Lesson 1- Nouns

( 1) NOUNS
KINDS OF NOUNS:

 Common Nouns – are names of people (e.g. man), things (e.g. books),animals
(e.g. monkey) and places (church).

 Proper Nouns – are special names of people (e.g. George Bush), things
(e.g. Financial Times), animals (e.g. King Kong) and places (e.g. Paris).
A proper noun begins with a Capital Letter.

 Abstract Nouns – An abstract noun is the name of something that we can

only think of or feel but cannot see (e.g. friendship).

 Collective Nouns – are names used for a number of people,

things or animals together and treated as one. For example: a group of friends,
a bunch of bananas, a litter of puppies.

 Countable and Uncountable Nouns – Countable nouns are nouns which

can be counted (e.g. trees). Uncountable nouns are nouns which cannot be counted.
(e.g. smoke).

Countable and Uncountable Nouns are used with the following:

Countable Noun Uncountable Noun

a, an, a few, several, many, a little, much, some, plenty of,
some, plenty of, a lot of, a lot of, a large amount of,
a large number of a great deal of

Nouns have four genders:

1. Masculine Gender – The masculine gender is used for all males.
Example: boy, man
2. Feminine Gender – The feminine gender is used for all females.
Example: girl, woman
3. Common Gender – The common gender is used where the noun can be both
male and female. Example: cousin, friend, person, child, student
4. Neuter Gender – The neuter gender is used for things which have no life or sex.
Example: table, chair.

Singular and Plural Nouns – A noun that shows only one person (e.g. a girl), thing
(e.g. pencil), animal (e.g. tiger) or place (e.g. market) is called a singular noun).
A noun that shows more than one person (e.g. girls), thing (e.g. pencils), animal (e.g. tigers)
or place (e.g. markets) is called a plural noun.
How plural nouns are formed.
By adding –s.
By adding „es‟ to nouns ending in –ch, –s, –sh and –x.
beach beaches peach peaches
branch branches speech speeches
ditch ditches watch watches

boss bosses glass glasses

bus buses lens lenses
chorus choruses pass passes

brush brushes fish fishes

bush bushes lash lashes
dish dishes wish wishes

box boxes hoax hoaxes

fax faxes six sixes
fox foxes tax taxes

By adding ‘es’ to nouns ending in –o.

buffalo buffaloes potato potatoes
cargo cargoes mosquito mosquitoes
echo echoes tomato tomatoes

By adding ‘s’ to nouns ending in –o.

banjo banjos patio patios
bamboo bamboos photo photos
radio radios video videos

By replacing ‘y’ with –ies.

baby babies lorry lorries
fly flies navy navies
hobby hobbies puppy puppies

By adding ‘s’ to nouns ending in –y.

boy boys key keys
day days toy toys
donkey donkeys turkey turkeys

By replaying ‘f’ or ‘fe’ with –ves.

calf calves loaf loaves
half halves self selves
life lives wife wives

By adding ‘s’ to nouns ending in –f or –fe.

chief chiefs hoof hoofs
dwarf dwarfs reef reef
gulf gulfs roof roofs

By changing vowels.
foot feet louse lice
goose geese tooth teeth
mouse mice woman women

Some nouns have same words for plural and singular.

aircraft aircraft music music

crossroads crossroads series series
furniture furniture sheep sheep

Exceptional plural.
child children ox oxen
crisis crises passer-by passers-by
mouse mice radius radii

FORMING NOUNS
Nouns can be formed from nouns, verbs and adjectives. They are formed by adding
certain letters to them.
Nouns Nouns
widow widowhood
friend friendship
king kingdom

Verbs Nouns
add addition
fail failure
 give gift

Adjectives Nouns
clean cleanliness
sad sadness
beautiful beauty

( 2) VERBS

Verbs are words that show action. Every sentence must have a verb. A verb is
not always one word. It may be made up of more than one word.

Auxiliary verbs

The words: am, is, are, was, and were are verbs. They are forms of the verb „to
be‟. They are helping verbs called auxiliary verbs.

If the subject of a sentence is singular, the verb must be singular. If

thesubject of a sentence is plural, the verb must be plural. The verb must
agree with the subject in number.

Examples of „subjects‟ and „verbs‟

being singular: The man is sleeping. Shegoes to the
market. The student does his homework every day. The train hasarrived.

„Man‟, „she‟, „student‟ and „train‟ are known as subjects.The subjects are
all singular.The verbs „is‟, „goes‟, „does‟ and „has‟ are all singular too.

Examples of „subjects‟ and „verbs‟ being plural: The men are sleeping.They
go to the market. The students do their homework every day. The trains
have arrived.

„Men‟, „they‟, „students‟ and „trains‟ are known as subjects. The subjectsare
all plural. The verbs „are‟, „go‟, „do‟ and „have‟ are all plural too.

Singular subject/verb Plural subject/verb

1st I am do have eat We are do have eat

2nd You are do have eat You are do have eat

3rd He is does has eats They are do have eat

 She is does has eats They are do have eat

It is does has eats They are do have eat

Other singular and plural subjects that take on singular and plural verbs:

 Subjects with words like „each‟, „every‟, „any‟, „no‟, „none‟ and „nobody‟
take on the singular verbs.

Examples: Each student is given a pen.

Every child is happy watching the show.
Nobody is allowed to walk on the grass.

 Uncountable nouns always take singular verbs.

Examples: Rice is eaten in many countries.

There is oil on the floor.
Salt is added to make the food taste better.

 Subjects with words like „both‟, „all‟, „many‟, „some‟, „several‟ and „a
number of‟ take on a plural verb.

Examples: Both of you have to come home early.

All of us want to be happy.
Some of my friends are female.

 Two or more subjects joined by „and‟ always take a plural verb.

Examples: My brother and his friends like to play football.

His father and mother are watching television.

Transitive and intransitive verbs

The verb which needs an object to make its meaning clear or complete is called
a transitive verb.

Example: He feeds a cat. The word „cat‟ is called the object of the verb „feeds‟.
The object can be a noun or a pronoun.
The intransitive verb does not need an object but the meaning is clear or
complete.

Example: He ran. The verb „ran‟ does not need an object. She reads every day.
(No object) He eats quickly. (No object)
The Finite verb

The finite verb changes with the subject. The subject is the person, thing, animal
or place we refer to. When the subject is in the first or second person or isplural,
the verb does not change. When the subject is in the third person or issingular,
the verb changes from, say, „eat‟ to „eats‟. The verb „eat‟ is a finite
verb. Every sentence must have a finite verb.

Subject Singular subject Plural subject

First Person I eat We eat

Second Person You eat You eat

Third Person He eats They eat

Third Person She eats They eat

Third Person It eats They eat

The pen/s The pen is The pens are

The elephant/s The elephant does The elephants do not

The house/s The house has The houses have

The Infinitive

The infinitive is a verb that is followed by „to‟ and does not change with the
subject.

Subject Singular Subject Plural Subject

First Person I want to play. We want to play.

Second Person You want to play. You want to play.

Third Person He wants to play. They want to play.

She wants to play. They want to play.

It wants to play. They want to play.

The infinitive can take on an object. For example: He likes to read book. (To
read = infinitive; book = object).
Other usage of verbs to remember
1. When “and” is used to join two nouns or pronouns together, the verbis
usually in the plural.

Examples: Beef and mutton are meat.

He and I were classmates.

2. When we use two nouns for the same person or thing, the verbshould
be in the singular.

Examples: My friend and classmate is very helpful.

Bread and butter is his only food.

3. When we use two nouns for the same person, we use the
article‘the’ only once and the verb should be in the singular.

Example: The shopkeeper and owner of the shop is my uncle.

4. When we refer to two different persons, we use the article twice and
the verb must be in the plural.

Example: The shopkeeper and the owner of the shop are my good
friends.

5. When we join two nouns and treat them as a whole, the verb is in
thesingular.

Example: Bread and butter is his usual breakfast.

 6. When a noun is a quantity or an amount, it is treated as a whole and
the verb is in the singular.

Examples: Ten kilometers is not a long way to travel.

Nowadays, fifty dollars is not a lot of money.

A verb is used in different forms as follow:

Simple Present Tense eat

Simple Past Tense ate

Present Particle is eating

Past Particle has eaten

Future Tense will eat

THE PRESENT TENSE

1. The Present Simple

① Used for a habitual or repeated action, that is, for something that we
do always, every day, often, usually, etc.

Example: He plays football on Sundays.

② Used for a general truth or a fact, that is, for something that is true.

Example: Night follows day.

③ Used for something or an action happening now.

Example: See how she walks.

④ Used instead of the future tense.

Example: He arrives tomorrow.

⑤ Used instead of the past tense, to make something look more real.
 Example: The tiger comes; it catches the boy.

⑥ Used instead of the present perfect tense.

Example: We hear that the king is dead.

⑦ Used to introduce a quotation, that is, to repeat words spoken or

written by someone else.

Example: Shakespeare says: “Neither a borrower nor a lender be.”

2. The Present Continuous Tense

① Used to show that something is still happening, that is, an action is still
going on at the time of speaking. It shows that the action is not yet complete.

Example: He is writing a letter.

② Used instead of the future tense. We usually say the time when this
future action will take place

Example: He is going to Japan next week.

③ Used to use the phrase ‘is going’ which means ‘about to’.

Example: It is going to rain.

④ Used to show an action which happens many times. We often use

‘always’ with this expression.

Example: He is always getting into trouble.

3. The Present Perfect Tense

① Used to show an action which has just been completed or a past action
when the time is not mentioned. The action may be a recent one or it may be
one which happened a long time ago.

Example: I have finished reading the book.

There have been many changes in this country.

② Used for an action that has been going on from the past until now, that
is, something that happened in the past but is going on still.

Example: I have lived here for ten years.

③ Used often with ‘just’, ‘already’, ‘recently’, ‘never’, ‘yet’ and (in
questions) with ‘ever’.

Example: I have already told them about the plan

She has never replied to my letter.
Have you ever been to London?
④ Used often to answer questions which contain a verb in the Present
Perfect tense.

Example: Where have you been? I have been to London to see the
Queen.
What have you lost? I have lost all my money.

4. The Present Perfect Continuous Tense

① Used for an action just completed or continued up to now.

Example: He has been talking for an hour.

THE PAST TENSE

1. The Past Simple Tense

① Used to describe a completed past action when the time of the action is
mentioned.

Example: I went to the cinema yesterday.

② Used to show for a past action that was completely done in the past.

Example: My mother made a cake and we all ate it.

③ Used to express a habitual past action.

Example: He always came home late.

2. The Past Continuous Tense

① Used for an action that was going on in the past when something else
happened.

Example: While they were watching television, the light went out.

② Used to show an action that was going on at a certain time in the past.

Example: I was eating my dinner at 7 o‟clock last night.

③ Used for two actions that were going on at the same time in the past.

Example: While his father was reading the newspaper, his mother
was cooking.

3. The Past Perfect Tense

① Used for an action that was completed before another action took
place.

Example: I had left the house before he arrived.

② Used in the Indirect or Reported Speech.

Example: “I have read the book”. He said that he had read the book.

4. The Past Perfect Continuous Tense

① Used for an action that had been going on in the past before another
action occurred in the past.

Example: She had been cooking when we visited her.

THE FUTURE TENSE

The Future Tense is used to show some action or happening in the future. Future
Simple + „Going To”

1. Simple Future Tense is used to show future action or that something will
happen in the future.

Example: We will complete the work tomorrow.

2. ‘Going to’ is used to express a future action that has been planned in
advance.

Example: We are going to Japan next week.

3. Future Continuous Tense is used to show continuous action at some

future time.

Example: I shall be seeing both of you tomorrow.

4. Future Perfect Tense is used for an action which will have finished by
some future time or date which is mentioned or before another action has
begun.

Example: I shall have finished this job by seven o’clock.

I shall have finished this job by the time you arrive.

5. Future Perfect Continuous Tense. This continuous tense is formed with

‘shall/will have been’ + a present particle.

Example: I shall have been married for exactly ten years next
Saturday.
( 3) ADJECTIVES

An adjective is a word that tells us something about a noun, that is, about a
person, an animal, a thing or a place.
For example:
She is a pretty girl.
A giraffe has a long neck.
The table is round.
That is an old temple.

There are various kinds of adjectives:

1. An adjective which tells us about the quality of the noun.
For example: the blue sky, a big house, a square table, a cold morning.
2. An adjective which tells us about the quatity of the noun.
For example: The zoo has many animals.
The pen has not much ink left.
3. An adjective which tells us about the ownership of the noun.
For example: That is my dog.
Those are their bicycles.
4. An adjective which poses question in an „interrogative‟ manner.
For example: Which school do you go to?
Whose car is this?
5. An adjective which specifies a noun.
For example: This boy is a member of the club.
That girl is my sister.
Adjectives which end in „-ing‟, e.g. an interesting film, an amazing player,
anannoying habit,
Adjectives which end in „-ed, e.g. the damaged goods,
the escapedprisoners, improved version,
Forming adjectives
Adding „y‟.Drop Add „ful‟.* Add „ous‟ or Add „less‟.
„e‟. Change „y‟ to „i‟. „ious‟. *Drop
„y‟.
anger care mountain aim
ease* doubt danger end
greed peace industry harm
ice* beauty* mystery* sense
oil pity* glory* use
Add „al‟. * Drop Add „able‟. Add „ic‟.*Drop Add „ive‟.
„e‟. „y‟.
music accept acrobat attract
nation comfort artist effect
person enjoy photograph act
nature* fashion sympathy* instruct
agriculture* respect robot progress

Adjectives can be formed from Nouns.

Noun Adjective
accident accidental
danger dangerous
length long
star starry
wind windy

Adjectives can be formed from Verbs.

Verb Adjective
enjoy enjoyable
help helpful
obey obedient
play playful
talk talkative

Adjectives can be formed from Adjectives.

Adjective Adjective
comic comical
correct corrective
elder elderly
red reddish
sick sickly
Comparison of adjectives
We use the Positive degree to compare two equal nouns. For example:
His house is as big as my house.
We use the Comparative degree to compare two unequal nouns. For
example: His house is bigger than my house.
We use the Superlative degree to compare three or more Nouns. For
example: His house is the biggest in the neighbourhood.

Positive Comparative Superlative

bold bolder boldest
deep deeper deepest
near nearer nearest
rich richer richest
tall taller tallest
Positive Comparative Superlative
careful more careful most careful
enjoyable more enjoyable most enjoyable
forgetful more forgetful most forgetful
useful more useful most useful
wonderful more wonderful most wonderful
Positive Comparative Superlative
bad worse worst
good better best
little less least
( 4) ADVERBS
An adverb adds more to the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another
adverb.
.I called you last night. (called=verb; last night=adverb)
Your dress is very beautiful. (beautiful=adjective; very=adverb)
The rain stopped quite suddenly. (suddenly=adverb; quite=adverb)
Types of Adverbs
Adverb of Time – This shows when an action or something is done or happens.
It answers the question “When?” It is either placed at the beginning or at the
end of a sentence.
Example: I phoned you yesterday. / I saw her walking along the river last
week.
Adverb of Place – This shows where an action or something is done or
happens. It answers the question “Where?” It is placed after the verb.
Example: I live here. / He fell down.
Adverb of Manner – This shows how an action or something is done. It
answers the question “How?” It is usually placed just after the verb.
Example: She sleeps soundly. / He drives quickly.
Adverb of Degree or Quantity – This answers the questions, “To what
degree?” or “How much?” It is usually placed before the adjective and the
adverb.
Example: It is too dark for us to see anything. / Last night it
rained veryheavily..
Adverb of Frequency – This answers the question “How often?”
Example: He will never have finished in time. / We always go to school by
bus.
Affirmative Adverb (yes) and Adverb of negation (No)
Example: yes, surely, certainly, indeed, by all means, no, not at all, by no
means.
Interrogative Adverb (Question) For example: When? Where? How? Why?
How much/often?
Relative Adverb: when, where, how, why These words are the same in form as
Interrogative Adverbs; but they are not questions.
Example: The time when he arrived. / The scene where the accident occurred. /
He knows how to do it. / The reason why he left.
Comparison of Adverbs
Similar to the comparison of adjectives, adverbs have three degrees of
comparison – the Positive, the Comparative and the Superlative. Most adverbs
which end in „-ly‟ form the Comparative with „more‟ and the Superlative with
„most‟.
Positive Comparative Superlative
comfortably more comfortably most comfortably
happily more happily most happily
kindly more kindly most kindly
loudly more loudly most loudly
noisily more noisily most noisily
Forming Adverbs Adverbs can be formed from nouns, adjectives andverbs.
Most adverbs end in „-ly‟.
Nouns Adjectives Verbs Adverbs
beauty beautifully
success successfully
angry angrily
foolish foolishly
continue continually
know knowingly
( 5) INDIRECT SPEECH

We can report what another person says in two ways:

 By using the exact words of the speaker.

Example: – He said to me, “Be careful!” This is the Direct Speech. We repeat
the exact words used by the speaker and keep the exact words within quotation
marks.

 By using our own words to repeat what the speaker said.

Example – Direct: He said to me, “Be careful!” Indirect: He told me to be

careful. This is the Indirect or Reported Speech. Notice that the past tense is
used when the main verb „said‟ is in the past tense. Here we do not use the
quotation marks. We use an infinitive and we repeat the pronoun.

When we change Direct Speech into Indirect Speech, it is sometimes necessary

to:

 Change all Present and Future Tenses in the Direct Speech into the Past
Tenses in the Indirect Speech when the main verb „said‟ is in the Past Tense.

Example – Direct: “Write carefully!” he said to me. Indirect: He told me to write

carefully.

 Change a pronoun or a possessive adjective, and the tense of the verb to

Past Tense.

Example – Direct: “Don‟t drive so fast when you pass my school,” he said to
me. Indirect: He asked me not to drive so fast when I passed his school.

 Use more than one “speech” verb if the Direct Speech contains more than
one sentence.
Example – Direct: “Don‟t quarrel with your sister,” my mother said. “Get on
with your school homework. ”Indirect: My mother told me not to quarrel with
my sister. She told/asked me to get on with my school homework.

In most cases, we do not change the tense of the verbs in Direct Speech when:

 The reporting verb is in the Simple Present tense (he says), the Present
Perfect tense (she has told us) or the Simple Future tense (I will tell him).
Examples:
Direct: Indirect:
“I‟m tired,” he says every evening. Every evening he says (that) he is
tired.
“They are late,” she has already told She has already told us (that) they
us. are late.
“I will tell him, “The shop is shut.” I will tell him (that) the shop is shut.

 We do not change the tense of verbs in Direct Speech if they make a

statement which is always true or if the action is still continuing and a change of
tense would give the wrong meaning.

Examples:
Direct: Indirect:
He told us, “The world is round.” He told us that the world is round.
“My brother is living in Australia.” She said that her brother is living in
Australia.

The following changes are also made:

1. shall to should will to would may to might

can to could has to had

2. Pronouns and Possessive AdjectivesThe pronoun is changed in person

from first and second to third.
I becomes he or she We becomes they You becomes
he, him, her or them

3. Adjectives and Adverbs:

We change:
this to that
these to those
now to then
today to that day
last night to on the previous night or the night before
tomorrow to the next day or the day after
 here to there
yesterday to the previous day or the day before
thus to so; (in) that way

( 6) THE ARTICLES

Definite Article – „The‟

Indefinite Article – „A‟ or „An‟

„A‟ is used:

 Before a word which begins with a consonant. Example: a woman

 Before a singular, countable noun. Example: a banana

 When we mention something for the first time. Example: I saw a dog.

 Before a word with a long sound of

‘u’. Example: a university, auniform, a useful book, a European, etc.

 Before the word one. Example: a one-way street, a one-eyed man, aone-
year course, a one-day holiday, etc.

„An‟ is used:

 Before a noun which begins with a vowel. Example: an apple.

 Before a word which begins with a vowel sound or a silent

‘h‟.Example: an hour, an honest man, an heir, an honour, an honourable man,
etc

 Before a singular, countable noun which begins with

a vowel or silent„h‟. Example: an orange

„The‟ is used:

1. When the same thing or person mentioned again, that is, a particular
thing or person. Example: I bought an orange. The orange is sweet..
2. When there is only one such
thing. Example: the earth, the sun, themoon.

3. Before the names of famous buildings, etc. Example: The Eiffel

Tower,The Great Wall of China.

4. When a singular noun is used to point out a whole class, race, group,
etc. Example: The bear is a strong animal.

5. Before the special names of a rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges,

groups of islands, certain organizations, political parties, and countries such
asthe U.S.A., the U.K., the U.S.S.R. and the U.A.R., The Nile, The Dead
Sea,The Pacific Ocean, The Himalayas, The United Nations, The Republican
Party, etc.

6. Before the names of holy or important

books. Example: The Koran,The Bible.

7. Before an adjective when the noun is understood. Example: The poor

need help.

Articles are not used:

1. Before the name of a person: Example: I am a fan of Michael Jackson.

(not A or The Michael Jackson)

2. Before the name of a place, town, country, street, or road. Example:

Barcelona is a beautiful city. (not A or The Barcelona)

3. Before names of materials. Example: Gold is found in Australia. (not A

or The gold)

4. Before abstract nouns used in a general sense. Example: We love all

beauty. (not a beauty or the beauty)
( 7) PRONOUNS

A Pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. It refers to a person or thing
without giving the name.

There are two types of Personal Pronouns:

(1) those used as subjects; and

(2) those used as objects.

Personal Pronouns

Singular Plural
Subject Object Subject Object
First Person I Me We Us
Second Person You You You You
Third Person He Him They Them

She Her They Them

It It They Them

Reflexive Pronouns

We use the Reflexive Pronoun when the action of the doer goes back to himself so
that the Subject of the sentence is the same person as the object.

Example: He has hurt himself.

Pronouns like ‘himself' are called Reflexive Pronouns. They always end in ‘self '.

Reflexive Pronouns Singular Plural

First Person Myself Ourselves
Second Person Yourself Yourselves
Third Person Himself Themselves

Herself Themselves
 Itself Themselves

Relative Pronouns

The Relative Pronouns take the place of Nouns or Pronouns; and they are used
tojoin two sentences about the same person or thing.

Examples of relative pronouns: who, which, that, whom and whose.

In most cases, we use who, whose and whom to make statements about people.

 ¨ We use who to join two sentences.

Example: "The man is an artist. He drew that picture."

"The man is an artist who drew that picture."

 ¨ We use whose to show possession or relationship.

Example: "That is my uncle whose son is my cousin."

 ¨ We use which or that in almost the same way as we use who but it refers
tothings, not human beings. There is one other difference in the way we
use who andwhich. After who we put a verb. After which we can put a verb,
a pronoun or anoun.

Example: That is the camera which costs fifty dollars. That is the camera which
hebought. That is the camera which John likes.

 ¨ We use whom to make a statement about human beings. It is used in place

of who(a) when it is the object of a verb or (b) when it comes after a preposition.

Example: (a) The man whom they caught was sent to prison. (b) The man to
whomyou should speak is my uncle.
 ( 8) PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are words placed before Nouns and Pronouns. They are used to
show time, position and direction.

 ¨ Examples of Prepositions showing time:

My birthday falls in September.

Most shops are closed on Sunday.

I have an appointment at 9 o'clock.

 ¨ Examples of Prepositions showing position:

He is standing at the door.

The glass is on the table.

The cat is sleeping under the chair.

 ¨ Examples of Prepositions showing direction:

She got into the taxi.

The girl is walking towards her mother.

I have to go to town.

Other examples of expressions using prepositions:

 ¨ The picture was drawn by his brother.

 ¨ She likes to go out with her friends.
 ¨ They say I walk like my father.
 ¨ Her parents give her a box of sweets.

Expressions using Prepositions:

good at get up fall off interested in

clever at wake up get off involved in
bad at look up set off send in
point at clean up break off work in
stare at add up finish off fill in

fight against get into turn on made of

speak against cash into switch on built of
vote against jump into get on a box of
hit against turn into carry on half of
lean against dive into put it on many of
 ( 9) CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions join words, phrases and sentences together.

Conjunctions joining words:

Example: I have a car and a house.

Conjunctions joining phrases:

Example: The fisherman is happy walking along the beach and carrying a
bucketfull of fish.

Conjunctions joining sentences:

 ¨ He walked to his car. He got into it..

He walked to his car and got into it.

 ¨ Will you have tea? Will you have coffee?

Will you have tea or coffee?

 ¨ She is tired. She cannot sleep.

She is tired but she cannot sleep.

Besides ‘and', ‘or' and ‘but', other common conjunctions

include: because, if, so,although, unless, therefore, etc.

Conjunctions can join nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.

Example:
I have a pen and a book. (Joining two nouns)

He joked and we laughed. (Joining two verbs)

She is beautiful and tall. (Joining two adjectives)
He eats quickly and noisily. (Joining two adverbs)
 ( 10) POSSESSION

There are three kinds of Possession: Possessive Nouns, Possessive Adjectivesand Possessive Pronouns.

 Possessive Nouns

Nouns that show possession are called Possessive Nouns. Possessive Nouns are formed:

 1. By adding an apostrophe (‘s) to singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in s;

Example: my father's car; the children's toys

 2. By adding an apostrophe („) to plural nouns ending in s;

Example: the boys' bicycles

 3. By using „of the' with names of non-living things.

Example: the roof of the house.

 Possessive Adjectives

Adjectives that show possession are called Possessive Adjectives. Adjectivessuch as „my' and „his' are

used before nouns such as „school' and „bicycle' to showpossession. Such adjectives are examples of

Possessive Adjectives.

Example: „This is my school' and „That is his bicycle'.

Possessive Adjectives Singular Plural

 First Person my our
Second Person your your
Third Person his their

her their

its their

 Possessive Pronouns

Pronouns that show possession are called Possessive Pronouns. Words like „mine' and „yours' are

pronouns and as they show possession, they are known asPossessive Pronouns.

Example: „This is my car. It is mine' and „That is your van. It is yours'.

Possessive Pronouns Singular Plural

First Person Mine Ours
Second Person Yours Yours
Third Person His Theirs

Hers Theirs

Its Theirs
Lesson 11- Punctuation
PUNCTUATION MARKS
A full stop or period ( . ) is used:

 to mark the end of a sentence.

Example: There are two sides to every question.

 to show the shortened form of a word

Example: exam

 at the end of an abbreviation.

Example: Dr.

Comma ( , ) is used:

 to separate words in a list.

Example: We saw monkeys, lions and tigers in the zoo.

 to show a pause in a sentence or reading.

Example: Yesterday, as I was jogging, I saw a big snake.

 before inverted commas of actual words spoken.

Example: He told us, “The world is round.”

 to separate the name of the person spoken to.

Example: “John, let‟s start work straightaway.”

 to separate parts of an address.

Example: 99, Downing Street, Kingston.

 to separate relative clause from the rest of the sentence.

Example: The man, who lives next door, is a doctor.

Question Mark ( ? ) is used at the end of a sentence to show a question.

Example: “When will the train arrive?”

Exclamation Mark ( ! ) is used at the end of a sentence to show surprise,

excited, or angry.
Example: We won! Quiet!

Colon ( : ) is used to introduce an example, quotation, etc.

Example: This box contains the following items: bandages,plasters, lotion,
medicines and a pair of scissors.

Semicolon ( ; ) is used to join two sentences or two complete parts of a sentence

which are closely connected in meaning.
Example: He gives up smoking; obviously, he fears smoking-related disease
may strike him.

Apostrophe ( „ ) is used:

 to show that numbers or letters have been left out.

Example: ‟86 (=1986); don‟t (=do not).

 to show that something belongs to someone or something.

Example: John‟s mother; Charles‟ book

 to the plural of letters and numbers.

Example: Your c‟s / 5‟s are too big.

Hyphen ( - ) is used to join two words or more to form compound words.

Example: good-looking, pro-American, forty-one, mother-in-law.

Quotation Marks ( “ “ ) are used:

 to show the beginning and end of reported speech.

Example: “Turn on the light” she said to me.

 to show a quoted word, phrase or title.

Example: “War and Peace” is a novel by Leo Tolstoy.
( 12) SOME and ANY

1. We use “some” in a positive statement and “any” in anegative statement or a

question.

2. We use both “some” and “any” with countable or uncountablenouns.

3. We use “some” in a question if it is an invitation or a request.

4. We join “some” and “any” with “one”, “body” or “thing” to formpositive sentences
and negative sentences respectively.

Examples:

1. I have a sister. / I don‟t have a sister. / Do you have any sister?

2. He bought some oranges. / He spent some time looking for his lost wallet.

/ There aren‟t any eggs on sale here. / There isn‟t any tea in the kettle.

3. Would you like to drink some milk? Can you do something for me?

4. Someone has taken my book. / Anyone could have taken it./ There‟s somebody

waiting to see you. / Has anybody seen the film? / I want something to eat. /

Would you like anything else to eat?

( 13) USED TO
1. “USED TO” AS A VERB

We can use the expression “used to” when we wish to refer to a past
habit which has now stopped.

Example: I used to go to that shop but now I don‟t go there anymore.

The usual question form and possible answers with “used to” are:
question: “Did you use to see them very often?”
answers: “Yes, I used to.” / “No, I didn‟t use to.” / “No, I never used
to.”

Remember that “use” and not “used” is used after “did” and “didn‟t”.

2. “USED TO” AS AN ADJECTIVE

We can show that somebody is accustomed to something by using

“used to” as an adjective. It is often followed by a gerund but it can be
followed by a noun or possessive.

Example: I am used to living in a warm climate. (followed by a

gerund)
They are used to this weather. (followed by a noun)
He seems used to your brother‟s jokes. (followed by
possessive adjective)
 ( 14) CAN and COULD

Can and could are modal verbs. They are used with other verbs to convey ideas
such as possibility, permission, etc.

We use can to:

 talk about possibility and ability;

Example: I can ride a horse. / He can speak three languages.

 make requests or give orders;

Example: Can you buy me a can of beer. / Can you complete now what
you are doing.

 ask for or give permission.

Example: Can I come in now?

Note: we may also use could, may and might for permission.

Points to note:

 We use can for the present. We also use it for the future when we
decide we are able to do something.

Example: We can go swimming tomorrow.

 We do not use can with infinitive verb.

Example: We can play football today. NOT: We can to play

football today.

 Sometimes it is necessary to use (be) able to in place of can.

 Example: I can’t contact him. / I haven‟t been able to contact him for
two days. (It is not possible to use can with present perfect tense).

Could is one of the modal verbs. We use could:

 as the past tense of can.

Example: Jane said she could get the tickets for us .

 to show what was possible in the past.

Example: He could cycle when he was four years old.

 to ask someone to do something.

Example: Could you buy some cigarettes for me?

 to ask if someone is able or allowed to do something.

Example: My grandmother could speak Spanish. / Could I ask you

a question?

Points to note:

 Where the subject is singular, we do not add –s to the verb

Example: He can swim. NOT: He can swims.

 We use could for actions now or in the future.

Example: It‟s a nice day. We could go for a walk.

Example: When I go to London next week, I could stay with my

uncle.

 Could is less sure than can, so we use could when we do not

really mean what we say.

Example: I am so hungry. I could eat the whole chicken. (NOT: Ican eat
the whole chicken).

 We use could do for now and could have for the past.
 Example: I am so tired. I could sleep the whole day. (now)

Example: I was so tired. I could have slept the whole day.

(past)

 We use could with present perfect tense for things which were
possible to happen but didn’t or an event which we are not sure about.

Example: You could have taken a different route to

avoid the traffic jam.

Example: He could have broken the glass. She couldn’t

have broken the glass.
( 15) GERUNDS and PRESENT PARTICIPLES

Gerund is a word that functions as a noun. It is derived by adding „–ing‟ to the end of a verb (j
is a good way of exercising”.

A present participle is formed by adding „-ing‟ to the verb, as in „reading‟., e.g. “He may be re
newspaper now”.

A gerund is used:

 as the subject of the sentence.

Example: Waiting for a bus can take a long time.

 as the object of a verb.

Example: “Will you stop crying?”

 as a verbal noun, i.e. as a verb doing the work of a noun.

Example: Her scolding frightened her children.

 after a verb.

Example: The gate needs repainting.

 after “busy”.

Example: She is busy cooking for dinner.

 with a preposition.

Example: We are tired after walking for two hours.

  after a phrasal verb.

Example: If we carry on working, we can complete it today.

A present participle is used:

 immediately after a subject to which it refers.

Example: People driving in the rain have to drive carefully.

 after a verb.

Example: He went fishing with his friends.

 after a noun. It tells us what a person or thing is doing.

Example: She heard them talking about her.

Example: I saw a rock rolling down the hill.

 as an adjective.

Example: That twinkling star is much brighter than the rest.

 to show that a person is doing two things at the same time.

Example: He is sitting outside the house, watching people pass by.

 to form the continuous tense.

Example: He is washing his car.

 when one action is followed by another.

Example: Walking on the beach, he threw a ball to his friend.

List 1 - Forming Nouns
FORMING NOUNS
NOUNS VERBS ADJECTIVES NOUNS
absent absence
act action
add addition
agree agreement
angry anger
arrive arrival
attend attention
bad badness
beautiful beauty
begin beginning
behave behavior
brave bravery
breathe breath
bright brightness
broad breadth
brother brotherhood
busy business
child childhood
choose choice
clean cleanliness
collect collection
correct correction
cruel cruelty
dark darkness
deep depth
describe description
die death
divide division
do deed
draw drawing
dry dryness
enjoy enjoyment
enter entrance
explain explanation
fail failure
fat fatness
 feed food
fit fitness
foolish foolishness
free freedom
friend friendship
give gift
glad gladness
good goodness
great greatness
grow growth
happy happiness
hate hatred
heal health
high height
honest honesty
hungry hunger
imagine imagination
instruct instruction
invent invention
invite invitation
judge judgement
kind kindness
king kingdom,
kingship
know knowledge
laugh laughter
lazy laziness
leader leadership
lend loan
like likeness
live life
long length
lose loss
mad madness
man manhood
marry marriage
member membership
mix mixture
mother motherhood
move movement
multiply multiplication
neighbor neighborhood
new newness
obey obedience
occupy occupation
 permit permission
please pleasure
poet poetry
proud pride
prove proof
punish punishment
ready readiness
remember remembrance
sad sadness
safe safety
scholar scholarship
see sight
sell sale
sharp sharpness
sick sickness
sit seat
slow slowness
soft softness
speak speech
strong strength
succeed success
sweet sweetness
teach teaching
tell tale
thick thickness
think thought
thirsty thirst
tight tightness
true truth
valuable value
warm warmth
weak weakness
wed wedding
weigh weight
wide width
wise wisdom
young youth
List 2 - Forming Adjectives
FORMING ADJECTIVES
NOUNS VERBS ADJECTIVES
accident accidental
adventure adventurous
boy boyish
care careful
caution cautious
centre central
child childish
choose choosy
circle circular
collect collective
comfort comfortable
coward cowardly
danger dangerous
describe descriptive
distance distant
enjoy enjoyable
faith faithful
fame famous
father fatherly
fool foolish
forget forgetful
fortune fortunate
friend friendly
girl girlish
gold golden
harm harmful
hate hateful
height high
help helpful
hero heroic
hope hopeful
 imagine imaginary
joy joyful
law lawful
length long
love lovable
man manly
mercy merciful
mine my
mischief mischievous
mountain mountainous
music musical
nation national
nature natural
noise noisy
north northern
obey obedient
parent parental
peace peaceful
person personal
pity pitiful
please pleasant
poison poisonous
pride proud
prosper prosperous
quarrel quarrelsome
science scientific
sense sensible
silk silky
skill skilful
smoke smoky
sorrow sorrowful
south southern
storm stormy
strength strong
study studious
success successful
sun sunny
talk talkative
terror terrible
thirsty thirsty
thought thoughtful
trouble troublesome
truth truthful
value valuable
victory victorious
war warlike
water watery
wave wavy
west western
winter wintry
wisdom wise
wood wooden
wool woolen
year yearly
youth young
List 3 - Forming Verbs
FORMING VERBS
ADJECTIVES NOUNS VERBS
broad broaden
clean cleanse
cloth clothe
courage encourage
dark darken
deep deepen
equal equalize
fast fasten
fat fatten
fertile fertilize
friend befriend
full fill
glad gladden
government govern
joy enjoy
knee kneel
large enlarge
less lessen
light lighten
long lengthen
loose loosen
product produce
pure purify
quick quicken
rich enrich
sad sadden
safe save
sharp sharpen
short shorten
sight see
slave enslave
smooth smoothen
soft soften
spark sparkle
tight tighten
trial try
unity unite
wide widen
List 4 - Forming Adverbs
FORMING ADVERBS
NOUNS VERBS ADJECTIVES ADVERBS
accident accidentally
actual actually
angry angrily
annual annually
attention attentively
bad badly
beauty beautifully
boast boastfully
brave bravely
brief briefly
bright brightly
busy busily
careful carefully
careless carelessly
cheer cheerfully
clean cleanly
clear clearly
clever cleverly
comfort comfortably
complete completely
continue continually
cruel cruelly
dangerous dangerously
day daily
dear dearly
dim dimly
dirty dirtily
double doubly
dull dully
easy easily
enjoy enjoyably
entire entirely
faith faithfully
fatal fatally
fear fearfully
fierce fiercely
first firstly
foolish foolishly
 forget forgetfully
free freely
fright frightfully
general generally
glad gladly
grace gracefully
gradual gradually
happy happily
hard hardly
hate hatefully
heavy heavily
help helpfully
hope hopefully
horror horribly
hurry hurriedly
infect infectiously
joy joyfully
kind kindly
know knowingly
last lastly
late lately
lazy lazily
light lightly
loud loudly
luck luckily
mad madly
magic magically
merry merrily
month monthly
natural naturally
near nearly
neat neatly
needless needlessly
nice nicely
night nightly
noise noisily
obey obediently
one once
open openly
pain painfully
part partly
patient patiently
peace peacefully
please pleasantly
polite politely
 pretty prettily
proud proudly
pure purely
quick quickly
quiet quietly
rare rarely
ready readily
rough roughly
sad sadly
safe safely
shake shakily
shame shamefully
silent silently
simple simply
sincere sincerely
skill skilfully
sleep sleepily
slow slowly
sound soundly
special specially
success successfully
sudden suddenly
sweet sweetly
swift swiftly
terrible terribly
true truly
truthful truthfully
wise wisely
year yearly
COLLECTIVE NOUNS

PEOPLE

an army of soldiers a gang of thieves

a bevy of beauties/girls a horde of savages
a band of musicians a host of angels
a band of robbers a line of kings/rulers
a board of directors a mob of rioters
a body of men a group of dancers
a bunch of crooks a group of singers
a caravan of gypsies a pack of rascals
a choir of singers a pack of thieves
a class of pupils a party of friends
a class of students a patrol of policemen
a company of actors a posse of policemen
a company of soldiers a regiment of soldiers
a congregation of worshippers a staff of employees
a crew of sailors a staff of servants
a crowd of spectators a staff of teachers
a crowd of people a team of players
a dynasty of kings a tribe of natives
a galaxy of beautiful women a troop of scouts
a galaxy of film stars a troupe of artistes
a gang of crooks a troupe of dancers
a gang of labourers a troupe of performers
a gang of prisoners a party of friends
a gang of robbers

THINGS

an album of autographs a hail of bullets

an album of photographs a hand of bananas (each a finger)
an album of stamps a harvest of wheat/corn
an anthology of poems a heap of rubbish
an archipelago of islands a heap of ruins
a bale of cotton a hedge of bushes
a basket of fruit a heap of stones
a batch of bread a layer of soil/dirt
a battery of guns a library of books
a block of flats a line of cars
a book of exercises a list of names
a book of notes a mass of ruins/hair
a bouquet of flowers a necklace of pearls
a bowl of rice an outfit of clothes
a bunch of bananas an orchard of fruit trees
a bunch of flowers a pack of cards
a bunch of grapes a pack of lies
a bunch of keys a packet of cigarettes
a bundle of rags/old clothes a packet of letters
a bundle of firewood/sticks a pair of shoes
a bundle of hay a pencil of rays
a catalogue of prices/goods a quiver of arrows
a chain of mountains a range of hills
a chest of drawers a range of mountains
a cluster of coconuts a ream of paper
a cluster of grapes a reel of thread/film
a cloud of dust a roll of film/cloth
a clump of bushes a rope of pearls
a clump of trees a row of houses
a collection of coins a series of events
a collection of curiosities a set of china
a collection of pictures a set of clubs
a collection of relics a set of tools
a collection of stamps a sheaf of arrows
a column of smoke a sheaf of corn
a comb of bananas a sheaf of grain
a compendium of games a sheaf of papers
a constellation of stars a sheaf of wheat
a cluster of diamonds a shower of blows
a cluster of stars a shower of rain
a clutch of eggs a stack of arms
a crate of fruit a stack of corn
a crop of apples a stack of hay
a fall of rain a stack of timber
a fall of snow a stack of wood
a fleet of motor-cars/taxis a stock of wood
a fleet of ships a string of beads
a flight of aeroplanes a string of pearls
a flight of steps a suit of clothes
a forest of trees a suite of furniture
a galaxy of stars a suite of rooms
a garland of flowers a tuft of grass
a glossary of difficult words/phrases a tuft of hair
a group of islands a wad of currency/notes
a grove of trees a wreath of flowers

ANIMALS
an army of ants a litter of kittens
a bevy of quail a litter of puppies
a brood/flock of chickens a menagerie of wild animals
a catch of fish a muster of peacocks
a cloud of flies a nest of ants
a cloud of insects a nest of mice
a cloud of locusts a nest of rabbits
a colony of gulls a pack of hounds
a drove of cattle a pack of wolves
a drove of horses a plague of insects
a flight of birds a plague of locusts
a flight of doves a pride of lions
a flight of locusts a school of herrings/other
a flight of swallows small a afish
a flock of birds a school of porpoises
a flock of geese a school of whales
a flock of sheep a shoal of fish
a gaggle of geese a skein of wild geese in flight
a haul of fish a string of horses
a herd of buffaloes a stud of horses
a herd of cattle a swarm of ants
a herd of deer a swarm of bees
a herd of elephants a swarm of insects
a herd of goats a swarm of locusts
a herd of swine a team of horses
a hive of bees a team of oxen
a host of sparrows a train of camels
a kindle of kittens a tribe of goats
a litter of cubs a troop of lions
a litter of piglets a troop of monkeys
a zoo of wild animals
List 6 - Gender
GENDER

PEOPLE

MASCULINE FAMININE
actor actress
author authoress
bachelor spinster
boy girl
Boy Scout Girl Guide
brave Squaw
bridegroom bride
brother sister
conductor comductress
count countess
czar czarina
dad mum
daddy mummy
duke duchess
emperor empress
father mother
father-in-law mother-in-law
fiance fiancee
gentleman lady
giant giantess
god goddess
governor matron
grandfather grandmother
headmaster headmistress
heir heiress
hero heroine
host hostess
hunter huntress
husband wife
king queen
lad lass
landlord landlady
lord lady
man woman
manager manageress
manservant maidservant
master mistress
mayor mayoress
milkman milkmaid
millionaire millionairess
monitor monitress
monk nun
Mr. Mrs.
murderer murderess
Negro Negress
nephew niece
papa mama
poet poetess
postman postwoman
postmaster postmistress
priest prietess
prince princess
prophet prophetess
proprietor proprietress
protector protectress
shepherd shepherdess
sir madam
son daughter
son-in-law daughter-in-law
step-father step-mother
step-son step-daughter
steward stewardess
sultan sultana
tailor tailoress
uncle aunt
waiter waitress
washerman washerwoman
widower widow
wizard witch

CREATURES

MASCULINE FAMININE
billy-goat nanny-goat
boar sow
buck (deer, hare) doe
buck-rabbit doe-rabbit
bull cow
bull-elephant cow-elephant
bull-seal cow-seal
bullock heifer
bull-whale cow-whale
cob (swan) pen
cock hen
cockerel pullet
cock-pigeon hen-pigeon
colt (young horse) filly
dog bitch
drake duck
drone bee
fox vixen
gander goose
hawk bowess
he-bear she-bear
he-goat she-goat
he-wolf she-wolf
jack-ass jenny-ass, she-ass
leopard leopardess
lion lioness
peacock peahen
ram (sheep) ewe
stag hind
stallion mare
tiger tigress
tom-cat tabby-cat
turkey-cock turkey-hen
List 7 - Forms of Verb
FORMS OF THE VERB
PRESENT PRESENT PAST PAST
TENSE PARTICIPLE TENSE PARTICIPLE
arise arising arose arisen
awake awaking awoke awoken
bear bearing bore born,borne
beat beating beat beaten
become becoming became become
begin beginning began begun
bend bending bent bent
bid bidding bid,bade bid,bade
bind binding bound bound
bite biting bit bitten
bleed bleeding bled bled
blow blowing blew blown
break breaking broke broken
breed breeding bred bred
bring bringing brought brought
build building built built
burn burning burned,burnt burned,burnt
burst bursting burst burst
buy buying bought bought
cast casting cast cast
catch catching caught caught
choose choosing chose chosen
cling clinging clung clung
come coming came come
cost costing cost cost
creep creeping crept crept
cut cutting cut cut
deal dealing dealt dealt
dig digging dug dug
do doing did done
draw drawing drew drawn
dream dreaming dreamed,dreamt dreamed,dreamt
drink drinking drank drunk
drive driving drove driven
dwell dwelling dwelt dwelt
eat eating ate eaten
fall falling fell fallen
feed feeding fed fed
feel feeling felt felt
fight fighting fought fought
find finding found found
flee fleeing fled fled
fling flinging flung flung
flow flowing flowed flowed
fly flying flew flown
forbid forbidding forbade forbidden
forecast forecasting forecast,forecasted forecast,forecasted
forget forgetting forgot forgotten
forgive forgiving forgave forgiven
freeze freezing froze frozen
get getting got got
give giving gave given
go going went gone
grab grabbing grabbed grabbed
grind grinding ground ground
grow growing grew grown
hang hanging hung hung
hang (kill) hanging hanged hanged
have having had had
hear hearing heard heard
hide hiding hid hidden
hit hitting hit hit
hold holding held held
hurt hurting hurt hurt
keep keeping kept kept
kneel kneeling knelt knelt
knit knitting knitted knitted
know knowing knew known
lay laying laid laid
lead leading led led
lean leaning leaned,leant lean,leant
leap leaping leapt leapt
learn learning learned,learnt learned,learnt
leave leaving left left
lend lending lent lent
let letting let let
lie lying lay lain
light lighting lighted,lit lighted,lit
lose losing lost lost
make making made made
mean meaning meant meant
meet meeting met met
pay paying paid paid
put putting put put
read reading read read
ride riding rode ridden
ring ringing rang rung
rise rising rose risen
run running ran run
saw sawing sawed sawn
say saying said said
see seeing saw seen
sell selling sold sold
send sending sent sent
set setting set set
sew sewing sewed sewn
shake shaking shook shaken
shine shining shone shone
shoot shooting shot shot
show showing showed shown
shrink shrinking shrank shrunk
shut shutting shut shut
sing singing sang sung
sink sinking sank sunk
sit sitting sat sat
sleep sleeping slept slept
slide sliding slid slid
smell smelling smelled,smelt smelled,smelt
sow sowing sowed sown
speak speaking spoke spoken
speed speeding speeded,sped speeded,sped
spell spelling spelled,spelt spelled,spelt
spend spending spent spent
spill spilling spilled,spilt spilled,spilt
spin spinning spun spun
spit spitting spat spat
split splitting split split
spoil spoiling spoiled,spoilt spoiled,spoilt
spread spreading spread spread
spring springing sprang sprung
stand standing stood stood
steal stealing stole stolen
stick sticking stuck stuck
sting stinging stung stung
strike striking struck struck
swear swearing swore sworn
sweep sweeping swept swept
swell swelling swelled swollen
swim swimming swam swum
swing swinging swung swung
take taking took taken
teach teaching taught taught
tear tearing tore torn
tell telling told told
think thinking thought thought
throw throwing threw thrown
wake waking woke woken,waked
wear wearing wore worn
win winning won won
wind winding wound wound
write writing wrote written
List 8 - Objects and Sounds
OBJECTS AND SOUNDS

Object Sound Object Sound

aeroplanes zoom hoofs thunder
bells ring, peal horns toot; hoot
brakes screech kettles sing
bugles call leaves rustle
bullets ping paper crinkle; rustle
canes swish raindrops patter
chains clank; rattle saws buzz
clocks tick; chime sirens wail
coins clink; jungle steam hiss
corks pop streams murmur
dishes rattle, clatter telephones buzz
doors bang; slam thunder clap;
rumble peal;
roar
drums beat trains rumble
feet tramp; shuffle trumpets blare
fire crackle watch tick
glass tinkle water bubble; lap; drip
guns boom whips crack; lash
heart throb; beat wind howl; sigh
hinges creak wings whir
English Homophones
English (especially British English) is not spelt phonetically. Two words can share
none, any or all of Spelling, Pronunciation and Meaning. All languages have
synonyms (words with unrelated spelling and pronunciation but the same
meaning) and words with multiple meanings. However English has an exceptional
disparity between spelling and pronunciation.

The possible combinations or some but all characteristics being the same are as
follows:-

Spelling Pronunciation Meaning Classification Example

Same Different Different Homonym refuse

Different Same Different Homophone See below

Same Same Different Multiple meanings trap

Different Different Same Synonym rare/uncommon

Alternative Schedule (British/American

Same Different Same
pronuncation pronuncation)

Different Same Same Alternative spelling jail/gaol

This page is about homophones. Words with different meanings and spellings, but
the same (UK) pronunciation.

My collection
With the generous help of various contributors, I have now collected 441
homophones. This is 396 pairs, 40 triples and 5 quadruples. That is 546 pairs of
homophone words.
Near misses
These are word pairs that have been suggested but rejection, for one of the
following reasons:-

 Not precisely the same pronunciation. I only reject on this grounds, if my

dictionary gives different pronunciation (or is unclear) and I think there is a
difference, or am not sure how one of the words in pronounced.
o accept, except
o acetic, ascetic
o advice, advise
o affect, effect
o axe, acts
o axle, axil
o deal, dele
o caret, carrot
o close, clothes
o cask, casque
o deuce, juice
o facts, fax
o formerly, formally
o halve, have
o hostel, hostile
o ion, iron
o jota, jotter
o liar, layer
o loch, lock
o mana, manna
o ordinance, ordnance
o paw/pore/pour, poor
o pecan, pekan
o picture, pitcher
o plaintiff, plaintive
o prince, prints
o presence, presents
o tense, tents
o wan, won
 The two spellings have a meaning in common. Even if each spelling has
distinct meanings, any common mean classifies them as alternative
spellings rather than homophones. (American, or other non-British,
spellings are ignored for this purpose.)
o ambiance, ambience
 o assay, essay
o aught, ought
o cot, cote
o depositary, depository
o forbear, forebear
o forego, forgo
o gage, gauge
o gel, jell
o genet, jennet
o gibe, gybe
o gray, grey
o grill, grille
o groin, groyne
o gunnel, gunwale
o hippie, hippy
o main, maine
o prise, prize
o ray, re
o ton, tonne
 It would be double counting. If two forms of two words are different
homophones, then I only count a single example.
I list complement/compliment and hence don't
list complementary/complimentary. I normally list the simplest form
(singular rather than plural; present tense etc.) unless other form is a longer
list.
e.g. I list holey/holy/wholly rather than hole/whole.
 Proper nouns and associated adjectives are not allowed, notably a lot of
nations, nationalities, and place names are pronounced the same as
common nouns.
o Capitol, capital
o Crewe, crew
o Czech, check/cheque
o Chile, chilly/chilli
o Dane, deign
o Greece, grease
o Hungary, hungry
o Lapp, lap
o Nice, niece
o Pole, poll
o Rome, roam
o Sikh, seek
o Thai, tie
 o Towcester, toaster
o Wales, whales

And many, many more.

Unsure
Alleged homophones that aren't in my dictionary. As such I am either uncertain of
pronunciation, spelling or even existence of the word, so cannot include in the
confirmed list.

Word Homophone(s) Comment

wether weather, whether I am told this is a type of sheep.

basinet bassinet ?A musical instrument?

hele heal,heal ?Song, from the German?

how'll howl Not really establisted enough to count

leider leader ?Song, from the German?

lune loon The moon (if so fails as a proper noun)

meer mere

rayed raid

sice syce

sorel sorrel

velum vellum

weird
wyrd
Homophones
This is a list of British-English homophones. See the explanation page for details of
the inclusion criteria.

1. accessary, 111. dew, 221. leach, 331. rouse,

accessory due leech rows
2. ad, add 112. die, 222. lead, 332. rung,
3. ail, ale dye led wrung
4. air, heir 113. discree 223. leak, 333. rye, wry
5. aisle, I'll, isle t, discrete leek 334. saver,
6. all, awl 114. doe, 224. lean, savour
7. allowed, aloud doh, dough lien 335. spade,
8. alms, arms 115. done, 225. lessen, spayed
9. altar, alter dun lesson 336. sale, sail
10. arc, ark 116. douse, 226. levee, 337. sane,
11. aren't, aunt dowse levy seine
12. ate, eight 117. draft, 227. liar, lyre 338. satire,
13. auger, augur draught 228. licence, satyr
14. auk, orc 118. dual, license 339. sauce,
15. aural, oral duel 229. licker, source
16. away, aweigh 119. earn, liquor 340. saw,
17. awe, oar, or, ore urn 230. lie, lye soar, sore
18. axel, axle 120. eery, 231. lieu, loo 341. scene,
19. aye, eye, I eyrie 232. links, seen
20. bail, bale 121. ewe, lynx 342. scull,
21. bait, bate yew, you 233. lo, low skull
22. baize, bays 122. faint, 234. load, 343. sea, see
23. bald, bawled feint lode 344. seam,
24. ball, bawl 123. fah, far 235. loan, seem
25. band, banned 124. fair, lone 345. sear,
26. bard, barred fare 236. locks, seer, sere
27. bare, bear 125. farther, lox 346. seas,
28. bark, barque father 237. loop, sees, seize
29. baron, barren 126. fate, loupe 347. sew, so,
30. base, bass fête 238. loot, sow
31. bay, bey 127. faun, lute 348. shake,
32. bazaar, bizarre fawn 239. made, sheikh
33. be, bee 128. fay, fey maid 349. shear,
34. beach, beech 129. faze, 240. mail, sheer
35. bean, been phase male 350. shoe,
36. beat, beet 130. feat, 241. main, shoo
37. beau, bow feet mane 351. sic, sick
38. beer, bier 131. ferrule, 242. maize, 352. side,
39. bel, bell, belle ferule maze sighed
40. berry, bury 132. few, 243. mall, 353. sign,
41. berth, birth phew maul sine
42. bight, bite, byte 133. fie, phi 244. manna, 354. sink,
43. billed, build 134. file, manner synch
44. bitten, bittern phial 245. mantel, 355. slay,
45. blew, blue 135. find, mantle sleigh
46. bloc, block fined 246. mare, 356. sloe,
47. boar, bore 136. fir, fur mayor slow
48. board, bored 137. fizz, 247. mark, 357. sole,
49. boarder, border phiz marque soul
50. bold, bowled 138. flair, 248. marshal 358. some,
51. boos, booze flare , martial sum
52. born, borne 139. flaw, 249. marten, 359. son, sun
53. bough, bow floor martin 360. sort,
54. boy, buoy 140. flea, 250. mask, sought
55. brae, bray flee masque 361. spa, spar
56. braid, brayed 141. flex, 251. maw, 362. staid,
57. braise, brays, flecks more stayed
braze 142. flew, 252. me, mi 363. stair,
58. brake, break flu, flue 253. mean, stare
59. bread, bred 143. floe, mien 364. stake,
60. brews, bruise flow 254. meat, steak
61. bridal, bridle 144. flour, meet, mete 365. stalk,
62. broach, brooch flower 255. medal, stork
63. bur, burr 145. foaled, meddle 366. stationa
64. but, butt fold 256. metal, ry, stationery
65. buy, by, bye 146. for, mettle 367. steal,
66. buyer, byre fore, four 257. meter, steel
67. calendar, calender 147. forewo metre 368. stile,
68. call, caul rd, forward 258. might, style
69. canvas, canvass 148. fort, mite 369. storey,
70. cast, caste fought 259. miner, story
71. caster, castor 149. forth, minor, mynah 370. straight,
72. caught, court fourth 260. mind, strait
73. caw, core, corps 150. foul, mined 371. sweet,
74. cede, seed fowl 261. missed, suite
75. ceiling, sealing 151. franc, mist 372. swat,
76. cell, sell frank 262. moat, swot
77. censer, censor, 152. freeze, mote 373. tacks,
sensor frieze 263. mode, tax
78. cent, scent, sent 153. friar, mowed 374. tale, tail
79. cereal, serial fryer 264. moor, 375. talk,
80. cheap, cheep 154. furs, more torque
81. check, cheque furze 265. moose, 376. tare,
82. choir, quire 155. gait, mousse tear
83. chord, cord gate 266. mornin 377. taught,
84. cite, sight, site 156. galipot, g, mourning taut, tort
85. clack, claque gallipot 267. muscle, 378. te, tea,
86. clew, clue 157. gallop, mussel tee
87. climb, clime galop 268. naval, 379. team,
88. close, cloze 158. gamble navel teem
89. coal, kohl , gambol 269. nay, 380. tear, tier
90. coarse, course 159. gays, neigh 381. teas,
91. coign, coin gaze 270. nigh, tease
92. colonel, kernel 160. genes, nye 382. terce,
93. complacent, jeans 271. none, terse
complaisant 161. gild, nun 383. tern,
94. complement, guild 272. od, odd turn
compliment 162. gilt, 273. ode, 384. there,
95. coo, coup guilt owed their, they're
96. cops, copse 163. giro, 274. oh, owe 385. threw,
97. council, counsel gyro 275. one, through
98. cousin, cozen 164. gnaw, won 386. throes,
99. creak, creek nor 276. packed, throws
100. crews, 165. gneiss, pact 387. throne,
cruise nice 277. packs, thrown
101. cue, kyu, 166. gorilla, pax 388. thyme,
queue guerilla 278. pail, time
102. curb, kerb 167. grate, pale 389. tic, tick
103. currant, great 279. pain, 390. tide,
current 168. greave, pane tied
104. cymbol, grieve 280. pair, 391. tire, tyre
symbol 169. greys, pare, pear 392. to, too,
105. dam, damn graze 281. palate, two
106. days, daze 170. grisly, palette, pallet 393. toad,
107. dear, deer grizzly 282. pascal, toed, towed
108. descent, 171. groan, paschal 394. told,
dissent grown 283. paten, tolled
109. desert, 172. guesse patten, pattern 395. tole, toll
dessert d, guest 284. pause, 396. ton, tun
110. deviser, 173. hail, paws, pores, 397. tor, tore
divisor hale pours 398. tough,
174. hair, 285. pawn, tuff
hare porn 399. troop,
175. hall, 286. pea, troupe
haul pee 400. tuba,
176. hangar, 287. peace, tuber
hanger piece 401. vain,
177. hart, 288. peak, vane, vein
heart peek, peke, 402. vale, veil
178. haw, pique 403. vial, vile
hoar, whore 289. peal, 404. wail,
179. hay, peel wale, whale
hey 290. pearl, 405. wain,
180. heal, purl wane
heel, he'll 291. pedal, 406. waist,
181. hear, peddle waste
here 292. peer, 407. wait,
182. heard, pier weight
herd 293. pi, pie 408. waive,
183. he'd, 294. pica, wave
heed pika 409. wall,
184. heroin, 295. place, waul
heroine plaice 410. war,
185. hew, 296. plain, wore
hue plane 411. ware,
186. hi, high 297. pleas, wear, where
187. higher, please 412. warn,
hire 298. plum, worn
188. him, plumb 413. wart,
hymn 299. pole, wort
189. ho, hoe poll 414. watt,
190. hoard, 300. poof, what
horde pouffe 415. wax,
191. hoarse, 301. practice whacks
horse , practise 416. way,
192. holey, 302. praise, weigh, whey
holy, wholly prays, preys 417. we,
193. hour, 303. principa wee, whee
our l, principle 418. weak,
194. idle, 304. profit, week
idol prophet 419. we'd,
195. in, inn 305. quarts, weed
196. indict, quartz 420. weal,
indite 306. quean, we'll, wheel
197. it's, its queen 421. wean,
198. jewel, 307. rain, ween
joule reign, rein 422. weather
199. key, 308. raise, , whether
quay rays, raze 423. weaver,
200. knave, 309. rap, weever
nave wrap 424. weir,
201. knead, 310. raw, we're
need roar 425. were,
202. knew, 311. read, whirr
new reed 426. wet,
203. knight, 312. read, whet
night red 427. wheald,
204. knit, 313. real, wheeled
nit reel 428. which,
205. knob, 314. reek, witch
nob wreak 429. whig,
206. knock, 315. rest, wig
nock wrest 430. while,
207. knot, 316. retch, wile
not wretch 431. whine,
208. know, 317. review, wine
no revue 432. whirl,
209. knows, 318. rheum, whorl
nose room 433. whirled,
210. laager, 319. right, world
lager rite, wright, 434. whit, wit
211. lac, write 435. white,
lack 320. ring, wight
212. lade, wring 436. who's,
 laid 321. road, whose
213. lain, rode 437. woe,
lane 322. roe, whoa
214. lam, row 438. wood,
lamb 323. role, would
215. laps, roll 439. yaw,
lapse 324. roo, yore, your,
216. larva, roux, rue you're
lava 325. rood, 440. yoke,
217. lase, rude yolk
laze 326. root, 441. you'll,
218. law, route yule
lore 327. rose,
219. lay, ley rows
220. lea, lee 328. rota,
rotor
329. rote,
wrote
330. rough,
ruff
Rhyming Words
Rhyming words help children remember words more easily. Kids think playing with words that rhyme is fun, so
they stay engaged in learning longer. Rhyme also helps them learn about language.

They learn about word families and how words are put together. Kids also begin learning about the patterns,
rhythms, and structure of language through simple rhymes. Help your child succeed in reading by using the
following rhyming families. This is just a sample list of rhyming words to get you started. Look in your favorite
books or a children's dictionary to make your own lists. The words are listed from easiest to hardest and in
alphabetical order.

ack - back, lack, pack, rack, sack, tack, yak, black, knack, quack, slack, smack, snack, stack, track, whack, attack

ail - bale, fail, hail, mail, male, nail, pail, tale, rail, sail, stale, scale, snail, whale, detail, email

air - air, bare, care, chair, dare, fair, hair, pair, rare, wear, chair, flare, stare, scare, share, spare, square, there,
where, aware, beware, compare, declare, despair, prepare, repair, unfair

ake - ache, bake, fake, lake, make, rake, take, brake, break, flake, quake, snake, steak, awake, mistake

all - all, ball, call, doll, hall, fall, tall, crawl, small, baseball, football

an - an, can, fan, man, pan, ran, tan, van, plan, scan, span, began

and - and, band, hand, land, sand, bland, command, demand, expand, stand, understand

ap - cap, gap, map, nap, tap, zap, chap, clap, flap, slap, snap, strap, trap, wrap

ar - are, bar, car, far, jar, tar, star, scar, afar, guitar

at - at, bat, fat, mat, pat, rat, sat, flat, that, splat, combat

ate - ate, date, fate, mate, late, gate, rate, wait, crate, great, plate, skate, slate, state, straight, trait, weight, create

ed - bed, dead, fed, head, led, read, red, said, bread, fled, spread, thread, tread, instead

ell - bell, fell, sell, well, yell, shell, smell, spell, farewell, hotel, motel

en - den, hen, men, pen, ten, glen, then, when, wren, again

et - bet, get, jet, let, met, pet, set, vet, wet, yet, threat, barrette, reset, upset

in - bin, chin, in, pin, tin, grin, thin, twin, skin, begin, within

ing - king, ring, sing, wing, zing, bring, cling, fling, sling, spring, sting, string, swing, thing

it - bit, fit, hit, it, kit, lit, pit, sit, flit, knit, quit, skit, slit, spit, split, admit, commit, permit

ite - bite, kite, bright, fight, fright, knight, night, might, right, tight, white, write, delight, tonight

oh - go, hoe, low, mow, row, sew, toe, blow, crow, dough, flow, know, glow, grow, know, show, slow, snow, stow,
though, throw, ago, although, below

ot - cot, dot, got, hot, lot, not, pot, rot, tot, bought, fought, knot, taught, shot, spot, squat, forgot

ound - crowned, found, ground, hound, mound, pound, round, sound, wound, around, surround
oze - bows, hose, nose, rose, toes, blows, flows, froze, grows, those

ub - cub, rub, sub, tub, club, stub, scrub, shrub

un - bun, fun, gun, one, run, son, sun, ton, won, done, none, begun, outdone, undone

Have fun with your child using rhyming words to see how many they can get for each sound.