12/29/2018 Resilience and Disaster Trends in the Philippines: Opportunities for National and Local Capacity

Building – PLOS Currents Disasters http://currents.plos.org/disasters/index.html%3Fp=28077.html 1/10

Resilience and Disaster Trends in the Philippines: Opportunities for National and Local Capacity Building
September 14, 2016 · Research Article Introduction: The Philippines is one of the top countries in the world at
risk of climate-related disasters. For populations subsisting at the poverty line in particular, but also the nation
as a whole, daily lives and wellbeing are routinely challenged. The Philippines government takes disaster risk
seriously and has devoted significant resources to build disaster capacity and reduce population exposure and
vulnerability, nationally and locally. This paper explores the policy and institutional mechanisms for disaster
risk reduction management and research which have been conducted in the Philippines related to disaster
preparedness, management and resilience. Methods: This study draws on direct observations of and
conversations with disaster management professionals, in addition to a review of the extant literature on
resilience and disaster preparedness, in the Philippines. This is a descriptive study based on a search of mainly
peer-reviewed studies but also articles, reports, and disaster risk reduction and response projects in the
Philippines. Search words used in various combinations included: Resilience, Philippines, Disaster
Preparedness, Community-based, Disaster Risk Reduction, Capacity-building. Results: Numerous activities in
community based resilience and DRR have been identified across the whole disaster continuum. Yet,
important gaps in research and practice remain. Discussion: The Philippines, is a leading regional actor in
disaster risk management. However, a full picture of who is doing what, how, where and when on resilience
and disaster preparedness does not exist. Consequently there is no single study that compares the impacts
and results that different preparedness Tweet Alcayna T, Bollettino V, Dy P, Vinck P. Resilience and Disaster
Trends in the Philippines: Opportunities for National and Local Capacity Building. PLOS Currents Disasters.
2016 Sep 14 . Edition 1. doi: 10.1371/currents.dis.4a0bc960866e53bd6357ac135d740846. Citation Abstract
Authors Tilly Alcayna Vincenzo Bollettino Philip Dy Patrick Vinck Dept of Global Health and Population, Harvard
Humanitarian Initiative, Cambridge, Massachussets, USA. Dept of Global Health and Population, Harvard
Humanitarian Initiative, Cambridge, Massachussets, USA. School of Government, Ateneo de Manila University,
Quezon City, Philippines. Dept of Global Health and Population, Harvard Humanitarian Initiative, Cambridge,
Massachussets, USA. 12/29/2018 Resilience and Disaster Trends in the Philippines: Opportunities for National
and Local Capacity Building – PLOS Currents Disasters
http://currents.plos.org/disasters/index.html%3Fp=28077.html 2/10 measures are having in the Philippines.
We recommend further research focussed on mapping the network of actors, understanding community
perceptions of disaster risk preparedness and resilience, and investigation into the socio-ecological systems of
different communities. The authors are funded through a grant supporting the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative
DisasterNet project. The funder had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish,
or preparation of the manuscript. The authors have declared that no competing interests 12/29/2018
Resilience and Disaster Trends in the Philippines: Opportunities for National and Local Capacity Building –
PLOS Currents Disasters http://currents.plos.org/disasters/index.html%3Fp=28077.html 3/10 Search words
used in various combinations included: Resilience, Philippines, Disaster Preparedness, Community-based,
Disaster Risk Reduction, Capacity-building. Limitations Project specific reports by NGOs, mostly found in the
grey literature, have limited inclusion as it was beyond the scope of this paper to assess all previous and on-
going projects. Rather, this paper seeks to explore current research in resilience and disaster risk management
in the Philippines to understand how research is informing disaster risk management policy and practice in the
Philippines. What are the advantages of looking at resilience through a community lens? Like resilience,
‘community’ is a popular term that is still loosely defined in the literature. A group of people living in the same
place or sharing similar characteristics may contain numerous internal conflicts and divisions and may not act
as a cohesive entity during a disaster, despite the connotations the term ‘community’ conjures. Nevertheless,
measuring resilience at the community level is advantageous. Communities have a unique understanding of
the factors that contribute to their ability to resist, absorb and recover from disturbances as well as a direct
understanding of the risks that they face. The social norms, social capital and social networks in which
individuals are embedded will determine disaster behaviour and the outcomes of a disaster. Preparedness
plans developed internally by communities have been shown to be better than those developed externally by
consultants. In the event of a disaster, neighbours and local peers are inevitably the first responders.
Communities are therefore the most effective locus of disaster preparedness activities. What are the policy
and institutional mechanisms for disaster risk reduction management in the Philippines? The Philippines has a
strong set of policies, frameworks and plans for disaster risk reduction (DRR), through which work on
resilience can be grounded. The key law is the Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010
(DRRM Law). The DRRM Act establishes local councils at the regional, provincial, municipal, and community
levels that replicate the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council’s (NDDRMC)
responsibilities; however, these local councils are often understaffed or lacking professionalisation and a
significant gap exists as the NDRRMC cannot supervise all the local councils. Local political leaders’ support of
disaster management, local appreciation of the importance of disaster management, funding, and training and
support from the national government determine the effectiveness of local councils. Climate change is altering
the playing field as areas that had historically not been affected by disasters, and as such had been less likely
to proactively view disaster management, are increasingly likely to face extreme, unpredictable weather
events. What work has been conducted in the Philippines related to resilience and DRR? Hazards, vulnerability
and risk assessments It is uncertain how well disaster risk is communicated to the public, how many projects
focus on improving community knowledge on hazards and disaster risk, and challenges remain in measuring
and assessing the complex nature of all the factors which can influence disaster risk locally. There are limited
studies to measure the combined socio-ecological resilience of the Philippines, at local and national scales, to
help decisionmakers locate areas of high vulnerability. Comprehensive risk and vulnerability nation-wide and
localised mapping exists from organisations such as the Manila Observatory and the Department of Science
and Technology. Post-disaster assessments exist but there is more need for equivalent pre-disaster risk
assessments to be generated and shared with communities. Communicating risk information and ensuring
communities personalise their risk are proving challenging. Even amongst highly educated demographics, such
as medical students, there was a tendency to overestimate the risk of low probability, high consequence
disasters such as geophysical disasters (e.g. earthquakes) over high probability events like floods. PostHaiyan
surveys found that the public had not understood what “storm surge” signified, did not necessarily Findings
7,8 9 10 11 12 12 12 13,14 15 16 17 12/29/2018 Resilience and Disaster Trends in the Philippines:
Opportunities for National and Local Capacity Building – PLOS Currents Disasters
http://currents.plos.org/disasters/index.html%3Fp=28077.html 4/10 know that their houses were located in a
potential storm surge area, and even expressed opinions that the risk maps may be exaggerated. A number of
NGOs, including the Philippines Red Cross, conduct communitybased vulnerability assessments to improve
community awareness. More work on hazard sensitisation and continuing to augment awareness and
knowledge of hazards and the threats they pose appear to be needed. Early warning systems and evacuations
Early warning systems and evacuation plans necessarily rely on a public who understands their risks and
understand the consequence of the information being disseminated, so that they can prepare appropriately in
sufficient time. Community culture, perceptions and values are known to be important components of
successful early warning systems and there are calls for greater integration of local/indigenous knowledge
related to DRR within science and policy. Both an independent study and a PAGASA (the Philippine
Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration) programme introduced
communitybased monitoring and early warning of hazards into several provinces and showed these were
effective complements to traditional centralised early warning systems because they were real-time, localised,
empowered those in the best position to undertake preparation and were more likely to be sustained. Finally,
evacuation planning, involving the pre-emptive evacuation of people in high risk locations, has been an
effective means of reducing disaster impacts in the Philippines because in general communities are compliant.
Risk Transfer Mechanisms It appears that community networks and reciprocity are the predominant
mechanisms through which Filipinos cope with risk. Strong community or familial links have been shown to be
just as effective as formal insurance schemes, post-disaster. On an everyday basis, Filipinos promote
bayanihan, which is a strong social norm of community welfare and reciprocal labour and comes into play
during disasters, in which those less affected help those which have been hit harder. There is some indication
that in geographical regions most exposed to disaster risk, mutual associations and networks devoted to
mutual assistance proliferate most readily. However, community-based mutual assistance activities cannot
always be relied upon. Community support may be widespread during the initial rehabilitation efforts, but
during long-term recovery community-level activities become rarer and support is exclusive to extended
family members. Community-based activities are nuanced, social networks will be influential and the nature of
the disaster and devastation will likely determine how the community comes together and who is excluded.
Capacity building for disaster preparedness Capacity building is occurring across levels from local to national in
the Philippines, but focus is predominantly at the local level where numerous actors and networks are
collaborating with communities to identify existing capacities, as well as provide the opportunity to build
infrastructure, which could minimise the impacts of a hazard. Differences in community resources, livelihoods
options and assets affect local capacity and the extent to which capacity can be strengthened. A case study in
Iloilo City showed that community-driven DRR required strong social networks, alternative finance facilities,
technical professional networks that support community processes, and community managed information
systems. Furthermore, it has been highlighted that schools and student groups could play an important,
though yet untapped, role in capacity-building for DRR. The government is also contributing significantly to
capacitating local government units (LGUs) by developing a checklist of actions to be taken, supplies to be
procured, and important resources together with providing communications and contingency templates for
disaster preparedness. These are aimed at the Mayors as well as local chiefs of police and fire marshals. Yet, it
is not clear whether these data collection efforts at the LGU level will contribute to improved national disaster
preparedness. Further, there are limits to some of these capacity building projects including: “LGUs usually do
not demand or procure research and analysis to inform their policy decision-making process on DRR” LGU
municipalities and barangays lack up to date and sufficient contingency plans 18 18,19,20 21,22 23,24 15 25
26 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 12/29/2018 Resilience and Disaster Trends in the Philippines: Opportunities for
National and Local Capacity Building – PLOS Currents Disasters
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training Schools have insufficient contingency plans on camp management and preparedness to act as the
evacuation centres. This assessment highlights the continued challenges of transforming policy beyond plans
on paper. Response and relief operations The economic and geographic scale of destruction and damage to
infrastructure, housing, communication lines, and livelihoods assets tests and often surpasses the national
disaster response mechanisms, which otherwise are considered, overall, to “function well”. Focusing on
Typhoon Haiyan, the literature is divided on whether the response was well coordinated or not. On the one
hand, the government played an integral role during the response efforts with the international UN cluster
system joining the government cluster system and that coordination was good for the most part, resulting in
far less morbidity and mortality than previous postdisaster scenarios. Whilst on the other hand, reports
highlight significant tension between the government and INGOs as the L3 response led to the sudden influx
of international actors which undermined the usual procedures and relationships established by the
Government of the Philippines. There are cases of different actors working in parallel and duplicating efforts
alongside cases of exemplary programming and collaboration. Successful programming included:
collaborations between the government and communities for beneficiary selection; organisation of debris
from coconut plantations to provide lumber for housing reconstruction; and the restoration of communication
lines through emergency radio stations and private networks. Parallel efforts occurred for a number of
reasons: National NGOs were unaware of the cluster system and the cluster system did not actively engage
with non-cluster actors, leading to a failure to engage with local actors. One study found that religious
organisations, the private sector and local individuals distrusted the local and national government and so
avoided collaboration and coordination. Coordination lacked between agencies due to the scale of the
disaster. Cash transfers – unconditional and conditional – were used by at least 45 international humanitarians
agencies reaching 1.4 million affected people, but were difficult to monitor and coordinate, resulting in many
families receiving multiple cash transfers, which distorted the market. Many lessons have been learnt from the
response to Typhoon Haiyan, which will hopefully strengthen the national response mechanisms for
equivalent future disasters as policies increasingly focus on preventative and proactive approaches to disaster
management. Rehabilitation, recovery and reconstruction Rehabilitation, recovery and reconstruction
programmes in the Philippines are hindered by recurrent disasters, a lack of financial resources, and the
politicisation of the process. Linking immediate relief with longer-term recovery and disaster risk reduction
remains one of the most persistent challenges of the aid sector globally, largely because of continued under-
funding of recovery programmes, confirmed by the post-Typhoon Haiyan experience where less than half of
the $788m needed for recovery had been received six months after the disaster. Long-term post-disaster
assessments reveal the numerous gaps and challenges of the recovery process. Health, especially mental
health, was overlooked ; thousands remained without permanent settlement ; millions were once again living
in “unsafe” zones ; and politicisation of the process affected vulnerable groups such as internally displaced
people. Despite these problems, reported optimism for recovery is high. Optimism is a powerful aspect of
coping capacity and the onus is therefore on the government, local and international organisations to stay
committed to their promises and to ensure that disaster affected populations do not lose hope and drive to
overcome the impacts of disasters. Where are the gaps and what is the future of community resilience in the
Philippines? 12 34 34 35 12 36 37 34 47 38 12 36,39 40 41 38 38 42 Discussion 12/29/2018 Resilience and
Disaster Trends in the Philippines: Opportunities for National and Local Capacity Building – PLOS Currents
Disasters http://currents.plos.org/disasters/index.html%3Fp=28077.html 6/10 Numerous activities in
community-based resilience and DRR have been identified across the whole disaster continuum. Yet important
gaps in research and practice remain. Most noticeably, the extant studies fail to provide a full picture of who is
doing what, how, where and when on resilience and disaster preparedness. Lacking this, there is consequently
no single study that compares the impacts and results that different preparedness measures are having in the
Philippines. In addition, specific gaps were identified in programming focusing on public knowledge about
risks; data collection and socio-ecological research; and understanding communities. Firstly, a changing
climate and more extreme weather events mean that communities can no longer rely on past experience to
help prepare for future disasters. Communities need to be able to access current continually updated
information on what changing global environmental systems and the impacts of previous disasters mean for
their future disaster risk. Secondly, important data and research which could help inform policy and disaster
management decisions are lacking, including: published data on local, disaggregated environmental and
ecological changes and how these changes feed into disaster risk; population-based surveys on disaster risk
perceptions and preparations; research on how smaller scale disasters may erode resilience; and long-term
recovery and relocation initiatives to ensure transformative adaptation towards greater resilience. Thirdly,
despite communities being the focus of attention of a number of studies, there are differing definitions of
community, varied ways of measuring social capital, and limited research on marginalised persons who are
excluded from community support (such as bayanihan). Many important questions remain to be addressed
such as what training and support do local political leaders need so that they are more effective in DRR? Can
communities withstand future Haiyan-like events? What are the limits of community-based disaster
resilience? Which community members are likely to be excluded from community networks? What pressures
can these networks withstand and under what conditions do they breakdown? Recommendations for future
work To further build on the ongoing disaster preparedness and resilience initiatives occurring in the
Philippines, three top priorities for future work were identified: 1. Map the network and activities of national
and international agencies and actors working on resilience and disaster preparedness. This mapping should
capture who is doing what activities and where. It would help identify programmatic and geographic gaps and
overlaps and contribute towards increasing coordination and mutual learning among the different actors. 2.
Research into community perceptions of disaster risk preparedness and resilience. Risk perception, cognitive
barriers and cultural values shape how people will respond to disaster warnings and preparedness initiatives.
Interventions and knowledge campaigns must be tailored to ensure maximum acceptance and adoption by
people and their communities. This research is vital to help inform policy, initiatives, and operational
programming. 3. Increased research into the socio-ecological systems and what metrics can capture this
system. This research must look at how climate change will impact environmental systems which in turn affect
social systems; how certain demographics (e.g. informal settlers) may live in different socio-ecological systems
compared to their wider communities. This research would help inform mitigation and prevention strategies
alongside preparedness. This paper assessed the extant research and practice of resilience and disaster
preparedness in the Philippines, which serves as a good model on how to strengthen resilience and promote
disaster risk reduction at the local level. Research and interventions are already identifying examples of best
practice in disaster preparedness, response and recovery; however, important underlying drivers of disaster
risk, such as a degrading environment and inequality, still remain over looked. With the frequency and
intensity of disasters set to increase, communities are going to have to prepare more for worse events. This
poses the question of 43,44,45,46 12 Conclusion 12/29/2018 Resilience and Disaster Trends in the Philippines:
Opportunities for National and Local Capacity Building – PLOS Currents Disasters
http://currents.plos.org/disasters/index.html%3Fp=28077.html 7/10 how much longer we can react to
disasters rather than mitigating them in the first place. The urgency with which we must address the research
gaps across the disaster cycle, and in particular in preventing and mitigating disaster risk alongside
preparedness, is mounting. Research findings must then be translated in policy decisions with committed
implementation. A greater prioritisation of mitigation, prevention and preparedness is not only economically
advantageous, but from a humanitarian point of view, reduces the human costs, and aligns with initiatives on
sustainable development. There is no raw data associated with this paper. Tilly Alcayna: t.alcayna@gmail.com
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 Proposal to introduce Disaster Risk Management topics in Master programs in
ESAN Graduate School of Business

Propuesta para introducir temas de gestión de riesgos de desastres en los

programas de Maestría de ESAN Graduate School of Business

CECILIA DEJO ESTEVES1, PATRICIA PARODI PARODI2

1 Ph. D. Studies in Public Policy at The Rand Graduate School, California (USA). Director
of ESAN MBA Program and the Master in Management and Real Estate Development
Institute. ESAN Graduate School of Business. Lima, Peru. Email: cesteves@esan.edu.pe.

2 MBA from ESAN Graduate School of Business.Development Coordinator for Executive

Education program and MBA program. ESAN Graduate School of Business, Lima, Peru.
Email: pparodi@esan. edu.pe.

Received: 20/06/2016 Modified: 20/06/2016 Accepted: 25/06/2016

JEL: I23, M14, Q54

ABSTRACT

This paper aims to explain and present a proposal to introduce Disaster Risk
Management (DRM) topics into ESAN Graduate School of Business Master's programs.
Although disasters have cost Peru more than USD 7,600 million in the past 2 decades
the business sector, particularly Small and Medium Enterprises, have not developed
preventive or continuity plans mainly because they are not familiar with DRM topics.
Taking this into consideration, the paper presents a detailed academic/curricular
proposal for DRM topics such as business continuity, business ethics, corporate social
responsibility, and sustainable management. Additionally, it introduces the idea of
promoting Disaster Risk Management (DRM) topics to the Peruvian business community
as a strategy to enhance the graduate education.

KEYWORDS Disaster; Resilience; Risk Management; Business Schools; ESAN; Peru.

RESUMEN

Este artículo tiene por objeto explicar y presentar una propuesta para introducir los
temas de Gestión de Riesgos de Desastres (GRD) en los programas de Maestría de
ESAN. A pesar de que los costos generados por los desastres naturales en Perú suman
más de 7.600 millones de dólares en las últimas dos décadas, el sector empresarial, en
particular las pequeñas y medianas empresas, no han desarrollado planes de prevención
o de continuidad. Esto se debe principalmente a que no están familiarizados con los
temas de Gestión de Riesgos de Desastres. Tomando en consideración este punto, el
documento presenta una propuesta académica y curricular detallada para temas
puntuales GRD tales como continuidad de negocio, ética en los negocios, responsabilidad
social corporativa y gestión sostenible. Adicionalmente, introduce la idea de promover
los temas de Gestión del Riesgo de Desastres en la comunidad empresarial peruana
como una estrategia para mejorar la educación de posgrado.

PALABRAS CLAVE Desastre; resiliencia; gestión de riesgos; escuelas de negocios;

ESAN; Perú.
INTRODUCTION

In recent years, Disaster Risk Management has gained more importance due to the
increases both in recurrence and magnitude of natural disasters, challenging our ability
to anticipate and prevent such events. Governments have taken on a series of
commitments making Disaster Risk Management a national priority, where all
development actors assume specific functions. These actors include not only civil society
but also the private sector, which historically has contributed little effort in this regard.
Other consequences which businesses face as the result of disasters include the effects
of closure or financial distress, which in turn may impact the community in terms of loss
of jobs and unpaid debts, among others.

An important strategy which countries and civil society tend to overlook is the
importance of coordinating and collaborating with stakeholders from a wide range of
sectors and disciplines. This includes coordination among countries facing common
disaster risks3.

The private sector plays an important role in building and providing for strong resilience
in the community, taking into account that more than 70% of the economic investments
made in developing countries come from the private sector (UNISDR 2013b). This may,
however represent a diftcult challenge for many emerging economies as small and
medium-sized businesses constitute a significant part of their economy, making them
more vulnerable to disasters with less resources for resilience. These businesses usually
depend on a centralized market that in the case of a disaster will be equally affected.
They have less access to financial resources and the possibility of having a Disaster Risk
Management plan is limited. As a result, large enterprises that rely on these small and
medium-sized enterprises as their suppliers of goods and services will be affected.

Enterprises in general, no matter their size, lack the incentives needed to develop and
implement a Disaster Risk Management. This lack of incentive is reinforced by the fact
that they do not see the potential cost, losses and consequences that a disaster can
cause. To this end Business Schools provide for the possibility to engage their
professionals in the shared responsibility of ensuring continuity to the business
community in the event of the occurrence of a disaster.

ESAN Graduate School of Business was created more than 50 years ago. It is the first
academic Graduate School of Business created in the Spanish speaking world. Founded
in 1963, under an agreement between the governments of Peru and the United States of
America (through the cooperation agency USAID). Its organization and implementation
was entrusted to the Graduate School of Business of Stanford University, California.
Since its creation, ESAN has maintained a strong commitment to train managers capable
of generating change within their organizations and thus contribute to the development
of society. This commitment fulfills the objective of introducing Disaster Risk
Management in business.

ESAN will address four of the seven topics related to Disaster Risk Management: (1)
Business Continuity Planning; (2) Business Ethics and Social Responsibility; (3) Strategic
Investment and Financial Decisions; (4) Sustainable Management. These themes will
primarily be mainstreamed into the MBA Program and the following Masters degree
programs: Real Estate Management and Development, Supply Chain Management,
Energy Management, Public Management and Project Management.

PERU'S SITUATION

Due to its diverse geographical conditions and climate, Peru is exposed to various types
of disasters. Two groups of disasters which represent the great threats considering their
extent and cost of damages include, first, exposure to earthquakes, tsunamis and
volcanic activity; and second, to climate changes such as the El Niño Phenomenon which
causes extreme rainfall, flooding, drought, frost, and hail, among others. Additionally,
the country is faced with adverse geological phenomena such as landslides, mudslides,
among others, which are very common.

In the past two decades natural disasters have cost Peru more than USD 7,600
million4 in damages. This amount only includes earthquakes and disasters caused by the
El Niño Phenomenon; however there are unknown costs due to business interruption or
closure, that affects the GPD in the region and the country. This analysis has only been
done in recent years.

During the first three months of 2016, Peru suffered from the El Niño Phenomenon, with
enormous damage caused by flooding and landslides. One of the most serious
consequences was a one-week closure of the country's main road (Carretera Central)
which connects the jungle and mountains with the coast from east to west. This road is
the main transport route for mineral exports, coffee exports and agricultural products
coming to the coast, and especially to Lima. The Exporters Association (Adex) reported
that a total of 6 million USD5 were lost each day that the road was closed. This affected
the mining export region which represents 6.4% of mining total exports.

The government took preventive measures when the occurrence of the El Niño
Phenomenon was predicted for 2016, using funds from the country's budget to mitigate
the damage of all kinds of natural disasters, which represented about 1,000 million USD.
However, these actions taken were focused on attending to emergencies rather than
preventing them. In fact, Peru has confronted this climatic phenomenon with greater
resources from a fund established by the Government to deal with natural disasters.
With the first manifestations of this climatic phenomenon began to be felt, the
mechanisms of action were immediately activated to minimize the damage generated by
heavy rainfall in the northern coast of the country, increasing flows and landslides in the
mountains (central area of the country), and drought in the south-central region
(Andes).

Government efforts were prearranged for public sector investment by providing for the
functioning of social and productive infrastructure. However, the business sector took
little or limited preventive and planning actions. This fact became apparent with the
closure of the main road (Carretera Central) in March, where many trucks and
passenger buses were stuck for days. Alternative routes were used as an immediate
solution as many were left unprepared. This opened a discussion between the private
and public sectors regarding the limited government investment in these routes.

Even though the private sector in Peru faces the same critical barrier to investment in
Disaster Risk Management as other emerging countries, disasters caused by the El Niño
Phenomenon are frequent, and have very similar consequences whenever they arise.
Providing the private sector with valuable information in terms of possible situations that
could arise during the disaster as well as their subsequent consequences is key. It is
important to support, the private sector's efforts in the response phase by focusing their
efforts in minimizing the effects of the disaster after it has taken place; and resuming
operations.

In this situation with the El Niño Phenomenon, Peru's private sector has the advantage
of having some risk information available, but they still need to work on other barriers
such as developing a long-term business perspective, understanding the difference
between reaction to an event with Disaster Risk Management Plan, and the lack of
access to funds to work and apply these plans.

ESAN's orientation towards business includes Ethics and Social Responsibility in all of the
Masters degree programs offered by the School. However, Disaster Risk Management
topics have not been developed in detail for these courses.

INTRODUCING DRM IN ESAN

ESAN is the most important Graduate School in Peru providing it with important access
and relationships within the business and public sector actors in the country. The school
offers programs not only for the business sector but has an important number of
programs designed for other public institutions as well. The School aims to train leaders
with competitive integrity, with critical and international vision by strengthening their
competencies, knowledge and values; in an effort to fulfill the objectives of Disaster Risk
Management in business.

Due to the fact that the nature, gaps and needs of the private sector in Peru are
different, the efforts of ESAN should concentrated on four of the seven themes
presented within the framework of Disaster Risk Management. These include: Business
Continuity Planning; Business Ethics and Social Responsibility; Strategic Investment and
Financial Decisions; and Sustainable Management.

ESAN proposes an integral approach to promote Disaster Risk Management Plans that
considers three main areas where ESAN has strength: Academic, Investigation and
Business.

The academic approach

It aims to give the students a wider knowledge of Disaster Risk Management and
includes it as part of their business topics. For that purpose 6 master degrees have been
chosen for their nature, range and influence. These are: MBA Program and the following
Master programs: Real Estate Management and Development, Supply Chain
Management, Energy Management, Public Management and Project Management.

Within the academic approach four strategies are considered:

1. Include topics in the curricula:

The first step is to include Disaster Risk Management topics in the syllabi of courses
related to the selected themes. This will introduce students to Disaster Risk Management
in a specific course, and provide them with tools for the development of plans to not
only prevent but to respond as well. The aim is to make them agents of change on
Disaster Risk Management within their enterprises.

The MBA Program, the Master in Project Management and the Master in Supply Chain
Management programs were chosen for having a natural link to the process of Disaster
Risk Management. The MBA provides a strategic approach to the enterprise-wide level,
while the specialized Masters of Project Management and Supply Chain Management
programs have specific objectives related to the continuity of the operation and the
specific development projects.

In this context, the Supply Chain Management Masters play a key role, since students
focus on the processes needed to guarantee both the continuity of the enterprise as well
as carrying out the important role of building and providing strong resilience within the
community. Processes include managing the relationship with suppliers, logistics input
and output, production of goods and services, distribution, foreign trade and customer
relations.

Furthermore, the Master of Project Management provides the tools that businesses
require to develop their plans at all levels. The projects are developed and implemented
according to the sector, type and size of enterprise which is viewed as a strategic part of
its management process. Disaster Risk Management Plans are not excluded from Project
Management. Business Continuity Planning requires Project Management to be develop
before and after the disaster occurs.

In the three Master programs chosen, Disaster Risk Management topics will be
considered in traditional courses such as Finance, Marketing, Supply Chain and HR.
These courses will also develop management skills by focusing on decision making in
competitive contexts with deference to time and financial constraints, competition, and
marketing decisions. These courses include:

• Business Ethics: all master programs in ESAN include in their curricula an Ethics and
Social Responsibility course which aims to study the concepts and frameworks of
analysis used to determine an organization's responsibilities to its shareholders. It
evaluates business cases that are in the process of implementing Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR) Programs. Business Ethics and Social Re sponsibility related to
Disaster Risk Management will be included in the course topics in all master degrees, not
only just those chosen for this project.

 Business Plan: This course provides students with the tools needed to evaluate
potential business ideas. Students learn methods for business planning, how to
assess the feasibility of promising ideas, and review aspects of the processes
required to implement business plans. While most Business Plan courses devote a
section or chapter related to contingencies, these typically don't include disasters
as part of those required, and if so, only briefly. Students are asked to analyze
and consider those risks and disasters that could affect their area of influence
taking into account suppliers, clients, supply chains, and employees, among
others. This course gives students the support they need to present a Business
Plan in a thesis topic.

 Business Strategic Simulator: this course helps develop management skills by

focusing on decision making in competitive contexts with time and financial
constraints. Students learn how their decisions affect the business environment
and influence the decisions made by other organizations. The course is taught
using a simulator where students can plot several decisions and compete with
their peers for the best results. Market, finance, availability of materials and
supplies, among others; can be modified by the professor. Disaster effects and
plans can be include within these variables.

 Strategic Management: this course aims to break parochial paradigms in an

effort to redefine strategic options available to students. After completing this
course, the participant will be able to conceptualize value on a regional or global
dimension. Disaster Risk Management issues will be included to broaden students'
way of thinking while allowing them to analyze new strategies in the event of a
disaster.

 Operation and Supply Chain Management: this course gives the student
thefundamentals, theories, and instruments needed for adequate supply chain
management. The supply chain specialist must process constant requests from
differing areas within an organization while being capable of making financial
projections, effectively managing human resources, and generating low-cost
eftciencies. In this scenario, students are asked to consider contingencies related
to any possible disaster or problem. This section will now include a wider view and
consider not only the contingency but a supporting plan to grant continuity of
operations.

 Financial Management: students receive the tools required to develop and

evaluate investment projects and make decisions in order to increase the
enterprise's value within the financial market. Topics with a key focus in corporate
finance Strategic Investment and Financial Decisions issues related to Disaster
Risk Management will be included. Case study evaluations will consider search and
creation of investment and trust funds.

Additionally, the ESAN Master program will develop a series of workshops that aim at
helping students to develop essential management skills. This workshops can be
complemented with Disaster Risk Management issues. Workshop topics will include:
  Managerial Skills: the objective is to evaluate and work on student's
management skills.

 Critical Thinking: helps students rediscover their capacity for critical and
questioning thought. They will learn why people resist unlearning old patterns and
will learn to review and abandon paradigms, learn from diftculties, tolerate
uncertainty, and resist the temptation to over-structure. Disaster Risk
Management themes can be incorporated into this workshop, focusing on
collaboration with, and working within the community.

 Business Environment: analyzes the environment in which companies operate

in national and international contexts and within the global economy. It looks at
how companies adapt to new global trends to ensure viability. The topics on
Business Continuity Planning and Strategic Investment and Financial Decisions will
be considered in this workshop.

Additionally, three Specialized Masters were selected due to their importance and
strategic position within the economy of the country. ESAN has selected three
masters degrees focused on specific topics: Real Estate and Urban Development,
Energy and Public Management.

The Master in Management and Real Estate Development focuses on the field of
urban and real estate development where the city's economy becomes more
important when related to Disaster Risk Management. The goal is for students
within their enterprises to participate in city planning with a focus on the
continuity of the economy and the restoration of the community. A greater
emphasis will be placed on Business Ethics and Social Responsibility, in all phases
of planning Disaster Risk Management, taking into consideration the limited
existing regulation and the potential for speculation, post disaster. These points
are particularly important in Peru due to urban development of large cities, many
of which are on the coast and exposed to major disasters such as earthquakes and
tsunamis; with 54.6%6 of the country's population concentrated on the coast.
Making the situation worse, most urban development has remained unplanned,
with little involvement of the authorities. There is also a great informality in the
construction of houses (called ''auto contruccion'') as well as land acquisition thru
land invasions. This leaves the populations highly vulnerable.

In the Master in Management and Real Estate Development, the theme of Business
Ethics and Social Responsibility will be considered in the following course:

 Business and Social Responsibility Strategies: a real estate project may have two
approaches: a good opportunity for investment or, alternatively, for an
entrepreneur with vision, a real estate development with sustainable economic
activity over time. This course discusses the comprehensive strategy needed to
take the second option and successfully manage the organization. The important
challenge of achieving profitability without sacrificing ethical principles and to
exercise responsible corporate citizenship is stressed.

The Master in Energy Management was selected due to its focus on one of the most
strategic sectors within the country. Energy is one of the main supports for the economy
as well as for community continuity. The dynamism of the energy sector is critical to
maintaining the growth of the economy within the country. By its strategic nature, the
four DRM topics selected are included in the master program: Business Continuity
Planning; Business Ethics and Social Responsibility; Strategic Investment and Financial
Decisions; and Sustainable Management. Peru's energy sector faces a number of
changes in production, transportation, energy use and environmental impact, and faces
the challenge of establishing new energy sources; all areas which need consideration of
Disaster Risk Management.
Regarding the energy industry in Peru, one of the most important projects for new
energy sources in the country, Camisea Gas, experienced a natural disaster in one of its
locations. Both its exploration and distribution plants are located in areas of high risk for
disaster: Cusco and Pisco, respectively. In 2007, the Fractionation Plant of Pluspetrol
Camisea suspended operations due to a 7.9 magnitude earthquake in the city of Pisco.
The plant had a preventive stoppage, immediately after the quake started. Despite the
magnitude of the event, staff and facilities suffered no damage, and operations resumed
four days later. The gas supply had to be treated by other plants within the enterprise.7

Disaster Risk Management topics will be considered on the following courses:

 Energy management companies and corporate governance: this course

provides a review of relevant practices that aim to implement corporate
governance activities that allow to transparently show the risk prevention actions
undertaken by the enterprise; including damages caused by disasters. It proposes
alternatives for the recognition and specific risk management in the energy sector
by governing bodies of companies, and shows the benefits of such practices.
 Financial Evaluation of Projects for the Energy Sector: this course provides
tools for financial capital budgeting within the theory of value creation. It
facilitates the acquisition of a solid understanding of the theoretical and practical
basics of capital budgeting, risk and decision making under uncertainty. Strategic
Investment and Financial Decisions issues related to Disaster Risk Management
will be included in the evaluation of projects. Students will propose ways to
incorporate the characteristic risks of the sector in the overall financial evaluation.

Meanwhile, the Master in Public Management, by its nature, is oriented to state oftcials
and aligned with the requirements of state reform. Disaster Risk Management topics are
being not only as guidelines for implementing the Disaster Risk Management, but also as
a requirement of committed staff with a professional profile according to new concepts
of managing for results.

2. International Week

Twice a year, ESAN organizes The International Week that consists of five, all-day
intense study sessions during which students of the MBA and specialized master's
courses participate. The aim is to update their knowledge on the latest management
trends from prominent international professors coming from prestigious universities in
the United States, Europe, Asia and Latin America. Interaction between Peruvians and
foreigners of different backgrounds and cultures enhances everyone.

The International Week is one of the academic events with the greatest capacity to
attract a large crowd at a regional level. More than 1,500 Wstudents participate each
week, while more than 10% come from abroad. In each edition, this event increases its
strength as the only one of its kind in the academic field, attracting a larger number of
international participants each year, thereby producing a greater cultural exchange and
the expansion of the network of contacts.

The teaching methodology is similar to the one used in regular courses, using case
studies, interactive lessons, exercises, small group discussion and teamwork. More than
60 courses, 15 hours of contact (1.5 US credits or 4 ECTS-European Credit Transfer
System) in 3 schedules (morning, afternoon and evening) are taught during this week.

Disaster Risk Management courses will be included in the program of The International
Week, related to Business Continuity Planning; Business Ethics and Social Responsibility;
Strategic Investment and Financial Decisions; and Sustainable Management; giving
students the opportunity to know more about this topic based on the experience of
international professors. Also, classes will be enriched by the experience of students
coming from different regions of Peru and different countries.
3. Include a Disaster Risk Management Workshop in the curricula

A Disaster Risk Management Workshop will be added to the curricula of the 6 chosen
Master programs. Each session will address a topic related to Disaster Risk Management,
and will be reinforced with case studies of enterprises located in disaster areas. Greater
emphasis will be given to the study of those areas most affected by disasters in recent
years. The goal is for the student to sense the reality faced by businesses in affected
areas, and to become aware of changes implemented after the disaster. This will give
them the vision they need to develop a plan to build for and provide a strong resilience
within the community.

For a clearer view of the reality faced by the business sector in their region, students will
visit enterprises that are in these risk areas. The aim is for them to analyze the real
situation that the enterprise has confronted in the face of disaster, and to witness first
hand, the actions taken. Visits will be made to different sized organizations. Taking
advantage of the fact that that ESAN offers programs in different areas of the country,
each faced with its own realities, will expose students with a business reality to which
they can relate personally.

4. Promote Thesis topics

ESAN will promote Disaster Risk Management as thesis topics, for Investigation,
Business Plan or Case Studies thesis. The aim is to give greater emphasis to the
development and implementation of plans, and quantifying current losses in a disaster
situation. In the case of Business Plans, students should engage in issues of Disaster
Risk Management from the initial business idea. For Investigation topics, students will be
asked to investigate, in depth, the issues of Disaster Risk Management and its
application within the country, not only at the government sector but also the private
sector. For Case Studies, students will be asked to focus the case on Disaster Risk

Management and to present a proposal with a Business Continuity plan. Each thesis
would need to consider four of the seven topics chosen by the school: Business
Continuity Planning; Business Ethics and Social Responsibility; Strategic Investment and
Financial Decisions; and Sustainable Management.

The investigation approach

One of the main problems faced in the implementation of Disaster Risk Management is
the lack of information on the risks and consequences of disasters. Even more diftcult is
to quantify the resilience of the enterprise and the community. It is diftcult for
businesses to gain access to economic or financial information, the few numbers
available being general and based on posterior consequence as opposed to providing for
a clear estimate of what could be lost or the costs associated. For this reason, ESAN
considers it important to develop other activities to help gather information. The
investigation approach aims to access Disaster Risk Management information at the
enterprise level, not only in its application but on the level of subject knowledge geared
towards the business sector. This approach includes 2 schemes:

1. Development of study cases.

In addition to having very little information about the economic consequences of natural
disasters, the few existing case studies of Peruvian enterprises are not focused on issues
of Disaster Risk Management. Enterprise Case Studies will be developed taking
advantage of the presence of ESAN in different cities in Peru, each belonging to the most
important economic regions within the country. This will also help to recognize the
economic reality of the region, differences between each region and the risks each faces.
The diversity of situations, enterprises size and regional economies would provide
valuable information for the development of specific cases. This will provide a more
detailed view of the regional situation.
Two cities being considered which can possibly offer more information taking advantage
of the fact that each provides for access to information on the economic effects of a
recent disaster are: Arequipa and Ica. Both have suffered major earthquakes in the last
2 decades, in 2001 and 2007 respectively.

In the case of Arequipa, the region is the 2nd most important in the country, its capital
is the second largest city in Peru, and has the second largest economy due to mining
exploration, fine wool exports and a dairy products industry.

The Ica region as previously mentioned has the most important gas plants as well as the
country's most important agroindustry exports area. New economic sectors have
developed after the earthquake despite the damages, estimated at USD 600 million. The
tourism sector has increased its investment and three, five stars hotels have been built
since the earthquake in 2007. One of the most interesting cases is that of the Hotel
chain Libertador Peru, which invested 30 million dollars in their hotel in Paracas, 30kms
from the epicenter. The chain was in the middle of the acquisition process of this hotel
when the earthquake struck. The hotel was completely rebuilt after it was affected by
the earthquake and tsunami in August 15, 2007. The hotel was reopened on September
20098.

Another event to consider is the El Niño Phenomenon which affected the north region of
the country during the first four months of 2016, namely in the coastal regions of Piura,
Lambayeque and La Libertad. The presence of this phenomenon during the first quarter
of 2016 opened the doors to access of the latest information. El Niño (first quarter 2016)
had moderate consequences compared to El Niño from the years 1982-1983. Trujillo,
the capital city of La Libertad its capital, is the third largest city in the country with the
second largest coastal population. The region's economy depends on agricultural activity
particularly exports. The Piura region has developed a rich agricultural, fishing, mining
and oil economy over the last 10 years, and has become a center of development,
thanks to strong private investment. It has also developed a strong tourism industry in
the coastal area, known for its pleasant tropical climate. In the case of Lambayeque, it is
a commercial region given its links from the northern mountains of the country to the
coast. Its economy depends on agriculture and minerals exports that come from the
adjacent mountain regions.

The region of Cusco cannot be ignored, as it is the most important tourism destination in
the country (Macchu Picchu ruins are located in Cusco), and is home to the main gas
extraction area, Camisea gas, which represents 30% of the economy of the region9.
Cusco is in a high risk area, affected mainly by earthquakes, landslides, frost and floods.
It is also an area that has an important economic influence in neighboring areas which
are regions of extreme poverty which are also exposed to major natural disasters as
well.

Cusco depends on the tourism sector. During the period of February to March 2010 it
experienced severe flooding due to the heavy rainy season. The flooding cost a total of
USD 224.6 million in damages. Figure 110 shows a summary of the cost by sectors, even
though the tourism sector was one of the less affected, it indirectly relies on other
sectors such as transportation.
During this two month period, visits to the Machu Picchu ruins where closed, due to the
damages to the railway, the ruins, and the partial destruction of the city,
Aguascalientes, that supplies the tourism compound. During the previous year (2009)
Machu Picchu received 17,496 tourists from the period February-March. In 2010 the
ruins where closed, and could recover until 2012 11 .

2. Annual survey,

An annual national survey will be distributed to students and alumni of the master
programs, in order to identify the levels of knowledge and application of Disaster Risk
Management Plans in their organizations. The purpose is to assess, each year, the
progress in the knowledge and application of Disaster Risk Management in enterprises in
Peru.

This survey will be distributed to ESAN graduate students from the masters as well as to
the alumni. Taking advantage of the fact that ESAN has one of the strongest and largest
networks of alumni in master programs in the country, more than 15,000 graduates will
be engaged. Another advantage is the scope of the School regionally, as ESAN offers
programs in 13 main cities in Peru.

The results will be published and presented yearly, not only to the academic authorities
but the business sector, in order to generate greater interest and awareness on the
issues of Disaster Risk Management. ESAN aims to take advantage of the relationships
developed with other key actors within civil society such as chambers of commerce,
business associations and unions.

Additionally, the results of these surveys should open the door to greater partnerships
between the state and the private sector, which could help develop public-private
partnerships (PPP) not only in terms of infrastructure projects but other policy areas.

The business approach

In addition to a lack of awareness and a limited availability of information related to
Disaster Risk Management, another shortcoming is the lack of incentives available for
the private sector to implement a Business Continuity Plans within their enterprises.

Another issue to consider is the possibility of barriers which Business Students may face
in their enterprises as they attempt to present or develop Disaster Risk Management
Plans. The lack of demand on the topic and of knowledgeable professionals may be
reflected in a lack of interest by students enrolled in the courses that include Disaster
Risk Management concepts.

Economic incentives made available to enterprises in an effort to engage them as well as

to acknowledge the importance of Disaster Risk Management cannot be offered thru the
academic sector. However, public recognitions for good practice could be a strategy for
introducing DRM topics to enterprises, while helping them to resolve their shortcomings.
In the long-run, this recognition would help in promoting Disaster Risk Management in
the private sector and within their community.

The Business approach aims to acknowledge and promote Disaster Risk Management
best practices in the private sector by primarily focusing on the enterprise's social
responsibility to the community, and its sphere of influence (clients and suppliers). To
achieve this objective ESAN proposes the launch a Disaster Risk Management Plan
Competition.

The Competition will look to promote the participation of different sized enterprises,
giving priority to small and medium enterprises which together represent a greater
participation in the economy (more than 95% of Peru's economy) and are the most
affected in the event of a disaster.

Other variables that will to be taken in consideration will be to focus on different

economic sectors and in different regions of Peru. Enterprises will be asked to present
their experience, plan or activity related to Disaster Risk Management.

The cases presented by the competing enterprises must consider at least three of the
four stages of Disaster Risk Management. Each enterprise will compete in their category
and will be evaluated according to the following criteria:

 Effect within the community: this criteria aims to assess the effect of the plan
within the area of influence of the enterprise; from a qualitative point of view.
Social Responsibility geared toward the community is a crucial point in this
criteria.
 Area of area of influence: this criteria aims to asses the quantified impact of the
plan applied in the area of influence of the enterprise. The enterprise will need to
present the quantified effects on their city, region and country.
 Community participation: this criteria seeks to understand to what extent
enterprises are involving the community in their Disaster Risk Management Plans.
Enterprises need to focus not only on their employees but the community around
them.

Business associations and government institutions will be invited to promote and

participate as partners in this Competition. Taking advantage of ESANs relationships
with the Lima Chamber of Commerce, the largest business association in Peru, ESAN will
invite the chamber to partner in the competition.

CONCLUSIONS

Disaster Risk Management can be integrated into the curricula as an essential topic
within each course. However, if these topics and courses have no connection between
each other, students will likely not be sensitive to its need and importance. Promotion
should not only focus on the inclusion of a topic in the curricula and apply it as required,
but to generate a commitment and a paradigm shift in its approach. Therefore, the
ESAN proposals need to consider a transversal approach among masters programs
selected: MBA Program and Specialized Master in: Real Estate Management and
Development, Supply Chain Management, Energy Management, Public Management
and Project Management.

It is necessary to strengthen the topics brought into the curricula by searching and
gathering related economic information. The development of regional and specific
disaster case studies will help to reinforce the topics to be taught in the new courses and
in the curricula in general. ESAN programs in different cities of Peru will provide us with
the possibility to gather information, and to study cases and surveys. It will also give the
students the opportunity to analyze different situations and different solutions in each
case.

Promotion of topics related to Disaster Risk Management in the private sector will
strengthen the inclusion of topics in the curricula, helping to generate a greater
knowledge and commitment within private organizations. It will be key to engage those
professionals charged with the responsibility of ensuring both the continuity of their
businesses as well as the resiliency of the community they serve, in the event of the
occurrence of a disaster. Given that economic incentives cannot be granted by the
academic sector; the ESAN proposal of public recognition will be crucial to support
promotion strategies for organization commitment.

Any actions aimed at the implementation of Strategies of Disaster Risk Management

need to consider the engagement of stakeholders and coordination of partnerships
within other organizations, universities, and private sector associations such as chamber
of commerce. ESAN has a great advantage due to its connections with the private sector
and government, and with the multiple Universities and Business Schools that are
already part of its worldwide network.

The next steps in Disaster Risk Management will focus on gathering statistical and
economic (costs, etc.) information on natural disasters from the private sector, focusing
on small and medium sized enterprises, as well as developing access and tools that can
assist in the analysis of this information.

1 Asian Development Bank. Operational Plan for Integrated Disaster Risk Management
2014–2020, April 2014.

2 Presidencia del Consejo de Ministros (PCM), et al. Plan Nacional de Gestión Del
Riesgo de Desastres: PLANAGERD 2014-2021. May 2014.

3 (01 de marzo 2016) ''El costo de cerrar la Carretera Central: ¿Cuánto se deja de
exportar al día?'' Diario Gestión. Recuperado de http://gestion.pe/economia/costo-
cerrar-carretera-central-cuanto-se-deja-exportar-al-dia-2155534

4 Presidencia del Consejo de Ministros (PCM), et al. Plan Nacional de Gestión Del Riesgo
de Desastres: PLANAGERD 2014-2021. May 2014.

5 Pluspetrol Camisea SA. Memoria Anual 2007. Lima. Enero 2017

6 (Miércoles 18 de marzo del 2009) En setiembre reabren el Hotel Libertador de

Paracas. Diario Peru.21. Recuperado de http://peru21.pe/noticia/260950/septiembre-
reabren-hotel-libertador-paracas

7 Instituto Peruano de Economía. Fichas Regionales 2015 Actualizadas. PBI Cusco 2015.
2015
8 Instituto Nacional de Defensa Civil (INDECI), Cuaderno Técnico 7. Evaluación del
Impacto Socioeconómico de la Temporada de Lluvias 2010 en la Región Cusco. 2010.

9 Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Información, Ministerio de Cultura Oficina General

de Estadística, Tecnología de Información y Comunicaciones. Afluencia Turística Nacional
Mensual Al Parque Arqueológico De Machu Picchu, 2004-2012

10 Instituto Nacional de Defensa Civil (INDECI), Cuaderno Técnico 7. Evaluación del

Impacto Socioeconómico de la Temporada de Lluvias 2010 en la Región Cusco. 2010.

11 Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Información, Ministerio de Cultura Oficina General

de Estadística, Tecnología de Información y Comunicaciones. Afluencia Turística Nacional
Mensual Al Parque Arqueológico De Machu Picchu, 2004-2012

REFERENCES

Asian Development Bank. (2014). Operational Plan for Integrated Disaster Risk
Management 2014–2020. Manila: Asian Development Bank. Retrieved
from: http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-
document/42764/files/integrated-disaster-risk-management-operational-
plan.pdf [ Links ]

Banco Central de Reserva de Perú. (2009). El Cambio Climático y Sus Efectos en el

Perú. Lima: Banco Central de Reserva de Perú BCR. Retrieved
from: http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/docs/Publicaciones/Documentos-de-
Trabajo/2009/Documento-de-Trabajo-14-2009.pdf [ Links ]

Centro Nacional de Planeación Estratégico CEPLAN. (2011). Plan Bicentenario: El Perú

hacia el 2021. Lima: CEPLAN. Retrieved
from: https://www.mef.gob.pe/contenidos/acerc_mins/doc_gestion/PlanBicentenariover
sionfinal.pdf [ Links ]

Gestión. (2016, March 1). El costo de cerrar la Carretera Central: ¿Cuánto se deja de
exportar al día? Diario Gestión. Retrieved from: http://gestion.pe/economia/costo-
cerrar-carretera-central-cuanto-se-deja-exportar-al-dia-2155534 [ Links ]

Instituto Peruano de Economía. (2015). Fichas Regionales 2015 Actualizadas. PBI Cusco
2015. Lima: Instituto Peruano de Economía. Retrieved
from: http://www.ipe.org.pe/content/fichas-regionales-2015 [ Links ]

Instituto Nacional de Defensa Civil (INDECI). (2010). Cuaderno Técnico 7. Evaluación

del Impacto Socioeconómico de la Temporada de Lluvias 2010 en la Región Cusco. Lima:
Instituto Nacional de Defensa Civil (INDECI). [ Links ]

Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Información, Ministerio de Cultura Oficina General de

Estadística, Tecnología de Información y Comunicaciones. (2013) Afluencia Turística
Nacional Mensual Al Parque Arqueológico De Machu Picchu, 2004-2012 [ Links ]

Ministerio de Economía y Finanzas MEF. (2010). Sistema Nacional de Inversión Pública y

cambio climático. Una estimación de los costos y los beneficios de implementar medidas
de reducción del riesgo. Lima: MEF. [ Links ]

Perú21. (2009, March 18). En setiembre reabren el Hotel Libertador de Paracas. Diario
Peru21. Retrieved from: http://peru21.pe/noticia/260950/septiembre-reabren-hotel-
libertador-paracas [ Links ]
Pluspetrol Camisea SA. (2007). Memoria Anual 2007. Lima: Pluspetrol Camisea SA.
[ Links ]

Sistema Nacional de Gestión del Riesgo de Desastres, Presidencia del Consejo de

Ministros, Secretaria de Gestión del Riesgo de Desastres, Centro Nacional de Estimación,
Prevención, y Reducción del Riesgo de Desastres, Instituto Nacional de Defensa Civil.
(2014). Plan Nacional de Gestión Del Riesgo de Desastres: PLANAGERD 2014-2021.
Lima: Presidencia del Consejo de Ministros (PCM). Retrieved
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[ Links ]

United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction UNISDR. (2015). Global Assessment
Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2015. Retrieved
from: http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/2015/en/home/download.html
[ Links ]

United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction UNISDR. (2013). Global Assessment
Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2013. Retrieved
from: http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/2013/en/home/download.html
[ Links ]

he Philippines is a country with high vulnerability to natural hazards. According to an international

report, the Philippines ranked third out of 173 countries vulnerable to disaster risks. [1] This evaluation
was based on the potential of a natural hazard to cause heavy human casualties, damage to
properties and infrastructures, and decline of human welfare such as health status and
livelihoods.[2] Aside from the impact of disaster risks, the country is also vulnerable to the effects of
climate change.[1]

The Philippines is a disaster-prone country because of its geographical location.[3] The archipelago is
located in the Pacific Ring of Fire, making it prone to geological natural disasters such as volcanic
eruptions and earthquakes.[4] The location of the Philippines is also highly susceptible to various
meteorological hazards.[5] The country is located in the path of tropical cyclones that can be
categorized as tropical depression, tropical storm, severe tropical storm, typhoon, and super typhoon.
According to Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration, there is
an average of 20 tropical cyclones entering the Philippine area of responsibility. With this location, the
country has high susceptibility to flooding, storm surges, and strong winds. [1],[3] The 36, 289 km
coastlines of the Philippines also contribute to the high susceptibility of the country to coastal flooding
and storm surge.[5]

The significant and catastrophic impacts of natural hazards led countries and nations to prioritize
disaster risk reduction (DRR). In January 2005, 168 countries adopted the Hyogo Framework for
Action (HFA) during the World Conference on Disaster Reduction held at Kobe, Hyogo Prefecture
Japan. This action-oriented response has a goal to integrate effectively disaster prevention,
mitigation, preparedness, and vulnerability reduction to the policies, plans, and programs of
sustainable development.[6] Governments all over the globe implement DRR, which is an organized
and step-by-step approach to identify, assess, and reduce the risks inflicted by disasters. [2] It is an
integral effort in managing disasters by strengthening the capacities of communities toward the risks
and adverse impacts of natural hazards.[6] The Philippines is one of the countries who agreed on the
implementation of HFA.

The Philippine government is committed to promote and implement measures and guidelines for
DRR. To strongly implement this international standard of DRR, the Fourteenth Philippine Congress
passed the Republic Act 10121 or the Philippine DRRM Act, also known as the DRRM Act. This
Republic Act was formally signed by Pres. Gloria Macapagal Arroyo on May 27, 2010. This law
strengthens the Philippine DRRM system by institutionalizing the National DRRM Plan.[6] The DRRM
Act mandates the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council to develop a National
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Framework, which serves as the principal guide to conduct
efforts on DRRM all over the country.

This law also provides a proactive approach in addressing disaster risks, wherein the people become
presently prepared for the imminent risks and threats of natural disasters.[7] DRRM Act also requires
the integration of DRR Education in the school curricula of both basic and tertiary levels. It was
opportune to incorporate DRR education because the Philippines' Department of Education (DepEd)
recently implemented a new basic education system known as the K-12 Basic Education Curriculum
which follows the rules, regulations, and guidelines of Republic Act 10533, also called as the
Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013.[8],[9] This educational program added two more years to the
10 years of basic education in the Philippines.[8],[10] Specifically, these 2 years are known as senior
high school education, an added educational level to Kindergarten, 6 years of elementary, and 4
years of junior high school.[10] In the curriculum of senior high school, DRR education is integrated in
Earth and Life Science, a core subject offered to all tracks, and to a specialized track subject Disaster
Readiness and Risk Reduction.

With the provisions of DRRM Act, comprehensive, and integrated knowledge building about disaster
education is intensified among students under the K-12 Education Program. The youth are
empowered to be proactive members of community on DRR and sustainable development. It is
relevant and significant to assess the capacity of students on DRR to ensure that the senior high
school education of the K-12 curriculum is substantial on the culture of safety and resilience toward
disaster risks. Furthermore, an assessment about the DRR knowledge of senior high school students
will be a significant report on the impact of disaster education in senior high school level in the
Philippines. Hence, this study was conceptualized to determine the DRR knowledge of Grade 11
students in the Philippines. Specifically, it aimed to assess the disaster-related knowledge,
preparedness and readiness, adaptation, awareness, and risk perception of senior high school
students.

Materials And Methods

This research used a cross-sectional study design wherein it attempts to assess the disaster-related
knowledge, preparedness and readiness, adaptation, awareness, and risk perception of Grade 11 or
senior high school students. A simple random sampling technique was used to obtain 120
respondents from a total population of 712 students at a selected Senior High School in Las Piñas
City, Philippines.

A survey questionnaire was adopted by the researchers from the study of Tuladhar et al.[2] The
survey questionnaire from this study is a validated data collection tool based from different research
studies and literatures in investigating DRR knowledge. Some of the criteria in the survey
questionnaire were based on the suggestions in the report of Southern California Earthquake Center
on public awareness, education, and knowledge transfer,[11] and Peru's National Educational Program
for Disaster Prevention and Mitigation on training and education for improving earthquake disaster
management in developing countries.[12] Some criteria were also based on the study of
Tanaka [13] that investigates the effect of disaster education on improving people's readiness and
preparedness in Fukui, Japan and San Francisco Bay Area, California, USA, and based on the study
of Ronan et al.[14] that correlates hazard education on hazard awareness, risk perceptions,
psychological factors, knowledge, and hazards adjustments of youth.

The respondents answered twenty (20) questions that were categorized into five. These categories
on DRR knowledge are the following: disaster-related knowledge, disaster preparedness and
readiness, disaster adaptation, disaster awareness, and disaster risk perception. Disaster-related
knowledge refers to the information and familiarity of the respondent on the occurrence of disaster,
and of being informed about disaster risk education training and seminar. Disaster preparedness and
readiness refers to the knowledge and capacities of a person, community, institution, or a government
to efficiently anticipate, and effectively respond to and recover from imminent and present disasters.
Disaster adaptation refers to the adjustment that a person, community, institution, or a government
can conduct or implement in response to actual or expected disasters and their effects. Disaster
awareness evaluates the respondent's level of consciousness on disasters. Disaster risk perception
evaluates the individual judgement toward the dangers and other impacts of disasters.

A five-point Likert scale (5 = Strongly Agree, 4 = Agree, 3 = Disagree, 2 = Strongly Disagree, and 1 =
I do not know) was used to determine the responses of students on different issues of DRR. The five
responses in the survey questionnaire were also rephrased with terminologies suited for DRR issues
based on the study of Tuladhar et al.[2] [Table 1] shows the DRR issues and the responses.
 Table 1: Disaster risk reduction issues and responses

Click here to view

The responses on the five-point rating scale of each question were descriptively presented as
percentages and were analyzed using nonparametric Kruskal–Wallis test. This statistical test is a
rank test that is a nonparametric substitute to ANOVA used in testing the difference between three or
more independent groups. Nonparametric tests are used if the data are not normally distributed and
have unequal variances.[15]Statistical test was conducted using Statistical Package for the Social
Science (SPSS) Version 22 (IBM Corporation, 1 New Orchard Road Armonk, New York, United
States). It is a software package that is used for comprehensive data analysis. SPSS contains all
basic parametric and nonparametric tests. It can also be used in creating tables and charts. The level
of significance in all cases was set at P < 0.05. A small P value that is less than the predetermined
significance level such as 0.05, which is a common alpha value, means strong evidence against the
null hypothesis or in favor to the alternative.

Results

[Table 2] shows the mean percentages of each response option of Grade 11 students on disaster-
related knowledge. Responses in all cases of disaster-related knowledge are significantly different.
Out of 120 respondents, 33.33% understood when a disaster will take place, followed by 30.00% who
find it unclear on this DRR issue. Majority of respondents (42.50%) have no clear knowledge on the
idea that there is no prevention for the occurrence of disasters. There is also a higher percentage of
students (35.00%) who understood the importance of participating on a disaster risk education
seminar and training, followed by 20.83%, and 20.00% of Grade 11 students who have no clear idea
and find it confusing on this important issue.
Table 2: Mean percentages of each response option on disaster-related
knowledge

Click here to view

Responses in all cases of disaster preparedness and readiness are significantly different. Most of the
respondents are ready and prepared on disaster risks, because they find it significant on sharing
knowledge and experiences of disasters, they recognize the importance of making conversations
about disasters with their family and other people, they know their government can give assistance
during disasters, they are confident that there will be an immediate rehabilitation after a disaster and
because they gain knowledge from experts of disaster risks as shown in [Table 3].
Table 3: Mean percentages of each response option on disaster preparedness
and readiness

Click here to view

[Table 4] shows the mean percentages of each response option of Grade 11 students on disaster
adaptation. Responses in all cases are significantly different. The highest percentage of students are
adapted on disaster risks because they are aware on the location of shelter areas, evacuation
centers, and open spaces, they are confident that government institutions can give assistance during
the disaster, they are aware on disaster prone areas, they obtained sufficient information on disaster
adaptation implemented by local government units and nongovernmental organizations, and they are
aware about the evacuation system and plan of their locality.
Table 4: Mean percentages of each response option on disaster adaptation

Click here to view

Responses in all cases of disaster awareness and risk perception are significantly different. Most of
the students are aware on DRR at local, regional, and national level because of various disaster
awareness campaigns, and most of the respondents are aware on the importance of building or
infrastructure retrofitting as shown in [Table 5]. However, high percentage of students is not aware on
the importance of preparing emergency kits and bags in case of disaster.
Table 5: Mean percentages of each response option on disaster awareness

Click here to view

[Table 6] shows that the highest percentages of students, 29.17% and 25.00%, have not perceived
and have no idea that large-scale disasters will definitely happen in the next 10 years. Most of the
students, 36.67% and 25.83%, also have not perceived or have no idea on the safety of their
localities or areas. Same trend was also observed regarding their perception about earthquake
resistant structures such as their houses and other buildings.
Table 6: Mean percentages of each response option on disaster risk perception

Click here to view

Discussion

The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) mentioned and
established the fact that effective DRR education in the basic education curriculum solidifies and
strengthens the culture of awareness, preparedness, and resiliency among the students.[16],[17] They
are the most vulnerable victims of disasters wherein risks can affect their physical, emotional, and
psychological well-being.[16] These aforementioned calls and concerns by UNISDR urged all
governments and institutions to conduct disaster management and mitigations.[17] The present
Philippine government addresses and implements these recommendations of UNISDR by
disseminating disaster risk assessment, reduction and management knowledge among government
employees, local households, students, and other stakeholders, and designing frameworks of DRR
measures.[3] The DepEd of the Philippines prioritizes the incorporation of DRRM into the national
basic education system.

The responses of Grade 11 students in this study reflect how K-to-12 curriculum and other
educational programs of DepEd are effective in addressing DRRM. DepEd implements the
comprehensive DRRM in the Basic Education Framework which seeks to protect students and
education staff (teachers and nonteaching personnel) from death and injury in schools, promotes risk
reduction and resilience through education, and plan for a steady educational program despite of
imminent natural hazards. Schools should be guided by this Framework for an effective assessment,
planning, and implementation of DRR, prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, and
rehabilitation

The DRRM in the basic education framework is fully reinforced by the present curriculum. School and
community stakeholders are engaged and are asked to participate in the integration of DRR in the
educational programs. Based from the School DRRM Manual of DepEd, the children or the youth
should have a great involvement in educational activities that promote DRR awareness. It is a priority
that students should have an in-depth understanding on school-based disaster risk reduction and
management. Students should know what makes their school or community unsafe, and how can
they make these places safe from disasters. Moreover, students should be knowledgeable on what to
do before, during, and after natural disasters. It is clear that the active participation and cooperation of
students is vital to the success of DRRM.

Some aspects of disaster risks are understood by the respondents, and most of them are ready,
adapted and aware on the hazards that natural disasters can cause. However, students have very
low disaster risk perception. Based on these findings, the core subject Earth and Life Science
somehow elevated the knowledge of the students on natural hazards. Learning competencies include
the hazards, hazard maps in identifying, and practical ways of coping geologic, hydrometeorological,
and coastal processes. Geologic processes include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.
Hydrometeorological processes include tropical cyclones, monsoons, floods, and tornadoes. Coastal
processes include erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion. These competencies possibly
improve the understanding of the students on the basic concepts of natural hazards, and the
measures of mitigation and adaptation. Disaster risk perception must be improved among students to
have a correct judgement toward the imminent dangers of natural hazards. Risk perception among
students shall be developed to ensure an effective and protective public response and action.[18]

The success implementation of the school and community-based DRRM relies on public awareness
and public education.[19] Disaster education aims to increase the resiliency of students on disaster
risks by solidifying knowledge about disasters, developing skills that can be used to prepare, adapt,
mitigate, and respond to the damaging effects of disasters, and elevating awareness that widens the
scope of understanding on DRR.[20]With these objectives, DRR is advocated by promoting a culture of
safety and resiliency in the community, most especially at the school level.[21]

Aside from the centralized competency-based approach adopted by the Philippines' DepEd,
communication and promotion of DRR can materialize through strategic planning, development, and
improvement of educational materials according to the United Nations Children Fund and United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,[22] schools all over the country should
integrate DRRM through textbook-driven approach, wherein students have reliable sources on the
different concepts and issues about natural hazards. Other approaches include interactive and action
learning for the students and professional development of teachers on DRR education.

Conclusion

Grade 11 students understood some disaster-related concepts and ideas, and are prepared, adapted,
and aware on the risks inflicted by these natural hazards. Low perception on disaster risks are
evidently observed among senior high school students. The responses of Grade 11 students could be
based on the efficiency and impact of the integration of DRR education in the senior high school
curriculum. Specifically, integration of the concepts about the hazards, hazard maps, disaster
preparedness, awareness, mitigation, prevention, adaptation, and resiliency in the science curriculum
possibly affect the knowledge and understanding of students on DRR.

Acknowledgment

The authors are grateful to the support of the Department of Education – Division of Las Piñas.
Specifically, the authors would like to thank the Schools Division Superintendent, Dr. Loreta B.
Torrecampo, CESO V, and the Division Planning Officer III, Dr. Raymond Magno, for encouraging us
to conduct this research study. We also like to express our gratitude to the students who became the
respondents of this study.

Financial support and sponsorship

Nil.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts of interest.

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Towards resilient communities in developing countries through education of children for disaster
preparedeness