GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF

ROADS AND HIGHWAYS

 Concepts of Transportation
Engineering
 Transportation Engineering – a branch of civil
engineering that deals with the application of
technology and scientific principles to the
planning, functional design, operation and
management of facilities for any mode of
transportation in order to provide for the safe,
rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical
and environmentally compatible movement
of people and goods
 Elements of Transportation
Engineering
 Highway & Traffic Engineering
 Pavement Engineering
 Railway Engineering
 Airport Engineering
 Water (Harbor Engineering)
Transportation
 Pipeline Transportation
 Highway Engineering
 Branch of transportation engineering dealing with the
planning, location, design construction and
maintenance of highways and with the regulations
and control devices employed in highway traffic
operations

 Elements include: traffic loading, shape of road,

travelway, shoulders, sidewalks, pavement surfacing,
subgrade, pavement foundation, drainage and ditch
 Highway Types/Classification of
Roads (Political Classification)
 National Roads – form part of the main road
trunkline system administered by the DPWH
thru its regional and engg district offices, right
of way of not less than 20m allocation for
improvements
 Provincial Roads – connect one municipality
to another, roads within provincial boundaries,
ROW <15m.
 City Roads- it connects one city/town/
municipality-roads within the urban area, ROW
of at least 15m
 Modern Highway Location
Practice
 Reconnaissance – eliminate costly locations and limit the choice to one
or two general routes between controls

 Route Selection –is to flag the best location within the general route,
which will more or less permit the predetermined grade controls

 Preliminary Survey –to obtain topography of the strip or strip flagged

which data will be utilized as the basic framework for the projection of
the line

 Location survey – to transfer the paper projection determined in the off,

from the topographic strip map to the actual site in the field
 Municipal roads - roads within town/
municipalities, ROW of at least 10m
 Barangay roads – rural roads, ROW of at
least 10m; roads outside the Poblacion
or municipality, feeder or farm to market
roads
Specify design standards Survey Major Site Characteristics
• Topography
•Local/national standards
• Ground soil conditions
•Functional classification • Hydrologic condition
• Design speed, cross • Environmental conditions/impacts
sectional features, • Habitat
superelevation • Existing zoned land use
• Functional classification

Specify Major Design Controls

•Design vehicle
• design speed
• volume/capacity/LOS/Access
•Horizontal controls (radius, superelevation)
• Vertical controls (grades, intersections, utilities)
• cross section controls and elements
•Earthwork control (excavation, embankments, etc)

Modifications?
Selection of routes
•Identify alternate routes
• sketch horizontal and vertical alignments
•Screen routes and select those for preliminary design
 Conduct (preliminary) design

Modifications?
•Horizontal alignment
• vertical alignment
• cross sections
• drainage features
• earthworks
• environmental impacts

Evaluate Design
•Cost (project cost, user cost)

Detailed Design
MINIMUM DESIGN STANDARD PHILIPPINE HIGHWAYS
ROAD DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Environmental Concerns
1. Potential impacts of road construction on the quality of physical and
human condition in the area.

2. Ensure less potential

negative impacts on
air quality, sound
quality, water
quality and land
characteristics.

3. Reduce undesirable changes in the physical and human

condition in area were the construction will take place
ROAD DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Cultural Concerns
1.Degradation of natural history (palaeotological
significance)
2.Cultural Sites
* archaeological sites
* burial (cemetery)
* religious significance
* ethnical domain
GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS
Traffic Flow
* influential to vehicle to vehicle interactions
* congestion may result in increase in journey time
and accident risk
MINIMUM DESIGN STANDARD PHILIPPINE HIGHWAYS
GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS
Traffic Information
* use for structural design purposes
* basis for traffic demand forecasting
* traffic volume estimation

Traffic loading information may be obtained from

the following sources:
* Tabulated average 80 Kn equivalent Single Axle Load per Lane
* Traffic survey (visual or traffic counting)
* Transportation planning models (trip generation models)
GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS
Traffic loading information may be obtained from
the following sources:
* Tabulated average 80 Kn equivalent Single Axle Load per Lane
Traffic Class Cumulative Equivalent Traffic Description
(E80/lane)
1 (Feeder Roads) <0.20 x 106 Very light trafficked, very few
heavy vehicles
2 (Collector Roads) 0.2 – 0.8 x 106 Lightly trafficked roads, light
delivery and agricultural
vehicles, very few heavy
vehicles
3 (Major Collector Roads) 0.8 - 3 x 106 Medium volume of traffic; few
heavy vehicles
4 (Highway) 3 - 12 x 106 High volume of traffic and/or
many heavy vehicles
5 (Expressway) 12 - 50 x 106 Very high volume of traffic and/
or high proportion of fully laden
heavy vehicles
GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS
Traffic forecasting
* forecasting of average daily traffic can be projected using a
growth factor (urban area is 20% and rural area 5%)
Formula for traffic forecasting :

Pn = Pi (1 + r ) n
where: Pn =projected number of traffic
Pi = initial average daily traffic
r = growth rate
n = number of projected years
GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS

Traffic Forecasting/Traffic Design

Data

Geometric Design Pavement Design

• number of lanes • type of pavement
•width of lanes •thickness of subgrade,
•design speed subbase, base courses
•thickness of pavement
Specify design standards Survey Major Site Characteristics
• Topography
•Local/national standards
• Ground soil conditions
•Functional classification • Hydrologic condition
• Design speed, cross • Environmental conditions/impacts
sectional features, • Habitat
superelevation • Existing zoned land use
• Functional classification

Specify Major Design Controls

•Design vehicle
• design speed
• volume/capacity/LOS/Access
•Horizontal controls (radius, superelevation)
• Vertical controls (grades, intersections, utilities)
• cross section controls and elements
•Earthwork control (excavation, embankments, etc)

Modifications?
Selection of routes
•Identify alternate routes
• sketch horizontal and vertical alignments
•Screen routes and select those for preliminary design
 Conduct (preliminary) design

Modifications?
•Horizontal alignment
• vertical alignment
• cross sections
• drainage features
• earthworks
• environmental impacts

Evaluate Design
•Cost (project cost, user cost)

Detailed Design
 Highway Curves

 Highway and railroad routes are chosen

only after a complete and detailed study
of all possible location
 Route selection usually involves the use of air
photos and ground surveys and the analysis of
existing plans and maps
 Route selected is chosen because it satisfies all
design requirements with minimal social,
environmental and financial impact
 Design Criteria
 Purpose:
 The standards provided in this chapter are applicable to new
construction, reconstruction, and bridge projects on highways with
traffic volumes of over 400 vehicles per day. For each project, the
values established for the applicable critical design elements
represent the Design Criteria for that project. The chapter defines the
following critical design elements and provides values for different
classifications of highways and roads:

 Design Speed
 Lane Width
 Shoulder Width
 Bridge Roadway Width
 Grade
 Horizontal Curvature
 Design Criteria
 Purpose:
 Superelevation
 Stopping Sight Distance
 Vertical Clearance
 Travel Lane Cross Slope
 Structural Capacity
 Level of Service
 Control of Access
 Pedestrian Accommodation
 Median Width
 Horizontal Clearance
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS
 Sample problem: Traffic Forecasting
Determine the possible number of average vehicle per day of a
rural road if the initial average daily traffic is 200, locality growth
rate is 6% and design years is 5 years.

Sol’n:
Working Formula: Pn = Pi (1 + r )n
Given: Pi = 200 ADT, r = 6% and n = 5

Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 1 =212

Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 2 =224.72~225

Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 3 =238.20

Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 4 =252.50

Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 5 =267.65~268

GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS

Factors that affect the Design Speed

* Traffic volume and composition
* Topography (Flat, Rolling, Mountainous)
* Classification of Road
* Roadside environment (land uses next to the road, pedestrian,
accesses to the road)
* Function of the road (local or through traffic)
GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS
Safety
* optimizing by linking geometric elements to design speed
* design standards must take into account the environmental road
conditions, traffic characteristics and drivers behavior
* potential collision risk

Design Speed
* design varies with different terrain
* provide appropriate consistency between geometric elements
* mountainous and rolling areas speed limits as low as 40 kph
* review of design speed to ensure that they relate to current
circumstances
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT DESIGN
Horizontal Alignment

* Design Features : Horizontal Curve and Horizontal Tangent

* Obtaining the values of design control for horizontal curves and tangents
* Determination of the location type of characteristics of horizontal curves.
A. Sight Distance – most important element among many elements in
horizontal alignment design. The driver’s ability to see ahead
contributes to safe and efficient operation of the road

Truck

Car Sight Obstruction

Line of
sight
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT DESIGN
Horizontal Alignment
B. Superelevation (banking)– help to counteract the centripetal
acceleration produced as a vehicle rounds a curve.
Vehicle
tire
1. Superelevaton requirement
f
V2
R = --------------------
127 (e + f) e

R = radius of the curve

V = vehicle speed (kph)
road surface
e = rate of superelevation
f = coefficient of friction
between the tire and the
road surface
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT DESIGN
Horizontal Alignment
2. Superelevation skidding resistance

V2
Truck
---------------- > (e + f),
127 R

Skidding resistance condition

V2
--------------- < 0.22
127 R

3. Overturning due to superelevation

GEOMETRIC ELEMENT DESIGN
Horizontal Alignment
Things to consider in the design of road superelevation
1. comfortableness for running
2. separation of very slow moving
vehicles such as bicycle
3. climatic condition of the region
4. type of area
5. terrain activity
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT DESIGN
Sample Problem: The design speed of a rural road is 40 kph with
a horizontal curve radius of 200 meters. The coefficient of
friction of the surface of the road is 0.15 and the superelevation
is 8%. Can this speed be safely maintained on the road?
Solution:
V2 v = 40kph
R = -------------------- f = 0.15
127 (e + f) e= 0.08
R = 200 m.

Check the design speed

V = √ 127 x (0.08 + 0.15) x 200 = 76.43 kph

therefore the design speedof 40 kph is safe to maintain because the

horizontal curve radius is quite long for a driver to comfortably drive.
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT DESIGN
Vertical Alignment
* V.A. has a strong influence upon the
construction cost, the operating cost of vehicles
using the road and in combination with the
horizontal alignment also on the number of
accidents.
* it should be designed to the highest
standard of consistency and economy
* Designed to be aesthetically pleasing
Two Major Aspects of Vertical Alignment
* vertical curvature – governed by vertical
sight distance and comfort criteria
* gradient –related to vehicle performance
and level of service
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT DESIGN
Plan : Horizontal Alignment

Profile: Vertical Alignment

GEOMETRIC ELEMENT DESIGN
Vertical Alignment
1. Vertical Curves are required to provide smooth transition
between consecutive gradients and the simple parabola is
recommended for these. The most important geometric
consideration governing vertical curvature is the sight distance.
Line of sight

Road Surface
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT DESIGN
Vertical Alignment
2. Gradient
* needs to be considered from the standpoint of both length and steepness,
and the speed at which heavy vehicles enter the gradient.
* effect of a steep grade is to slow down the heavier vehicles and increase
operating cost
Recommended Standards for maximum grades (%) to Design Speed

Design Speed
Topograph 30 40 50 60 65 70 75 80
y
Flat 6 5 4 3 3 3 3 3
Rolling 7 6 5 4 4 4 4 4
Mountaino 9 8 7 6 6 5 - -
us
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT DESIGN
Vertical Alignment
Technique to compute the road slope or gradient
level difference
slope = ----------------------------------- * 100
length

Level Difference
Road gradient or slope

L = Length
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT DESIGN
•Case Study:
Determine the expected annual average daily traffic over the required design period in one
direction of the road.

Given:
a. The predicted growth rate is assumed as follows:
1990-1994 = 6%
1994-1996 = 7%
1996-2001 = 4%
2001-2008 = 8%

b. Initial traffic data = 650 ADT

c. Total traffic distribution by the number type of vehicle per day in one direction as
follows:
car/jeep = 44%
buses = 25%
trucks = 31%
d. Assume the 80 kn equivalent single axle load. Cars and jeeps are not considered to
make significant damage to the pavement:
Bus factor = 0.50
Trucks factor = 1.0
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN FEATURES,
PARAMETERS AND STANDARDS
Geometric Design features Design Design standards
element parameters
a) Cross section Traffic way,carriage way, No of carriageways Minimum width or
median, shoulders, parking  no of lanes per lane
lane, roadside carriageway  maximum and

Width and cross slope minimum cross slope

Characteristics of
median
Characteristics of
shoulders/parking
lanes

b) Horizontal Horizontal curve and Number of curves Minimum radius and

alignment horizontal tangent Characteristics of length of circular curve
curves  minimum clearance

Length of curve Minimum length of

Available sight transition curve

distance
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN FEATURES,
PARAMETERS AND STANDARDS
Geometric Design features Design Design standards
element parameters
c) Vertical alignment  vertical curve  types, location and  min and max length
 vertical tangent length of curve of vertical curve
Length and grade of  max grade of vertical
tangent alignment
Available sight
distance

d) Intersection zone Intersection approach  number, length ad

diagram zone width of lanes on
Intersection area approach zone
 type of intersection
area
e) Superelevation Superlevation rate, Superelevation rate Maximum rate of
diagram Superelevation runoff  superelevation runoff superelevation
Tangent runoff length
 tangent runoff length
Geometric Design
 Geometric Design for transportation
facilities includes the design of
geometric cross section, horizontal
alignment, vertical alignment,
intersections, and various design
details.
goals of geometric design
 maximize the comfort
 safety,
 economy of facilities
 while maximizing their environmental
impacts
FUNDAMENTALS OF
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
 geometric cross section
 vertical alignment
 horizontal alignment
 super elevation
 intersections
 various design details.
 GEOMETRIC CROSS SECTION
The primary consideration in the design of cross sections is drainage.
Highway cross sections consist of traveled way, shoulders (or parking
lanes), and drainage channels.
Shoulders are intended primarily as a safety feature.
Shoulders provide:
accommodation of stopped vehicles
emergency use,
and lateral support of the pavement.
Shoulders may be either paved or unpaved.
Drainage channels may consist of ditches (usually grassed swales)
or of paved shoulders with berms of curbs and gutters.
 Austin, TX
N.W. Garrick April 2008
 5000 ft

I-95 East Lyme

 5000 ft

Autobahn 3 Aschaffenburg
 5000 ft

New York Thruway

 5000 ft

B
2

Merritt Parkway
1000 ft

Blue Ridge Parkway

A
1000 ft

Atlantic Ocean Road,

A Norway
PLS DON’T TRY THIS ON
YOUR PROJECT!!!!!
Importance of Geometric
Design
 Importance of Geometric Design
 The geometric design of a highway deals with the
dimensions and layout of visible features of the highway
such as alignment, sight distance and intersection.
Optimum efficiency- Maximum safety- Reasonable
cost
 The geometrics of highway should be designed to provide
optimum efficiency in traffic operations with maximum
safety at reasonable cost.

 The designer may be exposed to either planning of new

highway network or improvement of existing highways to
meet the requirements of the existing and anticipated traffic.
12500

PCU/
day

2500
2015 Year 2035
 Improving Geometric Elements in Stages

 Improving in stages is very difficult and more expensive

 Design geometric features at the initial stage itself

considering future traffic scenario

For example, in 2015 the road may be designed for 80

kmph. But the designer has to consider for 120 kmph as
the road may be upgraded in future. Accordingly Sight
distance, super-elevation etc are to be designed.
 Elements of Geometric Design of Highways
Width of
 Cross section elements Formation and
pavement
Surface
land characteristics
Cross slope of
pavement
SD available in horizontal curve
 Sight distance consideration SD available in Vertical curve
SD available at intersections
 Horizontal alignment details Super-elevation
Transition curves

 Vertical alignment
details

 Intersection
elements
DESIGN CONTROL CRITERIA
 Design Factors

 The geometric design of highways depends on several

design factors which control the geometric elements are:

Design Speed

Topography

Traffic
Factors
Design hourly volume and capacity

Environmental and other factors

Design
Speed
Most important factor

Decided based on overall requirement of

highway
In India depends on category of road design
speed assigned (NH/SH/MDR/ODR/VR)

Design speed varies with topography

Design
Speed
Every geometric elements depends on
speed
For example,
Pavement surface characteristics
Width & side clearance
Sight distance requirements
Radius of curve
Super-elevation
Summit or valley curve
Topography

Design Speed of NH/

SH
Plain 100 Kmph
Terrain

80 Kmph Rolling
Terrain

Mountainous 50 Kmph
Terrain
 Traffic
Factors
Different
vehicles have
different
characteristics
like height,
weight,
braking nature
etc.
Design Hourly Volume

Flow fluctuate with time

Off-peak versus Peak

Uneconomical to design for PH traffic

Reasonable traffic value called design hourly

volume
DHV for urban 8-10% ; for rural 12-18%
Environmental &
Others
Factors such as aesthetics, landscaping, noise
pollution and other local conditions should be
given due consideration in the design of road
geometrics
Grade-separated intersection for expressways
to achieve higher speed standards
 Technique for Horizontal and
Vertical Alignment
 Design of horizontal and vertical alignment
of a road consists of two major tasks
 Obtaining the values of design controls for
horizontal curves and tangents (requires the
use of the parameters of the quality of design)
 Involves the determination of the location type
and characteristics of horizontal curves
Horizontal Alignment

 Components of the
horizontal alignment.

 Properties of a simple
circular curve.
 Estimation of Control Values of
Horizontal Alignment Parameters
 Estimation of control values of horizontal
alignment parameters involves the estimation of
the threshold values of circular and transition
curves and horizontal tangents
 a) Danger of Skidding exist when:
V2 > e + fs, the value should not exceed 0.22
127 R
where: e = superelevation
V = speed (Kph)
fs = coefficient of side friction
R = radius of the curve (m)
 Horizontal Alignment

Tangents Curves
Tangents & Curves
Tangent

Curve

Tangent to
Circular Curve

Tangent to
Spiral Curve to
Circular Curve
Simple curve elements
Simple curve in full
superelevation
Compound curve
Geometric Design Standards

Road Classification Carriageway Width (m) Shoulder Width (m)

National Highways
i) Single lane 3.75 2 x 1.25
ii) Double Lane 7.00 2 x 0.9
Major District Roads and Other District Roads 3.75 2 x 0.5
Village Roads 3.00 2 x 0.5

90
Geometric Design Standards

91
Geometric Design Standards

92
Geometric Design Standards

93
Geometric Design Standards
 Reverse curves are needed in difficult terrain.
 It should be ensured that there is sufficient length between the
two curves for introduction of requisite transition curves.

94
Geometric Design Standards
 Curves in same direction separated by short tangents, known as broken
– back curves.
 Should be avoided, as far as possible, in the interest of aesthetics and
safety and replaced by a single curve.
 If this is not feasible, a tangent length corresponding to 10 seconds travel
time must at least be ensured between the two curves.

95
Geometric Design Standards
 Compound curves may be used in difficult topography but only when it is
impossible to fit in a single circular curve.
 To ensure safe and smooth transition from one curve to the other, the
radius of the flatter curve should not be disproportional to the radius of
the sharper curve.
 A ratio of 1.5:1 should be considered the limiting value.

96
Geometric Design Standards
 Set Back Distance
 Requisite sight distance should be available to sight the
inside of horizontal curves.
 Lack of visibility in the lateral direction may arise due to
obstruction like walls cut, slopes, wooded areas, high crops
etc.

97
Geometric Design Standards
 Vision Berm
 Where there is a cut slope on
the inside of the horizontal
curve, the average height of
sight line can be used as an
approximation for deciding
the extent of clearance.
 Cut slope shall be kept lower
than this height at the line
demarcating the set back
distance envelop, either by
cutting back the slope or
benching suitably, which is
also generally known as
vision berm.

98
Geometric Design Standards
 Vertical Alignment
 The vertical alignment of a hill road need to be adaptive by:
• Adopting mild vertical grades for reduced potential for erosion of
road bed.
• Designing vertical profile compatible with natural topography for
optimum and balanced cut-fill quantities hence generate less spoil.
• Keeping finished road level and fill slopes higher than the high flood level
(HFL).
• Avoiding interception with water table line which cause wet pavement
layers.
• Optimizing the cut height at landslide and rock fall prone areas.
• Ensure Easy Access to Properties.
• Ensure Safer Junction Design.

99
Geometric Design Standards
 Vertical Alignment
 Vertical curves are introduced for smooth transition at grade change.
 Both Summit curves and Valley curves should be designed as Square
parabola.
 The Length of vertical curves is controlled by sight distance requirements.
 Curves with greater length are aesthetically better.
 Recommended gradients for different terrain conditions, except at hair pin
bends, are given below:

Steep Terrain up
Mountainous Terrain and
Classification of to 3000 m above
Steep Terrain more than 3000 Mountainous Steep
Gradient MSL
m above MSL

Ruling Gradient 5% 6% 5% 6%
Limiting Gradient 6% 7% 6% 7%
Exceptional 7% 8% - -

100
Design of Hair-pin Bends
 At unavoidable circumstances Hair-pin Bends may be designed as
Circular Curve with Transitions or as Compound Circular curves.

Design Criteria for Hair-pin Bends As per IRC:SP:48-1998 and IRC:52- 2001

Description Criteria
Min Design Speed 20 Km/h
11.5m (Double lane)
NH/SH
9.0m (Single lane)
Min Roadway width at apex
MDR/ODR 7.5m
Village Roads 6.5m
Min radius for the inner curve 14 m
Min Length of transition Curve 15 m
Maximum 1 in 40 (2.5%)
Gradient
Minimum 1 in 200 (0.5%)
Max Super elevation 1 in 10 (10%)

Minimum Intervening distance between the successive hair pin bends 60m

101
Illustrations of Hair-pin Bends

102
Climbing Lane
 Climbing Lane shall be provided in order to address the necessity of
making available separate lane for safe overtaking for vehicle travelling
uphill.
 IRC:52-2001, IRC:SP:73-2015 and IRC:SP:84-2014 mandates for provision
of Climbing lanes but no warrants are provided.
 AASHTO provides the guidelines for the provision of Climbing lanes:
 Up Grade traffic flow rate in excess of 200 vehicles per hour.
 Up Grade truck flow rate in excess of 20 vehicles per hour.
 One of the following conditions exists:
• A 15 km/h [10 mph] or greater speed reduction is expected for a typical heavy truck.
• Level of Service ‘E’ or ‘F’ exists on the grade.
• A reduction of two or more levels of service is experienced when moving from the
approach segment to grade.
 In addition, safety considerations may justify the addition of a climbing lane
regardless of grade or traffic volumes.

103
Other Geometric Design Aspects
 Escape Lane
 Grade Compensation at Curves
 Passing Places
 Vertical and lateral Clearances
 Widening at Curves
 Co-ordination of Horizontal and Vertical
Alignments
Escape lane
 Tunnels

Passing Places Widening at Curves

104
Typical Section for Tunnels
 Typical Cross section for 3-lane Tunnel as per IRC SP 91-2010

105
DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL
ALIGNMENT

106
 Estimation of Control Values of Horizontal
Alignment Parameters

 b) Danger of Overturning
1) At low speeds, there is a likelihood of off-
tracking while at high speeds drivers generally
experience difficulty in steering their vehicles
and thus take the outer side of the beginning of
the curve
2) To reduce the effects of these, some extra
width of pavement often provided on curves
 Estimation of Control Values of
Horizontal Alignment Parameters
 Danger of Overturning
 The major requirements are to determine the
following:
 Minimum radius and length of curve
 Maximum rate of superelevation
 Minimum amount of widening
 Estimation of Control Values of
Horizontal Alignment Parameters
 Danger of Overturning
X
V2 > x + ye

y 127 R y – xe

Where: y & x = coordinates of

the center of gravity of the
e design vehicle (Y=1.5 and x =
1.2 m_
 Estimation of Control Values of Horizontal
Alignment Parameters

 Minimum Radius and Length of Curve

 The appropriate radius of a circular curves can
be considered to be one that prevent
overturning of heavy vehicles, ensures safety of
each vehicle and its occupants and satisfies the
sight distance requirement

Rdmin = Max (Rsr; Rso; Rsd )

 Rdmin = Max (Rsr; Rso; Rsd )
 Rdmin = minimum desirable radius of a circular
curve
 Rsr=radius which satisfies the skidding prevention
 Rso=radius which satisfies overturning of the trucks
on the curve
 Rsd=radius which satisfies sight distance
requirements
 Rdmin = Max (Rsr; Rso; Rsd )

Rdmin = minimum desirable radius of a circular curve

Rsr=radius which satisfies the skidding prevention
V2
Rsr = -------------------------------------
127 (emax + fsmax)

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AASHTO Values of Side Friction

Design 48 64 80 96 104 112 120 128

Speed (kph)

Side 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.11

Friction
 Rdmin = Max (Rsr; Rso; Rsd )

 Rdmin = minimum desirable radius of a circular

curve
 Rsr=radius which satisfies the skidding prevention
V2
 Rsr = --------------------
127 (emax +fsmax)

fsmax = 0.37 {0.0000214 *Vd2 - 0.0064Vd + 0.77}

 Rdmin = Max (Rsr; Rso; Rsd )

 Rdmin = minimum desirable radius of a circular

curve
 Rso=radius which satisfies overturning of the trucks
on the curve

V2 [y –xe]
Rso = ----------------------
127 [x +ye]
 Rdmin = Max (Rsr; Rso; Rsd )

 Rdmin = minimum desirable radius of a circular

curve
 Rsd=radius which satisfies sight distance
requirements
(SD)2
Rsd =--------------- SD = sight distance
8m m =distance from
curve obstruction
 Minimum Desirable Rate of
Superelevation

 Rsd

Line of sight obstruction sight distance

 Superelevation
 Banking or superlevation is necessary to
counteract the centrifugal force that is acting on
the vehicle

 The value of maximum superelevation, e, may

range from 6% to 12% depending on the terrain
of the area where the highway will traverse
 Superlevation

C
L
Kawazu-Nanadaru Loop
Viaduct/Bridge
 Minimum Desirable Rate of
Superelevation
 To ensure that a vehicle is traveling at the 99th
percentile speed on a curve if minimum radius will
experience an acceptable lateral acceleration

ed=
M
in
[
e;
V2
/
28
2
R
d
mi
n
]
m
a
x ma
x

ed
=
m
a
xm
ax
d
e
si
r
a
bl
ev
a
l
ue
o
f
s
u
pe
r
e
l
ev
a
t
io
n
r
a
te
 Minimum Desirable Amount of Extra
Widening on Circular Curve
 Extra widening is often needed on curve because:
1) vehicles occupy a greater width on curves
because their rear wheels generally track inside
front wheels in rounding a curve,
2) drivers generally experience difficulties in
steering their vehicle in the center of a lane
Extra Widening requirement
0.5nl2 0.105V
Wdmin=------------ + ----------
Rdmin (Rdmin)0.5

Extra widening Wdmin=desirable min amount of

widening
n= number of lanes
l =length of wheel base of the design
vehicles (m)
Rdmin =min desirable redius of curve
 Widening on Road Curves

Standard Widening of Curves

Radius Design Speed

(m) (kph)

40 50 60 70 80 100 120
50 1.75
80 1.50 1.50
100 1.25 1.25
125 1.0 1.25 1.25
150 1.0 1.25 1.25
180 1.0 1.25 1.25 1.25
200 0.75 1.0 1.0 1.0
250 0.75 0.75 1.0 1.0 1.25
300 0.75 0.75 1.0 1.0 1.0
400 0.50 0.75 0.75 0.75 1.0 1.0
500 0.50 0.50 0.75 0.75 1.0 1.0
600 0.50 0.50 0.75 0.75 1.0 1.0
800 0.50 0.50 0.75 0.75 1.0
1000 0.50 0.75 0.75 0.75
1200 0.50 0.75 0.75
1500 0.50 0.75
 Transition Curve
 A transition curve is sometimes needed to improve the
driver’s operation and comfort and make steering easier
and more accurate for a vehicle
 This is necessary because the centrifugal force which acts
on a vehicle as it enters a circular curve may result in a
lateral jerk (rate of change of centrifugal acceleration)
which can cause a discomfort to the driver and passengers
of the vehicle
 It is used to produce a smoother appearing transition that
is more accurate to the character of the alignment
 Transition Curve
 The most commonly used type of transition curve
is a spiral curve (clothoid) which is used to
enable a gradual introduction of the centrifugal
force (or slower rate of change of lateral
acceleration)
 It shall be designed between circular curves or
between straight alignment and circle when
radius of curvature is 750m or degree of curve >
1 to satisfy different condition of optic condition
and dynamic condition
 Optic Condition- the change in direction
(deflection) shall be > 3degrees expressed as
A = R/3 or Ls = R/9

The offset of the circular curve due to the transition curve

shall be > 0.50 m to present a satisfactory aspect in
perspective, expressed as:

Ls = 12R

Limit between these two conditions is R = 972m ; Ls =

108m
 Dynamic Condition
Ls > V [e +e’] where e’ =NC (normal crown), %

Superelevation Runoff Condition: Ls > SR (superelevation

runoff)

Adopt Ls > the length of corresponding to the most

constraining condition
 Minimum Desirable Length of Spiral
Curve (Ls)
 A) Rate of increase of centrifugal acceleration must be
constant and smaller than an established limit
V3 Ls= length of spiral curve

Ls =------------ V = speed, kph

RC c = rate of increase of centrifugal acceleration. Its

value varies between 1&3
 Minimum Desirable Length of
Spiral Curve (Ls)
 Criterion 1: Rate of increase of centrifugal acceleration and superelevation is incorporated (Lsc)
Lsc = 0.022 Vd
{
[
V2
/
R]–1
2
7
e}
dd
m
i
n d
ma
x

 Criterion 2: Length must be consider to enable the introduction of the designed superelevation
Lss = ed m ax*0.5 [
W +W e]/RS (ifpa ve ment i
s r
ota ted abou tthe cen ter
)

Lss = ed
m
a
x*
[
W+
We
]
/
RS(
i
f
pa
v
em
e
n
t
i
s
ro
t
at
e
da
b
ou
t
t
h
e i
n
ne
r
ed
g
e
)

 Where: Lsc, Lss = length of transition curve to fulfill rate of change of lateral acceleration and to fulfill
the rate of introduction of the designed superelevation requirements respectively
 RS allowable relative slope (0.2% for 1 lane, 0.5% for 2 lanes, 1% for 3 lanes and 2% for 4 lanes)
 edmax = m a xim um de si
rab l
e rate of s
u pe r
elev ati
on
 W and We = normal pavement width and the extra widening at the circular curve, respectively

Lsd
=
m
i
n M
A
X
(
L
s
c,
Ls
s) L
s
d
m
i
n=
mi
n
i
mu
md
e
s
i
r
a
bl
el
e
ng
t
ho
f
t
r
an
s
i
ti
o
ns
pi
r
a
l
 Superelevation Transition
Winter 2006
CEE 320
 FYI – NOT TESTABLE

Superelevation Transition
Winter 2006
CEE 320

from AASHTO’sA Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2001

CEE 320
Winter 2006

Superelevation Runoff/Runout
FYI – NOT TESTABLE

from AASHTO’sA Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2001

 FYI – NOT TESTABLE
New Graph
Superelevation Runoff - WSDOT
Winter 2006
CEE 320

from the 2005 WSDOTDesign Manual , M 22-01

 FYI – NOT TESTABLE

Spiral Curves

No Spiral

Spiral
Winter 2006
CEE 320

from AASHTO’sA Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2001

 FYI – NOT TESTABLE

No Spiral
Winter 2006
CEE 320
 Spiral Curves

• Involve complex geometry

• Require more surveying
• Are somewhat empirical
• If used, superelevation transition should occur
entirely within spiral
Winter 2006
CEE 320
 Desirable Spiral Lengths
Winter 2006
CEE 320

from AASHTO’sA Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2001

Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL

2% 2%
Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL

1.5% 2%
Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL

1% 2%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

0.5% CL 2%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL 2%
-0.0%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL
-0.5% 2%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL
-1% 2%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

-.5% 2%
CL
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL
-2% 2%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL
-3% 3%
 Super elevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL
-4%

4%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL
-3% 3%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL
-2% 2%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL
-1.5% 2%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL
-1% 2%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL
-0.5% 2%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL
-0.0% 2%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL
0.5% 2%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL
1% 2%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL
1.5% 2%
 Superelevation
Road Section View Road Plan View

CL
2% 2%
In actual design of a horizontal curve, the
engineer must select appropriate values of
e andfs .
 Super-elevation value ‘e’ is critical since
 high rates of super-elevation can cause vehicle
steering problems at exits on horizontal curves
 and in cold climates, ice on road ways can
reducefs and vehi
c l
e s arefo r
ced inward lyoff
the cu r
ve b yg r
avitationa lf
o rces.
 Values of e
‘ ’ and f‘ s
’
ca
nb
e
o
b
ta
i
n
ed
fr
o
m
AA SHT O s ta ndard s
.
Horizontal Curve Fundamentals
 For connecting straight tangent
sections of roadway with a curve,
several options are available.
 The most obvious is the simple curve,
which is just a standard curve with a
single, constant radius.
 Other options include;
 compound curve, which consists of two
or more simple curves in succession ,
 and spiral curves which are continuously
changing radius curves.
Basic Geometry

Horizontal
Tangent Tangent
Curve
Tangent Vs. Horizontal Curve

 Predicting speeds for tangent and

horizontal segments is different
 May actually be easier to predict
speeds on curves than tangents
 Speeds on curves are restricted to a few
well defined variables (e.g. radius,
superelevation)
 Speeds on tangents are not as restricted by
design variables (e.g. driver attitude)
Elements of Horizontal Curves
PI

E
T
L M 


PC PT

R R


   
Stopping Sight Distance and
Horizontal Curve Design
SSD

Ms

Sight
Obstructio
Highway n
Rv
Centerline Critical
inside lane
s
170
171
172
 Source:CalTrans Design Manual online, http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/hdm/
pdf/chp0200.pdf

173
Same as point E of GB

174
Source: Iowa DOT Standard Road
Plans
 Same as point E of GB
With Spirals

175
Source: Iowa DOT Standard Road Plans RP-2
 With Spirals

Tangent runout (A to B)

176
With Spirals

Removal of crown

177
With Spirals

Transition of
superelevation
Full superelevation

178
179
 Selection of a type of
horizontal curve
 Is a transition curve needed?
 Does a simple curve fit the site condition?
 If not, what is the most appropriate
compound curve that fits the site
conditions?
 Selection of a type of
horizontal curve
 To answer the questions, a designer needs to know
the threshold values of circular and transition
curves
Step 1: Compare Rdmin with Vd3/432: if Rdmin is less,
then transition spirals are required, otherwise, only
a circular curve is required.
Step 2: Compare the value of angle of transition curve
with the total deviation angle (angle between the
two intersecting straights). If the angle of transition
is equal to half of deviation angle, then transition
curves can be used throughout. Otherwise, a
combination of circular and transition curve is
required
 Selection of a type of
horizontal curve
 To answer the questions, a designer needs to know
the threshold values of circular and transition
curves
Step 3: Check whether the curve obtained through steps
1 and 2 is compatible with the site conditions. If
yes, use the curve. If not, select a suitable
compound curve. Two criteria must be satisfied.
1) minimum radius of the compound curve must not
be less than the minimum desirable radius
2) adequacy of the curve selected must be checked
using this figure:
 Selection of a type of
horizontal curve
 After selecting the appropriate type of horizontal
curve, TL12, the length of hor tangent between
two curves must be check to ensure that it is
greater than the critical length of tangent which is
given as
 CTL = MAX [{10R10.5}; 2Vd]
CTL = critical tangent length and R1 is the radius of the larger
curves (consider the max radius)
If TL12 is less than CTL, a compound curve must be used to
replace the curves 1 and 2
 Sample Problem
 The design speed of a highway is 80 kph. However, due to economic
and other reasons, a horizontal curve of radius of 200m is on the
highway. Can this speed be safely maintained on the road? If not, what
should be done?
Solution:
Step 1) Estimate the actual value of superelevation on
the horizontal curve. Assuming that emax =0.07.
Using the eqn of edmax = MIN [0.07;
(80)2/282*200]
e = 0.113
edmax = 0.07 (not safe)
Solution:
Step 2) Compare the friction demand and maximum available friction
Based from the friction demand (fd)= [(80)2 / 127 * 200] – 0.07 = 0.18
fsmax =0.37{0.0000214 * Vd2 – 0.0064 Vd + 0.77}
= 0.37{0.000214 * (80)2 – 0.0064 (80) + 0.77}
= 0.146
Since fd > fsmax; 80 kph is not safe speed on the curve
The maximum desirable speed is given as {127*200 (0.07 + 0.146)}2 = 74 kph
Thus, the speed on the curve should be restricted to 74 kph through use of signs
and markings
 Sample 2
 A truck with a center of gravity at x=1.2m and y=1.5m is
expected to travel on a circular curve. The design speed on
the curve is 80 kph and the minimum desirable sight
distance is 150m. In addition, the expected distance of the
obstruction from the road center line is 10m. Determine the
minimum desirable values of the curve parameters.
 Solution
 Step 1) Checking of skidding condition
(80)2/127Rsr = e + fsmax
since it is generally recommended that emax + fsmax
should not be greater than 0.22.

(6400)/127Rsr = 0.22
Rsr = 230 m
 Step 2) Check condition of stability
against overturning

V2/127Rso = [x+ye]/[y-xe]
X V=80
e=emax: 6400/127Rso = [x+ye]/[y-xe]
y = [1.2+(1.5*0.07)]/[1.5-(1.2*0.07)]
= 0.92
Thus, Rso =6400/(127*0.92)
e Rso =55m

V2 > x + ye
127 R y – xe
 Step 3: Check Sight Distance
condition

Rsd = (SD)2/8m
Rsd = (150)2 / (8*10)= 280m

Step 4: Estimate the minimum desirable value of radius

Considering all the conditions:
Rdm
=
i
n M
A
X
[
2
80
,
23
0,
55
]

Therefore, Rdmin = 280m

 Step 5: Estimate the minimum desirable
maximum rate of superelevation

 Assume em
=
0
a
x.
0
7

edm
=
MI
N[
0
.
07
;
V2
/
28
2
*
R
d
mi
n
]
a
x
edm = M I
N [0.
0 7; (
80 2
) /28 2(28 0)]
a
x
= MIN [0.07; 0.081]
edm a
x = 0.
07 V2 > x + ye
Checking adequacy of results: 127 R y – xe
There will be no problem of overturning if That is
[6400/127*280] =0.18
This is less than [1.2+(1.5*0.07)/[1.5-(1.2*0.07)] = 0.92
Therefore the combination of R=280 and e=0.07 is OK!
 Technique for Design of
Vertical Alignment
The vertical alignment of a road consist of tangent grades
connected with parabolic vertical curves (Crest or sag
curves).Vertical alignment is the profile view of the
centerline of the road consisting of tangent grades
connected by vertical curves
 Vertical Curves
 Vertical Curves can be circular or parabolic
curves. Parabolic curves are preferred by
many agencies because they provide a
constant rate of curvature
 Maximum and Minimum Length of a
Symmetrical Crest Vertical Curve
 Maximum and Minimum Length of
Symmetrical Sag Vertical Curve
 Gradient or Grade
 Gradient is the rate of rise and fall on any length of
road with respect to the horizontal.

 The gradient and length of tangent depend

generally on the terrain and the design speed.

 In general, maximum grade is considered to be

10-12% for a length of tangent of 150m.
 Control Grades for Design
Level Rolling Mountainous
Freeway/ 3-4% 4-5% 5-6%
Xpressway
Rural Arterials 3-5% 4-6% 5-8%
Urban Arterials 5-8% 6-9% 8-11%

Collector/ 4-7% (rural) 5-10% (rural) 6-12% (rural)

Secondary 5-9% (urban) 6-12% (urban) 7-14% (urban)
Local or Minor 5-8% 6-11% 10-16%
Street
 Min and Max Length of a
Symmetrical Crest Curve
Vcldmin = Max {Lsd;Lc;La}

Vcldmin=min desirable length of crest vertical curve

Lsd=length of curve to satisfy the sight distance
requirement
Lc=length of curve to satisfy the comfort requirement
La=length of curve to satisfy appearance requirement
 Min and Max Length of a
Symmetrical Crest Curve

SD2A where: A=algebraic difference in grades

Lsd =-------------------------- A=G1
-
G
2
(a+b+2c0.5+b0.5)200 a=eye height above the road
surface
b=object height above the road surface

Lc =[V2A]/389
Based fro AASHTO
La = 2V
Vcldmin=51A, A is in %
 Min and Max Length of a
Symmetrical Sag Curve
 For sag curves, the main sight distance criterion to be
satisfied is night visibility

Vsldmin=Max[Lnv;Lc;La]

Vsldmin=min desirable length of sag vertical curve

SD2A Lnv=min length of sag curve to satisfy night
Lnv=----------------------- visibility
[2h+2SDtanθ]100 h=height of headlight above the surface
(assume to be 0.6m)
θ=beam angle, 1 degree
 Min and Max Length of a
Symmetrical Sag Curve

Lc = [V2A]/389

La = 2V
Design Controls for Crest Vertical
Curves

from AASHTO’sA Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2001

 Curves
Design Controls for Crest Vertical

from AASHTO’sA Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2001

 Sag Vertical Curves
Light Beam Distance (SSD)

G1
headlight beam (diverging from LOS by β degrees) G2

PVC PVT

h1 PVI
h2
=
0

L
For SSD < L For SSD > L
2


A  SSD  200  h1   SSD  tan 
L L  2  SSD  
200  h1  S tan   A
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT DESIGN
Combination of Horizontal Alignment and Vertical
Alignment
• The combination of horizontal
and vertical alignment is the
final check of design and
belongs to one of the most
difficult procedure in geometric
design

• Harmony of geometric
alignment

• Design should satisfy safety

running, visual and
psychological comfortableness.

• Economical and less negative

impact in environment
Combination of Horizontal Alignment and Vertical
Alignment
Route Determination of Determination of
Location Horizontal Vertical Alignment
Alignment

Combination of
Horizontal and Vertical
Alignment
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT DESIGN

Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

Good design Bad design

Plan Plan

Profile Profile
Comment: A very satisfactory appearance Comment: This combination is
results when vertical and horizontal curves dangerous as the reverse curvature of
coincide. Keep vertical curve within the alignment is obscured from the
horizontal curve
driver’s view by the crest.
Plan Plan Road Intersection

Profile Profile
Comment: Ideal coordination between HA & Comment: The summit vertical curve
VA, vertices of curves coinciding, creating a restricts the driver’s view of the level
rich combination crossing (or road intersection, start of a
horizontal curve or other hazard) and
produces a dangerous situation
GEOMETRIC ELEMENT
DESIGN
Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

Good design Bad design

Plan Plan
Obstructio
n
Bridge
Profile

Profile
Comment: This situation always look
Comment: This is the most effective bad. It is much better to begin the
way to display a bridge. Bridge is detour before the driver is aware of the
visible to the driver. reason for it.
 General Idea of Design:
 HA & VA should be
superimposed; keep vertical
curve within horizontal curve.
 Keep the balance of VA & HA

RH(m) RVm=100[LVC/g2-g1),%] RHm RVm=100[LVC/g2-g1)%]

500 10000 1000 10000
700 12000 1100 30000
800 16000 1200 40000
900 20000
 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR
CROSS SECTION DESIGN
 CROSS SECTION IS THE VERTICAL PLANE (SECTION)
PERPENDICULAR TO THE LINEAR DIRECTION OF THE
ROAD

 CROSS SECTION DESIGN INVOLVES TWO MAIN TASKS

 USE THE VALUES OF THE QUALITY OF DESIGN TO ESTIMATE THE

CONTROL VALUES OF ROADWAY AND ROADSIDE DESIGN
PARAMETERS
 JUDGEMENT ON THE BASIS OF TERRAIN CONDITION, COST, ETC
 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR
CROSS SECTION DESIGN
 Built up areas: cross section consists of
basically different types of traffic ways,
parking spaces and medians. The set of
traffic ways for vehicles is known as
carriageway; the combination of
carriageways, parking spaces and medians
is a roadway MEDIAN

CARRIAGEWAY
 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR
CROSS SECTION DESIGN
 FOR ROADS OUTSIDE THE BUILT UP AREAS:
CROSS SECTION CONSISTS OF ROADWAY
(WITH ONE OR MORE CARRIAGEWAYS) AND
A ROADSIDE
 FOR INTERSECTIONS, CROSS SECTION
GENERALLY CONSISTS OF OPEN SPACES
AND TRAFFIC
 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR
CROSS SECTION DESIGN

 Cross Section Design involves the

determination of the following:
 Appropriate type of cross section
 Appropriate configuration of the type of
cross section
 Appropriate dimensions of each of the
elements of the configiration
 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR
CROSS SECTION DESIGN
 Estimation of Control Values of Design Parameters
a) Width of lane,W = Wv
+
S+
mS
f
W=
v w idtho fdesign v
ehicle(m)
Sm= spa ce r
e q’
d f
or l
ateralm o
vem e
n
t
s
(
m)
= 0.15-0.30 @ V=30 kph
= 0.25-0.40@ V=50 kph
= 0.40-0.50@V=70 kph or above

Sf= space req’d due to fear of sidewalk or object (trees, parked veh, etc)
= 0.25-0.40 for sidewalk; 0.50-0.60 for objects @ V = 30 kph
= 0.35-0.50 for sidewalk; 0.70-0.80 for objects @ V = 50 kph
= 0.50-0.60 for sidewalk; 0.90-1.0 m of robjects @ V = 70 kph
 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR
CROSS SECTION DESIGN
 Estimation of Control Values of Design Parameters
 For Built Up Areas
 W = (Vd/80) + 2

 Width of a bicycle lane

 Wbc = [2=3a] / 4 a=design number of bicycles riding side
by side
= 2<a< 4

 For other type of conveyor (road)

Wsc = Wv + 0.50 Wsc =minimum desirable width of special conveyor
Wv =width of special conveyor
 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR
CROSS SECTION DESIGN
 Minimum Width of Safety Enhancement Places (Shoulders
and Parking Lanes)
 The minimum desirable width of a safety enhancement place
depends on whether the place is designated to be used as a
shoulder or a parking lane. In the case of a shoulder the usable
width is usually between 0.6 and 3.6m-depending on the class of
road and traffic volume.
 The usable width of a shoulder can be determined as:

 Ws = minimum desirable useable width o shoulder (m)

 Wv = width of design vehicle (m)
 Cw = clearance (usually between 0 and 1.5)

In parallel parking, the minimum and desirable width are 3.0 and 3.6m
respectively
 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR
CROSS SECTION DESIGN
 Minimum Desirable Number of Traffic Lanes for each Category of
Conveyors

 The desirable number of traffic lanes for each designated category

of conveyors is dependent on the design entry flow rate and design
service flow rate and can be estimated as:

Ndmin = DDFR/DSFR
Ndmin = desirable minimum number of lanes
DDFR = design demand flow rate in pcph (per car per hour)
DSFR = design service flow rate (pcph per traffic lane)
 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR
CROSS SECTION DESIGN
 Minimum Desirable Number of Traffic Lanes for each Category of Conveyors

DDFR = [AADT*EK*PF*DD]/ PHF

AADT = forecast average annual daily traffic
EK = percent of AADT during the peak hour
= 0.12-0.20 for rural routes
= 0.07 – 0.12 for urban routes
PF = proportion of conveyor category in a peak period traffic stream
DD = directional distribution factor = proportion of traffic of road which moves
in the major direction
PHF = peak hour factor
 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR
CROSS SECTION DESIGN
 Minimum Width of Median
 The minimum width of a median or center reserve, when necessary, can be between
2m up and 30 m depending on the available right of way. The minimum desirable
width depends on the purpose of the median.

 A median may be designed for safety purposes in terms of (1) preventing accidents
caused by crossover traffic, headlight glare distraction and traffic turning left from
through lanes, (2) provide refuge for pedestrians crossing the highway
 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR
CROSS SECTION DESIGN

• Cross Slope or Camber of lanes or Crossfall – slope provided to the surface of

a lane in the transverse direction to drain off water from the surface.

Range of camber in Areas of

Rainfall Range
Types of Surface
Heavy To Light

Cement Concrete & High Type Bituminous surface 2.0% To 1.70%

Thin Bituminous Surface 2.5% To 2.0%
Water Bound Macadam, and gravel Pavement 3.0% To 2.5%
Earth Surface 4.0% To 3.0%
 Roadside Slopes
Shoulder Carriageway Shoulder
Cut Slope

1
S

Fill Slope Shoulder Carriageway Shoulder

1
S

 Main design parameters for the roadside slope

 Roadside slopes (embankment or cut) – the alternatives are either to

select a steep slope near the roadway and shield it with a traffic barrier
or select a flat slope
 Drainage ditches – this will base from the slope of the drainage
Highway Geometric Design Process
Survey Major Site Characteristics
Specify Design Standards
• Topography
• Local agency,
• Ground/soil conditions
• Functional Design
• Hydrologic conditions
• Environmental conditions/impacts
(Design Speed, cross sectional features, • Habitat
superelevation)
• Existing/zoned land use
 Specify Design Standards Survey Major Site Characteristics
 Local Agency  Topography
 Functional classification  Ground/soil condition
 Hydrologic condition
(Ex. Design speed, cross sectional,  Environmental condition
superelevation)  Existing/zoned land use

Specify Major Design Controls

 Design vehicl
 Design speed
 Volume/capacity/LOS
 Horizontal controls(radius, superelevation)
&Vertical controls (grades, intersection)
 Cross section controls/elements
 Earthwork controls (excavation,
embankments)
Highway
Select Route
Geometric Design  Identify alternate routes
 Sketch horizontal and vertical alignments
Process  Screen routes and select those for preliminary
design

Modificati

Conduct (Preliminary) Design ons?
Horizontal Alignment
 Vertical Alignment
 Cross sections
 Drainage features
 Earthwork
 Environmental impacts

Evaluate Design
 Costs (project costs, user costs)
 Environmental impacts

Detailed Design
Existing ground Propose road
surface surface
 Types of Road
Intersection
 The type of intersection may be divided
intro 3 categories. One is from its shape,
and one is from its structural type and
another is from its operational type.
 Shape
 Three-leg intersection

T-type Y-type
 Four Leg intersection

Right Angle Oblique

 Multi leg intersection
 Rotary intersection (Roundabout)
Structural Type of Intersection
 Intersection at Grade: two or more
roads intersection or join at the same
level
 Grade separated intersection: when one
highway crosses another at grade, the
capacity is reduced
 Structures with interchange
 Structures without intechange
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Traffic Forecasting/Traffic Design
Data

Geometric Design Pavement Design

• number of lanes • type of pavement
•width of lanes •thickness of subgrade,
•design speed subbase, base courses
•thickness of pavement
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS

Traffic Information
* use for structural design purposes
* basis for traffic demand forecasting
* traffic volume estimation

Traffic loading information may be obtained from

the following sources:
* Tabulated average 80 Kn equivalent Single Axle Load per Lane
* Traffic survey (visual or traffic counting)
* Transportation planning models (trip generation models)
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Traffic loading information may be obtained from
the following sources:
* Tabulated average 80 Kn equivalent Single Axle Load per Lane
Traffic Class Cumulative Equivalent Traffic Description
(E80/lane)
1 (Feeder Roads) <0.20 x 106 Very light trafficked, very few
heavy vehicles
2 (Collector Roads) 0.2 – 0.8 x 106 Lightly trafficked roads, light
delivery and agricultural
vehicles, very few heavy
vehicles
3 (Major Collector Roads) 0.8 - 3 x 106 Medium volume of traffic; few
heavy vehicles
4 (Highway) 3 - 12 x 106 High volume of traffic and/or
many heavy vehicles
5 (Expressway) 12 - 50 x 106 Very high volume of traffic and/
or high proportion of fully laden
heavy vehicles
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Traffic forecasting
* forecasting of average daily traffic can be projected using a
growth factor (urban area is 20% and rural area 5%)
Formula for traffic forecasting :

Pn = Pi (1 + r ) n
where: Pn =projected number of traffic
Pi = initial average daily traffic
r = growth rate
n = number of projected years
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN
 STANDARDS
Sample problem: Traffic Forecasting
Determine the possible number of average vehicle per day of a
rural road if the initial average daily traffic is 200, locality growth
rate is 6% and design years is 5 years.

Sol’n:
Working Formula: Pn = Pi (1 + r )n
Given: Pi = 200 ADT, r = 6% and n = 5

Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 1 =212

Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 2 =224.72~225

Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 3 =238.20

Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 4 =252.50

Pn = 200 (1 + 0.06) 5 =267.65~268

 GEOMETRIC DESIGN
STANDARDS
Safety
* optimizing by linking geometric elements to design speed
* design standards must take into account the environmental road
conditions, traffic characteristics and drivers behavior
* potential collision risk

Design Speed
* design varies with different terrain
* provide appropriate consistency between geometric elements
* mountainous and rolling areas speed limits as low as 40 kph
* review of design speed to ensure that they relate to current
circumstances
 Transportation System Description:
Networks and Data
 Study Area
 Delineation of the study area
 Subdivision of the study area into zones
 Definition of zone centroids

Propose road
 Transportation System Description:
Networks and Data

 Transportation models are being used

to make prediction and forecasts of
future changes in usage of traffic
facilities for sake of facility design,
control and operation.
 Travel Choice Model System

 Trip Generation Model

 Trip Distribution Model
 Modal Choice Model
 Route Choice
 Zonal
Data Trip Production
Trip frequency choice
Trip Attraction

Transport Trip Distribution destination choice

Networks
Modal Split modal choice

Travel
Period of day Time choice
Resistances

Assignment route choice

Network loads,
travel times, etc