TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page i

Teacher’s Manual with Lesson Plans

and Correlations

Contemporary
Chemistry
THE PHYSICAL SETTING

Paul S. Cohen
Former Assistant Principal-Supervision-Science
Franklin Delano Roosevelt High School
Brooklyn, New York

AMSCO

Amsco School Publications, Inc.

315 Hudson Street, New York, N.Y. 10013
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page ii

When ordering this book, please specify: R 769 T

CONTEMPORARY CHEMISTRY: THE PHYSICAL SETTING
TEACHER’S MANUAL WITH LESSON PLANS AND CORRELATIONS

ISBN: 0-87720-111-0

Copyright © 2004 by Amsco School Publications, Inc.

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without
written permission from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 09 08 07 06 05 04
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page iii

To the Teacher

This Teacher’s Manual is designed to provide assistance to new as well as

experienced teachers. The author, an experienced chemistry teacher, shares
the insights he has gained during his more than 25-year career.
The book has two parts: The Lesson Plans and the Answer Key. At the
beginning of the lesson plan for each chapter, there is a brief introduction
to the topics covered. A grid that lists possible lesson titles, reading assign-
ments, and homework assignments follows the introduction.
Unless otherwise noted, each lesson is intended for a single, 40- to
45-minute period. The lesson plans follow the grid. Each plan incorporates
several related topics from the grid and covers several days of work.
Suggested laboratory activities follow the lesson plans.
The Answer Key provides answers (and, where appropriate, solutions) to
all Practice, Chapter Review, Constructed Response, and Chemistry Challenge
questions, and the questions in Appendix 1.

iii
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page iv
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page v

Contents

1 Matter and Energy 1

2 Atomic Structure 8

3 Bonding 14

4 Formulas and Equations 19

5 The Periodic Table 26

6 Some Chemical Families 28

7 Chemical Calculations 32

8 Solutions 40

9 Rates of Reactions: Kinetics 48

10 Equilibrium 52

11 The Forces That Drive Reactions 60

12 Acids and Bases 66

13 Redox and Electrochemistry 74

14 Organic Chemistry 82

15 Nuclear Chemistry 89
Correlation to Core Curriculum 94

v
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page vi
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 1

1 Matter and Energy

INTRODUCTION
The first chapter includes gas laws, phase change, and heat calculations. Some
teachers may prefer to move on to Chapter 2, “Atomic Structure,” before deal-
ing with phases and gas laws; it is recommend that they make the jump before
“Energy and Changes of State” on page 16. Historically speaking, however, the
gas laws predate the discovery of the atom, and can easily be presented first,
as in this text.

Day Lesson for the Day Text pages Homework

1 How do we study matter? 1 to 5
2 Physical and chemical properties 5 to 6 Pg. 7, Practice 1.1, 1.2
3 Physical and chemical change 6 to 9 Pg. 7, Practice 1.3
4 Elements, compounds, and mixtures 10 to 13 Pg. 13, Practice 1.4–1.7
5 Potential and kinetic energy 14 to 16 Pg. 57, Chapter Review 1
6 Energy and phase change 16 to 18 Pg. 18, Practice 1.8–1.11
7 Measurement of heat 18 to 23 Pg. 22, Practice 1.12 –1.17
8 Drill, matter and energy 57 to 62 Pgs. 57–62, Chapter
(This is one of our longer chapters. Review 8, 10, 21, 26, 28,
Teachers may find it prudent to 36, 37; Pg. 62,
pause here for review, and perhaps Constructed Response 3
for an examination.)
9 Properties of gases 23 to 30 Pg. 30, Practice 1.20–1.23
10 Boyle’s Law 31 to 33 Pg. 33, Practice 1.24–1.26
11 Charles’ Law 33 to 35 Pgs. 35–36, Practice
1.27–1.29
12 Combined Gas Law (Include 36 to 38 Pg. 38, Practice 1.31, 1.32
Gay-Lussac’s Law in this lesson.)
13 Ideal gas law* and Avogadro’s 38 to 40 Pg. 39, Practice 1.33, 1.34
Hypothesis
14 Other gas laws — Dalton’s Law, 40 to 44 Pg. 43, Practice 1.35, 1.36
Graham’s Law, deviations from
ideality
15 –16 Liquids —Vapor pressure (2 days) 44 to 49 Pgs. 49–50,
Practice 1.37–1.42
17 Solids 50 to 53 Pgs. 52–53,
Practice 1.43–1.46
18 The phase diagram** 53 to 55
* Ideal gas law and calculations using R are omitted from many basic chemistry courses.
** Phase diagrams are often omitted from basic chemistry courses, but are included on national exam-
inations, such as the SAT II.

1
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 2

TOPIC I The Nature of Matter (4 days)

Goal: How do chemists classify and study matter?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Define matter, energy, element, compound, mixture, and substance.
2. Use physical and chemical properties to describe matter, and distin-
guish between the two.
3. Distinguish between physical and chemical change.
4. Identify various chemicals as element, mixture, or compound.

Motivation for the Topic

Pour sodium chromate crystals onto a watch glass. Ask students to identify
the substance, and ask them how they know. (They will usually guess that
it is sulfur.)
Pour some sulfur onto a second watch glass. Which is the sulfur?
Demonstrate that only one of the solids is soluble in water. Solubility is one
of the properties used to study matter.

Development of the Topic

Have students use such properties as odor and density to distinguish
between substances, such as water and alcohol, lead and aluminum. List, as
typical physical properties, state, color, odor, density, and solubility. Bright
students may also suggest melting point and/or boiling point; these should
certainly be accepted, and can be demonstrated.
Next, pour some water into one evaporating dish, and ethanol into
another. What is another way we could determine which is the alcohol?
Show that alcohol is combustible while water is not. How is this property,
combustibility, different from the others we listed? Distinguish a chemical
property from a physical property. Take out two test tubes, previously pre-
pared, one with water, the other with dilute HCl. Tell the students that one
of these is water, and drop a piece of Mg ribbon into both. Did we use a
chemical property or a physical property to distinguish the water from the
acid? Explain.
In discussing physical and chemical change, introduce the concept of
endothermic and exothermic change. Students always have difficulty with
the idea that freezing is exothermic, and that boiling is endothermic.
Emphasize that bond breaking is always endothermic, while bond forma-
tion is always exothermic. Endothermic physical changes that can be
demonstrated include the dissolving of ammonium nitrate in water. The
rapid crystallization that occurs when an extra crystal is added to supersat-

2  Chapter 1
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 3

urated sodium thiosulfate is exothermic. There is, of course an enormous

number of possible exothermic chemical changes you might demonstrate.
Try something pretty, like the addition of concentrated NH3 , and then
concentrated HCl, to a solution of copper sulfate. For an endothermic
chemical change, stir a mixture of barium hydroxide and ammonium thio-
cyanate in a small beaker. If you place the beaker on a wet wooden block,
the mixture gets cold enough to freeze to the block. The odor of ammonia,
a new substance formed in the reaction, is evidence that this is a chemical
change.
To motivate a discussion of elements, mixtures, and compounds, you
can show the class copper strips, a new penny that has been cut in half
(revealing the zinc interior), and a crystal of copper sulfate. Point out that
all these samples contain copper—elicit the differences. This is a good time
to distribute periodic tables, and to identify some of the types of elements,
such as metals and nonmetals. Distinguish homogeneous mixtures, such as
solutions, from heterogeneous mixtures. Explain why mixtures are not true
substances, while elements and compounds are. Show a sample of brass,
and encourage students to classify it as element, mixture, or compound—
what questions would one need to ask?

TOPIC II Energy in Chemical and Physical Changes

(3 – 4 days)

Goal: How is energy involved in chemical and physical change?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Distinguish between exothermic and endothermic change in terms
of potential and kinetic energy.
2. State the law of conservation of energy.
3. Draw and interpret heating and cooling curves of pure substances.
4. Perform calculations based on the equation
heat = mass  change in temperature  specific heat

Motivation for the Topic

Announce that you are about to perform a feat of incredible courage. You
will heat an object in the hottest part of a flame for thirty seconds. You will
then hold the object firmly in your hand for a full minute. Permit your stu-
dents to suggest how you will accomplish this. Then take out a large piece
of ice, and hold it in the flame. Why is it not getting hot?

Matter and Energy 3

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 4

Development of the Topic

Draw a heating curve for water, from – 20°C to 120°C. Elicit the key breaks
in the curve from your students. What is happening during the parts of the
curve where the temperature is constant? Identify the five segments of the
curve. Identify the heat absorbed in melting the ice as the heat of fusion,
and the heat absorbed in boiling the water as the heat of vaporization. You
may wish to provide the actual values at this point.
Emphasize that melting and boiling are both endothermic changes.
What is happening in terms of energy? Kinetic energy, from the heat
source, is being converted to potential energy, as bonds are broken. Provide
a heating curve of a second substance, and have students find the melting,
boiling, and freezing points. Repeat with a cooling curve.
If you wish to provide opportunities for further graphical analysis, pro-
vide a heating curve that lists the quantity of substance and rate of heating
in joules/minute. Have students calculate the heat of fusion of the substance,
in joules/gram, based on the time required for the substance to melt.
The next day, refer back to the heating curve, and ask students to dis-
tinguish heat from temperature. Ask them how heat is measured, and
introduce the equation
heat = mass  change in temperature  specific heat
Solve problems using the equation, emphasizing proper units. Once
students have mastered these, pose the problem: How much heat is needed
to melt 10.0 grams of ice? Some of your students might recall the heat of
fusion from the previous day.

Topic III The Gas Laws (6 days)

Goal: Can the behavior of gases be described mathematically?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Use the kinetic theory of gases to explain gas behavior.
2. Solve problems using the gas laws.
3. Apply Avogadro’s Hypothesis, Dalton’s Law, and Graham’s Law.
4. Explain the conditions that favor or inhibit ideal gas behavior.

Motivation for the Topic

Show how the water stays in a full glass as it is slowly raised from a basin
of water. (See pages 30 – 31 of the text.) Develop the concept of gas pressure,
and explore the units used to express it, including millimeters of mercury
(mm Hg), atmospheres, and kilopascals.

4  Chapter 1
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 5

Development of the Topic

Ask students how they picture the molecules in a gas and develop the
kinetic theory of gases. Alternatively, the kinetic theory can be presented
after the gas laws.
Use a bell jar over a pressure plate, with a vacuum pump, to show the
effect of pressure change on gas volumes. Place two balloons, one filled
with air, the other with water, in the bell jar, and then pump out the air.
Have students try to figure out why one balloon gets larger. For fun, you
might throw some marshmallows into the bell jar as well. The quantitative
relationship between pressure and volume can be demonstrated with a
Boyle’s Law apparatus placed on an overhead projector. Have students
graph the pressure vs. the volume, and present the concept of indirect vari-
ation. Develop the Boyle’s Law equation, P1V1 = P2V2, at constant temper-
ature, for a constant mass of gas. Provide several sample problems for
practice.
Charles’ Law can be demonstrated by stretching an uninflated balloon
over a flask and placing the flask on a hot plate. Use a round balloon, not
a long thin one! Present some sample T vs. V data, and have students plot
the data. The plot should pass through the origin only if Kelvin tempera-
ture is used. Explain the significance of “absolute” temperature, and drill
the conversion from Celsius to Kelvin temperature. Show that direct varia-
tion results in the relationship: V1/T1 = V2 /T2. Present some sample prob-
lems, including some that require that the temperature be converted to
Kelvin.
Show that the two gas laws can be combined into one expression

P1V
___ P_2V
__1 = __ __2
T1 T2
Solve problems using this combined gas law. Use kinetic theory to explain
why the gas laws are valid and under what conditions they would not be
valid. Define an ideal gas as one that obeys the gas laws. Have students pre-
dict the effect on the pressure and/or volume of changing the number of
gas molecules in a system. State Avogadro’s hypothesis.
At this time, you may wish to insert n into your combined gas law, or
to go farther, introduce the gas constant R.
If you present the following problem: “A scientist pumps oxygen into
a metal container to a pressure of 100. kP. He then adds neon until the total
pressure is 150 kP. How much pressure is exerted by the neon gas?” stu-
dents will come up with Dalton’s Law on their own. They will also be able
to correctly conclude that there must be only half as many neon molecules
as oxygen molecules in the container.
Graham’s Law can be qualitatively illustrated by dipping one cotton
swab in concentrated HCl, and another in concentrated NH3 , and then
holding them a few inches apart. The white cloud forms closer to the HCl,
because the NH3 diffuses faster. You can state the law simply as “The lighter

Matter and Energy 5

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 6

gas moves faster.” Should you wish to present the mathematical law of
diffusion, be warned that even very gifted students have difficulty with an
inverse, square root relationship.

TOPIC IV Liquids and Solids (4 days)

Goal: How are liquids and solids different from gases?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Describe the properties of liquids and solids, as distinguished from
those of gases.
2. Relate forces of attraction to vapor pressure, boiling point, rate of
evaporation, and melting point.
3. Describe six types of phase change, and know which are exother-
mic, and which endothermic.
4. Compare and contrast the types of molecular motion in the three
states.
5. Interpret phase diagrams. (Recommended)

Motivation for the Topic

Have an evaporation race. Soak three cotton balls, one in water, one in
ethanol, and one in acetone. Have three students make streaks on the
chalkboard simultaneously and observe which dries first. How do we
explain and predict the properties of liquids?

Development of the Topic

Ask students to predict what happens when water is poured into a bottle,
which is then sealed. Does the water continue to evaporate? Why does the
water not disappear completely? Students generally think that the air is
“full” of water. What does that mean? Develop the concept of phase equi-
librium. Define vapor pressure, and have students predict how the vapor
pressure of the three liquids tested earlier would compare. Ask which of the
cotton balls felt the coldest to the touch, and elicit an explanation.
Develop the relationship between temperature and vapor pressure, and
illustrate by using vapor pressure curves of several different liquids on the
same set of coordinates.
Use the vapor pressure curves to illustrate the relationship between
external pressure and boiling point, and define the “normal boiling point”
of a liquid. If you have a good enough pressure plate and pump, heat some
water to about 90°C, place it in a bell jar on the pressure plate, and pump
out the air. Keep the water boiling as long as you can; then open the bell

6  Chapter 1
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 7

jar, and pour the water on your hand. Why did the boiling water not burn
you? Explain that if you had a strong enough pump, you could get the
water to boil at a temperature of 0°C. Since boiling is endothermic, the
water would then begin to freeze. Introduce the concept of sublimation,
and illustrate on a phase diagram how sublimation occurs. Sublimation
can be nicely demonstrated by gently heating solid iodine in a beaker with
a watch glass over the top. Try placing an ice cube on the watch glass. The
crystals that form due to deposition of the iodine vapor are very beautiful.
You might also discuss the relationship between sublimation and odor —
unless a solid produces some vapor, how would you be able to smell it?

Suggested Laboratory Activities

1. Introduction to the Laboratory and Determination of Density
Students are instructed in the use of the balance and of a graduated
cylinder. They then determine the density of a rubber stopper (between
1.2 and 1.4 g/mL) and a sample of salt water. This first period in the lab-
oratory should also include a review of laboratory rules and safety reg-
ulations.
2. Construction of a Cooling Curve for a Pure Substance
Paradichlorobenzene works very well, freezing at 53°C. Place a test tube
containing a sample of paradichlorobenzene in boiling water until it
reaches a temperature above 70°C. Then immerse the test tube in cold
water, measuring the temperature every 30 seconds. Constant stirring
produces the best results.
Some teachers may not wish to use paradichlorobenzene because of its
toxicity. It is possible to substitute water, using a salt-ice bath to lower
the temperature of the water to below its freezing point.
3. Determination of the Heat of Fusion of Water
Requires just a balance, a Styrofoam cup, ice, and a thermometer. The
answers obtained should always come out lower than the book value,
because of inadequate insulation, but it is useful to have the students
figure that out.
4. Collection and Examination of a Gas
CO2 is recommended. Several different experiments are possible, includ-
ing a rough determination of the room temperature density of CO2. The
opportunities for good laboratory experiences related to Chapter 1 are
far greater than those related to the next two chapters, so students will
generally continue to perform labs on “Matter and Energy” after they
have begun Chapter 2.

Matter and Energy 7

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 8

2 Atomic Structure

INTRODUCTION
In recent years, some first-year chemistry programs have been omitting the dis-
cussion of sublevels, using configurations that specify the principal energy level
only. This text will not follow that approach, since the structure of the Periodic
Table is best explained through the use of sublevels. Given a Periodic Table, stu-
dents have little difficulty in presenting a correct sublevel configuration for
most elements.
Nevertheless, the chapter is constructed so as to permit teachers to give
configurations in terms of principal energy levels. They may omit pages 85 to
97. The questions at the back of the chapter include several that are based only
on the simpler electron configurations.

Day Lesson for the Day Text Pages Homework

1 Early atomic theories 66 to 68 Pg. 72, Practice 2.1
2 How are atoms alike? 68 to 71 Pgs. 72 –73, Practice 2.2–2.4
3 How do atoms differ? 71 to 76 Pgs. 74–75, Practice 2.5, 2.6;
Pgs. 108 –110, Chapter
Review 3, 6, 8, 15, 16, 33
4 Where are the electrons? 76 to 82 Pg. 79, Practice 2.7, 2.8
5 The quantum model 82 to 85 Pg. 85, Practice 2.9, 2.10;
Pg. 112, Constructed
Response 3
6*–7* Sublevels, orbitals, and spin 85 to 89 Pg. 109,
Chapter Review 18, 22
8*–9* Electron configurations 89 to 97 Pgs. 95– 96,
Practice 2.11– 2.13; Pg. 99,
Practice 2.14, 2.15;
Pgs. 108–110,
Chapter Review 1, 2,
10 –13, 18 – 32; Pg. 112,
Constructed Response
2 and 4
10 Properties determined by atomic 97 to 103 Pgs. 108–110,
structure — valence electrons, Chapter Review 4, 9, 14,
ionization energy, and 17, 34 – 38; Pgs. 111–112,
electronegativity Constructed Response 1
*Lessons that would be skipped by teachers wishing to omit sublevels from the material. In the sug-
gested homework for Lesson 9, omit questions 37 and 38 if sublevels are not covered.

8
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 9

Topic I Basic Atomic Structure (3 days)

Goal: How has our view of the atom changed?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. State and explain Dalton’s atomic theory.
2. Describe Rutherford’s gold leaf experiment, and explain its signifi-
cance.
3. Use atomic number and mass number to calculate the number of
electrons, protons and neutrons.
4. Calculate the average atomic mass from the masses and percent of
the isotopes.

Motivation for the Topic

How small could I theoretically cut a piece of copper?
Compare a particulate view of matter with a continuous view of mat-
ter. Democritus believed there was a smallest particle, the atom.

Development of the Topic

Show how our picture of the atom has changed, beginning with the Dalton
atom. Dalton based his theory largely on the law of definite proportions;
show how the fact that each compound contains elements in a fixed ratio
by mass is consistent with an indivisible atom. You might wish to point out
that although the experimental evidence available to Dalton may have
indicated the existence of indivisible atoms, it did not prove their exis-
tence. Atomic theory was not generally accepted for another 100 years.
Discuss Thomson’s experiments with cathode ray tubes. It is a good
idea to actually show a cathode ray tube of the type illustrated in Figure 2-1
on page 67 of the text. Students have a difficult time understanding what
the slit does without actually seeing it. I use a Tesla coil to produce the nar-
row beam of light in the tube, but I move the students to the back of the
room; the demonstration does produce some X-rays. If exposure to this
radiation concerns you, you might consider doing the demonstration
once, and videotaping it for future use.
Rutherford’s gold leaf experiment should be thoroughly discussed.
Consider using the “cyclone fence” analogy from page 69 of the text.
In discussing the general structure of the atom be sure to clearly distin-
guish between the mass number and the atomic mass. Students frequently
confuse these, and think that they can obtain an atomic mass from the ref-
erence tables. Some teachers tell students to find the mass number by
rounding off the atomic mass; I strongly advise against this. For example,

Atomic Structure 9
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 10

applying this method to chlorine, one obtains a mass number of 36, which
does not, in fact, correspond to a stable isotope of chlorine. Better to state
that the mass number of a given isotope is not obtainable from the Periodic
Table, and must be provided by the symbol.
Drill students in obtaining the number of electrons, protons, and neu-
trons, from a symbol with a mass number, such as 14C.

Topic II Electron Configurations (2 – 3 days if sublevels are

omitted, 5 –7 days if they are included)

Goal: Where are the electrons?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Explain how line spectra are produced.
2. Describe the electron in terms of orbitals and probability clouds.
3. Write and interpret electron configurations based on the principal
energy level.
*4. Write and interpret subshell designations and orbital designations.
*Optional

Motivation for the Topic

Continuous vs. bright line spectrum: Ideally, a spectroscope should be set
up to view the spectrum produced by a hydrogen lamp. If a hydrogen lamp
is unavailable, a mercury lamp will do, to illustrate what is meant by a
bright line spectrum. This should be contrasted with the continuous spec-
trum of white light. Inexpensive hand spectroscopes can be distributed to
students so that they can see the two different kinds of spectra.
Point out that each color of light has a particular frequency, and each
frequency corresponds to a certain, definite amount of energy. In the bright
line spectrum, then, we see some energies but not others. The energy is
quantized—limited to certain values.

Development of the Topic

I use musical instruments to illustrate the difference between quantized
energies and continuous energies. A piano is quantized while a violin is
continuous. A trombone is continuous while a clarinet is quantized. Bohr
attempted to explain why hydrogen produces the observed bright line
spectrum.
The Bohr model is presented, as shown on page 80 of the text. Each line
in the spectrum corresponds to an electron “leap” from one orbit to an-
other. I point out during this discussion that Bohr’s “orbit” has been

10  Chapter 2
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 11

replaced by the newer term “energy level.” Emphasize that the visible lines
are just a small portion of the entire spectrum. A chart showing the spec-
tra of electromagnetic radiation should be used to illustrate how higher
energy transitions produce ultraviolet light, while lower energy transitions
produce infrared.
Describe the bright line spectrum as the “fingerprint” of the element.
Spectral colors for some elements that have visible flame tests can be
demonstrated impressively as follows: Dissolve the salt in methanol, in an
evaporating dish. Copper, lithium, sodium, and potassium salts seem to
give the best results. Carefully light the alcohol. Gently stir occasionally,
and the characteristic color produced by each element is visible in the
flame of the burning alcohol. (Make sure to take adequate, appro-
priate precautions to protect yourself and your students in the
event that one of the evaporating dishes tips over.)
The quantum mechanical model is developed from the work of de
Broglie and Heisenberg. One way of presenting the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle is to imagine a super-fast camera that could magnify an image
sufficiently to make an electron visible. Heisenberg would say that no mat-
ter how fast the shutter speed, the electron would always appear as a blur.
I also mention having seen a bumper sticker that read “Heisenberg might
have slept here.”
In presenting the concept of an orbital, it is important for the students
to understand that the orbital does not indicate the path of the electron.
It indicates a region in which there is a high probability of finding the
electron. You may wish to use the “shortstop analogy” from page 87 of
the text.
At this point you must decide whether you wish to teach sublevels. If
not, then discuss shell capacities, 2n2, and drill the configurations of ele-
ments 1 to 18.
In presenting the four quantum numbers — shell, subshell, orbital, and
spin — many teachers use the apartment building analogy. To locate a resi-
dent, you need to know what floor he or she lives on — the principal energy
level or shell — and which apartment within the floor — the sublevel, or
subshell. Just as apartment 3A is usually identical to apartment 2A, but
one floor above it, the 3s sublevel is identical to the 2s sublevel, but is one
energy level above it.
Each apartment contains a certain number of rooms — the orbitals.
Apartment 3d is a five-room apartment on the third floor. Five-room apart-
ments are very expensive, so apartment 4s, which has only one room,
always fills first. You might ask students to come up with a rent formula
that represents the correct order of fill and is based on the floor and num-
ber of rooms. When it comes to spin —we have a limit of two people to a
room. Come up with your own idea of how the two people can have oppo-
site “spin”! (Pauli exclusion principle)
Having presented your building, have your students gradually fill it.
Refer to the s-block, p-block, and d-block on the Periodic Table. Students

Atomic Structure  11
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 12

should note that the number of elements within a period that fills each of
these blocks corresponds to the electron capacity of that sublevel. It is clear
that the table contains 2 columns of elements on the left, 6 on the right,
10 in between, and 14 cut out at the bottom. When you get to the config-
uration of a carbon atom, present all the possibilities for the two 2p elec-
trons, i.e., in the same orbital, in different orbitals, same spin, different
spins. Use Hund’s rule to find the correct configuration. Introduce the
terms “paired” and “unpaired” electrons.
In an introductory course, students need not be required to produce a
subshell designation directly from the atomic number. However, given
a Periodic Table with the principal energy levels indicated, they should be
able to provide the subshells, and indicate which orbitals are filled. For
example, given that Fe is 2-8-14-2, students should be able to write the sub-
shell designation, and predict that there are 4 unpaired electrons.

Topic III Properties of Atoms (1– 2 days)

Goal: What are some properties we can predict on the basis of atomic
structure?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Define ionization energy, valence electrons, and electronegativity.
2. Determine the charge of an ion based on the number of electrons
lost or gained.
3. Predict trends in ionization energy, electronegativity, and number
of valence electrons based on atomic structure, and/or location in
the Periodic Table.

Motivation for the Topic

React both magnesium and calcium with water. (Add some phenol-
phthalein to add some color to the demonstration, and to demonstrate
that the Mg does react, however slowly.) Why does the Ca react so much
more readily than the Mg? We can often explain the behavior of atoms on
the basis of their atomic structures.

Development of the Topic

Establish that both Mg and Ca react by losing electrons. Which should lose
electrons more easily? Define ionization energy as the energy needed to
remove the most loosely held electron. Elicit the trends in ionization energy
both across a period and down a group. How would ionization energy be
related to the reactivity of a metal?

12  Chapter 2
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 13

Compare the electron configuration of an ion to that of a neutral atom.

Note that the metals of the first two groups form ions with the electron
configurations of the noble gas elements.
Similarly define electronegativity as an attraction for electrons, and
have students predict the trend, and then provide a table so that they can
check their predictions.

Suggested Laboratory Activities

1. Flame Tests
Students should test solutions containing calcium, barium, potassium,
sodium, lithium, and strontium ions. If using nichrome wire, use a sep-
arate wire for the sodium. Once the wire is contaminated with sodium,
the other flame tests are difficult to see. If you have sufficient wire, you
can use just one wire for each solution. This provides the most consis-
tent results, as long as the students do not mix them up! An unknown
solution should be provided as well. I would advise not using calcium
ion as the unknown.
2. Spectral Analysis
Requires a class set of hand spectroscopes. (These are not expensive!)
Provide as many of the following as possible: Hg lamp, Ne lamp, H2
lamp, Na lamp, He lamp. (Do not identify the lamps.) Have students
observe each of the lamps with their spectroscopes, and draw the line
spectrum. Using a chart of bright line spectra of the elements, students
will determine which lamp is which.

Atomic Structure  13
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 14

3 Bonding

INTRODUCTION
The text presents covalent bonding first, before ionic bonding. Teachers who
prefer the alternate approach will find that they can quickly establish the two
possibilities, and then assign pages 125 to 127, followed by a return to the
beginning of the chapter.
In the discussion of covalent bonds we do refer to the sublevels, which
some teachers omit from Chapter 2. The emphasis, however, is on valence
electrons and dot structures. The determination of molecular geometry, and its
relationship to molecular polarity, is a major focus of the chapter. We urge
teachers to prepare and use three-dimensional molecular models to supple-
ment the diagrams in the book. “Constructed Response” question 2, on page
153, is designed to illustrate the inadequacies of two-dimensional models.

Day Lesson for the Day Text Pages Homework

1 Forces between atoms 114 to 118 Pg. 123, Practice 3.2, 3.4
2 Covalent bonds 118 to 122 Pg. 123, Practice 3.1, 3.3;
Pg. 151, Chapter Review
12, 16
3 Ionic bonds 125 to 127 Pg. 127, Practice 3.5 – 3.6;
Pgs. 148–151, Chapter
Review 1, 2, 10, 19, 28
4–5 Molecular polarity, and geometry 130 to 135 Pgs. 135–136, Practice 3.7–
3.8; Pgs. 150–152, Chapter
Review 4, 11, 13, 20, 29
6 Intermolecular attractions 136 to 141 Pg. 141, Practice 3.9–3.11;
Pgs. 151–152, Chapter
Review 17, 26, 30–35
7 Types of solids 141 to 143, Pgs. 143–144,
124 to 125, Practice 3.12; Pgs. 150 –152,
128 to 130* Chapter Review 6–9, 13,
18, 22, 24, 27*

*Some teachers prefer to omit network solids from the unit.

14
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 15

TOPIC I Bonds Between Atoms (3 – 4 days)

Goal: How do atoms connect to other atoms?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Define a covalent bond in terms of electron sharing.
2. Define an ionic bond in terms of electron transfer.
3. Draw dot structures for simple molecules.
4. Predict bond polarity or ionic character based on electronegativities.
5. Predict whether a given compound is ionic or covalent.

Motivation for the Topic

What do we mean when we refer to hydrogen as H2? Alternate to begin
with ionic bonding: burn a piece of magnesium ribbon, and ask what is
happening, in terms of atomic structure.

Development of the Topic

Show the energy changes that occur as hydrogen atoms bond (Figure 3-2
on page 117). Emphasize that bond formation is always exothermic. Use a
dot structure to illustrate the H2 molecule, and explain the use of dot struc-
tures in representing molecules. Show how molecules such as Cl2 and F2
obey the “octet rule.” Then permit the students to figure out how an N2
molecule could form octets on the two nitrogen atoms. Illustrate other
molecules with double and/or triple bonds. Point out that since these mol-
ecules contain bonds between identical atoms, the sharing of electrons in
these molecules is equal sharing.
Elicit the dot structure of HF, and discuss the unequal sharing of elec-
trons in that molecule. Define polar and nonpolar covalent bonds.
Illustrate the use of electronegativity in predicting bond polarity. Have stu-
dents draw dot structures for other simple molecules, such as H2O, NH3,
CO2, BrCl, CH4 , and SO2.
Ask students to draw a dot structure for MgO. Have them check the dif-
ference in electronegativity, and ask them to predict what might happen
when the difference is that large. Show how the resulting transfer of elec-
trons produces ions, and illustrate how the resulting ions clump together
to form an ionic solid. Discuss the general properties of ionic solids. The
change in electrical conductivity that occurs upon melting can be demon-
strated by heating ammonium nitrate in an evaporating dish, and insert-
ing a conductivity apparatus. Show how dot structures of ionic substances
differ from those of molecular substances.

Bonding  15
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 16

Topic II Molecular Structure (3 – 4 days)

Goal: How do we predict the behavior of molecules?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Identify common molecules as polar or nonpolar, dipoles or non-
dipoles.
2. Predict geometry of simple molecules, and draw representative
structures.
3. Predict whether a molecule is polar or nonpolar based on its
geometry.
4. Describe intermolecular attractions, including London forces and
hydrogen bonds.
5. Predict physical properties on the basis of intermolecular attrac-
tions.

Motivation for the Topic

Perform the experiment illustrated on page 130. I suggest that you use a
rubber rod, rubbed with fur, to provide the negative charge. Unless it is a
very cold, dry day it is difficult to demonstrate the attraction to a positively
charged rod. Repeat the experiment with a nonpolar liquid such as pen-
tane or perchlorethylene. (When I use perchlorethylene, I tell the students
that it is CCl4 , because it is much easier for the them to see that CCl4 is
nonpolar.)

Development of the Topic

Use a molecular model to show that the sides of a water molecule have dif-
ferent charges and how the molecule would spin when a charged rod is
brought near it. Define dipoles, or polar molecules, as molecules having
two oppositely charged centers of charge. Illustrate why molecules such as
CO2 and CCl4 are nonpolar. Ask students to predict the polarity of NH3 and
Cl2, and use molecular models to verify their predictions. Emphasize that
polarity depends upon geometry.
Show how geometry can be predicted by distributing electron pairs as
far from each other as possible around a central atom. Illustrate why water
is bent, ammonia is pyramidal, methane is tetrahedral, and carbon dioxide
is linear. Show how the shape of one molecule can be found from the
shape of another; e.g., H2S should resemble water, PH3 resembles ammonia,
and CS2 resembles CO2.
Show that methane and butane are gases at room temperature. I use a
butane lighter to make the point that butane is easily liquefied under pres-
sure, but methane cannot be liquefied at room temperature. Why? Pentane

16  Chapter 3
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 17

and octane are liquids at room temperature. What is the apparent trend?
Show the comparative boiling points within the noble gas and halogen ele-
ments. Conclude that intermolecular attractions are related to molecular
size, and that generally, larger molecules, with more electrons, have
stronger attractions. Define these intermolecular attractions as dispersion
forces.
Construct a graph comparing the boiling points of H2S, H2Se, and H2Te.
(See text page 138, Figure 3-10.) Ask students to predict the boiling point
of water on the basis of the graph. Why does water not follow the general
trend? Show how hydrogen bonds are formed between adjoining water
molecules. Illustrate the hydrogen bonding between the hydrogen on one
molecule and small, highly electronegative elements (F, O, or N) on an-
other molecule. Have students predict the relative boiling points of C3H8,
C3H7OH, and C3H5(OH)3, and explain their predictions.

Topic III Types of Solids (1– 2 days)

Goal: How do we explain the bonding in the solid state?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Distinguish among ionic, molecular, metallic, and network solids.
2. Compare the physical properties of the four types of solids.
3. Predict the type of solid based on a given formula, or a given set of
properties.

Motivation for the Topic

Test the electrical conductivity of several metals, some ionic solids, and
some molecular solids. Which of these samples conducts electricity?
Compare the conductivity of a melted ionic solid with that of melted wax,
or melted paradichlorobenzene. What type of solid conducts when melt-
ed? Why do these three types of solids have such different properties?

Development of the Topic

Contrast these three types of solids in terms of the nature of the bonding
particles, the nature of the attractions between them, the strength of those
attractions, and the resulting physical properties. Having the students con-
struct a suitable chart is a good idea. Summarize by asking students to clas-
sify common substances; dry ice, brass, rust, aspirin, and wax are a few
suggestions.
Network solids are comparatively rare, and some syllabi omit them.
Should you wish to include this fourth type of solid, list the properties of
diamond (solid D in Practice 3.12, page 143). Students will see that these

Bonding  17
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 18

properties fit none of the three solid types you have already discussed.
Show how a chain of covalent bonds results in formation of diamond and
graphite, and list the resulting properties. (Note: Graphite does conduct
electricity, but most network solids do not.)

Suggested Laboratory Activity

Molecular Models
Students should use molecular models to construct models of a large num-
ber of simple molecules. On the basis of their models, they should be able
to draw the dot structure for each molecule, and predict the polarity of the
molecule.
Students can also be asked to construct molecular models using house-
hold materials, such as toothpicks and marshmallows. Assign fairly com-
plicated molecules, such as acetone, benzene, or acetic acid, and see what
they come up with.

18  Chapter 3
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 19

4 Formulas and Equations

INTRODUCTION
After presenting the principles of chemical bonding, it is logical to use those
principles to derive chemical formulas, and from there, to present and balance
chemical equations, as is done in this chapter. An equally valid alternative
approach is to move immediately to the Periodic Table (Chapter 5) and
descriptive chemistry (Chapter 6), before teaching the mathematical work in
Chapters 4 and 7. You must decide whether you wish to present all of the
major mathematical topics at once, or to split them up.
The skills introduced in this chapter will be needed throughout the rest of
the course. When teaching mole relationships, acid-base chemistry, solutions,
and redox, you may wish to encourage students to revisit Chapter 4.

Day Lesson for the Day Text Pages Homework

1 Binary formulas (ionic) 156 to 160 Pg. 159, Practice 4.1;
Pg. 160, Practice 4.2
2 Polyatomic ions 160 to 161 Pgs. 161–162,
Practice 4.3, 4.4
3–4 Molecular formulas 162 to 163 Pg. 163, Practice 4.5
5 Oxidation states 163 to 167 Pg. 165, Practice 4.6;
Pg. 166, Practice 4.7, 4.8;
Pg. 178, Constructed
Response 2
6 Formula mass 167 to 169 Pg. 169, Practice 4.9
7 Chemical equations 169 to 172 Pg. 172, Practice 4.10;
Pg. 178, Constructed
Response 1
8–9 Types of reaction 172 to 176 Pg. 175, Practice 4.11;
Pgs. 176–177, Practice 4.12

TOPIC I Formula Writing (3 – 4 days)

Goal: How do we write chemical formulas?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. When given the name, write a chemical formula using the Stock
system.

19
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 20

2. When given the formula, provide the name of a compound, using

the Stock system.
3. Write chemical formulas for molecular substances when given pre-
fix names.
4. Give correct names for molecular substances, given the formula.
5. Distinguish between molecular and empirical formulas.

Motivation for the Topic

What is the formula for sodium chloride? (Students know that it is NaCl.)
What is the formula for magnesium chloride? If a student answers correctly
MgCl2, ask how he or she knew. If, as happens most frequently, a student
answers “MgCl,” use atomic structure to illustrate that the Mg forms a 2+
ion, while the Cl forms a 1- ion. How can these ions form a neutral sub-
stance?

Development of the Topic

Show how a neutral compound is formed from Al3+ with O2 –. Once it is
clear why Al2O3 is the simplest possible formula, introduce the “crisscross
method” as a simple way of obtaining correct formulas.
Define a binary compound as a compound containing only two differ-
ent elements, and have students notice (from magnesium chloride, alu-
minum oxide, and sodium chloride) how their names always end in “ide,”
and always list the metal ion first. Give the students several more formulas
to do. Include calcium oxide, to point out that the charges are “criss-
crossed” in lowest terms, so that it is CaO and not Ca2O2.
Burn a piece of steel wool in the flame of a gas burner, and show the
students the resulting compound. (It should come out greenish in color.)
What is the product when we burn Fe? Burning produces oxides. This
oxide has the formula FeO. What is rust made of? Elicit that rust is also an
oxide of iron — so why does it look so different from the burned steel wool?
Refer students to a reference table, where they can see that iron has two
common positive charges: 2+ and 3+. In rust, the iron is 3+. What formu-
la would that give us? Chemists prefer that the names of compounds not
be ambiguous. The same name cannot be given to two different com-
pounds. To solve this problem, we use the Stock system of naming. Show
that one of the oxides is iron(III) oxide, while the other is iron(II) oxide.
Emphasize that the Roman numeral is the charge of the ion, and not the
number of ions in the formula!
Have students figure out the formula of such compounds as iron(III)
chloride, nickel(II) sulfide, and tin(IV) oxide. (Many students are likely to
write Sn2O4 for the tin compound; remind them to crisscross in lowest
terms. Ask students to correctly name FeS, Ni2O3, PbS2, CoCl3, and ZnBr2.
Ask the class, “Why don’t we call the last of these zinc(II) bromide?”

20  Chapter 4
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 21

Show the class a large blue crystal of copper(II) sulfate. How does this
name differ from those we have discussed thus far? The -ate ending indi-
cates a polyatomic ion. Define a polyatomic ion (introduced in Chapter 3)
as a charged particle containing two or more atoms. Refer students to a
table of polyatomic ions, so that they can discover the formula for the sul-
fate ion. Elicit the correct formula, CuSO4. Ask students to write the for-
mula for sodium sulfate, and then aluminum sulfate. Show why the
formula of aluminum sulfate requires parentheses, and state the rule that
parentheses are required to show more than one of any polyatomic ion.
Drill, by asking students to write formulas for such compounds as calcium
nitrate, iron(III) sulfate, nickel(II) phosphate, and aluminum hydroxide.
Have students give the correct names for K2CO3, ZnSO3, Fe(NO3)3, and
Mg3N2. After having spent a period dealing with polyatomic ions students
will often fail to correctly identify the nitride ion.
Ask students to name the compound CO2. Compare this name with the
name given to SnO2. Why do we name these compounds differently?
Remind students that the compounds of metals are generally ionic.
Compounds lacking metals are generally molecular. Molecular compounds
are named by using numerical prefixes. List the prefixes, from mono- to
hexa-. Have students name the compounds NO2, CCl4, N2O3, and P2O5. Ask
students to write the formula for dinitrogen tetraoxide. Emphasize that
molecular formulas are not reduced to lowest terms. Remind them that
glucose is C6H12O6. Introduce the concept of the empirical formula as the
simplest whole number ratio among the elements in the compound. What
is the empirical formula of glucose?
Have students deduce the empirical formulas of HC2H3O2, H2C2O4, and
H2SO4.
It is a good idea to spend at least one period having students practice
formula writing and naming. Groups of four students can cooperatively
complete a work sheet on the topic.
If you wish, you may point out that the compound with the formula
NO is often referred to as nitric oxide. How else might it be named? One
possibility is nitrogen monoxide. Another, using the Stock system, is nitro-
gen(II) oxide. In chemistry, then, there are three ways to say “NO!”

Topic II Oxidation Numbers (1 day)

Goal: How can we apply the Stock system to molecular substances?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Find the oxidation state of the elements in simple compounds.
2. Find the oxidation states of the elements in polyatomic ions.

Formulas and Equations  21

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 22

Motivation for the Topic

What name would you give to the compound SnI4? (tin(IV) iodide) The
electronegativity of I is 2.7, while that of Sn is 2.0. With an electronega-
tivity difference of only 0.7, the compound is not ionic. In that case, what
do we mean when we say that the Sn is +4? Chemists often find it useful
to assign a whole number charge to atoms in compounds even when those
compounds are not ionic. These numbers are called oxidation numbers, or
oxidation states.

Development of the Topic

Define oxidation state as the charge an atom would acquire if all of its
bonds were ionic. Illustrate how the oxidation states in a water molecule
work out to +1 and – 2. Point out that it is generally possible to assign oxi-
dation states without using molecular structures, since many elements
show only one oxidation state in their compounds, and the sum of the oxi-
dation states in any compound must be zero.
List the rules given on page 162 of the text. Ask students to find the oxi-
dation state of the N in KNO3, the S in BaSO4, and the C in Na2CO3. You
might wish to solve these problems using the format illustrated at the bot-
tom of page 162.
Ask students to find the oxidation state of the C in the carbonate ion,
CO32 –. (They will usually get the wrong answer, +6.) Emphasize that the
sum of the oxidation states in an ion must equal the charge of that ion.
Show that the oxidation state of C in the carbonate ion is the same as the
C in Na2CO3. The oxidation state of an element within a given polyatom-
ic ion is always the same. It is often easiest to get an oxidation state by
looking at the ion alone. What is the oxidation state of the Cl in Al(ClO3)3?
You can solve this by showing that in order for the one Al+3, the nine O – 2,
and the three Cl to add up to zero, each Cl must be +5. It is much simpler
to look at the chlorate ion, ClO3–, and see that with 3 oxygens at –2, the Cl
must be +5 to add up to the charge of the ion, 1–.
Give the students ample opportunity to practice finding oxidation
states. They will need to use this technique again in the redox chapter
(Chapter 13).

Topic III Formula Mass (1 day)

Goal: What qualitative and quantitative information can be obtained
from chemical formulas?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Explain why a chemical formula contains both qualitative and
quantitative information.

22  Chapter 4
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 23

2. Find a formula mass, in amu, from a chemical formula.

3. Find a molar mass, in grams, from a chemical formula.

Motivation for the Topic

We know that a balloon filled with helium (He) gas will float, while one
filled with carbon dioxide (CO2) gas will sink. We say that He is “lighter
than air,” while CO2 is “heavier than air.” How can we use our knowledge
of formulas and atomic masses to determine the mass of a molecule?

Development of the Topic

What is the mass of He? Our reference table tells us that He has an atomic
mass of 4, so an average He atom has a mass of 4 amu. What is the mass of
carbon dioxide? The formula tells us that there is one C, and there are 2
Os, in a CO2 molecule. The mass of a molecule is the sum of the masses of
its atoms. A CO2 molecule has a mass of 44 amu. Of the molecules in air,
80 percent are nitrogen molecules, N2. What is the molecular mass of nitro-
gen?
Remind students that ionic substances do not consist of molecules.
Therefore, when we add up the masses the elements in their formulas, we
are finding the formula mass. What is the formula mass of calcium carbon-
ate (CaCO3)? What is the formula mass of calcium nitrate? Note that we
need to know how to write the formula before we can find the formula
mass.
The amu is much too small a unit to be practical in ordinary situations.
We normally measure the mass of chemicals in grams. Chemists have
defined the molar mass as the sum of the masses of the elements in the
formula, with the unit simply changed to grams. Thus the molar mass of
water is 18 grams. What is the molar mass of CO2? What is the molar mass
of CaCO3? Give plenty of examples.

Topic IV Chemical Equations (3 days)

Goal: How can we predict, write, and balance chemical equations?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Balance simple chemical equations.
2. Identify the reactants and products in a chemical equation.
3. Illustrate the law of conservation of mass from a balanced chemical
equation.
4. Identify various types of chemical reaction.
5. Given the reactants, predict the products and balance the resulting
equation.

Formulas and Equations  23

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 24

Motivation for the Topic

Place a piece of magnesium ribbon in a test tube containing 1 molar HCl.
Have students describe what they see, and write “Magnesium +
Hydrochloric acid.” Allow students to predict, on the basis of what they see,
what the products of the reaction might be, and write the word equation for
the reaction, illustrating the reactants and products. How do chemists rep-
resent chemical equations?

Development of the Topic

Describe the equation above as a word equation, and point out that chemists
generally prefer to write chemical equations that provide the chemical for-
mula of the substances in the reaction. Write “Mg + HCl →” and allow the
students to write the formula of hydrogen, H2, and magnesium chloride,
MgCl2. We now have the equation Mg + HCl → MgCl2 + H2. Students will
usually recognize that this equation is not balanced. Elicit from them what
they mean by a balanced equation. Have a student balance the equation, and
point out why it is advantageous to use balanced equations in chemistry.
Show that in the balanced equation, the sum of all of the masses of the reac-
tants equals the sum of all of the masses of the products.
Go over the techniques for balancing equations. (See text: pages 168 –
169.) Provide several examples, beginning with the simplest. Encourage
students to begin to try numbers even if they do not immediately see the
final answer.
Begin the following lesson by showing pieces of mossy zinc, and
explaining that you intend to add these to a solution of sulfuric acid,
H2SO4. (Be sure to use dilute sulfuric acid, about 1 molar.) Ask your stu-
dents to predict what will happen. If they do not respond, refer them back
to the previous day’s demonstration with Mg and HCl. Illustrate that both
of these are reactions between a metal and an acid. Similar reactions often
produce similar results. Show that the zinc reacts with the acid to produce
H2 gas. It helps us to predict chemical changes, if we can classify reactions.
For now, we will look at four types of chemical reaction.
Illustrate each of the four reaction types by performing the actual
chemical reaction. Have students complete and balance each equation.
The lesson is as much about practicing equation balancing as it is about
classifying reactions. Suggested reactions include (in aqueous solution):

• Single replacement — zinc in copper sulfate, copper in silver nitrate,

or aluminum in hydrochloric acid.
• Double replacement — silver nitrate and barium chloride, sodium
iodide and lead(II) nitrate, or barium chloride and sodium chromate.
• Combination (also called composition, or synthesis) — burning hydro-
gen, burning Mg, or NH3 + HCl gases. (Use concentrated HCl and
concentrated NH3, and just hold the two beakers next to each other.)

24  Chapter 4
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 25

• Decomposition —add the catalyst MnO2 to a sample of H2O2, or heat

a sample of CuSO4 •5H2O solid until it turns white (the water
droplets are visible on the test tube).

Suggested Laboratory Activity

Types of Chemical Reactions
Have students perform several of each type of reaction, record their obser-
vations, and write balanced equations for the reactions.

Formulas and Equations  25

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 26

5 The Periodic Table

INTRODUCTION
Chapter 5 deals with the Periodic Table and discusses the general trends that
can be predicted using the table. Most teachers will probably want to cover all
of Chapter 5.

Day Lesson for the Day Text Pages Homework

1 History of the table 181 to 186
2 General trends 186 to 190 Pgs. 190–191,
Practice 5.1– 5.3
3–4 Bonding behavior 191 to 195 Pgs. 198–199,
Constructed Response 1–4;
Pgs. 196 – 198,
Chapter Review

Topic I Using the Periodic Table to Predict the Behavior of

Elements (3 – 4 days)

Goal: How is the Periodic Table used to predict chemical behavior?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Explain the general organization of the Periodic Table in terms of
Periods and Groups.
2. Predict trends in ionization energy, electronegativity, valence elec-
trons, and chemical properties within Groups and Periods.
3. Contrast the behavior of metals with the behavior of nonmetals.

Motivation for the Topic

Why does the Periodic Table look the way it does? Mendeleev grouped the
elements in order by their mass, but why did he start a new period when
he went from fluorine to sodium? (Neon had not been discovered yet!)
What does the mass of an element have to do with its chemical behavior?

26
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 27

Development of the Topic

Discuss the early history of the table. (See pages 181–186.) Show how the
mass of argon would place it in Group 1 when elements are grouped by
mass. Have the students realize that the success of the early Periodic Table
was despite the erroneous assumption that the chemical properties of the
elements were determined by their mass.
Have students predict the trends in atomic radius, and illustrate these
trends using graphs such as Figure 5-1. You may wish to ask the students
to graph the radius within a Group or Period, assigning different Groups
and Periods to different students. Similarly, elicit and graph the ionization
energies within Groups and Periods. If you have taught sublevels in
Chapter 2, you can explain the two dips in the graph across a Period; the
first occurs because p orbitals are repelled by the s orbitals in their energy
level. It is thus easier to remove an electron from boron, 1s22s22p1, than it
is from beryllium, 1s22s2. The second dip occurs when a second electron is
added to one of the p orbitals; the repulsion between the two electrons
makes it easier to remove one of them.
Demonstrations comparing the activities of the metals of Groups 1 and
2 can be done at this time; the students should be able to predict the
behavior of potassium in water once they have seen what sodium does. Be
sure to use very small pieces of these metals and cold water. For safety rea-
sons, do not have a student help you with the sodium and potassium
demonstrations; students can safely react magnesium and calcium with
water. Use phenolphthalein to enhance the visibility of the reactions, espe-
cially with the magnesium.
Students should become acquainted with the “colorful” behavior of the
transition metals. Some pretty demonstrations that illustrate this behavior
include:

• Add concentrated NH3 solution to a solution of CuSO4 ; then add

concentrated HCl.
• Prepare an acidic (use dilute H2SO4) solution of KMnO4, and pour it
into a beaker containing a solution of either Na2SO3 or any Sn2+ salt.
The color change is dramatic.

The Periodic Table  27

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 28

6 Some Chemical Families

INTRODUCTION
Chapter 6 discusses the specific properties of elements in several groups with-
in the table. Most teachers will probably pick a few representative Groups from
Chapter 6. That is the approach taken in this guide, choosing to study Groups
1, 2, and 17.

Day Lesson for the Day Text Pages Homework

1 Group 1 metals 200 to 205 Pg. 205, Practice 6.1–6.5
2 Group 2 metals 205 to 210 Pg. 211, Practice 6.6 – 6.9
3 Group 17 225 to 229 Pg. 231, Practice 6.14;
Pgs. 231–233, Chapter
Review 1– 6, 13 – 20, 22,
24, 25; Pg. 234, Constructed
Response 1 a, b, c, e and 4

Topic I Behavior of Some of the Groups (3 days)

Goal: How can we predict and explain the behavior of the elements in
Groups 1, 2, and 17? (You may choose to emphasize other groups, of course!)

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Classify elements as alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, or halogens.
2. Illustrate how the behavior of the elements within these Groups fol-
lows predictable patterns.
3. Write chemical equations for some of the important reactions of
these elements.
4. Given the behavior of one element in a Group, predict the behavior
of another element in that Group.

Motivation for the Topic

Ancient peoples knew elements such as gold, silver, and copper. Sodium, a
far more abundant element, was not isolated until 1807. Potassium, cal-
cium, and magnesium were also purified for the first time in the early nine-
teenth century. Why were these elements so difficult to isolate?

28
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 29

Development of the Topic

Demonstrate the physical and chemical properties of the selected Groups.
If you have not done so already (described in previous lesson), show the
reactions of Ca, Mg, Na, and K in water. Begin with Mg, in a test tube con-
taining water and some phenolphthalein. A faint pink color shows that the
Mg does react, but very slowly. Students should then be able to predict the
reactions of the other three metals, based on their atomic structure, radius,
and ionization energy. (The sodium and potassium should be reacted in
battery jars, not test tubes. Proper safety precautions should be taken.)
Have students also predict the activity of Al compared with that of Mg, and
demonstrate that Al does not react noticeably with cold water.
Have students write and balance the chemical equations for the reac-
tions of the metals with water.
Provide two samples of water, one contaminated with a high concen-
tration of calcium ions. (Do not tell the students which is which.) Provide
soap, and have two students try to wash their hands in the two solutions.
Discuss what is meant by “hard” water. (What is a three letter word mean-
ing “hard water”? [Ice!])
Demonstrate some of the properties of chlorine, bromine, and iodine.
Have students note the state and color of these three halogens, and review
why the states are different. Antimony powder bursts into flame when sprin-
kled into a jar of chlorine gas. Steel wool, once ignited, burns impressively in
chlorine as well. Both of these demonstrations are best performed in a hood.
The relative activities of these halogens can also be demonstrated by
performing the replacement reactions, using chlorine water, bromine
water, iodine, NaCl, NaBr, and NaI. Demonstrate the color of each reagent
in perchlorethylene, or some other organic solvent. Then react the chlo-
rine water with the NaI and NaBr, adding perchlorethylene to each test
tube. The characteristic colors of the bromine and iodine will form in the
organic layer. Repeat with bromine water in NaCl and NaI. Ask students to
predict the results. (The bromine replaces the iodide, but does not react
with the chloride ion.)

Suggested Laboratory Activities

1. Activity Series
Students can compare the reactions of Ca and Mg with water, and then
compare the reactions of Mg and Al with dilute acid. On this basis they
can predict the relative activities of these three metals. Using replace-
ment reactions, they can then compare the activities of Pb, Cu, and Ag.
Ask students: Why were the first three metals discovered around 1807
while the last three were known since ancient times? What do you pre-
dict will happen if you add Al to solutions containing ions of these
three metals? Have your students test their prediction and write
balanced equations for all reactions that occur.

Some Chemical Families  29

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 30

2. Transition Metals
Provide the opportunity for the students to perform some of the many
colorful reactions of transition metal ions. These are fun, and also give
the students the opportunity to practice writing and balancing equa-
tions. Some suggestions are
• Na2CrO4 (aq) with dilute H2SO4, then with NaOH
• Na2CrO4 (aq) with dilute H2SO4, then with FeSO4 or SnCl2
• KMnO4 (aq) with dilute H2SO4, then with SnCl2
• Fe(NO3)3 (aq) with NH4SCN
• A solution of CoCl2 in ethanol, with dilute AgNO3

30  Chapter 6
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 31

7 Chemical Calculations

INTRODUCTION
This is an area in which there is much variation among chemistry programs, in
both scope and vocabulary. Some programs omit the molar volume of gases,
some omit mass-mass problems, and some omit empirical formula problems.
Should teachers refer to 18 grams as the molar mass of water, the gram-molec-
ular mass, or the gram-formula mass? In this text all three terms are introduced,
but I prefer molar mass.
All of the problem types listed above have been included, but those topics
that are most frequently covered have been placed at the front of the chapter.
Teachers wishing to omit molar volume, mass-mass, and the use of the
Avogadro number in problem solving can assign only up to page 253, using
the Chapter Review questions from 1 to 14 only. The 7-day calendar below is
provided for these teachers.

Day Lesson for the Day Text Pages Homework

1 Expressing quantity 235 to 239 Pg. 239, Practice 7.1–7.3
2 Percent composition 240 to 243 Pg. 243, Practice 7.4–7.5
3 Empirical formula 243 to 244 Pg. 244, Practice 7.6
4 Empirical formula from 244 to 247 Pg. 247, Practice 7.7, 7.8
percent composition*
5 Molecular formula 247 to 249 Pgs. 249–250, Practice 7.9,
7.10*, 7.11, 7.12*
6 Mole to mole problems 250 to 252 Pgs. 252–253,
Practice 7.13 –7.14, 7.15
7 Problem practice 277 to 278 Pgs. 277–278, Chapter
Review 1– 9, 11–14
* If many of your students have weak math skills, you may wish to skip this topic. If you do, then omit
the starred questions.

We continue the calendar of lessons now, for those wishing to take the
more traditional and more inclusive approach.

Day Lesson for the Day Text Pages Homework

8–9 Molar volume of gases, 253 to 258 Pg. 256, Practice 7.16 –7.18
and mole conversions
10 Gas densities 259 Pg. 259, Practice 7.19 –7.21

31
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 32

Day Lesson for the Day Text Pages Homework

11 Mass-mass problems 260 to 262 Pg. 262, Practice 7.22 –7.24
12 Mass-volume and volume- 262 to 267 Pgs. 264–265,
volume problems Practice 7.25 –7.27;
Pg. 267, Practice 7.28, 7.29
13 Practice and drill 277 to 280 Pgs. 278–280,
Chapter Review 15–38

Beyond these topics, the “Taking a Closer Look” section in this chapter is
quite extensive, and should be particularly useful to those wishing to prepare
students for national examinations such as the SAT II.

Topic I Moles and Masses (2 – 3 days)

Goal: How do we use the relationship between moles and grams?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Recognize that the term moles expresses the number of items, while
the term grams expresses the mass of the items.
2. Convert from moles to grams and grams to moles for a given sub-
stance.
3. Find a percent composition from a given formula.

Motivation for the Topic

The neighborhood fruit store is selling apples for $1.00 per pound. How
much would two dozen apples cost? What additional information do you
need to answer this question? Suppose that a dozen of these apples weighs
5 pounds. Now how much would two dozen apples cost? In chemistry, as
in everyday commerce, we often need to convert between the number of
items, i.e., dozens, and the mass of the items. In chemistry, though, we do
not use pounds; we use grams — and instead of “dozens,” we express the
number of particles using moles.

Development of the Topic

To solve the apple problem, we needed to know the mass of a dozen apples.
To find the mass of a given number of moles of a substance, we need to
know the mass of 1 mole of that substance. The mass of a mole is easy to
find. We already know how to find the formula mass of a substance
(Chapter 4). The mass of a mole is simply the formula mass in grams. We
call the mass of 1 mole of a substance its gram-formula mass, or more sim-
ply, its molar mass.

32  Chapter 7
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 33

Having defined molar mass, present some simple problems in deter-

mining it. Have students calculate the molar masses of water, carbon diox-
ide, and nitrogen gas, for example. Emphasize the correct unit, grams, or
grams per mole. Once your students are confident that they can find the
mass of 1 mole of a substance, ask them to find the mass of 2.0 moles of
water. They should see that they can find the mass of any number of moles
of a substance, using the relationship
moles  molar mass = grams
Provide a few simple problems of this type.
Next, ask how many moles of water there are in 36 grams of water.
Elicit the alternative form of the equation above:
_______
moles
_____ = grams
molar mass
Provide several simple problems that involve converting to and from
moles. I would suggest that at this time you give the students the molar
masses, so that they can confidently get the correct answers. It is often best
to isolate the one skill you are teaching in that lesson; once the students
show a firm command of that skill, you can combine it with other skills.
The concept of percent composition can be introduced using the exam-
ple on page 240, of the percent of girls in the class. If you wish to include
a “real-world connection” in your approach, you might compare the per-
cent iron in the three iron ores, Fe2O3 (hematite), Fe3O4 (magnetite), and
FeS (pyrite). Which of these contains the greatest mass of iron per kilo-
gram? What is the percent Fe in iron(II) oxide, FeO?
It is a good idea when giving sample percent composition problems to
have students find the percent compositions of both glucose, C6H12O6 , and
formaldehyde, CH2O. Why did both come out the same?
When solving problems involving the percent of water in a hydrate,
you might point out that the school buys its chemicals by the kilogram.
When the school buys CuSO4 •5H2O it is paying good money for ordinary
water! What percent of the mass of this substance is actually water?

Topic II Empirical and Molecular Formulas

(2 or 3 days, depending on whether you choose
to include item 4 below)

Goal: How do we find empirical and molecular formulas of unknown

substances?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Define empirical formula as the simplest whole number ratio
among the elements in the compound.

Chemical Calculations  33
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 34

2. Recognize that only empirical formulas, and not molecular formu-

las, are obtainable from percent composition alone.
3. Determine the empirical formula from a given molecular formula.
4. Determine the empirical formula from percent composition.
5. Determine the molecular formula, when given the empirical for-
mula and the molar mass.

Motivation for the Topic

Once we learned how to convert from moles to grams, we were immedi-
ately also able to convert from grams to moles. We have just learned how
to find the percent composition from the molecular formula. (Review the
percent composition of glucose and formaldehyde.) Can we find the
molecular formula from the percent composition?
Elicit that we cannot determine the molecular formula from percent
composition alone because two different molecules can have the same per-
cent composition. Both glucose and formaldehyde have the same percent
composition and the same empirical formula. We can determine only the
empirical formula from the percent composition.

Development of the Topic

Because mole conversions have been introduced already, students can now
use moles to help solve empirical formula problems. Begin by assuming
that you have 100. grams of the substance in question. Then the number
of grams of each element in the substance is equal to its percent composi-
tion. Show that we can convert the number of grams of each element in
our 100.-gram sample to moles. We then express the empirical formula as
the simplest whole number ratio among the moles we calculated.
Students will generally have little difficulty in finding the numbers of
moles. If you tell them, for example, that the compound is 81.82% carbon
and 18.18% hydrogen, they will generally find that there are 6.818 moles
of carbon to 18.18 moles of hydrogen. But what is the simplest whole
number ratio between those two numbers?
The usual method is to divide both numbers by the smallest. This gives
us 1.000 C and 2.666 H. Will most of your students be able to see that this
produces a ratio of 3 to 8? My recommendation is that, except as extra
credit, empirical formula problems should be kept as simple as possible.
CaCO3, CH4, CH3, H2SO3 are suggested compounds to assign.
Once we have found the empirical formula, what extra information
would enable us to find the molecular formula? Show that the molar mass
of a molecule must be an exact multiple of the molar mass of its empirical
formula. For example, the mass of glucose, 180, is exactly 6 times the mass
of its empirical formula, CH2O. (What do chemists call “CH2O”? “Sea
water”?) Use the method shown on page 248 of the text to show how a
molecular formula is determined from empirical formula and molar mass.

34  Chapter 7
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 35

Suggested substances for practice problems include butane, empirical for-

mula C2H5, molar mass = 58; cyclohexane, empirical formula CH2, molar
mass = 84.

Topic III Mole to Mole Problems (1–2 days)

Goal: How can we use a balanced chemical equation to predict quantities?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Express a balanced equation in terms of the mole ratios of the react-
ing species.
2. Given the number of moles of any substance in a balanced equa-
tion, compute the number of moles reacting with, or produced by,
that number of moles.

Motivation for the Topic

Present a balanced equation, and ask the students what the balanced equa-
tion means. For example, what do we mean when we say, “Two hydrogens
react with one oxygen to form two waters”? Establish that the units
implied in the statement are molecules, or moles.

Development of the Topic

Begin with a problem that uses the same number of moles as shown in the
coefficients of the balanced equation. For example, “How many moles of
hydrogen react with one mole of nitrogen in the equation: N2 + 3 H2 →
2 NH3?” Then ask, “How many moles of hydrogen would be needed to pro-
duced 4 moles of NH3?” Establish a method for solving “mole to mole”
problems. My own experience is that most students prefer the “alternate
method” on page 251 of the text.

Topic IV Problems Involving Ideal Gases (3 days)

Goal: How do we use mole relationships to deal with volumes of ideal

gases?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Identify 22.4 liters as the volume of 1.00 mole of any ideal gas at STP.
2. Convert liters to moles, grams, and number of particles, and vice versa.
3. Calculate the density of a given gas at STP from its molar mass, and
vice versa.

Chemical Calculations  35
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 36

Motivation for the Topic

Review Avogadro’s Hypothesis. Establish that under the same conditions,
equal volumes of different gases contain the same number of particles.
Therefore, at STP, for a given number of gas particles, there must be just
one volume these particles can occupy, no matter what the gas. For one
mole, that volume at STP is 22.4 liters. If we can find the volume of one
mole, then we can find the volume of any number of moles.

Development of the Topic

Having established that the volume of one mole is 22.4 L, ask your students
to compute the volume of 2.0 moles of neon gas at STP. Derive the rela-
tionship
moles  22.4 L/mol = liters
Pose problems in both directions, both moles to liters and liters to moles.
Once students have mastered the conversion, remind them that they now
know three quantities that are equivalent to one mole of a gas at STP: 22.4
liters, the molar mass, and 6.02  1023 molecules. Use the flow chart on
page 256 to illustrate conversions among moles, volume, mass, and num-
ber of particles. Assign simple two-step problems, such as:
• What is the mass of 44.8 liters of O2 at STP?
• What is the volume of 22.0 grams of CO2 at STP?
Remind students that
moles = g/molar mass, and moles = L/22.4.
Therefore, g/molar mass = L/22.4.
This equation can be rearranged to give
g/L = molar mass/22.4.
Elicit that g/L is a unit of density (D). Thus D = molar mass/22.4 L. Work
through some problems going from molar mass to density and then from
density to molar mass. Once students have mastered the relationship, you
might try assigning this problem: A gas that has a density at STP of 2.5 g/L
has the empirical formula CH2. What is the molecular formula of the gas?

Topic V Mass and Volume Relationships in Balanced

Equations (2 days)

Goal: How can we calculate the mass and volume of materials within a
chemical reaction?

36  Chapter 7
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 37

Instructional Objective
Students will be able to:
Given the mass, volume, or number of moles of any one substance in
a balanced chemical reaction, compute the mass, volume, or number of
moles of any other substance in the reaction.

Motivation for the Topic

Demonstrate that you can generate CO2 gas by reacting dilute HCl with
CaCO3. Present the balanced equation for the reaction. Hold up a 1.00-liter
soda bottle and ask, “How many grams of CaCO3 would I need to react to
fill this bottle with CO2 gas at STP?” Establish that the students already
know enough to be able to solve this problem. They have learned how to
convert 1.00 liter into moles, how to convert moles of CO2 to moles of
CaCO3, and how to convert moles to grams. Therefore, within any bal-
anced equation, they should be able to find moles, grams, or liters of any
ideal gas, from the given quantity of any other substance in the reaction.
(You might want to point out that we are always assuming that any
unspecified quantities of reactants are in excess.)

Development of the Topic

Begin with a simple problem, such as 2 CO + O2 → 2 CO2. How many grams
of CO are needed to react with 44.8 liters of oxygen at STP? Emphasize that
this is a three-step problem. The steps are (1) liters into moles, (2) moles to
moles, (3) out of moles to grams. Provide a simple mass-mass problem, and
a simple mass-volume problem.
Once the method is firmly established, present a problem like this one:
In the reaction N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3, what volume of H2 gas is needed to react
with 10.0 liters of N2 gas? Your students are likely to apply the three-step
method they have learned. Allow them to do so, and then show them that
they divided by 22.4 in step 1, and then multiplied by 22.4 in step 3, so the
steps canceled out. Show them that in volume-volume problems, a one-
step solution is possible: 10.0 liters of N2  3H2 /N2 = 30.0 L. (Or, liters over
coefficient = liters over coefficient.)
It is advisable to spend at least one additional day having students
apply these techniques to several problems. Cooperative groups work par-
ticularly well in this area.

Suggested Laboratory Activities

1. Determination of the Percent of Water in a Hydrate
Hydrated copper sulfate, CuSO4 •5 H2O, works well. In addition to hav-
ing students calculate the percent water in the hydrate, it is useful to
have them calculate the number of water molecules in the formula.

Chemical Calculations  37
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 38

They can convert the grams of water to moles, convert the grams of
anhydrous crystal to moles, and then find the ratio.
2. Determination of the Formula of a Carbonate
This is very simple and easily doable in a 40-minute period. Students are
given a sample of a carbonate or bicarbonate. Possible unknowns could
be NaHCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, and BaCO3. Students weigh a sample into
an Erlenmeyer flask. They then prepare a beaker of dilute HCl (the
quantity and concentration of the HCl must be more than sufficient to
completely convert the carbonate into CO2 ) and find the mass of the
beaker, HCl, flask, and carbonate together. The contents of the beaker
are then poured into the flask, which is gently swirled until the reaction
is complete. The flask and beaker are weighed again. The mass lost is
carbon dioxide. Students can then find the moles of carbon dioxide, cal-
culate the moles of carbonate, and, dividing grams by moles, determine
the molar mass of their carbonate. They can then identify their partic-
ular carbonate.
3. Determination of the Molar Volume of a Gas
There are several methods that work well, but they do require students
to convert volumes to STP, and if accurate answers are desired, to
include a vapor pressure correction. One method is the reaction of Mg
ribbon with dilute HCl in a gas-measuring tube. If gas-measuring tubes
are unavailable, an ordinary graduated cylinder will do. Fill a trough
with water. Add 10.0 mL of 6.0 M HCl to a 50.0-mL graduated cylinder,
and then fill the cylinder to the top with water. Do not stir or shake the
mixture. Use Mg strips of approximately 0.030 g. If there are not
enough balances available capable of giving accurate readings to the
nearest milligram, the strips can be preweighed by the instructor. Once
the strips have been weighed, they should be curled into a ball, and
placed in the previously prepared graduated cylinder. A glass plate is
used to quickly invert the cylinder, and place it in the trough. The glass
plate is removed, while the Mg stays in the cylinder. Once the acid dif-
fuses down the cylinder, it will react, producing H2 gas. The moles of H2
are equal to the moles of Mg. The volume of H2 collected, after it is cor-
rected to STP, divided by the moles, should be 22.4 liters. (Remind the
students not to touch the liquid in the trough once the reaction begins,
and to rinse the trough thoroughly when they are done!)

38  Chapter 7
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 39

8 Solutions

INTRODUCTION
The treatment of the qualitative and quantitative aspects of solubility seems
pretty standard. Nearly all curricula will include the nature of the dissolving
process, solubility curves, and concentration calculations. Optional topics
include quantitative problems using colligative properties, Raoult’s Law, and
the relationship between the vapor pressure change and the changes in boil-
ing point and freezing point.
This chapter introduces the concept of entropy. Students frequently ask,
“What is stronger, the interionic attraction (in KCl, for example), or the ion-
dipole attraction?” The answer is the interionic attraction. They now ask, “Then
why does KCl dissolve?” The answer to this question involves entropy!

Day Lesson for the Day Text Pages Homework

1 How do solutions form? 283 to 287 Pg. 316, Chapter Review 1
2 Like dissolves like 287 to 289 Pg. 288, Practice 8.1;
Pg. 289, Practice 8.2, 8.3
3–4 Solubility curves and saturation 289 to 293 Pg. 292, Practice 8.4;
Pg. 293, Practice 8.5–8.9;
Pg. 319, Chapter Review
24 – 27
5 Factors that influence solubility 294 to 296 Pg. 296 – 297,
Practice 8.10–8.13
6–7 Units of concentration 297 to 306* Pg. 299, Practice 8.14–8.16,
Pg. 302, Practice 8.17–8.19,
Pg. 304, Practice 8.20–8.23,
Pg. 306,* Practice 8.24, 8.25
8 Properties of solutions 306 to 313** Pg. 313,
Practice 8.26, 8.27**
Pgs. 318 – 319, Chapter
Review 22, 28 – 30
*Teachers who do not intend to present a quantitative treatment of colligative properties may choose
to omit the discussion of molality and can end the reading assignment at page 304.
**Pages 310 to 311 deal with the quantitative treatment of colligative properties.

39
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 40

Topic I The Dissolving Process (2 days)

Goal: How do solutions form?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Describe solutions as homogeneous mixtures.
2. Explain the dissolving process on the basis of bond breaking and
bond formation.
3. Predict solubility on the basis of bonding forces; i.e., “Like dissolves
like.”
4. Distinguish the solute and solvent in different types of solutions.

Motivation for the Topic

Dissolve a small amount of sugar in a beaker of water. Ask students what
happened to the sugar. Establish that water taken from the top of the beaker
is just as sweet as water taken from the bottom. Dissolve a colored solute,
such as sodium chromate (Na2CrO4). (Be sure to use a small enough amount
of solute to produce an obviously homogeneous result.) Have students dia-
gram what they think is the distribution of the particles in the solution.

Development of the Topic

Establish that a solution is a homogeneous mixture, and introduce the
terms solute and solvent. Provide examples of solutions using each of the
three phases as solutes, and using each of the three phases as solvents.
Explain why a true aqueous solution is transparent. (You may wish to dis-
cuss why homogenized milk is not a true solution; the particles are large
enough to block light.)
Illustrate the bond-breaking and bond-forming steps in the dissolving
of NaCl in water. (See text page 286.) Show the ion-dipole attractions in the
hydrated salt solution. Point out that a strong ion-dipole attraction is nec-
essary for an ionic solid to dissolve. Water, because it is very highly polar,
is able to dissolve many ionic solids.
In the second lesson, with the aim “How can we predict solubility?”
demonstrate the solubility of I2, KMnO4, NiCl2, and pentane, in water and in
perchlorethylene. Establish that water is polar, while perchlorethylene is
nonpolar. Lead students to the conclusion that ionic substances dissolve in
highly polar solvents, while nonpolar, molecular substances dissolve in non-
polar solvents. Have students predict which solutes will dissolve in pentane.
If it does not violate school rules, bring in a bottle of vodka, and ask students
what the main ingredients are. (If it is 80 proof, it is about 40 percent ethanol
and 60 percent water.) (If this violates school rules, the bottle could be empty
or filled with water.) Why is ethanol miscible with water? Show that ethanol

40  Chapter 8
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 41

is highly polar. Polar solutes dissolve best in polar solvents —like dissolves
like. (You might choose to show that ethanol is a much better solvent for
iodine than is water. While ethanol is polar, it is not as highly polar as water,
and can therefore dissolve some nonpolar solutes.)
I also suggest the following demonstration. Prepare a very dilute solu-
tion of I2 in perchlorethylene and pour a small amount into a large test
tube. Pour an aqueous solution of CuSO4 on top of that. Ask students to
predict what will happen if you pour in some pentane. (You can use
toluene instead of pentane if you wish.) The solution now has three layers,
red, blue, and white. Ask what will happen when you shake the solution.
You end up with two layers. Then, by either adding more pentane, to make
the organic layer float, or more perchlorethylene, to make the organic layer
sink, you can get the layers to shift several times.

Topic II Factors That Influence Solubility (3 – 4 days)

Goal: How can we change the solubility of a given solute in a given sol-
vent?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Define saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated solutions.
2. Explain the nature of a saturated solution both qualitatively, in
terms of equilibrium, and quantitatively, as a solution containing a
maximum amount of that solute, in that amount of solvent, at a
given temperature.
3. Use solubility curves to make predictions about solutions at various
temperatures and concentrations.
4. Compare the effects of changes in pressure and temperature on the
solubility of most solids and gases in water.

Motivation for the Topic

Display a beaker containing a saturated solution of sucrose, with a large
excess of sucrose on the bottom. Show that the solid does not dissolve
upon stirring, and ask why it does not. Students may tell you that the solu-
tion is saturated, or that it is “full.” Ask them what they mean, and then
ask what would happen if you added some other solute, such as sodium
chromate (or any other highly colored, highly soluble salt). Show that the
salt dissolves readily in the water.

Development of the Topic

Explain saturation in terms of equilibrium. Ask students how a solution
could be tested to see whether it is unsaturated. Add a crystal of sodium
chromate to an unsaturated solution of sodium chromate; explain that we

Solutions  41
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 42

know that the solution is unsaturated because the crystal dissolves. What
would have happened had the solution been saturated?
Take a preprepared, supersaturated solution of either sodium acetate or
sodium thiosulfate and ask a student to test it to see whether it is saturat-
ed. When the rapid crystallization occurs, make sure that the student also
notices that the solution gets hot. (Instant heat packs often work this way.)
Define a supersaturated solution, and explain how such a solution is pre-
pared. Emphasize that supersaturated solutions cannot be prepared by
adding additional solute to a saturated solution. They are prepared only by
gradual cooling of a saturated solution. Also emphasize that supersaturat-
ed solutions are rare. Most saturated solutions form crystals when they are
cooled. (You can demonstrate this using potassium chlorate; a saturated
solution at 100°C forms beautiful crystals as it is cooled —it appears to
“snow” inside the test tube.)
Place your beaker of saturated sucrose solution on a hot plate and ask
students to predict the results. Elicit that temperature often has a large
effect on solubility, and provide access to a set of solubility curves. (See text
page 290.) Emphasize that each curve represents a saturated solution.
Provide several sample problems using the solubility curves. A second day
may be needed to practice problems using solubility curves, particularly if
you wish to include problems in which the mass of water is not 100 grams.
If your solubility curves include some gaseous solutes, such as NH3 or
HCl, ask why these decrease in solubility with increasing temperature.
Point out that gases typically become less soluble at higher temperatures.
Adding phenolphthalein to a 1.00 M NH3 solution, and then heating the
solution on a hot plate can demonstrate this. The color begins to fade, as
the increased temperature drives ammonia out of the water.
Show a bottle of colorless carbonated beverage (lemon-lime soda or
mineral water). Have students observe that there is no bubbling until the
cap is removed. Relate this observation to the change in pressure that
occurs when the cap is removed. Establish that gases are most soluble at
high pressures and low temperatures. A discussion of scuba diving and “the
bends” is relevant here.

Topic III Expressing Concentration (2 – 3 days)

Goal: How can we precisely indicate the concentration of a solution?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Calculate molarity from moles and volume, or moles from molarity
and volume.
2. Given the mass of a solute and the volume of the solution, calculate
molarity.

42  Chapter 8
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 43

3. Calculate the mass of solute needed to produce a given molarity in

a given volume.
4. Determine concentrations in parts per million, given percent by
mass, or given the mass of the solute and of the solution.
5. Solve dilution problems using molarity.

Motivation for the Topic

In advance, prepare two cups of tea, in separate beakers or glass cups. Make
one extremely dilute, and the other quite concentrated. Show these to the
class, pointing out that they were both made with the same brand of tea.
Why are they different? What are the chemical terms we use instead
of “strong” and “weak”? Point out that “dilute” and “concentrated” or
“strong” and “weak” are inexact terms. How can we express a precise con-
centration?
An alternate motivation is to pour samples of HCl into test tubes from
two different bottles of HCl, one concentrated, and one dilute. Add a small
piece of Mg to each solution, and have the students explain why the results
are so different. (I generally save this demonstration for kinetics at the
beginning of Chapter 9.)

Development of the Topic

Show the listing of the percent alcohol on a wine label. Elicit other possi-
ble units of concentration. (Some possible answers include parts per mil-
lion, proof, and scoops per cup.) Show the mathematical relationship
between parts per million and percent by mass, and present a few problems
using each.
Remind students of all the fun they had working with moles in the last
chapter. They saw then that it is often most convenient to express quanti-
ties of chemicals in moles. Chemists often express the concentration of
solutions in moles of solute per liter of solution. Define molarity, and pre-
sent the equation

M = __
moles
____
liter
Present several problems, in increasing order of difficulty. Once you have
established that your students can convert from molarity to moles and
vice versa, provide a simple problem involving mass of solute, such as,
“What is the molarity of a solution containing 80.0 grams of NaOH in 4.00
liters of solution?” Eventually work up to problems in which the solute is
given in grams, and the volume in milliliters, emphasizing that such prob-
lems require three steps (grams to moles, milliliters to liters, moles divided
by liters).
Show a bottle labeled “NaOH, 6 M.” Pour out 100. mL and ask, “How
much water would I need to add to dilute this solution to 3 molar?” Show

Solutions  43
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 44

students that molarity and volume vary inversely. Refer back to the other
inverse relationship you have presented, between pressure and volume.
Show that just as P1V1 = P2V2 in gas problems, M1V1 = M2V2 in dilution
problems. In the problem given,

6 M NaOH  100 mL = 3 M NaOH  x mL; x = 200 mL

Emphasize that 200 mL is the desired final volume. To get this volume we
need to add 100 mL of water to the 100 mL of NaOH solution we already
have.
Teachers wishing to teach molality should present the definition and
problems similar to those shown for molarity, culminating in, for example:
What is the molality of a solution containing 20.0 grams of NaOH in 200.
grams of water?

Topic IV Properties of Solutions — Colligative Properties

Goal: What properties of the solvent are changed by the presence of

solute particles?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Define an electrolyte as a substance that conducts electricity in solu-
tion.
2. Explain the conductivity of electrolytes in terms of mobile ions.
3. Describe the effect of a solute on the boiling point, freezing point,
and vapor pressure of the solvent.
4. Predict how the dissociation of an electrolyte in water will affect the
freezing point and boiling point of the solution.
5. Calculate the freezing point and boiling point of solutions given the
concentration and depression or elevation constants of the solvent.
(Allow an extra day if you wish to illustrate these problems.)

Motivation for the Topic

Teachers who do not mind a particularly grisly motivation might ask if any
students have seen the movie The Green Mile. Before the authorities elec-
trocute a convict, they dip a sponge in salt water, which they then apply
to the convict’s head. Why do they do this? Use a conductivity apparatus
to illustrate that pure water does not conduct, but salt water does.
Conductivity is one of the properties of a solvent that change when a
solute is added.

44  Chapter 8
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 45

Development of the Topic

Distinguish between electrolytes and nonelectrolytes in terms of the
formation of mobile ions. Ask students why we put salt on the roads
and sidewalks after a snowstorm. Use a thermometer in an ice-salt mixture
to demonstrate that the freezing point is lowered by the presence of the
solute. Some students might have an ice-cream-making machine that
uses a mixture of salt and ice as the coolant. What purpose does the salt
serve?
Point out that the freezing point of a solvent is decreased by the pres-
ence of any solute. The amount of freezing-point depression depends on
the concentration of solute particles. Other properties that similarly
depend on solute concentration include vapor pressure and boiling point.
The greater the concentration of solute, the lower the freezing point, the
lower the vapor pressure, and the greater the boiling point.
If you have taught the phase diagram in Chapter 1, you may now
explain the changes in freezing and boiling point in terms of vapor pres-
sure. (See text page 315.) You may wish to insert a thermometer into some
boiling salt water to demonstrate boiling-point elevation, but if you do, be
sure to use a saturated solution, so that you get a noticeable change!
Present the following information, and challenge the students to
explain. When solutions of glucose (C6H12O6), ethanol (C2H5OH), and
sucrose (C12H22O11) (give the formulas) are prepared in equal concentra-
tion, the solutions have the same freezing point. When solutions of glu-
cose (C6H12O6), sodium chloride (NaCl), and calcium chloride (CaCl2) are
prepared in equal concentration, the freezing point of the NaCl solution
will go down twice as much as that of the glucose, and the freezing point
of the CaCl2 solution will go down three times as much as that of the glu-
cose.
First establish that the freezing points of the nonelectrolyte solutions
were the same. Then, have the students try to explain why NaCl and
CaCl2 were different from each other. Once they have arrived at the con-
clusion that the change in freezing point depends on the total concentra-
tion of particles, and that each ion must be treated as a separate particle,
ask them to compare the freezing point of an Na2SO4 solution with that
of CaCl2 solution. Once you tell them that both are the same, challenge
them to explain why. Conclude that the greater the total concentration of
ions, the lower the freezing point and the higher the boiling point of the
solution.
Teachers wishing to present problems using the molal freezing- and
boiling-point constants can develop the concept by pointing out that since
the change in these properties depends only on the particle concentration,
there should be a way to calculate the change based on concentration. The
concentration unit that is generally used in such calculations is molality.
Present the equations, and try the sample problems given on pages
310 – 313. As an extra credit problem, with a really talented class, you may

Solutions  45
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 46

wish to try this. When 10.0 grams of a certain nonelectrolyte are dissolved
in 100. grams of water, the solution freezes at –1.033°C. Given the freezing
point depression constant of water, 1.86°/m, what is the molar mass of the
nonelectrolyte? (180 g)

Suggested Laboratory Activities

1. Construction of Solubility Curve
Using four test tubes, have students prepare 4-, 5-, 6-, and 7-gram sam-
ples of ammonium chloride in 10. grams of water. The test tubes are
heated in a hot water bath until all of the solute dissolves. A ther-
mometer is inserted in each tube and they are allowed to cool. The tem-
perature is read at the first appearance of crystals. A solubility curve is
constructed, and students are asked, on the basis of their experiment,
to predict the solubility of ammonium chloride in 100 grams of water
at 60°C.
2. Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions
Schools that have an adequate supply of conductivity apparatuses can
have students test a wide variety of solutes and draw conclusions based
on their observations. I usually include calcium carbonate chips as one
of the “solutes.” Because it is ionic, students usually expect that it will
be a strong electrolyte. I want them to see that an ionic substance is an
electrolyte only if it is soluble!

46  Chapter 8
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 47

9 Rates of Reactions:
Kinetics

INTRODUCTION
The material in Chapters 9 through 11—kinetics, equilibrium, and thermo-
dynamics —is often taught as a single unit. In previous editions of this text,
thermodynamics was placed first. However, the three topics can be
approached in almost any order. Most teachers will spend two to three weeks
on the three chapters.
The emphasis in Chapter 9 is on factors that influence reaction rate and the
interpretation of potential energy diagrams. Concepts such as rate law and rate
order are omitted; a proper presentation would assume a level of mathemati-
cal sophistication possessed by very few high school sophomores.

Day Lesson for the Day Text Pages Homework.

1–2 Factors that determine rate 321 to 332 Pg. 326, Practice 9.1–9.3;
Pgs. 332 – 333, Practice 9.4;
Pgs. 335–336, Chapter
Review 1– 8; Pg. 339,
Constructed Response 2
3–4 Potential energy diagrams 333 to 334 Pg. 335, Practice 9.5–9.9;
Pgs. 335–339, Chapter
Review 9 – 26; Pg. 339,
Constructed Response 1

Topic I Factors That Determine Rate (2 days)

Goal: How do we explain and predict rates of reaction?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Predict the effect on reaction rate of changes in pressure, tempera-
ture, concentration, and surface area of solids.
2. Explain reaction rate in terms of collision theory.

Motivation for the Topic

A most dramatic motivating demonstration is the iodine clock. By varying
the concentration and/or temperature, you can produce the sudden dra-

47
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 48

matic color change in a predetermined time interval. I like to pour the

chemicals together, wait the appropriate amount of time, then point and
say, “Presto change-o.” Very impressive, when it works. I then elicit opin-
ions on how I worked my miracle. We try it again, and the time is much
slower. Why? (I dilute the mixture with a small amount of water.)
An alternative requiring far less time and preparation is to take two effer-
vescent antacids, one in tablet form, another in powdered form, and simulta-
neously drop them in beakers of water. (I joke about needing fast, fast relief.)

Development of the Topic

The factors that control reaction rate can be elicited in an interesting way
through a series of demonstrations. In addition to the antacid demonstra-
tion above, a small amount of lycopodium powder can be placed on a
scupula, and carefully inserted into a flame. It will catch fire, and burn
slowly. However, if the powder is quickly thrown through the flame, it will
burn in one dramatic instant, often terrifying the students in the first row.
(Be sure to take appropriate, adequate safety precautions.)
Two different concentrations of HCl reacted with magnesium will
demonstrate the effect of concentration on reaction rate. The effect of tem-
perature on reaction rate is demonstrated by dropping an effervescent
antacid tablet into hot water. (Better, I think, not to tell the students in
advance that it is hot water, and let them deduce it.)
A 4 percent solution of H2O2 can be used to demonstrate the effect of a
catalyst, in this case manganese dioxide (MnO2). Point out that the MnO2
is still there after the reaction is complete. Since the reaction generates oxy-
gen, you can relight a glowing splint in the oxygen, and ask why the splint
burns better in oxygen than it does in air. To explain how a catalyst works,
introduce the concepts of activation energy and activated complex. A cat-
alyst often provides an alternate path from reactant to product. If the acti-
vated complex formed in the alternate path has lower energy than in the
original path, then the activation energy is decreased. The lower the acti-
vation energy, the faster the reaction is.
Once you have established the variables that affect reaction rate (tem-
perature, concentration, and surface area of solids), you can discuss the rea-
sons each has an effect. Each must increase the number of effective
collisions between the reacting particles. This can be done either by
increasing collision frequently, or by increasing collision efficiency.
Concentration and surface area affect collision frequency, catalysts affect
collision efficiency, and temperature affects both.

Topic II Potential Energy Diagrams (2 days)

Goal: How are the energy changes that occur during chemical reactions
shown graphically?

48  Chapter 9
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 49

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. On a given potential energy diagram, identify the heat of reaction,
activation energy, and the potential energy of reactant and product.
2. Predict how the addition of a catalyst would change the potential
energy diagram.
3. State the differences between endothermic and exothermic reac-
tions in terms of the sign of ∆H, the change in potential energy, and
the relative potential energy of the product and the reactant.

Motivation for the Topic

How do we cook hot dogs outdoors? Establish that the source of heat is the
burning of charcoal, C + O2 → CO2 . This is an exothermic reaction. Where
does the energy come from? Some of the potential energy stored by the
reactants is converted to kinetic energy. The law of conservation of energy
says that the amount of kinetic energy that is produced must be equal to
the loss of potential energy. Let’s take a look at what happens during this
reaction in terms of potential energy.

Development of the Topic

Draw the coordinates of a graph with potential energy as the y-axis and
reaction coordinate as the x-axis. Explain that the reaction coordinate
shows the changes in the system over time. Show or elicit that the C + O2
has a greater potential energy than that of the CO2. All exothermic reac-
tions involve a decrease in potential energy. Begin your potential energy
diagram as shown below.

P.E. C + O2

CO2

Reaction Coordinate

Rates of Reactions: Kinetics  49

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 50

Then take out a few coals. “I have charcoal, the air has plenty of oxy-
gen, so why isn’t any heat being produced?” Students know that you need
something to start the reaction. Explain that the energy needed to initiate
the reaction is called activation energy. Since the activation energy is
absorbed by the system, it increases the potential energy. Draw in the
remainder of the potential energy curve and indicate, with an arrow, the
activation energy.
Similarly develop on your diagram the arrow indicating ∆H, and the
activation energy of the reverse reaction. Elicit that the reverse reaction
would be endothermic, and that its ∆H would be equal in value, but oppo-
site in sign.
Draw the arrow from the bottom of the diagram to the reactant (arrow
1 in Figure 9-8 in text), indicating that it represents the potential energy of
the reactant. The potential energy of the reactant is “how high it is above
the ground,” the ground being the x-axis. Draw in the lines indicating the
potential energy of the product, and of the activated complex.
Repeat the process of drawing a potential energy diagram, but this time
show an endothermic reaction. Have students construct the curve, and
draw in the six lines. Then ask what effect a catalyst would have on the sys-
tem, and on the two diagrams. Use a dotted line, or colored chalk, to indi-
cate the effect of a catalyst on the potential energy diagram.

Suggested Laboratory Activities

1. Catalyzed Decomposition of Bleach
Ordinary household chlorine bleach is used. The production of oxygen
from the bleach is catalyzed by cobalt nitrate [Co(NO3)2] solution. By
collecting the oxygen in graduated cylinders, students can plot the rate
of reaction at varying concentrations of bleach and at varying tempera-
tures.
2. Iodine Clock
This requires much more careful preparation than for the first sugges-
tion, but is more impressive. Students find the time needed for the
dramatic change in color, and study the effect of varying the concen-
tration of iodate ion.

50  Chapter 9
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 51

10 Equilibrium

INTRODUCTION
While much of the quantitative material will be found in the “Taking a Closer
Look” section, the discussion of the equilibrium constant is in the main body
of the chapter. Understanding the significance of the equilibrium constant
enables students to gain a deeper appreciation of Le Chatelier’s Principle.
Similarly, although it is possible to illustrate the common ion effect without
referring to the KSP, many will think it preferable to include KSP, as we have
done.
In the sample lessons that follow, Le Chatelier’s Principle is presented after
developing the effects of the various stresses on equilibrium systems. You may
prefer to develop the material from Le Chatelier’s Principle; both methods have
merit.
The chapter contains a section on reactions that go to completion. This
includes showing how a table of solubilities can be used to predict precipita-
tion, and a discussion of the net ionic equation in a precipitation reaction.

Day Lesson for the Day Text Pages Homework

1 How systems reach equilibrium 341 to 347 Pg. 347, Practice 10.2;
Pg. 374, Chapter
Review 4, 7
2 How concentration affects 347 to 352 Pg. 351, Practice 10.4
equilibrium
3–4 How pressure and temperature 352 to 362 Pg. 354, Practice 10.5;
changes affect equilibrium Pg. 358, Practice 10.7, 10.8;
Pg. 362, Practice 10.9,
10.10
5 Solutions and equilibrium 362 to 364 Pg. 364, Practice
10.11–10.13
6 Precipitation reactions 365 to 367 Pgs. 367– 368,
Practice 10.14 –10.17

51
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 52

Topic I How Systems Reach Equilibrium (2 days)?

Goal: How do systems reach equilibrium?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Describe equilibrium as a condition of constant concentration.
2. Describe equilibria in terms of the rates of forward and reverse reac-
tions.
3. Recognize that equilibrium does not imply equal concentrations of
product and reactant.
4. Chart how a reaction reaches equilibrium by showing the changes
in the rates of the forward and reverse reactions.
5. Predict the effect of changes in concentration on equilibrium sys-
tems.
6. Write the equilibrium expression given a balanced chemical equa-
tion.
7. State the significance of the numerical value of the equilibrium con-
stant.

Motivation for the Topic

An abandoned tennis court surrounded by a high fence is visited by two
young men, Joe and Schmoe. On the court are 100 old tennis balls, ran-
domly distributed. The two boys get on opposite sides of the court and
decide to play a game. The idea is to get all the tennis balls to the other
player’s side of the court. Both players start throwing the balls as quickly
as they can to the other side of the court. What happens? (Students gen-
erally guess that no one wins, or that 50 tennis balls end up at on each
side.) I then add, “I should have told you that Joe is a very good athlete,
while Schmoe has bursitis and gout. What happens?” Eventually, we con-
clude that more of the tennis balls end up on Schmoe’s side, but as Joe
starts running out of tennis balls, it takes him longer to throw them back.
As Schmoe accumulates tennis balls, he can get to the next one faster.
Eventually, their rates become equal. (See Figure 10-1 in the text, which I
label “Joe’s Rate” and “Schmoe’s Rate” instead of “Forward” and
“Backward.”) Chemical reactions reach equilibrium in very much the
same way as Joe and Schmoe.

Development of the Topic

Suppose at equilibrium there are 80 tennis balls on Schmoe’s side, to 20 on
Joe’s side. How do we know that the system is at equilibrium? First, the
number of balls on each side is constant. Second, the rates are the same in
both directions. However, the number of balls on each side is not the same.

52  Chapter 10
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 53

How would the situation change if we moved the fence in on Schmoe’s

side of the court, making his court smaller? Schmoe would be able to get
to the balls faster. Equilibrium depends not on the number of balls, but on
the concentration of balls. In this case, equilibrium is reached when the
concentration on Schmoe’s side is four times the concentration on Joe’s
side. Suppose we threw five more tennis balls over the fence. What do we
expect would happen? Equilibrium would be reached at 21 and 84, main-
taining the same ratio of four to one. In chemical reactions also, equilibri-
um is reached at a definite ratio of product concentration to reactant
concentration. This ratio is called the equilibrium constant.
What would happen if there was a hole in the fence? Students will cor-
rectly conclude that balls would occasionally leave the court, and the sys-
tem would never reach equilibrium. Equilibrium is reached only in a closed
system.
Summarize by applying the concept of equilibrium to phase equilibri-
um (a closed bottle of water), solution equilibrium (a saturated solution),
and chemical equilibrium (as in the reaction 2 NO2 ← → N2O4). You can use
NO2 tubes to demonstrate the equilibrium—a constant color is reached at
a given temperature.
The effect of changes in concentration on equilibrium systems can be
discussed either qualitatively or quantitatively, depending upon whether
the teacher wishes to use equilibrium expressions and the KEQ. We have
already established that how fast the boys can throw tennis balls depends
on the concentration of tennis balls. What should happen if we increase
the concentration of a substance that appears on one side of a chemical
equation? There are several reactions that can be used to illustrate the con-
cept. For example,
→ Sb(OH)3 + 3 HCl
SbCl3 + 3 H2O ←
→ Sb(OH)3 + 3 H+)
(or, if you prefer, Sb3+ + 3 H2O ←

Begin with an acidic solution of SbCl3, and add water. A milky precipi-
tate forms. What can we add that will drive the reaction backward? Add
HCl and the precipitate disappears. Then add more H2O, and the precipi-
tate reappears. Increasing the concentration of reactant drives the reaction
forward; increasing the concentration of product drives the reaction back-
ward.
Show an orange solution of sodium dichromate (Na2Cr2O7). Add
NaOH; the solution will turn yellow. The reaction is
→ 2CrO42 – + H2O
Cr2O72 – + 2 OH– ←

Point out that the addition of acid will remove OH– ions. What effect
will the removal of these ions have on the system? Demonstrate that adding
nitric or sulfuric acid turns the solution orange. Removing a reactant drives
a reaction toward the reactant side. What would removing a product do?

Equilibrium  53
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 54

Summarize with a reaction like this one: NO + SO3 ← → NO2 + SO2. What
three different steps could you take to increase the concentration of SO2 at
equilibrium?
Teachers wishing to include a more quantitative approach should
emphasize that a change in concentration does not change the value of the
KEQ. When additional NO is added, for example, the reaction must produce
more product in order to get back to the same value of KEQ.

Topic II Le Chatelier’s Principle (2 days)

Goal: How can we drive an equilibrium system in a desired direction?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Predict the effect of changes in pressure and volume on equilibrium
systems.
2. Predict the effect of changes in temperature on equilibrium systems.
3. Recognize whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic when
“heat” is written into the chemical equation.
4. Provide an optimum set of conditions, in terms of pressure and tem-
perature, to drive a given reaction in a given direction.

Motivation for the Topic

→ 2 NH3 (g)
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ←
Ammonia is a very important industrial chemical. It can be oxidized to
produce nitrates, which are used to improve crop yields. Until 1911,
though, chemists were unable to use the reaction above to produce signif-
icant amounts of ammonia. This was a serious problem for Germany,
because nitrates are also needed to make gunpowder. The great German
chemist Fritz Haber solved the problem of how to make this reaction pro-
duce the maximum quantity of product. How can we shift a reaction in a
desired direction?

Development of the Topic

We have already discussed how we can drive a reaction by changing the
concentration of its components. (Students should be able to tell you that
this reaction can be shifted forward by increasing the concentrations of
nitrogen and hydrogen, and by decreasing the concentration of ammonia
in the system.)
What other factor might be significant in reactions involving gases? (If
students answer “temperature,” assure them that they are correct, but tem-
perature change affects all systems, not just those containing gases.)

54  Chapter 10
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 55

How would our system be affected by a change in pressure? The rule is

that an increase in pressure drives the reaction in the direction that pro-
duces fewer moles of gas. In the ammonia synthesis, the reactant contains
4 moles of gas to every 2 moles of product. Therefore an increase in pres-
sure will drive the reaction forward, producing more ammonia. How can
we increase the pressure in a system without adding more material, and
without changing the temperature? A decrease in volume increases the
pressure, and drives the reaction to the side with the smaller volume, i.e., the
side with fewer moles of gas. Haber performed the reaction at very high
pressures.
→ CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
CaCO3 (s) ←
What effect would decreasing the volume of the system have on this reac-
tion? The product contains 1 mole of gas, but there are no gases in the reac-
tant. A decrease in volume will drive this reaction backward, producing
more CaCO3 and less CaO.
An explanation of why reactions shift in response to pressure changes
requires use of the KEQ and the equilibrium expression. A change in pres-
sure does not change the value of the KEQ. Suppose we halved the volume
in our ammonia reaction. All of the concentrations (and all of the pres-
sures) would double. The equilibrium expression is
2
[NH
____ 3]
_____
[N2 ][H2 ] 3
In this case, when the concentrations all double, the numerator becomes
four times larger, but the denominator becomes sixteen times larger. The
fraction has decreased in value. To get back to the KEQ, some reactant must
turn into product.
Students generally do suggest that a change in temperature ought to
affect an equilibrium system. But how? NO2 tubes offer an apt and attractive
demonstration of the effect of temperature on equilibrium. Give the reaction
→ N2O4 (g) + heat
2 NO2 (g) ←
Show two tubes, and point out that NO2 is dark brown, while N2O4 is col-
orless. We can therefore see the direction of any shifts in the system by
observing changes in color. What do you predict will happen when a gas
tube is heated? Immerse a tube in very hot water. The color of the heated
tube darkens. What does this indicate? The reaction shifted away from the
heat. Reactions in which heat is a product are exothermic. (How else can
we indicate that a reaction is exothermic?) An increase in temperature
drives a reaction in the endothermic direction. What happens when we
decrease the temperature?
→ 2 NH3 (g), ∆H is – 92 kJ. What must
For the reaction N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ←
be done in terms of temperature to drive this reaction forward? The reac-
tion shifts to the right when the temperature is decreased. Yet, Haber had

Equilibrium  55
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 56

to perform the reaction at relatively high temperatures (over 400°C). Why?

Remind students of the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction.
To summarize, I present a test tube of CoCl2 dissolved in ethanol. The
color is intensely blue. The reaction, when water is added is,
→ Co(H2O)62+ + 2 Cl– + heat
CoCl2 + 6 H2O ←
Add just a few drops of water. The solution turns pink. Prepare several solu-
tions with the same initial color. The color becomes bluer when the solu-
tion is heated, or when a few drops of concentrated HCl are added. It
becomes pinker when additional water is added.
AgCl is insoluble, so if we add some silver ions to the solution, it will
remove chloride ions. What effect will that have on the color of the solu-
tion? (The resulting solution greatly resembles a popular remedy for upset
stomach!)
Teachers who have chosen to include consideration of the role of the
equilibrium constant in these processes should point out that a change in
temperature does change the value of KEQ, and compare the effect of
increasing temperature on exothermic vs. endothermic reactions.
We have learned the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and
concentration on equilibrium systems. All three of these are summarized
in one famous statement, Le Chatelier’s Principle. I end the discussion by
showing how Le Chatelier’s Principle applies to each of the three variables.
(Many of my colleagues prefer to present Le Chatelier’s Principle first, and
then have students predict the effects of the three variables based on Le
Chatelier.)

Topic III Solutions and Equilibrium (1– 2 days)

Goal: How are equilibrium concepts applied to saturated solutions?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
*1. Describe KSP as an equilibrium constant used in predicting the
behavior of ionic substances in water.
*2. Write the correct expression for the KSP, given the formula of a salt.
*3. Predict the relative solubility of a salt based on the value of the KSP.
4. Explain the effect of a common ion on the solubility of a given salt.
5. Predict the direction of a solubility equation based on Le Chatelier’s
Principle.
6. Predict the solubility of salts based on a solubility table.
7. Write the net equation for a precipitation reaction.
*Teachers who have chosen to leave out the discussion of the equilib-
rium constant will omit these objectives, and are likely to spend one day
on this material, rather than two.

56  Chapter 10
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 57

Motivation for the Topic

React solutions of lead(II) nitrate (Pb(NO3)2) and sodium iodide (NaI) in a
large test tube. Elicit that a precipitate is an insoluble product. What is the
insoluble product in this reaction? How can we tell?

Development of the Topic

(Teachers wishing to omit the discussion of KSP should skip ahead to the third
paragraph in this development.)
The precipitate is PbI2. We can write an equation for what might happen
when PbI2 is placed in water: PbI2 (s) → Pb2+ (aq) + 2 I– (aq). Show, that
because solids are omitted from equilibrium expressions, K = [Pb2+][I–]2.
This equilibrium constant is called the KSP, or solubility product constant.
These constants are listed in chemist’s reference tables. The KSP of PbI2 is
1.4  10 –8. Establish that precipitation occurs when salts form that have a
low KSP. What is the relationship between KSP and solubility? Point out that
since the KSP is not zero, the salt is not completely insoluble. The term
“insoluble” is generally applied to substances with very low solubility.
What effect would an increase in temperature have on the value of the
KSP? Why? (Students should be able to relate the effect of temperature on
the KSP to the fact that the dissolving of a salt is generally an endothermic
process.)
What would happen if we added some NaI to a saturated solution of
PbI2? Use Le Chatelier’s Principle to show that the addition of I– drives the
equilibrium toward the formation of PbI2 (s). What happens to the Pb2+ ion
concentration when additional I– ions are added to the solution?
We learned in our discussion of solubility that water is often a good sol-
vent for ionic substances. We see, however, that not all such substances are
soluble. To predict a precipitation reaction, we need to know which of our
possible products are soluble, and which are not. Tables such as this one
(show or distribute a table like the “Solubility Guidelines” on page 592, in
Appendix 4 of the text) enable us to predict the solubility of many differ-
ent salts.
How can we use this table to predict the solubility of the salts produced
in our reaction?
Pb(NO3 )2 + 2 NaI → PbI2 + 2 NaNO3
(Students should be able to predict the products.)
Students should notice that according to the guidelines, halides are soluble
except when combined with Ag+, Pb2+, and Hg22+. Therefore PbI2 should be
insoluble. Group 1 ions, such as Na+, always form soluble compounds.
Therefore NaNO3 should be soluble.
Show how, since the sodium and nitrate ions remain in the solution
throughout the reaction, the net reaction is Pb2+ (aq) + 2 I– (aq) → PbI2 (s).
The sodium and nitrate ions are spectator ions.

Equilibrium  57
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 58

Have students predict what will happen when you mix BaCl2 solution
with Na2CrO4. Perform the reaction, and have your students write the net
chemical equation. Repeat with several other reactions, such as barium
chloride with magnesium sulfate, barium hydroxide with iron(II) sulfate
(forms 2 precipitates), copper sulfate with potassium carbonate. Ask stu-
dents to predict what will happen when copper sulfate solution is added to
a solution of magnesium chloride. Demonstrate that no precipitate forms,
as the students should have predicted.

Suggested Laboratory Activity

A Qualitative Analysis Based on the Solubility Guidelines
Students are told in advance that they will be given five bottles, labeled A,
B, C, D, and E, that will contain solutions of BaCl2, CuCl2, CuSO4, NaNO3,
and KOH. Their task is, by reacting these chemicals with one another, to
determine which solution is in which bottle. They must design their own
procedure, but before performing the experiment, they must fill in a grid,
using “P” for “precipitate, or “N” for “no precipitate,” based on the solu-
bility guidelines. They are also reminded that two of the solutions are col-
ored; they should be able to figure out which two.

Sample grid:

CuSO4 BaCl2 CuCl2 NaNO3 KOH

CuSO4 P N N P
BaCl2 P N N N
CuCl2 N N N P
NaNO3 N N N N
KOH P N P N

In the lab, the students are given a test tube rack with several test tubes,
and the five solutions, preferably in dropper-bottles. The more test tubes
provided, the better the results are likely to be, since the only likely errors
are due to inadequately rinsing the test tubes between uses.
Students’ logic may run something like this:
• The one that never forms a precipitate is the NaNO3.
• The colored solution that forms only one precipitate is CuCl2.
• The solution that reacts with CuCl2 is KOH.
• The colorless solution that forms only one precipitate is BaCl2. It pre-
cipitates only with CuSO4.

58  Chapter 10
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 59

11 The Forces That Drive

Reactions

INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we deal with basic thermodynamics, presenting the state func-
tions, ∆H, ∆G, and ∆S. The relationships among these functions and their sig-
nificance in driving chemical reactions are discussed qualitatively and
quantitatively. The use of free energy and enthalpy of formation is discussed in
the “Taking a Closer Look” section of the chapter.

Day Lesson for the Day Text Pages Homework

1– 2 Enthalpy (∆H) 382 to 388 Pgs. 388–389,
Practice 11.1–11.4
3 Entropy (∆S) 389 to 393 Pg. 392, Practice 11.5;
Pg. 393, Practice 11.6, 11.7
4 Spontaneous reactions 393 to 395 Pg. 396, Practice 11.9 a
5 Free energy change 395 to 396 Pg. 396, Practice 11.9 b,
11.10

Topic I Enthalpy Change (2 days)

Goal: How is enthalpy change used in predicting the results of physical

and chemical changes?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Describe an exothermic change as one in which potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy, and the sign of ∆H is negative, and sim-
ilarly correctly describe an endothermic change.
2. Using a table of ∆H values, find the enthalpy change for a given
quantity of reactant or product.
3. State that reactions tend to go in the direction of decreased enthalpy—
the exothermic direction.
4. Interpret thermochemical equations.

59
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 60

Motivation for the Topic

How is your home heated in the winter? If students say they have gas
heat, ask them how it works. Establish that the gas is methane (CH4), and
it is burned to produce heat, which is then generally used to boil water,
sending steam into the radiators. Why do we use that particular gas? Aside
from cost and safety, a small amount of CH4 can produce a large amount
of heat. The heat produced is called the heat of reaction, or the enthalpy
change, ∆H.

Development of the Topic

Students should already know that ∆H is negative for any exothermic reac-
tion. Write the equation for the combustion of methane

CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O

and write ∆H = – 890.4 kilojoules. Elicit from the students the meaning of
the value of ∆H. Emphasize that the 890.4 kJ is the amount of heat released
when the number of moles shown in the balanced equation react. How
much heat is produced when 0.500 mole of CH4 (g) burns to produce CO2
(g) and H2O (l)? If you wish, you can illustrate a problem in which the
quantity of methane is given in grams instead of moles; it serves as a use-
ful review of previously taught material.
What gas is used in outdoor barbecues? Provide a table showing the
heat of reaction of several compounds, as in Table I in Appendix 4. Point
out that propane is C3H8, and have a student tell you that it produces
2219.2 kilojoules per mole. What other substances in the list produce large
amounts of heat when they combine with oxygen? Students will tell you
that octane, which is burned in car engines, and glucose produce large
amounts of energy. Where is glucose burned? Students seldom come up
with the answer —in living cells.
Should you wish to demonstrate the meaning of the large values of ∆H
in a dramatic fashion, mix roughly equal amounts of ordinary table sugar
(powdered, or confectioners’, sugar works even better) and potassium
chlorate in a small beaker. Using a long glass medicine dropper, or a long
glass tube, carefully add three or four drops of concentrated sulfuric acid.
Step back immediately! (Try this out in the lab before using it in class.) (Be
sure to take appropriate and adequate safety precautions.) The
rapid combustion of the sugar is extremely impressive, with the flame
shooting several inches into the air. Because the reaction produces a cloud
of sugar dust, it is best done at the end of the day, right before the class
leaves the room.

60  Chapter 11
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 61

You may also show the class an alcohol lamp; the combustion reaction
of ethanol is included in the reference table cited above. Write the reaction
for the combustion of ethanol as follows:

C2H5OH (l ) + 3 O2 (g) → 2 CO2 (g) + 3 H2O (l ) + 1367 kJ

Explain that when written in this form, we call the equation a thermo-
chemical equation. It includes the heat in the balanced equation. But ∆H
is negative. Why is there a plus sign (+) in front of the 1367 kJ? In this case,
the plus sign means “and.” The reaction produces carbon dioxide, water,
and heat. In an exothermic reaction, the heat appears in the product. What
is ∆H in the following reaction?

C2H2 (g) + H2 (g) → C2H4 (g) + 175 kJ

Make sure that your students answer “∆H = –175 kJ.” How much heat is
produced in the reaction? (175 kJ per mole) Students often wonder why
the minus sign is not used in the second question. I say to them, “Let’s say
that I go to Atlantic City, and lose 100 dollars. If my wife asks me how I
did, I will answer ‘–100 dollars.’ But if she asks me, ‘How much did you lose
this time?’ I answer, ‘100 dollars.’ Since she has already specified that the
money was lost, I don’t need to include the minus sign. When you write
the heat in the product, you are already stating that it was produced; the
minus sign is superfluous.”
Remind students that in an exothermic reaction, the potential energy
decreases. The amount of heat produced is equal to the change in poten-
tial energy. Exothermic reactions convert potential energy to kinetic ener-
gy. Discuss the relationship between potential energy and stability.
Reactions tend to produce products that are more stable. Potential energy
tends to decrease in chemical change much the same way that in a room,
the most likely place to find a ball is on the floor.

Topic II Spontaneous Change (2 – 3 days)

Goal: What determines whether a chemical or physical change occurs

spontaneously?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Define entropy as a measure of the randomness of a system.
2. Compare the entropy of substances when given their states.
3. Predict whether a given chemical reaction or physical change will
lead to increased or decreased entropy.

The Forces That Drive Reactions  61

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 62

4. State that decreased potential energy and increased entropy favor

spontaneous reactions, or that the best combination for a sponta-
neous reaction is an exothermic reaction that produces an increase
in randomness.
5. Describe ∆G as the free energy, and use the sign of ∆G to predict the
spontaneity of reactions.

Motivation for the Topic

Take out a new deck of cards. Unwrap it, and ask if anyone wants to play
poker with you. What must you do before you play? Why? If no students
know this, point out that in a new deck, the cards are arranged from ace to
king in every suit. Why do you shuffle cards? Elicit that you shuffle to
make the arrangement of the cards random. With each shuffle, does the
deck become more random, or less random? In nature, as in shuffling, sys-
tems tend to become more random.

Development of the Topic

Draw the system shown on text page 390, and let students predict what
will happen when the barrier between the gases is removed. The drive to
increased randomness is just as important as the drive to decreased poten-
tial energy. Scientists give the name “entropy” to the randomness of a sys-
tem. While entropy is measurable, we will concern ourselves for now only
with relative entropy. Ask students to predict the relative entropy of ice,
water, and steam, and to explain their choices. Summarize that as we go
from solid to liquid to gas, both the entropy and the potential energy
increase.
In nature the entropy tends to increase. (When your parent tells you to
clean up your room, tell him or her that your chemistry teacher says, “You
can’t fight entropy!”) But potential energy tends to decrease. That means
that entropy favors steam, while energy favors ice. For a spontaneous
change to occur, at least one of the two factors must be favorable. Ice can
melt, when it is warm enough, because the entropy increases when ice
melts. Water can freeze, when it is cold enough, because the potential ener-
gy decreases during freezing, an exothermic process. Changes in which
both factors are favorable, that lead to increased randomness and
decreased potential energy, are spontaneous at any temperature. (You may
wish to copy the table at the top of page 395.)
Dissolve a large amount of ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) in a beaker of
water and stir. Have a student observe that the solution becomes very cold.
What type of change is this? Point out that the bonds within the ionic
solid are stronger than the bonds between the ions and the water.
NH4NO3 (s) + 25.69 kJ → NH4+ (aq) + NO3– (aq)

62  Chapter 11
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 63

Why is the heat written on the reactant side? This reaction is endothermic.
It produces an increase in potential energy. Why does it occur at all? Elicit
that the dissolving process increased the entropy of the system.
Summarize by performing the reaction between barium hydroxide and
ammonium thiocyanate.
Ba(OH)2•8 H2O (s) + 2 NH4SCN (s) → 10 H2O (l ) + Ba(SCN)2 (aq) + 2 NH3 (g)
(Barium hydroxide is normally sold as a hydrate.)
Mix the two solids in a small beaker, and have a student stir the mixture.
You might try resting the beaker on a small, wet piece of wood. As the mix-
ture is stirred, it liquefies, and becomes so cold that the wood freezes to the
bottom of the beaker. The odor of ammonia gas becomes apparent as well.
(Be sure there is adequate ventilation, or use a fume hood.) Elicit
that this is an endothermic reaction. In order for it to occur spontaneous-
ly, what must be happening to the entropy? What observations lead us to
conclude that the entropy is increasing? (The mixture started out solid,
and produced a liquid and a gas.)
You might also ask your students why the water beneath the beaker
froze, while the water within the beaker did not. Do they still remember
that a solute produces a freezing-point depression? (Freezing-point depres-
sion is something that happens when you are sick and tired of winter
weather!)
To motivate a discussion of ∆G, remind students that when, as in the
case of ice melting, one of the two factors, (∆H and ∆S) is favorable, the
reaction will happen under some conditions, and not others. To predict the
course of such reactions, we have to combine the effects of ∆H, ∆S, and
temperature. The result of considering all of these factors, ∆G, is found
using the equation
∆G = ∆H – T∆S
(Emphasize that the temperature must be Kelvin.) The sign of ∆G tells us
whether the reaction is spontaneous under the given set of conditions. If
∆G is negative, the reaction is spontaneous. If ∆G is positive, the reaction
is not spontaneous. If ∆G is positive, what can you predict about ∆G for the
reverse reaction? If it is so cold in the room that ice will not melt, what can
you conclude would happen to water in that room? What would it tell you
if ∆G for a change was zero? Point out that for any system at equilibrium,
∆G must equal zero.

Suggested Laboratory Activity

Determination of the Heat of Solution of NH4Cl or NH4NO3
The experiment requires the use of a Styrofoam cup, a thermometer, a bal-
ance, water, and the salt being tested. You can require the students to
express their result in either joules per gram of salt or joules per mole.

The Forces That Drive Reactions  63

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 64

Assume that the specific heat of the mixture is 4.2 J/go. I recommend that
you use about 100 grams of water and about 10 grams of the salt. The stu-
dents will need to estimate the temperatures to the nearest tenth of a
degree; otherwise, the result has only one significant figure. The actual val-
ues are 26.5 kJ/mol for the NH4NO3, and 16.3 kJ/mol for the NH4Cl. The
experimental values will come out about 10% lower than that, if the exper-
iment is done well.

64  Chapter 11
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 65

12 Acids and Bases

INTRODUCTION
As noted in the introduction to Chapter 10, I think that equilibrium constants
should be presented in a basic first-year high school chemistry course. However,
many teachers prefer to take a less quantitative approach. Therefore, the dis-
cussion of KA, KB is found in the “Taking a Closer Look” section of the chapter.
Since so many students are using calculators, the text includes a section on
pH calculations using logarithms. Those teachers who wish to go only as far as
“each pH unit represents a factor of ten” will find that they can easily skip from
the middle of page 414 to the bottom of page 416.
More than in most topics, this one gives students the opportunity to really
do some “wet” chemistry, and gives teachers a chance to perform several
colorful and interesting demonstrations.

Day Lesson for the Day Text Pages Homework

1–2 Defining acids and bases 406 to 410 Pg. 410, Practice 12.1;
Pg. 436, Chapter Review
20; Pg. 438, Constructed
Response 3
3 pH and indicators 410 to 414 Pg. 413, Practice 12.2–12.5;
Pg. 414, Practice 12.6–12.9
4 pH calculations 414 to 416 Pg. 415, Practice 12.10,
12.11; Pg. 416,
Practice 12.12, 12.13
5–6 Neutralization 416 to 422 Pgs. 421–422,
Practice 12.14–12.16
7– 8 Other acid-base theories 422 to 429 Pgs. 425–426,
Practice 12.17–12.19;
Pg. 429, Practice 12.20,
12.21

Topic I Definitions of Acids and Bases (2 days)

Goal: What are acids and bases?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Define acids and bases operationally, in terms of their chemical
behaviors.

65
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 66

2. State the Arrhenius definitions of acids and bases.

3. Identify and name several common acids and bases.

Motivation for the Topic

Add a piece of mossy zinc to a large test tube containing hydrochloric acid.
(Use acid that is at least 3 molar.) Ask the class what is happening to the
metal, and have them guess what the liquid in the test tube was. Students
generally guess that the liquid was an acid.
Alternatively, if any of your students have tropical fish, ask them
whether they test the pH of the water, and ask why they do so.
Establish that there is a class of compounds called acids that have cer-
tain common properties. What are the properties of acids?

Development of the Topic

Show a can of cola beverage and one of lemonade; have a student read the
ingredients. What effect do acids have on the tastes of the beverages? [On
several brands of lemonade, the list of ingredients contains the phrase
“citric acid (provides tartness)”]. Establish that acids have a tart, or sour,
taste. In many languages, the same word is used to mean both sour and
acidic. (In German, for example, the word is “sauer.”) Thousands of years
ago, people observed that certain substances that tasted sour had other
properties in common. Those substances are acids. What other properties
do acids have in common?
Show that metals such as zinc, aluminum, and magnesium react with
acids. (Again, using an HCl solution of at least 3 molar is recommended.)
Use a burning splint to “pop” the hydrogen that is produced. Acids react
with many metals to produce hydrogen.
Ask if students have ever heard the phrase “a litmus test.” Show that
litmus paper turns red in an acidic solution. Indicate that acids cause color
changes in certain chemicals called indicators.
Students will also be able to tell you that acids have a low pH, although
at this point they probably will not know what pH means.
Use a conductivity apparatus to show that pure water is a poor conduc-
tor of electricity. Elicit that solutions that contain mobile ions will conduct
electricity. (This point was covered in the bonding unit, Chapter 3.) Point
out that HCl is a molecular substance. Add some HCl to the water. Why
does this solution conduct electricity? Show that several different acid solu-
tions also conduct electricity. In fact, all acidic solutions conduct electricity.
Point out that Arrhenius explained why acids conduct electricity. He
stated that electrolytes must form free ions in solution. Acids produce the
H+ ion in water. State the Arrhenius definition of acids. Show how the neg-
ative side of the polar water molecule can attract the H+ ion, forming the
hydronium ion, H3O+. Indicate that the H+ and the H3O+ ion are used inter-
changeably to indicate acidity in aqueous solutions.

66  Chapter 12
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 67

Use a similar procedure to illustrate the properties of bases, and to

develop the Arrhenius definition of a base.

Topic II pH and Indicators (2 days)

Goal: How do we test the acidity and basicity of solutions?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Compare the acidity and basicity of solutions based on their relative
pH values.
2. Define a neutral solution as one with a pH of 7.
3. Use a table of indicators (e.g., Table M in Appendix 4) to predict the
color of a given indicator based on the pH of a solution.
4. Identify which indicator might be best for a given purpose.
5. Find the pH of a solution given the H+ or OH– concentration.

Motivation for the Topic

Show the class a set of “color change” markers. (The ones I use are made
by Crayola.) Demonstrate that the colors produced by the markers change
when they are treated with the “color changer.” How do these markers
work? Show that the same color changes can be accomplished using a
brush dipped in a dilute ammonia solution. Elicit that the dyes in the
markers are actually acid-base indicators.
Using 500-mL beakers, prepare solutions of many different indicators,
including methyl orange, Congo red, bromthymol blue, and phenol-
phthalein. Add a few drops of dilute NaOH to each, and stir. Then, add a
few drops of dilute HCl, until the color changes, and stir again. Ask, “What
is an indicator?”

Development of the Topic

The goal of the lesson is “How do we test the acidity or basicity of a
solution?” One method is with indicators. Ask the class if they can think
of another method. Remind them that they have already learned that pH
can be used to indicate whether a solution is acidic or basic.
Define pH as a scale used to measure how acidic or basic a solution is.
Point out that a change of one pH unit represents a tenfold change in the
[H+]. The lower the pH, the more acidic the solution, so a solution with a
pH of 2 is 100 times more acidic than a solution with a pH of 4. Draw a
number line on the board, showing how solutions go from strongly acidic,
to weakly acidic, to neutral (at pH = 7), to weakly basic, to strongly basic,
as the pH increases from 0 to 14. If time permits, you may want to use a

Acids and Bases  67

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 68

pH meter to test several common substances. Students are generally sur-

prised to discover that cola beverages have a pH of about 2.5.
If you wish to present a more quantitative treatment, define pH as –log
[H+]. Show how the concentration of H+ ion can be used to find the precise
pH. (See text pages 414 to 416.)
Add some methyl orange to a sample of pure water. It turns yellow,
which is listed as the “base color” of that indicator. What is the indicator
telling us about the pH of the solution? Each indicator has its own pH
range. In solutions below these pH values, it shows its acid color, while
above, it shows its base color.
Present a table listing indicators and their pH range, such as Table M in
Appendix 4. Ask the class the following questions.
Why does methyl orange appear yellow in water? (The pH water is 7,
which is in its base range.)
What color would phenolphthalein be in water? (Colorless)
What color would bromthymol blue be in water? (If the water is neu-
tral, the solution will turn green.)
At pH 7, bromthymol blue is midway between its base range, where it
is blue, and its acid range, where it is yellow. What happens when we mix
blue and yellow? Have the students predict the colors of various indicators
at various pH values. Soda water has a pH of about 4, while vinegar has a
pH of about 3. Which indicator could be used to distinguish between these
two solutions? (Bromcresol green)

Topic III Neutralization (2 days)

Goal: What happens when acids react with bases?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Write the general chemical equation for neutralization of a strong
acid with a strong base.
2. Write a balanced neutralization reaction for a given acid and base.
3. Describe the equipment and procedures used in an acid-base titration.
4. Solve problems using the titration equation M  V (H+) = M  V (OH–).
5. State that the reaction of an acid with a base produces a salt and
water.

Motivation for the Topic

Ask whether your students are familiar with the medical condition known
as heartburn. Point out that it is also called acid indigestion. What kind of
drug do you take to relieve this condition? Take out a package of Rolaids
or Mylanta (these brands use magnesium hydroxide, which serves our

68  Chapter 12
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 69

purpose better than other preparations using phosphates or calcium car-

bonate) and have a student note the active ingredient. Why would you
take magnesium hydroxide to relieve acid indigestion?

Development of the Topic

Point out that stomach acid is HCl. What happens when HCl reacts with
Mg(OH)2? Write the equation on the board, and have a student balance it.
Show that an acid is reacting with a base to produce a salt and water, and
define this type of reaction as neutralization. (Students should also recall
that this is a type of double replacement reaction.) Have students predict
the products of other possible neutralizations, and have them suggest
which acid and base should be used to produce a given salt.
Show bottles of NaOH and HCl and ask how these solutions could be
used to produce a neutral product. Establish that you would have to add
an equal number of moles of NaOH and HCl. Elicit that you could use an
indicator or a pH meter to determine when the solution became neutral.
Show that the NaOH is 0.4 molar, while the HCl is 0.2 molar. Add 20.0 mL
of the HCl to an Erlenmeyer flask, and ask how many milliliters of the
NaOH solution would be needed to produce a neutral solution. The process
of mixing measured volumes of reagents until a desired end-point is
reached is called titration. In this case, the objective is to titrate until the
solution is neutral, or until the moles of H+ = the moles of OH–. Such an
end-point is called the equivalence point. Add some phenolphthalein to the
HCl solution, pointing out that one drop of extra base will turn the solu-
tion pink.
Show how a burette is used, and point out that burettes are used in titra-
tions because they permit constant and precise monitoring of the volume
of a solution as it is added to a reaction vessel. Titrate the HCl solution with
the NaOH, illustrating that the end-point occurs when 10.0 mL of NaOH
were added. Elicit that since the NaOH was twice as concentrated, it makes
sense that you need an amount equal to half the volume of the HCl. At the
equivalence point, the volumes were not equal, but the number of moles of
acid and base were equal. Remind students that molarity  volume = moles.
Therefore, at the equivalence point, M  V (H+) = M  V (OH–).
Show how a titration can be used to find the molarity of an acid or base
of unknown concentration. Provide several titration problems using the
equation above.

Topic IV Other Acid-Base Theories (1– 2 days)

Note: Extensive discussion of Brønsted-Lowry theory would require at least
two lessons. However, if one simply wishes to illustrate that there are alter-
nate acid-base theories, without presenting them in detail, then half of one
period is sufficient. While the text provides a detailed discussion, including

Acids and Bases  69

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 70

the relative strengths of sets of acid-base pairs, the following lesson focuses
on the definitions, which probably is sufficient in most high school chem-
istry programs.

Goal: How has the acid-base concept been expanded?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Define a Brønsted-Lowry acid as a proton, or H+, donor.
2. Define a Brønsted-Lowry base as a proton, or H+, acceptor.
3. Identify the Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases in a given chemical
equation.
4. Identify both Brønsted-Lowry and Lewis theories as being more
general, or broader, theories than the Arrhenius theory.

Motivation for the Topic

Pour concentrated HCl and concentrated NH3 solutions into separate
150-mL beakers, and place them next to each other. (Alternatively, cut a 1-
to 2-inch-diameter hole in the side of a small carton. Place the two beakers
in the carton and cover it. You will soon be able to blow “smoke rings” by
pressing on the cover.) Smoke begins to form above the two solutions. What
is reacting? Both HCl and NH3 are gaseous compounds, so the reaction is
HCl (g) + NH3 (g) → NH4Cl (s). HCl was previously identified as an acid, and
NH3 as a base, but is this an acid-base reaction? There are no OH– ions.

Development of the Topic

Remind students that the Arrhenius definition applied to aqueous solu-
tions only. In order to use the terms “acid” and “base” in other media, a
new set of definitions was needed. One of these is called the Brønsted-
Lowry definition.
Present the definition, and show how in the reaction above, the HCl
transfers its proton to the NH3. Show how in the equation
HCl + H2O → H3O+ + OH–
HCl is the acid, while H2O is the base. Show that in the equation
NH3 + H2O → NH4+ + OH–
ammonia is the base, while water is the acid. How can water be an acid in
one reaction but a base in another? In Brønsted-Lowry theory, the state-
ment “HCl is an acid in water” means the same as “Water is a base in HCl.”
We call ammonia a base, because, living on a watery planet, we use water
as our basis of comparison. Present a few more equations, and have stu-
dents identify the acids and bases. You may choose to present the conju-
gate acid-base concept at this time.

70  Chapter 12
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 71

If you wish to introduce Lewis theory, mix dilute HCl with a solution
of AgNO3 to precipitate AgCl. Add concentrated NH3, and stir until the pre-
cipitate disappears. Write the equation
AgCl (s) + 2 NH3 (aq) → Ag(NH3)2+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)
In this reaction the NH3 does not form OH– ions, and does not accept pro-
tons. Yet in a third acid-base theory, called Lewis theory, the ammonia is
still acting as a base. Lewis defines a base as an electron pair donor, and an
acid as an electron pair acceptor.
Show how the Ag+ ion accepts the lone pair on the NH3 molecule. Elicit
that the Lewis theory is the broadest of the three concepts. Conclude by
asking students which definition they prefer, and have them defend their
choices.

Suggested Laboratory Activities

I devote more laboratory time to this topic than to any other, often as
many as five 40-minute lab periods. This means that the class is still per-
forming acid-base experiments long after they have completed the written
material. I believe that the topic offers the opportunity to perform mean-
ingful experiments that the students actually understand and enjoy.
1–3. Qualitative Analysis of Acids and Bases
This is a three-period activity designed by the author.
1. Identification of Four Acids: HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, and HC2H3O2
Students are given samples of the four acids, in concentrations of about
0.10 molar. They test these with litmus, pH paper, AgNO3 solution, and
BaCl2 solution. (Make sure that the test tubes in which the tests are per-
formed are thoroughly rinsed after the AgNO3 test) On the basis of their
observations they are asked how they could identify HNO3 if the four
bottles are unlabeled. Students work in pairs in this activity.
2. Identification of four bases: NH3(aq), NaOH, Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2.
As in the first activity, students test the four solutions with litmus and
with pH paper; you may wish them to use phenolphthalein as well. The
solutions are then each treated with dilute H2SO4, and using fresh sam-
ples in clean test tubes, with Na2CO3 solution. On the basis of their
observations the students are asked how they could identify the NaOH
if the four bottles are unlabeled.
3. Identification of Acids and Bases
After the second activity, the students are told that the following week
they will be given eight unlabeled bottles containing the four acids and
the four bases they have tested. Each team must design a procedure
that they will use to identify the eight solutions. Once they have
shown the teacher their procedure, they are permitted to follow that

Acids and Bases  71

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 72

procedure, and to identify the eight solutions. My experience is that 90

percent of my groups get all eight right, and the student response to
the experiment is overwhelmingly positive.

4. Determination of the Concentration of an Unknown NaOH Solution

Through Titration
This is a standard activity found in nearly all lab manuals.
5. pH and Indicators
If you are able to provide a wide enough range of indicators, students
can use them to determine the pH of several unknown substances. Have
them fill out a grid like the one below for each unknown. (Give them
the range of each indicator.)

Conclusion:
Indicator pH Range Colors Result pH is:
Cresol red* 1–2 red–yellow yellow >2
Cresol red 7–8.8 yellow–red yellow <7
Methyl orange 3.2 – 4.4 pink–yellow yellow >4.5
Bromthymol 6.0 –7.6 yellow–blue yellow <6
blue
Phenolphthalein 8.2–10 colorless–pink colorless <8.2
Alizarin yellow 10–12 yellow–red yellow <10
Unknown number ____ Estimate of pH to nearest whole 5
number
*Note that cresol red has two pH ranges. It is red below pH 1, yellow from 2 to 7, and then red
above 8.8.

72  Chapter 12
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 73

13 Redox and
Electrochemistry

INTRODUCTION
This chapter again accommodates those who wish to present a less quantita-
tive treatment of the material, by moving the more quantitative material to the
end of the chapter. While the course of a replacement reaction is related to the
E 0 for the reaction, it can also be predicted from a simple activity series. Both
approaches are presented, but the discussion of electrode potentials has been
moved to the “Taking a Closer Look” section.
The use of the terms oxidizing agent and reducing agent has also been post-
poned to the end of the chapter. The terms often impede students’ initial
understanding of the concepts of reduction and oxidation, and so might be
better reserved for later introduction. In addition, some college texts are now
using the terms oxidant and reductant to replace the agents.

Day Lesson for the Day Text Pages Homework

1 Defining reduction and oxidation 440 to 444 Pg. 447, Practice 13.1
2 Analyzing redox reactions 444 to 447 Pgs. 447–448,
Practice 13.2–13.5
3 Predicting redox reactions 448 to 450 Pg. 450, Practice 13.6,13.7
4–5 Voltaic cell 451 to 457 Pg. 455,
Practice 13.8 –13.10
6 Electrolysis 457 to 462 Pg. 459, Practice 13.11
7 Balancing redox reactions 462 to 466 Pg. 466,
Practice 13.12, 13.13

Topic I Redox Reactions (3 days)

Goal: How do we use the concept of electron transfer to analyze chemi-

cal reactions?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Define reduction and oxidation in terms of both electron transfer
and oxidation state.

73
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 74

2. Find the reduction and oxidation half-reactions within a redox

reaction.
3. Complete reduction and oxidation half-reactions by introducing
the correct number of electrons to the correct side of the chemical
equation.
4. Use a table of chemical activities to predict whether a given redox
reaction will occur.
5. Write and correctly balance simple replacement reactions when
given the reactants.

Motivation for the Topic

Show the class a piece of rusty iron, and ask what has happened to the
iron. Elicit that the iron has been oxidized; it has combined with oxygen.
Write the equation for the reaction, and elicit a definition of oxidation.
Students will probably define oxidation as “combining with oxygen.”
Burn a piece of magnesium ribbon, and ask the students to describe the
reaction. Then tell them that in fact, some of the magnesium combines
with nitrogen.
3 Mg + N2 → Mg3N2
Is this still oxidation? Chemists have extended the definition of oxidation,
so that it no longer requires the presence of oxygen.

Development of the Topic

Show that both magnesium and iron lose electrons in the reactions above.
Define oxidation as the loss of electrons. Elicit that in both cases, the metal
went from neutral to positive; its charge increased. An increase in charge
always indicates oxidation. Write the following reaction on the board:

2 SO2 + O2 → 2 SO3

The SO2 is combining with oxygen. Is this also oxidation? Remind the stu-
dents that although SO2 is not ionic, we can assign sulfur an oxidation state
of +4. (This assumes that oxidation numbers were presented previously.)
The sulfur in the SO3 is +6. An increase in oxidation state always indicates
oxidation.
When the magnesium, iron, or sulfur loses electrons, what happens to
the other element in the equation? Elicit that the other element gains elec-
trons. What is this process called? Other than to deliberately confuse stu-
dents, why would a process involving the gain of electrons be called
“reduction”? Show that in each case, the charge or oxidation number
decreases during reduction. Since every oxidation is accompanied by a
reduction, chemists refer to reactions involving electron transfer as redox
reactions.

74  Chapter 13
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 75

A pretty demonstration you may wish to use at this time is the “silver
tree.” Insert a glass rod into a large one-holed stopper. Wrap thin strips of
copper around the glass rod. As you work up from the stopper, the length of
the strips should shorten gradually, forming a “tree” of copper metal. Place
the tree in a battery jar, and add sufficient silver nitrate solution to cover all
of the copper metal. Before showing it to the class, give it one day to react.
Place a piece of copper in a solution of silver nitrate. Write the formu-
la for each reactant on the board. Have students predict the products, and
then ask them what has happened to the oxidation number of silver and
copper. Emphasize that the copper atoms are oxidized, while the silver 1+
ions are reduced. What happened to the nitrate ions in this reaction?
Nothing happened to them; they are spectator ions, and the reaction can
be written without them:
Cu (s) + 2 Ag+ (aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2 Ag (s)
This is called the net ionic equation. Would it still be a balanced equation
if we wrote it as follows?
Cu (s) + Ag+ (aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + Ag (s)
Why not? Emphasize that an ionic equation must be balanced for charge.
Define a half-reaction as either the oxidation or the reduction taken
by itself. Why is it called a half-reaction? Have students write the half-
reactions for the replacement reaction above.
Write the following reaction on the board:
2 NaBr + Cl2 → 2 NaCl + Br2
Ask students to determine the charge of each element in the reaction.
What is being oxidized? Make sure your students know that it is Br – that is
oxidized, and not Br. What is being reduced? Which is the spectator ion?
Students should write the two half-reactions and the net ionic equation.
Have your students similarly analyze several additional redox reactions.
Place zinc strips in solutions of silver nitrate, copper(II) nitrate, and
magnesium nitrate. Ask students to explain the results, and write the net
chemical equations. Why did no reaction occur in the magnesium nitrate
solution? How can we predict whether a replacement reaction occurs spon-
taneously?
Show the students an activity series, such as that in Appendix 4, Table
J. Why did zinc react with silver ions and copper ions, but not with mag-
nesium ions? Elicit that in general, a metal will react with the ions of a less
active metal. It will not react with the ions of a more active metal. Which
other ions would react with zinc? What other metals would react with
magnesium ions? What will happen if a piece of magnesium is placed in a
solution of ZnCl2? Write the half-reactions and the net ionic equation.
Show that a tiny crystal of solid iodine colors a solution of per-
chlorethylene pink. Show that a solution of KI (aq) mixed with perchlor-

Redox and Electrochemistry  75

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 76

ethylene is colorless. Elicit that while I2 has a color, I– ions do not. Ask stu-
dents to predict what will happen if chlorine is added to the KI solution
mixed with perchlorethylene. (Ordinary chlorine bleach works; freshly
prepared chlorine water works better.) Elicit that chlorine reacts with
iodide ions because chlorine is more active than iodine. What other halide
should react with chlorine? (The reaction of chlorine water with NaBr and
perchlorethylene should produce a yellow to orange-brown color.)

Topic II Electricity and Chemical Reactions (3 days)

Goal: How is electricity obtained from a redox reaction?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Draw a typical voltaic cell.
2. Predict the direction of electron flow in a given voltaic cell.
3. Identify the anode, cathode, positive pole, and negative pole in a
given voltaic cell.
4. Describe the role of the salt bridge in a typical wet cell.
5. Write the appropriate half-reactions that occur at each electrode in
the cell.
6. Predict that the voltage becomes zero when the cell reaches equi-
librium.
7. Recognize that an electrolytic cell is driven by electricity, while a
voltaic cell produces electricity.
8. Identify the half-reactions occurring at each pole in the electrolysis
of a molten binary salt.
9. Explain why the anode is positive, and the cathode negative, in an
electrolytic cell.
10. Predict the processes occurring at the positive and the negative
poles in electroplating.

Motivation for the Topic

Show the class an ordinary flashlight battery. Which side is the negative
pole, and which is the positive pole? What do the charges mean? (They
indicate the direction of electron flow when the battery is connected to a
complete circuit.) What causes the flow of electrons?

Development of the Topic

Remind students that to use a battery, electrons must flow through a wire.
What type of reaction involves a flow of electrons? Select a suitable redox
reaction, such as Zn + Cu2+, and elicit that electrons flow from the zinc
atoms to the copper ions.

76  Chapter 13
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 77

Set up a voltaic cell like the one shown in Figure 13-1 of the text, but
without a salt bridge. For the electrons to go from the zinc to the copper ions,
they must now flow through the wire. Attach a voltmeter to the circuit; it
shows that there is no voltage. Why not? If the solutions are not connected,
the electron flow would cause an imbalance of charge in each beaker.
Illustrate that the formation of zinc ions produces excess positive charge,
while the disappearance of copper ions produces excess negative ions.
To maintain neutrality, the two solutions must be connected with a
device called a salt bridge. (A piece of filter paper, or even paper toweling,
soaked in saturated KNO3 can be used as the salt bridge.) Explain how the
flow of ions through the salt bridge completes the circuit, maintaining
neutral charge in both beakers. Add the salt bridge to the set-up, and stu-
dents should be able to see the voltmeter’s needle move.
In a battery, we call the pole from which the electrons flow the negative
pole. Elicit that in the voltaic cell you have constructed, the zinc is the neg-
ative pole. The electrons flow to the copper, which is therefore the positive
pole.
Have students suggest the half-reactions occurring at each pole. Have
students define the pole at which oxidation takes place as the anode and
the pole where reduction occurs as the cathode. In this case, the zinc is the
negative anode.
What happens to a battery, as it is used, over time? Why does the volt-
age eventually decrease to zero? When the reaction reaches equilibrium,
there is no further transfer of electrons.
As a summarizing activity, provide a second cell, with two different
metals in solution with their ions. I usually use a Pb/Pb2+ half-cell con-
nected to Ag/Ag+, using an old quarter (1964 or older) as the silver elec-
trode. Have students draw a diagram of the cell, and indicate the direction
of electron flow, as well as the charges on the two electrodes. What would
happen if we used a dime as the silver electrode instead of the quarter? The
size of the electrode has no effect on the voltage. Illustrate this point by
having a student read the voltage from both a D battery and an AA battery.
(Make sure that both batteries are the same type; if one is rechargeable and
the other is not, they will not list the same voltages.)
To motivate a lesson on electrolytic cells, discuss the importance of a
given nonspontaneous reaction, such as the decomposition of water as a
source of hydrogen gas. Hydrogen gas is used in fuel cells, which are
becoming more and more important as possible substitutes for gasoline in
automobiles. An alternative, which is my preference, is to throw a piece of
sodium in water. (CAUTION: Be sure to move the students to a safe
distance, or use a glass safety shield.)
You may continue the discussion with the following story. Paul, a high
school student, wanted to get some sodium and try this on his own.
However, his teacher was wise enough not to give out sodium. Is there a
way that Paul could make some? What common substance contains sodi-
um? Can sodium be extracted from NaCl?

Redox and Electrochemistry  77

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 78

The reaction
2 NaCl → 2 Na + Cl2
is not spontaneous at temperatures below 5000°C. However, in this reac-
tion, electrons are transferred from the chloride ion to the sodium ion.
Show the two half-reactions, and ask, “How can we push electrons in a
given direction?” A strong enough battery will force electrons to flow away
from its negative pole, into the sodium ions, and will pull electrons from
the chloride ions, toward its positive pole. Draw a diagram showing an
electrolytic cell, as in Figure 13-3. Use a chart, or table, to list the processes
that occur at each pole. Under “negative” for example, you might list:
1. Attracts the positive ions.
2. Positive ions are reduced.
3. Cathode.
4. Electrons flow away from the negative pole of the power source.
Why was Paul still unable to produce any sodium in his home labora-
tory? What must be done to the NaCl to make it conduct electricity? The
melting point of sodium is 800°C, too hot to be feasible with ordinary
equipment. Students may suggest that he could dissolve the NaCl in water,
since aqueous NaCl does conduct electricity. Illustrate why the electrolysis
of salt water does not produce sodium. The reduction of water occurs
instead.
–
2 H2O + 2 e – → 2 H2 + OH
With a gifted class, you might perform the electrolysis of a solution of
dilute sulfuric acid using copper electrodes. Bubbles form at the negative
electrode, not at the positive. Ask students to suggest what might be hap-
pening. Given enough time, the solution turns blue. What is turning the
solution blue? The net reaction is
2 H+ + Cu → Cu2+ + H2

Topic III Balancing Redox Equations (1 day, or 2 days

if you wish to permit students to practice their
technique. The practice lesson lends itself well
to cooperative approaches.)

Goal: How do we balance redox equations?

Instructional Objectives
Given a redox equation, students will be able to:
1. Write the oxidation and reduction half-reactions.
2. Balance the two half-reactions.

78  Chapter 13
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 79

3. Use appropriate coefficients to make the electrons lost equal the

electrons gained.
4. Balance the entire equation.

Motivation for the Topic

Perform a colorful redox reaction. For example, add dilute H2SO4 to a dilute
solution of KMnO4. Pour the solution quickly into a beaker containing a
solution of FeSO4, SnSO4, or K2SO3. What happened? Recall that when
transition metals change oxidation states, they change color. Write the
reaction on the board, e.g.,
FeSO4 + H2SO4 + KMnO4 → H2O + K2SO4 + MnSO4 + Fe2(SO4 )3
This is a very typical redox reaction. How shall we balance it?

Development of the Topic

Because redox reactions are often difficult to balance by inspection,
chemists have come up with various methods to help them. One such
method uses the oxidation numbers of the products and reactants. In most
redox reactions, there is a change in the oxidation number of two ele-
ments. Why must two elements change oxidation state? (You can deal with
exceptions to this rule, such as the reaction of Cl2 in water, later.) Elicit that
there must be both oxidation and reduction. The number of electrons lost
in the oxidation must equal the number gained in the reduction. Provide
the oxidation numbers of Fe and Mn at this time. Have students write the
two half-reactions:
Mn7+ + 5e – → Mn2+
Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e –
Since the iron appears as Fe2 in the product, it is a good idea to include the
“2” in the iron half reaction:
2 Fe2+ → 2 Fe3+ + 2e –
Show that to make the electrons lost equal the electrons gained, the reduc-
tion equation must be multiplied by 2, and the oxidation by 5. Show that
putting the numbers back into the original equation gives you
10 FeSO4 + H2SO4 + 2 KMnO4 → H2O + K2SO4 + 2 MnSO4 + 5 Fe2(SO4 )3
Now you should be able to elicit that there are 18 sulfates in the prod-
uct, so that an 8 is needed in front of the H2SO4. This requires 8 waters, to
balance the hydrogen. The equation is balanced. Check each element to
prove that it is balanced. Illustrate how much clearer the reaction becomes
when the spectator ions are omitted. Provide several examples to be bal-
anced, but keep the first few as simple as possible!

Redox and Electrochemistry  79

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 80

Suggested Laboratory Activities

1. Determination of the Activity Series
This can be approached in several ways. One method is to provide strips
of zinc, lead, and copper, along with nitrate solutions of zinc, lead, cop-
per, and silver. Label the metals, but present the solutions as unknowns.
Tell the students that their task is to determine which of the solutions
contains zinc ions, which contains lead ions, which contains copper
ions, and which contains silver ions. Require that they write out their
procedure before beginning the experiment. (Other metals and solu-
tions can be used as well; pretest them to be sure that the desired reac-
tions are observable!)
2. Distinguish Between Halides
A solution of chlorine water can similarly be used to distinguish among
chlorides, bromides, and iodides. A few drops of perchlorethylene
should be added to each solution to make the results more evident.
3. Setting up Voltaic Cells
Students properly connect various labeled half-cells and record the
resulting voltage for several combinations. They are then given an
unknown half-cell, containing an unknown metal in a solution of its
ions. They are asked to determine its identity by connecting it to the
known half-cells.
If they have learned how to calculate E 0, they can use a table of stan-
dard reduction potentials to identify the unknown. However, they can
identify the unknown without using electrode potentials, by recording
the direction of electron transfer for each half-cell combination, and
using the activity series.
Students first observe that in any of the voltaic cells they construct,
the more active metal is the negative pole. Then by observing the polar-
ities each time the unknown half-cell is connected to the known half-
cells, they can place the unknown in its proper position in the activity
series and guess its possible identity.

80  Chapter 13
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 81

14 Organic Chemistry

INTRODUCTION
There seems to be more disagreement over how much time to spend on
organic chemistry than there is over any other major topic. One could argue
for anything from three days to three months, although two weeks seems to
be the norm. The text covers hydrocarbons, nomenclature, functional groups,
and a few important reactions. The “Taking a Closer Look” section delves more
deeply into the chemistry of the functional groups.

Day Lesson for the Day Text Pages Homework.

1– 2 Hydrocarbons 488 to 494 Pg. 494, Practice 14.1, 14.2
3 Nomenclature 494 to 501 Pg. 501, Practice 14.3–14.5
4–5 Functional groups 495 to 496, Pgs. 506–507,
502 to 510 Practice 14.6–14.8
6 Addition and substitution 510 to 512 Pg. 512, Practice 14.9
7– 9 Other organic reactions 512 to 519 Pgs. 519 – 520,
Practice 14.10–14.12

Topic I Hydrocarbons (2 days)

Goal: What are the structures of the simplest organic compounds?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Identify a hydrocarbon as a compound that contains only hydrogen
and carbon.
2. Draw the structure of a hydrocarbon, given the name.
3. Provide the name of a hydrocarbon, given the structure.
4. Given its formula, place a hydrocarbon in the correct homologous
group.
5. Given the number of carbons, predict the number of hydrogen
atoms in an alkane, alkene, or alkyne.

81
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 82

Motivation for the Topic

As the class the following questions.
What gas do laboratory burners and your stoves at home use?
(Methane, which students should know is CH4.)
What gas is used in gas-fired backyard barbecues? (Propane, which con-
tains only the elements carbon and hydrogen.)
Hold up a disposable cigarette lighter. What is the liquid in this ciga-
rette lighter? (Butane, which contains only carbon and hydrogen.)
You have probably also heard of octane. What do all of these com-
pounds have in common? (They all contain only carbon and hydrogen, all
end in -ane, and all are combustible.)
Carbon forms hundreds of thousands of different compounds with
hydrogen. In addition, it forms millions of other compounds. The chem-
istry of carbon is called organic chemistry.

Development of the Topic

How do organic chemicals differ from inorganic chemicals? Demonstrate
that organic compounds are generally combustible, that many of them are
volatile liquids or soft solids. Relate these properties to the nature of
carbon —with an electronegativity of 2.5, it nearly always forms covalent
bonds and molecular compounds.
You might wish to discuss the history of the term “organic.” Until the
mid-nineteenth century, chemists believed that living things could pro-
duce substances that could not be synthesized from nonliving material.
This “vital force theory” was eventually disproved, and today we call
most carbon compounds “organic” whether they are from living things
or not.
Why does carbon form so many compounds? Illustrate that carbon
always forms four covalent bonds, and that it readily bonds to itself.
Draw the structures of methane, propane, and butane. Provide large
molecular models, so that students can observe the true three-dimen-
sional shapes.
Elicit that these are all called hydrocarbons, because they contain only
hydrogen and carbon. With so many compounds possible, a special system
was designed to name the hydrocarbons. Show the derivation of the name
propane, pointing out that prop- means three carbons, and -ane means
single bonds.
Elicit the meanings of the prefixes meth-, but-, and oct-. List the prefixes
indicating from 1 to 10 carbons. (I allow students to refer to the list during
exams, to reduce the amount of memorization in the topic.)
Elicit the formulas of ethane and pentane, and elicit the general for-
mula, CnH2n+2. Show that each compound differs from the next by the
same formula, CH2. Define the “Alkane family” as the group of hydrocar-
bons containing only single bonds, with the general formula CnH2n+2. Ask

82  Chapter 14
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 83

your students to draw and provide the formulas for a few additional alkanes,
such as hexane and nonane.
Ask students if they have heard the term “polyunsaturated,” and ask
what it means. Point out that in organic chemistry, unsaturated means
having double or triple carbon-carbon bonds. What, then, would polyun-
saturated mean? Draw two carbons, connected by a double bond. Elicit
that the double bond leaves room for only four hydrogen atoms. Remind
students that ethane has six hydrogen atoms. Alkanes are called saturated
hydrocarbons. How is the use of the word “saturated” in organic chem-
istry related to the way the word is used to describe certain solutions?
Tell the class that the compound C2H4 is called ethene, and is the sim-
plest of the alkenes. Elicit the general formula of the alkene series. Have
students draw the structures of propene and butene. If students notice that
there are two different ways to draw butene, you may wish to introduce the
concept of isomerism.
Tell the class that the simplest triple-bonded hydrocarbon is called
ethyne. Have them draw it, suggest a general formula, and then draw at
least two additional alkynes, checking that they follow the general for-
mula. Throughout the topic of organic chemistry, whenever possible, pro-
vide three-dimensional models of the compounds illustrated on the
board.
If your students drew the two different butene structures, it provides a
nice lead-in to a discussion of nomenclature. These are different com-
pounds; therefore, they must have different names. Define isomers, and
show why these are called 1-butene and 2-butene. Show why there is no
3-butene.
Present the rules for naming hydrocarbons. (See pages 498–499.)
Provide plenty of examples, including the 3-methylpentane diagram
shown on page 499. Students will often call it 2-ethylbutane, and it is
important to show them why this is incorrect. By using a molecular model
you can make it clear that no matter how you draw it, the longest chain
has five carbons. In general, however, draw the longest chain straight
across, rather than being tricky by bending it. Since we do not attempt to
show the correct bond angles when we draw these organic structures, we
might as well simplify the naming process by making the main chain the
one that goes left to right across the page.
For extra credit you might ask your students to draw and name as many
isomers of octane as they can.

Topic II Functional Groups (2–3 days)

Goal: What is the chemistry of some other (i.e., other than hydrocar-
bons) common organic compounds?

Organic Chemistry  83
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 84

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Classify a given compound according to its functional group.
2. Name simple compounds containing the functional groups discussed.
3. Recognize isomerism in compounds containing different function-
al groups, e.g., aldehydes and ketones.
4. Given the name of the compound, draw compounds containing the
listed functional groups.

Motivation for the Topic

Provide bottles of ethanol and of rubbing alcohol, 2-propanol. Do not tell
the students what is in the bottles, but ask them to identify them by their
odor. Students will generally identify both compounds as alcohol. Point
out that they are in fact both alcohols, but “alcohol” refers not to just one
compound, but to an entire class of compounds.
Show that in alcohols an — OH group has replaced one or more hydro-
gens in a hydrocarbon. The alcohols resemble each other in many ways, so
it is useful to group them. The functional group concept helps us to group
similar compounds.

Development of the Topic

Use the alcohols to illustrate how compounds containing functional
groups are named. Make sure that your students can correctly name simple
alcohols, such as 3-pentanol, and given the name, can draw the structure.
Show that alcohols have the general formula R — OH. Use a conductivity
apparatus to demonstrate that alcohols do not conduct electricity. Show
that a solution of NaOH does conduct. Why is this? Make sure that your
students realize that alcohols do not form hydroxide ions, and therefore are
not bases.
Similarly, go through the remaining functional groups described on
pages 502 to 506. (Note that esters are described later in the chapter, under
“Esterification.”) If you wish to provide a more expanded presentation, you
can include more of the chemistry of each group, as shown on pages 520
to 529.
As your class goes through drawing and naming the compounds con-
taining the groups described, take the opportunity to illustrate isomerism.
For example, we observed earlier that propanol has an isomer, but does
ethanol have an isomer? Show that dimethyl ether is an isomer of ethanol;
all ethers have alcohol isomers. The same is true of ketones and aldehydes,
and esters and acids.
Molecular model kits are useful in demonstrating isomerism; for exam-
ple, have a student take apart a ketone and put it together as an alcohol.

84  Chapter 14
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 85

Topic III Reactions in Organic Chemistry (2 – 3 days)

Goal: What are some types of organic reactions?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Identify seven types of organic reactions, given the reactants and
products.
2. Given the reactants, predict products of those reactions.
3. Identify and name esters, and identify the parent acid and alcohol
for a given ester.

Motivation for the Topic

Show empty bottles of various alcoholic beverages. Point out that the alco-
hol is ethanol. Where do we get alcohol? Students will probably know that
alcohol is made from grapes, but point out that the alcohol in rum comes
from molasses; alcohol can be made from corn, rye, potatoes, or barley. All
these plants contain sugars, and from sugars we can produce alcohol.

Development of the Topic

Write the equation for the following reaction:
C6H12O6 → 2 CO2 + 2 C2H5OH
Place some sugar in water, and ask whether it will eventually turn to alco-
hol. Why not? The reaction is very slow; it requires a catalyst. Students
may know that yeasts are used to catalyze the reaction; they may also know
that the reaction is called anaerobic respiration, and provides energy for
the yeast cells. The sugar ferments, to form ethanol and carbon dioxide.
The reaction is called fermentation.
Fill one small gas-collecting jar with butane and another with ethyne,
or any other unsaturated, gaseous hydrocarbon available. Place a glass
plate over each jar. Invert a jar of Br2 vapor over each jar of gas, forming
two sets of two jars. Remove the glass plate from between each set. The
unsaturated hydrocarbon immediately reacts with the bromine, causing a
dramatic loss of color, while nothing happens in the other set of jars. Point
out that the same results would occur with nearly any saturated and unsat-
urated hydrocarbons. They react differently. Why?
Show that when bromine reacts with butane, a C — H bond breaks.
These bonds are strong, so the reactions are very slow. Illustrate the fol-
lowing reaction using molecular models:
C4H10 + Br2 → C4H9Br + HBr

Organic Chemistry  85
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 86

Show why the reaction is called substitution, emphasizing that it

always forms two products. Show that the reaction can form a large num-
ber of different organic compounds, since it is difficult to control how
often the bromine molecules will substitute onto a given compound.
Why does an unsaturated hydrocarbon react so much faster? Compare
1-butene with butane. They must react differently because one has a C — C
double bond, and the other does not. Point out that it is easier to break a
C — C double bond than it is to break the C — H bond. (If you covered the
concepts of sigma and pi bonding, you can provide a better explanation.
The pi bond is more reactive than the sigma bond.)
Draw the structure of 1-butene, and then erase the double bond, leav-
ing a single bond in that position. What happens now? There are now two
adjoining carbons each with only 3 bonds. Each can take a bromine atom,
producing 1,2-dibromobutane. What would happen if we reacted bromine
with 2-butene?
If you intend to teach about benzene rings and aromatic hydrocarbons,
this is a good time. Benzene is unsaturated, yet it reacts by substitution.
Why is this? See the Box Feature “Lord of the Rings” on pages 535 to 537.
Polymerization can be introduced as a type of addition reaction.
Condensation polymers are produced through the removal of water, which
your students may recognize as dehydration synthesis.
Esterification reactions can be demonstrated. Add solid salicylic acid to
methanol, in a large Erlenmeyer flask. Add one or two drops of concen-
trated sulfuric acid. Place the flask on a hot plate, swirling it occasionally.
When it begins to boil, remove it from the hot plate and quickly add some
cold water. A white solid will form that has the characteristic odor of win-
tergreen.
While the reaction is taking place, ask the students what might happen
when an alcohol, ROH, reacts with an acid, RCOOH. Use molecular mod-
els of a simple alcohol and a simple acid to illustrate what happens when
a water is removed. Attach the remaining pieces, to form an ester. Show
that the general formula for the ester is RCOOR. Show how to name the
ester that you have formed. Esters can be described as “alkyl alkanoate.”
The part that came from the alcohol comes first in the name. If students
ask about the logic of the naming system, point out that the -ate ending is
analogous to the way salts are named.
Have the students smell the ester that you have produced. Point out
that esters are responsible for the fragrances and flavors of bananas, pears,
and other fruit.
Remind students that bases feel slippery to the touch. Point out that
strong bases react with animal fats to produce soaps, which feel slippery.
The reaction is called soap making, or saponification. Provide the typical
saponification reaction, as shown on page 517, and summarize it by show-
ing that a fat reacts with lye to produce a soap and glycerol.
The combustion of hydrocarbons was discussed at the beginning of the
chapter. Ask students to write the equation for the combustion of methane.

86  Chapter 14
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 87

Ask the class: What are the products? Why should you know them? (If the
reaction produced CO instead of CO2, the fumes from the stove would be
lethal.) Show that such compounds as ethanol and acetone are also com-
bustible, and form the same products. What use has been suggested for the
combustion of ethanol? (It could be used to power automobiles.)

Suggested Laboratory Activity

Construction of Molecular Models
Groups of students are given molecular model kits, and asked to construct
and then draw models of several organic compounds. The concept of cis-
trans isomerism across double bonds can be developed during this lab, by
including 1,2-dichloroethene as one of the substances. The models can be
used to answer questions about isomerism and geometry.

Organic Chemistry  87
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 88

15 Nuclear Chemistry

INTRODUCTION
The key skills students need to master in nuclear chemistry are writing nuclear
equations and solving half-life problems. They typically have little trouble with
the first of these, and a lot of trouble with the second. Even when they are
given an equation, and they set it up correctly, they are often thrown by the
exponential relationship between the number of half-life periods and the frac-
tion remaining. We therefore illustrate two solution methods in our Sample
Problems on pages 549 to 552.

Day Lesson for the Day Text Pages Homework

1 What is radioactivity? 538 to 542
2 Modes of decay 542 to 548 Pgs. 546–547,
Practice 15.1–15.2
Pg. 548, Practice 15.3 –15.4
3–4 Half-life 548 to 554 Pg. 552, Practice 15.5 –15.7
5 Fission and fusion 554 to 557 Pg. 546, Practice 15.8
6 Uses of radioisotopes 557 to 559

Topic I Natural Radiation (2 days)

Goal: How do we explain the phenomenon called radioactivity?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Describe radioactivity as the emission of matter and energy from
unstable nuclei.
2. Distinguish among alpha, beta, and gamma emissions, in terms of
charge, mass, and penetrating power.
3. Complete nuclear equations from which a single term is omitted.
4. Write the equation for the radioactive decay of a given nuclide,
based on a given decay mode.
5. Identify elements with atomic numbers of 84 or greater as radioac-
tive elements.

88
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 89

Motivation for the Topic

Henri Becquerel, a French scientist, noticed that a certain rock, called
pitchblende, had an unusual property. Photographic film stored next to
pitchblende exhibited streaks, as if it had been exposed to light. The rock
did not produce any visible light, yet it affected the film. Becquerel con-
cluded that there were some kind of invisible rays being emitted by the
pitchblende. What do you think was happening? (If students have trouble
figuring it out, tell them that pitchblende contains uranium.)

Development of the Topic

Show students that when radiation passes between charged plates, it splits
into three parts. (See Figure 15-1 in text.) Elicit the charge of each type of
radiation, and present the names alpha, beta, and gamma. Prepare a chart,
or table, comparing the three “rays” in terms of charge, mass, and pene-
trating power.
State that many elements are naturally radioactive, and elicit the names
of some of these elements. Where are they found on the Periodic Table?
Students should conclude that the elements with the largest nuclei tend to
be radioactive. Point out that every element with at least 84 protons is
always radioactive. Nuclei with 84 or more protons are unstable. Which of
the three types of radiation discussed would best relieve an overcrowded
nucleus?
What happens to an element when it emits an alpha particle? Show
that 238U changes into 234Th, and write the balanced nuclear equation.
Emphasize that nuclear equations must obey the laws of conservation of
mass and of charge. Have the class complete the nuclear equation for alpha
emission for some other isotopes, such as radium-226 or francium-220.
Introduce the concept of radioactive dating. Some students have prob-
ably learned that carbon-14 is used to date the remains of living things.
Why is 14C radioactive? Neither 13C nor 12C is radioactive. Apparently, car-
bon-14 has too many neutrons. Point out that for the first 20 elements, the
ratio of neutrons to protons is generally very close to 1.0. If the ratio is too
large, the nucleus is radioactive. How can a nucleus solve its “problem” of
too many neutrons? Write the nuclear equation for beta emission in 14C.
Elicit that the number of neutrons has decreased, while the number of pro-
tons has increased. Show that the process of beta emission, in general, can
be represented by the following equation:

1
0n → 1
1 p+ 0
–1e

A neutron, by emitting a beta particle, is converted into a proton. Provide

a table of alpha and beta emitters, such as the one given on page 549. Have
students complete nuclear equations for the decay of such isotopes as 60Co,
131
I, and 222Rn. Should you wish to include positron emission, illustrate the

Nuclear Chemistry  89
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 90

decay of 37Ca. Students should notice that this isotope has too few neu-
trons. Show that positron decay results in the conversion of a proton into
a neutron, the opposite result of beta decay.

Topic II Half-Life (2 days)

Goal: How do we predict the results of radioactive decay?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Given a half-life, an original quantity, and an amount of time, pre-
dict the remaining quantity of a radioactive isotope.
2. Find the half-life of a nuclide, given the original quantity and the
quantity remaining after a given amount of time.
3. Predict the amount of time necessary for a given change in mass,
given the half-life of the nuclide.
4. Use the equation for half-life to predict quantities going back in
time as well as forward.
5. Apply the concept of half-life to radioactive dating.
6. State that the half-life of a given nuclide is constant, unaffected by
changes in pressure, quantity, temperature, or chemical environ-
ment.

Motivation for the Topic

Let us say that you have been working on your homework for 15 minutes,
and your friend asks, “When will you be finished?” You reply, “I’m half
done!” What would your friend assume? The conclusion that you will be
finished in another 15 minutes is based on the assumption that you are
doing homework at a steady rate. Now suppose that you have ordered a
large pizza. After 15 minutes, you have eaten half of the pie, or 4 slices.
But now you are not as hungry. What is likely to happen in the next 15
minutes? The rate is not likely to be constant! It is going to be difficult to
predict how long it will take you to finish. The rate of radioactive decay,
like the rate of eating pizza, decreases over time. How will we be able to
predict the results?

Development of the Topic

Suppose that as you ate your pizza, your rate became proportional to the
number of slices remaining. When there were four slices remaining, you
could eat only half as fast as you did when there were eight slices remain-
ing. It took you 15 minutes to eat the first four slices. It would then take
you the same amount of time to eat two slices, going from four remaining

90  Chapter 15
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 91

to two. With two slices left, your rate would be only one fourth of what it
was at the beginning. It would take you 15 minutes now to eat just one
slice. If we review the results, we see that it took 15 minutes to go from 8
slices to 4, from 4 to 2, and from 2 to 1. Although the rate is not constant,
the amount of time it takes to use up half of the sample is constant!
Radioactive decay follows the same pattern. The amount of time needed to
use up half of a given sample is constant. This time is called the half-life.
The half-life of our pizza was 15 minutes.
Show how half-life periods can be used to predict quantity. Radium-226
is a good isotope to start with, since the half-life is a nice round 1600 years.
Review what it means to say that the half-life is 1600 years; what will
happen in 1600 years? What would happen in 3200 years? How much of
an 8.00-gram sample of 226Ra would remain after 3200 years? (2.00 grams)
One method of helping students arrive at the correct answer to this
type of problem is to set up a chart like this one:

Time Number of Half-life Periods Mass

0 0 8.00 g
1600 1 4.00 g
3200 2 2.00 g

Point out that although a chart like this can be used to solve problems
involving any whole number of half-life periods, when the number gets
large, the method becomes tedious. A mathematical expression can be used
to predict quantities based on half-life.
_t_
fraction remaining = 1
_
2  T

(See text page 548.) In the formula, t is the time elapsed and T is the half-
life. The exponent t/T is the number of half-life periods. Show that in the
problem above, t = 3200 years and T is 1600 years. The exponent t/T is 2,
which mean that two half-life periods have passed. The fraction remain-


ing is 1_ 2; or 1/4, therefore, the mass remaining, mr = 8.00 g/4 = 2.00
2
grams. You may wish to point out that t/T does not have to be a whole
number. Using a scientific calculator, it is easy to raise 1/2 to any power.
Provide problems requiring students to find each of the variables in the
equation — the half-life, the time, the original mass. Students generally
find these difficult, so a period of drill may be needed. One type of prob-
lem that often presents difficulty is this: A certain radioactive isotope
decays from 64.0 grams to 2.0 grams in 60.0 minutes. What is its half-life?
The chart method, shown above, gives

Nuclear Chemistry  91
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 92

Time Number of Half-Life Periods Mass

0 0 64.0
1 32.0
2 16.0
3 8.0
4 4.0
60.0 5 2.0

The students can now conclude that since 5 half-life periods is 60.0 min-
utes, the half-life is 12.0 minutes.
However, suppose the students wish to use the equation:
_t_
fraction remaining = 1
_
2  T

The fraction remaining is 2 g/64 g or 1/32.

_t_ 5
___
32 
1 = 1
_ T, ___
2
1 = 1
32
_
2 
__
t =5
T
___ = 5
60
T
T = 12

Topic III Using Radioactive Substances (1 day)

Goal: How does the use of radioactive materials benefit humanity?

Instructional Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Describe nuclear fission as a process of obtaining energy by splitting
large nuclei.
2. Describe nuclear fusion as a process that produces energy through
the combination of small nuclei to produce larger nuclei.
3. Identify fusion as the source of the sun’s energy.
4. Describe both the advantages and disadvantages of the use of
nuclear power.
5. Describe other uses of radioactive isotopes, such as in shrinking
tumors, medical diagnosis, and tracing the course of a chemical
reaction.

Motivation
Discuss global warming. Point out that many (but not all) scientists believe
that global warming is largely caused by the increase in CO2 in the atmos-

92  Chapter 15
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 93

phere. Power plants that burn oil, coal, or natural gas, produce carbon
dioxide. If we wish to decrease the amount of carbon dioxide while pro-
ducing the same amount of electrical power, what are our alternatives?

Development of the Topic

Point out that nuclear power plants produce no carbon dioxide. They do
not produce any air pollution. Yet no new nuclear plants are being built in
the United States. Why is this?
Students will provide their opinion of the dangers of nuclear power. It
is important to separate the facts from the fiction!
Show the nuclear equation for the fission of 235U. (See text page 555.)
Since the reaction produces more neutrons than it consumes, it is self-
sustaining. However, unless a certain minimum quantity and concentra-
tion of 235U is present, it is impossible for a nuclear explosion to occur.
Point out that the barium-143 and the krypton-90 produced in fission have
mass numbers that are much larger than the average atomic mass of those
elements. What generally happens when nuclei have an abnormally large
number of neutrons? The products of fission are always highly radioactive,
and thus dangerous. They must be stored in a safe, secure facility.
You might assign students to prepare a report on the use of nuclear power
in other countries. (Both Japan and France rely heavily on nuclear power.)
Ask students where the energy of the sun and other stars comes from.
What elements are found on the sun? Show how the fusion of hydrogen
atoms produces helium, an element that was found on the sun before it
was found on Earth. Fusion produces enormous amounts of energy and no
radioactive products. Why do we use fission instead of fusion to supply
energy? Point out that the amount of energy necessary to get positively
charged nuclei to overcome their repulsions and fuse is so large that it
cannot be provided feasibly. An atomic bomb can supply the necessary
energy, and so we have built bombs that use fusion — hydrogen bombs —
but as yet, we have been unable to use fusion in more peaceful applications.
The graph of nuclear binding energy vs. mass number on page 561 and
the concept of mass defect can be used to explain the production of ener-
gy in both fission and fusion. Students should understand that mass is lost
during both processes and that this mass is converted into energy.
Other uses of radioactivity should be discussed to complete the topic.
Students are likely to have heard of radiation therapy and, unfortunately,
are likely to know someone who has undergone it. How can radiation be
used to cure cancer, when radiation can also cause cancer? While radiation
kills normal cells along with malignant cells, it is used only where the
potential benefits far outweigh the risks.
The individual instructor should decide the extent to which such appli-
cations as irradiation of food, medical diagnosis, tracing, and determina-
tion of reaction mechanisms should be discussed. They are good topics for
student-led discussions and reports.

Nuclear Chemistry  93
TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 94

Correlation of Contemporary Chemistry: The Physical Setting to New

York State’s Physical Setting/Chemistry Core Curriculum

STANDARD 4: The Physical Setting

Students will understand and apply scientific concepts, principles, and
theories pertaining to the physical setting and living environment and
recognize the historical development of ideas in science.

Key Idea 3:
Matter is made up of particles whose properties determine the observ-
able characteristics of matter and its reactivity.

Performance Indicator 3.1 Explain the properties of materials in terms

of the arrangement and properties of the atoms that compose them.

Major Understanding Textbook pp.

3.1a The modern model of the atom has evolved over a 66–72, 80–83
long period of time through the work of many scientists.
3.1b Each atom has a nucleus, with an overall positive 68 –70
charge, surrounded by negatively charged electrons.
3.1c Subatomic particles contained in the nucleus 70
include protons and neutrons.
3.1d The proton is positively charged, and the neutron 70
has no charge. The electron is negatively charged.
3.1e Protons and electrons have equal but opposite 10, 70, 99
charges. The number of protons equals the number of
electrons in an atom.
3.1f The mass of each proton and each neutron is 70
approximately equal to one atomic mass unit. An
electron is much less massive than a proton or a neutron.
3.1g The number of protons in an atom (atomic number) 70 –71, 74
identifies the element. The sum of the protons and
neutrons in an atom (mass number) identifies an isotope.
3.1h In the wave–mechanical model (electron cloud 76
model) the electrons are in orbitals, which are defined as
the regions of the most probable electron location
(ground state).
3.1i Each electron in an atom has its own distinct 79
amount of energy,
3.1j When an electron in an atom gains a specific 76, 80
amount of energy, the electron is at a higher energy
state (excited state).

94  Correlation of Contemporary Chemistry

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 95

Major Understanding Textbook pp.

3.1k When an electron returns from a higher energy 76–77, 80–82
state to a lower energy state, a specific amount of
energy is emitted. This emitted energy can be used to
identify an element.
3.1l The outermost electrons in an atom are called the 97– 98
valence electrons. In general, the number of valence
electrons affects the chemical properties of an element.
3.1m Atoms of an element that contain the same 73 –74
number of protons but a different number of neutrons 539 – 540
are called isotopes of that element.
3.1n The average atomic mass of an element is the 71–76
weighted average of the masses of its naturally occurring
isotopes.
3.1o Stability of an isotope is based on the ratio of 540 – 541,
neutrons and protons in its nucleus. Although most 560 – 561
nuclei are stable, some are unstable and spontaneously
decay, emitting radiation.
3.1p Spontaneous decay can involve the release of alpha 539 – 540,
particles, beta particles, positrons, and/or gamma radiation 543 – 545
from the nucleus of an unstable isotope.
3.1q Matter is classified as a pure substance or as a 10 –11
mixture of substances.
3.1r A pure substance (element or compound) has a 11
constant composition and constant properties throughout
a given sample, and from sample to sample.
3.1s Mixtures are composed of two or more different 12
substances that can be separated by physical means.
When different substances are mixed together, a
homogenous or heterogeneous mixture is formed.
3.1t The proportions of components in a mixture can 12 –13
be varied. Each component in a mixture retains its
original properties.
3.1u Elements are substances that are composed of 10
atoms that have the same atomic number. Elements
cannot be broken down by chemical change.
3.1v Elements can be classified by their properties and 192 –193
located on the Periodic Table as metals, nonmetals,
metalloids (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te) and noble gases.
3.1w Elements can be differentiated by physical 5– 6
properties. Physical properties of substances, such as
density, conductivity, malleability, solubility, and
hardness, differ among elements.

Correlation of Contemporary Chemistry  95

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 96

Major Understanding Textbook pp.

3.1x Elements can also be differentiated by chemical 5– 6
properties. Chemical properties describe how an
element behaves during a chemical reaction.
3.1y The placement or location of an element on the 186 –187
Periodic Table gives an indication of the physical and
chemical properties of that element. The elements on
the Periodic Table are arranged in order of increasing
atomic number.
3.1z For Groups 1, 2, and 13-18 on the Periodic Table, 190
elements within the same group have the same number
of valence electrons (helium is an exception) and
therefore similar chemical properties.
3.1aa The succession of elements within the same 188 –190
group demonstrates characteristic trends: differences in
atomic radius, ionic radius, electronegativity, first
ionization energy, metallic/nonmetallic properties.
3.1bb The succession of elements across the same period 187–190
demonstrates characteristic trends: differences in atomic
radius, ionic radius, electronegativity, first ionization
energy, metallic/nonmetallic properties.
3.1cc A compound is a substance composed of two 10 –11,
or more different elements that are chemically 150 –160,
combined in a fixed proportion. A chemical compound 163 –164,
can be broken down by chemical means. A chemical 496 – 506
compound can be represented by a specific chemical
formula and assigned a name based on the IUPAC
system.
3.1dd Compounds can be differentiated by their 11
physical and chemical properties.
3.1ee Types of chemical formulas include empirical, 156 –159,
molecular, and structural. 162 –167,
490 – 491
3.1ff Organic compounds contain carbon atoms, 488 – 489,
which bond to one another in chains, rings, and 535 – 537
networks to form a variety of structures.
3.1gg Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain only 138,
carbon and hydrogen. Saturated hydrocarbons contain 491– 494, 510
only single carbon–carbon bonds. Unsaturated
hydrocarbons contain at least one multiple
carbon–carbon bond.

96  Correlation of Contemporary Chemistry

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 97

Major Understanding Textbook pp.

3.1hh Organic acids, alcohols, esters, aldehydes, 494 – 496,
ketones, ethers, halides, amines, amides, and amino 520 – 529
acids are categories of organic compounds that differ
in their structures. Functional groups impart distinctive
physical and chemical properties to organic compounds.
3.1ii Isomers of organic compounds have the 507– 510
same molecular formula, but different structures
and properties.
3.1jj The structure and arrangement of particles and 52 – 56
their interactions determine the physical state of a
substance at a given temperature and pressure.
3.1kk The three phases of matter (solids, liquids, 4 – 5, 23 – 24,
and gases) have different properties. 44–46, 50–52
3.1ll Entropy is a measure of the randomness or 390
disorder of a system. A system with greater disorder
has greater entropy.
3.1mm Systems in nature tend to undergo changes 390, 392–393
toward lower energy and higher entropy.
3.1nn Differences in properties such as density, particle 12
size, molecular polarity, boiling and freezing points, and
solubility permit physical separation of the components
of the mixture.
3.1oo A solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solute 284 – 285,
dissolved in a solvent. The solubility of a solute in a 289 – 296
given amount of solvent is dependent on the temperature,
the pressure, and the chemical natures of the solute
and solvent.
3.1pp The concentration of a solution may be expressed 297– 305
in molarity (M), percent by volume, percent by mass,
or parts per million (ppm).
3.1qq The addition of a nonvolatile solute to a solvent 308 – 312,
causes the boiling point of the solution to increase 315 – 316
and the freezing point of the solvent to decrease.
The greater the concentration of solute particles,
the greater the effect.
3.1rr An electrolyte is a substance which, when dissolved 306 – 308,
in water, forms a solution capable of conducting an 312 – 313
electric current. The ability of a solution to the conduct
an electric current depends on the concentration of ions.

Correlation of Contemporary Chemistry  97

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 98

Major Understanding Textbook pp.

3.1ss The acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution can 412 – 414
be measured by its pH value. The relative level of acidity
or alkalinity of these solutions can be shown by using
indicators.
3.1tt On the pH scale, each decrease of one unit of 412
pH represents a tenfold increase in hydronium ion
concentration.
3.1uu Behavior of many acids and bases can be 407
explained by the Arrhenius theory. Arrhenius acids
and bases are electrolytes.
3.1vv Arrhenius acids yield H+ (aq), hydrogen ion as 407– 412
the only positive ion in an aqueous solution. The
hydrogen ion may also be written as H3O+(aq),
hydronium ion.
3.1ww Arrhenius bases yield OH–(aq), hydroxide ion 407– 412
as the only negative ion in an aqueous solution.
3.1xx In the process of neutralization, an Arrhenius acid 407, 416–417
and an Arrhenius base react to form a salt and water.
3.1yy There are alternate acid–base theories. One theory 417– 421
states that an acid is an H+ donor and a base is an H+
acceptor.
3.1zz Titration is a laboratory process in which a 417– 421
volume of a solution of known concentration is used
to determine the concentration of another solution.

Performance Indicator 3.2 Use atomic and molecular models to

explain common chemical reactions.

Major Understanding Textbook pp.

3.2a A physical change results in the rearrangement 6, 13
of existing particles in a substance. A chemical change
results in the formation of different substances with
changed properties.
3.2b Types of chemical reactions include synthesis, 172 –175
decomposition, single replacement, and double
replacement.
3.2c Types of organic reactions include addition, 510 – 519
substitution, polymerization, esterification,
fermentation, saponification, and combustion.
3.2d An oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction 440 – 441,
involves the transfer of electrons (e–). 444 – 447

98  Correlation of Contemporary Chemistry

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 99

Major Understanding Textbook pp.

3.2e Reduction is the gain of electrons. 441, 444
3.2f A half–reaction can be written to represent 442
reduction.
3.2g Oxidation us the loss of electrons. 441, 443–444
3.2h A half–reaction can be written to represent 442
oxidation.
3.2i Oxidation numbers (states) can be assigned to 442 – 444
atoms and ions. Changes in oxidation numbers
indicate that oxidation and reduction have
occurred.
3.2j An electrochemical cell can be either voltaic or 451– 455
electrolytic. In an electrochemical cell, oxidation
numbers indicate that oxidation occurs at the anode
and reduction at the cathode.
3.2k A voltaic cell spontaneously converts chemical 455 – 457
energy to electrical energy.
3.2l An electrolytic cell requires electrical energy to 457– 459
produce a chemical change. This process is known as
electrolysis.

Performance Indicator 3.3 Apply the principle of conservation of

mass to chemical reactions.

Major Understanding Textbook pp.

3.3a In all chemical reactions there is a conservation 9, 16,
of mass, energy, and charge. 383 – 384
3.3b In a redox reaction the number of electrons lost 440 – 442
is equal to the number of electrons gained.
3.3c A balanced chemical equation represents 169 –172
conservation of atoms. The coefficients in a balanced
chemical equation can be used to determine mole
ratios in the reaction.
3.3d The empirical formula of a compound is the 162 –163,
simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of the elements 243 – 249
in a compound. It may be different from the molecular
formula, which is the actual ratio of atoms in a
molecule of that compound.
3.3e The formula mass of a substance is the sum of 167–168,
the atomic masses of its atoms. The molar mass 237– 238
(gram-formula mass) of a substance equals one
mole of that substance.

Correlation of Contemporary Chemistry  99

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 100

Major Understanding Textbook pp.

3.3f The percent composition by mass of each 240 – 243
element in a compound can be calculated
mathematically.

Performance Indicator 3.4 Use kinetic molecular theory (KMT) to

explain rates of reactions and the relationship among temperature,
pressure, and volume of a substance.

Major Understanding Textbook pp.

3.4a The concept of an ideal gas is a model to explain 38, 43 – 44
the behavior of gases. A real gas is most like an ideal gas
when the real gas is at low pressure and high temperature.
3.4b Kinetic molecular theory (KMT) for an ideal gas 24 – 27
states that all particles are in random, constant,
straight-line motion; are separated by great distances
relative to their size; have no attractive forces between
them; have collisions that may result in a transfer of
energy between gas particles, but the total energy of the
system remains constant.
3.4c Kinetic molecular theory describes the relationships 27– 39
of pressure, volume, temperature, velocity, frequency,
and force of collisions among gas molecules.
3.4d Collision theory states that a reaction is most 323 – 326
likely to occur if reactant particles collide with the
proper energy and orientation.
3.4e Equal volumes of gases at the same temperature 39 – 40
and pressure contain an equal number of particles.
3.4f The rate of a chemical reaction depends on several 322 – 333
factors: temperature, concentration, nature of reactants,
surface area, and the presence of a catalyst.
3.4g A catalyst provides an alternate reaction pathway, 330 – 332
which has a lower activation energy than an uncatalyzed
reaction.
3.4h Some chemical and physical changes can reach 342 – 343
equilibrium.
3.4i At equilibrium the rate of the forward reaction 342 – 347
equals the rate of the reverse reaction. The measurable
quantities of reactants and products remain constant
at equilibrium.
3.4j LeChatelier’s principle can be used to predict the 348 – 361
effect of stress (change of pressure, volume, concentration,
and temperature) on a system at equilibrium.

100  Correlation of Contemporary Chemistry

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 101

Key Idea 4:
Energy exists in many forms, and when these forms
change energy is conserved.

Performance Indicator 4.1 Observe and describe transmission of

various forms of energy.

Major Understanding Textbook pp.

4.1a Energy can exist in different forms, such as 13 –14, 76,
chemical, electrical, electromagnetic, thermal, 539
mechanical, and nuclear.
4.1b Chemical and physical changes can be exothermic 20, 383 – 386
or endothermic.
4.1c Energy released or absorbed during a chemical 333 – 384,
reaction can be represented by a potential energy 117–118
diagram.
4.1d Energy released or absorbed during a chemical 324 – 325
reaction (heat of reaction) is equal to the difference
between the potential energy of the products and the
potential energy of the reactants.

Performance Indicator 4.2 Explain heat in terms of kinetic

molecular theory.

Major Understanding Textbook pp.

4.2a Heat is a transfer of energy (usually thermal energy) 14–15, 18–23
from a body of higher temperature to a body of lower
temperature. Thermal energy is the energy associated
with the random motion of atoms and molecules.
4.2b Temperature is a measurement of the average 15, 28 – 29
kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of material.
Temperature is not a form of energy.
4.2c The concepts of kinetic and potential energy can 16 –18,
be used to explain physical processes that include: 46 – 49, 50
fusion (melting), solidification (freezing), vaporization
(boiling, evaporation), condensation, sublimation,
and deposition.

THERE IS NO PI 4.3.

Correlation of Contemporary Chemistry  101

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 102

Performance Indicator 4.4 Explain the benefits and risks of

radioactivity.

Major Understanding Textbook pp.

4.4a Each radioactive isotope has a specific mode and 548 – 549,
rate of decay (half–life). 552 – 554
4.4b Nuclear reactions include natural and artificial 543, 547,
transmutation, fission, and fusion. 555, 557
4.4c Nuclear reactions can be represented by equations 543 – 546
that include symbols which represent atomic nuclei
(with mass number and atomic number), subatomic
particles (with mass number and charge), and/or
emissions such as gamma radiation.
4.4d Radioactive isotopes have many beneficial uses. 553 – 554,
Radioactive isotopes are used in medicine and industrial 557– 559
chemistry for radioactive dating, tracing chemical and
biological processes, industrial measurement, nuclear
power, and detection and treatment of diseases.
4.4e There are inherent risks associated with 542, 557
radioactivity and the use of radioactive isotopes.
Risks can include biological exposure, long-term
storage and disposal, and nuclear accidents.
4.4f There are benefits and risks associated with fission 555 – 557
and fusion reactions.

Key Idea 5:
Energy and matter interact through forces that result in
changes in motion.

Performance Indicator 5.2 Explain chemical bonding in terms of

the behavior of electrons.

Major Understanding Textbook pp.

5.2a Chemical bonds are formed when valence 102, 115 –157
electrons are: transferred from one atom to another
(ionic); shared between atoms (covalent); or mobile
within a metal (metallic).
5.2b Atoms attain a stable valence electron configuration 120, 229–231
by bonding with other atoms. Noble gases have stable
valence configuration and tend not to bond.

102  Correlation of Contemporary Chemistry

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 103

Major Understanding Textbook pp.

5.2c When an atom gains one or more electrons, it 99 –102,
becomes a negative ion and its radius increases. When 125 –127
an atom loses one or more electrons, it becomes a
positive ion and its radius decreases.
5.2d Electron-dot diagrams (Lewis structures) can 120 –122
represent the valence electron arrangement in elements,
compounds, and ions.
5.2e In a multiple covalent bond, more than one pair 121–122
of electrons are shared between two atoms. Unsaturated
organic compounds contain at least one double or
triple bond.
5.2f Some elements exist in two or more forms in the 128 –130
same phase. These forms differ in their molecular or
crystal structure, and hence their properties.
5.2g Two major categories of compounds are ionic and 123 –127
molecular (covalent) compounds.
5.2h Metals tend to react with nonmetals to form ionic 127, 128
compounds. Nonmetals tend to react with other 158, 160
nonmetals to form molecular (covalent) compounds.
Ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions have both
ionic and covalent bonding.
5.2i When a bond is broken, energy is absorbed. When 115
a bond is formed, energy is released.
5.2j Electronegativity indicates how strongly an atom 102–103
of an element attracts electrons in a chemical bond.
Electronegativity values are assigned according to
arbitrary scales.
5.2k The electronegativity difference between two 121, 126–127
bonded atoms is used to assess the degree of polarity
in the bond.
5.2l Molecular polarity can be determined by the 130 –135
shape of the molecule and distribution of charge.
Symmetrical (nonpolar) molecules include CO2, CH4,
and diatomic elements. Asymmetrical (polar) molecules
include HCl, NH3, and H2O.
5.2m Intermolecular forces created by the unequal 136 –140
distribution of charge result in varying degrees of
attraction between molecules. Hydrogen bonding is
an example of a strong intermolecular force.

Correlation of Contemporary Chemistry  103

TM w/ Lessons and Correlations 3/10/04 10:14 AM Page 104

Major Understanding Textbook pp.

5.2n Physical properties of substances can be explained 141–143
in terms of chemical bonds and intermolecular forces.
These properties include conductivity, malleability,
solubility, hardness, melting point, and boiling point.

Performance Indicator 5.3 Compare energy relationships within an

atom’s nucleus to those outside the nucleus.

Major Understanding Textbook pp.

5.3a A change in the nucleus of an atom that converts 543 – 547
it from one element to another is called transmutation.
This can occur naturally or can be induced by the
bombardment of the nucleus with high-energy particles.
5.3b Energy released in a nuclear reaction (fission or 15 –16,
fusion) comes from the fractional amount of mass that 554 – 557
is converted into energy. Nuclear changes convert matter
into energy.
5.3c Energy released during nuclear reactions is much 554 – 555
greater than the energy released during chemical
reactions.

104  Correlation of Contemporary Chemistry