 3J / 2k + 4J / k = 6.42 J / k

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 168 of 173

Or ωn12 = k / (6.42J) or ωn1 = 0.395 √(k / J)

The table for finding the natural frequencies is given below.

Position J θ Jωn2θ ∑Jωn2θ kt ( ∑Jωn2θ) /kt

Assume ωn = 0.2√(k / J)

1 4 1.00 0.16 0.16 1 0.16

1 3 0.84 0.10 0.26 2 0.13

1 2 0.71 0.056 0.317 3 0.105

1 1 0.59 0.024 0.342 4 0.09

1 ∞ 0.50

Position J θ Jωn2θ ∑Jωn2θ kt (∑Jωn2θ) / kt

Assume ωn = 0.3 √(k / J)

1 4 1.00 0.36 0.36 1 0.36

1 3 0.64 0.17 0.53 2 0.27

1 2 0.37 0.07 0.60 3 0.20

1 1 0.17 0.02 0.62 4 0.15

1 ∞ 0.02

Position J θ Jωn2θ ∑Jωn2θ kt (∑Jωn2θ) / kt

Assume ωn = 0.4 √(k / J)

1 4 1.00 0.64 0.64 1 0.64

2 3 0.36 0.17 0.81 2 0.41

3 2 −0.05 −0.01 0.80 3 0.27

4 1 −0.31 −0.05 0.75 4 0.19

5 ∞ −0.50

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 169 of 173

The above procedure is repeated for different values of ωn and the displacement at the fixed
end, θ5 is calculated for each value of ωn as follows:

ωn / √(k / J) θ5 ωn / √(k / J) θ5 ωn / √(k / J) θ5

0.2 0.50 0.8 0.03 2.0 − 93.0

0.3 0.02 1.0 2.63 2.5 −225.5

0.4 −0.50 1.5 −1.70 3.0 589.0

0.6 −1.01 1.8 −40.78

A graph of θ5 versus ωn is drawn and the values of ωn at which θ5 = 0 are the natural
frequencies. From the plot we find that ωn1 = 0.3 √(k/J)

ωn2 = 0.81 √(k/J) ; ωn3 = 1.45 √(k/J) ; ωn4 = 2.83 √(k/J)

Using Holzer’s method determine the natural frequencies for torsional vibrations of the
system shown in Fig. E8.7.3 if J1 = J2 = J3 = J4 = 100 N-cm-s2/rad and kt1 = kt2 = kt3 = kt4
= 10,000 N-cm / rad.

kt1 kt2 kt3 kt4

J1 J2 J3
Fig. E8.7.3 : Schematic for example 8.7.3.
The order of magnitude of ωn can be estimated by Dunkerly’s equation.

ω112 = ω222 = ω332 = k / J = 10000 / 100 = 100 rad / s.

Therefore 1 / ωn12 = 1/ 100 + 1 / 100 + 1 / 100 = 3 / 100
_______ _____
Or ωn12 = 100 / 3 0r ωn1 = √(100 / 3) =√(33.3) rad /s.
The condition to be satisfied is that the displacement at station 4, i.e.,

θ4 = 0. The displacement at any station i can be calculated from the equation

θi = θi −1 + (1 / kti) [ kt1θ1 − ωn2 ∑Jiθi ]

The table for calculating θ4 for different values of ωn is shown below.

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 170 of 173

Station J Jω2 θ Jω2θ ∑Jω2θ k T = k1θ1− ∑Jω2θ T/ k

Assume ωn = 5.00
0 ∞ ∞ 0 0 0 10000 10000 1.00

1 100 2500 1.0 2500 2500 10000 7500 0.75

1 100 2500 1.75 4375 6875 10000 3125 0.31

1 100 2500 2.06 5150 12025 10000 −2025 −0.20

1 100 ∞ 1.86

Similar table is constructed for different values of ωn and the displacement at station 4, i.e.
θ4 is calculated as follows:

ωn θ4 ωn θ4 ωn θ4
5.00 1.86 16.00 0.95 15.00 0.49

8.00 − 0.20 18.00 0.57

10.00 − 1.00 20.00 −4.00

A plot of θ4 versus ωn is drawn and the values of ωn at which θ4 is zero is read from the
graph. These values of ωn are the natural frequencies. Thus the natural frequencies for the
given system are:

ωn1 = 7.66 rad/s ; ωn2 = 14.12 rad /s and ωn3 = 18.57 rad /s.

Example 8.7.4 (Branched System) :- Determine the lowest natural frequency of the branched
system shown in Fig. E 8.7.4 if J1 = 10, J2 = 15, J3 = 20, J4 = 10, J5 = 10 , J6 = 20 N-cm-s
and K1 = 100, k2 = 200, k3 = 200, k4 = 100 and k5 =150 N-cm / rad

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 171 of 173

Example 8.7.4.

J1
k1

k2
k5 J2

J4
k4

k3 J3
J6 J5

A preliminary estimate of ωn can be made by reducing the given system to a two rotor
system as shown in Fig. E 8.7.4(a) below.

J = 20

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 172 of 173

J = 10 + 15 +20 + 10 + 10 = 65
____________ ___________________
ωn = √ k(J1 + J2) / J1J2 = √ 150 x[20 + 65] /(20 x 65) =3.2 rad / s

Position J Jω2 θ Jω2 θ ∑Jω2 θ k ∑Jω2 θ/k

Assume ω2 = 1.0
1 10 10 1.00 10 10 100 0.1
2 15 15 0.90 13.5 23.5 200 0.12
5 20 10 0.78 7.8 31.3
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 20 20 1.00 20 20 200 0.10
4 10 10 0.90 9 29 100 0.29
5 10 10 0.61 6.10 35.10

At the junction, disc J5 cannot have amplitudes of 0.78 and 0.61 at the the same time. To
make amplitude of J5 the same, let 0.78 / 0.61= 1.28 be the new amplitude for disc J3

Position J Jω2 θ
Jω2θ ∑ Jω2θ k ∑Jω2θ/k
3 20 20 1.28 25.6 25.6 200 0.13
4 10 10 1.15 11.5 37.1 100 0.37
5 10 10 0.78 7.8 68.4 150 0.46

Torque acting on shaft k5 equals the sum of the inertia torques by Discs J1J2, J3J4 and J5
i.e.23.5 + 37.1 + 7.8 = 68.4
6 20 20 0.32 6.4 74.8*

The above procedure is repeated for different values of ω2 and the remainder torque ∑Jω2θ
is calculated and the results are tabulated as follows.

A graph of ω2 versus ∑Jω2θ is plotted and the value of ω2 at which ∑Jω2θ is zero is read
from the graph as equal to 2.7. Therefore ω = 1.64 rad / s.
ω2 ∑Jω2θ
1.0 68.4
2.0 163.2
3.0 −214.7

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 173 of 173

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com | VTU NOTES | QUESTION PAPERS | NEWS | RESULTS | FORUMS

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES |

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 1 of 173

1. Complementary Function or Transient Response

2. Particular Integral or Steady State Response

mx88 + Cx8 + Kx8 = Fo Sin ωt ----------- (3.3)

Let x = X Sin (ωt - φ) be the trial solution

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 2 of 173

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 3 of 173

Damping force: - CωX [Sin (90 + (ωt - φ)]

Vector mω2X acting at (ωt - φ)

From the force polygon, in figure 3.3

Consider the triangle OAB.

and tan φ = OB = Cωx = Cω

∴φ = tan-1 Cω -------- (3.6)

If X and φ are expressed in non-dimensional form it enables a concise graphical presentation

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 4 of 173

For under damped conditions:

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 5 of 173

Phase lag vs frequency ratio for different amounts of damping.

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 6 of 173

Case (1): ω/ ωn << 1 for which ω should be very small

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 7 of 173

Case (2): when ω/ ωn = 1

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 8 of 173

Case (3): when ω / ωn >>1

Data: m = 2.5Kg, F0 = 30N, X = 14mm, τ = 0.225sec

At resonance: ω = ωn = 28.56 rad/sec

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 9 of 173

Part (2): When f = 4 Hz

Amplitude of vibration without damper

(a) fn = (1/2π)√(g/ Δst) = 4.55Hz

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 10 of 173

Condition for peak amplitude of vibration

2(1 - r2) 2 (-2r) + 4ζ2r = 0

and peak amplitude is given by

(X/Xst)max = 1/[2 ζ(√1- ζ)] --------- (3.11)

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 11 of 173

3.3) A machine of mass 25 kgs, is placed on an elastic foundation. A sinusoidal force of

... ωn = ω /(√1 -2 ζ2 ) = 28.6/(√1 -2 ζ2 ) --------------(1)

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 12 of 173

Now substitute for ωn2 from eq.(1);

... natural frequency ωn = ω

r = ω/ωn = 2/3.49 = 0.573

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 13 of 173

ωd = 9.8 cps, (ωp / ωn) = √1 -2ζ2

∴ ωp√1 -2ζ2 /ωd = √1 -2ζ2

Solving for ζ: ζ = 0.196

ωn = ωd/ √1 -2ζ2 = 10 cps.

ζ=0 X = F0 /(K-m ω2)2

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 14 of 173

Vibrations Due to Reciprocating and Rotating Masses

Let: m: mass of unbalanced mass.

Let the steady state response be

from the previous discussion we have

where Xst = F0 / K, r = ω/ωn

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 15 of 173

The following observations can be made.

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 16 of 173

if ζ = 0, MX/me = ∞, it is a case of resonance.

For vibrations due to rotating unbalance

e = stroke/2 = 0.08/2 = 0.04 m

ω = 2π (3000) / 60 = 314 rad/sec.

ωn = √K/m = √11.76*10.5 /75 = 125 rad/sec.

ω/ωn = r = 314 /125 = 2.51

75 (X)/2(0.04) = (2.51)2 / √(1-2.52)2 + (2*0.2*2.51)2

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 17 of 173

Vibration Isolation and Transmissibility

X= Xst --- (a) and

Spring force Damping force

Ft = Force transmitted Foundation

www.bookspar.com | VTU NOTES 18 of 173

= √(KX)2 + (CωX)2. (KX)2 / (KX)2 = (KX) √1 + (Cω/K)2

Substituting for X from (a)

75 (X)/2(0.04) = (2.51)2 / √(1-2.52)2 + (20.22.51)2

75 (X)/2(0.04) = (2.51)2 / √(1-2.52)2 + (20.22.51)2

C = Cc ∴ζ = C/Cc = 1032.mωn = 1032509.644.29