1

Transportation Engineering I

Buddhi Raj Joshi

Associate Professor, School of Engineering, PoU
PhD Scholar, JSPS Ronpaku, Ehime University, Japan
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Chapter 3: Geometric Design

Highway geometric design refers to
the calculations and analysis made by
designers to fit the highway to the
topography of the site while meeting
the safety, service and performance
standards. Elements of the highways
that are visible to the drivers and road-
users are called geometric elements.
However, the engineer must also take
into consideration the social and
environmental impacts of the highway
geometry on the surrounding facilities.
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Sources:
https://infycons.com/autoroads/
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Objectives:
 Determine the routing of proposed highway, within the
allowance permitted by the design standard and right-of-
way.
 Incorporate various physical features of the road
alignment to ensure that drivers have sufficient view of
the road (and obstacles) ahead from them to adjust their
speed of travel to maintain safety and ride quality within
the design standard.
 Provide a basis for the highway engineers to evaluate and
plan for the construction of a section of the proposed
highway.
 Provide aesthetic vale of the road including sustainability
aspect consideration.
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Elements:
Geometric Design of Highways deals
with the following elements:
Cross section elements
Sight distance considerations
Horizontal alignment details
Vertical alignment details
Intersection elements
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Design control and criteria:
7

Major factors which control the

Geometric elements are :
 Nature of terrain
 Functional classification of the road
 Design traffic volume and composition
 Traffic capacity
 Design speed
 Density and character of adjoining land use
 Economic & Environmental Considerations
 Road users’ characteristics
 Vehicle size and performance
 Safety
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Terrain Classification:
The location and geometric design elements
such as gradients, sight distance, cross-sections,
radius of curvature, speeds, etc. of a highway are
affected by topography, physical features, and
land use.
Class Terrain type Percent Cross-slope

1 Plain 0 to 10
2 Rolling >10 to 25
3 Hilly/Mountainous >25 to 60
4 Steep >60
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Terrain Classification:

6m
Mountainous terrain

2.5 m
Rolling Terrain

1m
Plain Terrain

10 m
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Functional Classification of road:

The first step in the design process is to define the
function that the road facility is to serve. The level
of service required to be fulfilled by the road for
the anticipated volume and composition of traffic
used as a guide for classification. It provides a
rational and cost-effective basis for the selection
of design speed and geometric criteria within the
range of values available to the designer (for the
specified functional classification).
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Functional Classification of road:

Roads generally serve a multitude of
purposes:
As through route - for long distance traffic
As local route – for local traffic
In urban and rural areas –urban
roads/rural roads
For fast and slow vehicles – 2 wheels to
10+ wheels
As servicing/access roads
For use by pedestrians
For parking areas
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Design traffic volume and composition:

 Traffic Data: Traffic data indicates the service for
which the road is being planned and directly
affects the geometric elements such as width,
alignment, etc.
 Traffic volume – AADT, ADT
 Directional distribution – the percentage of traffic
volume flowing in each direction
 Traffic composition – the percentage of different
types of vehicles in the traffic stream – different
types of vehicles are converted into passenger car
unit (PCU) to design a road width
 Traffic projection – using the design period of a
road (5-20 years)a reliable traffic projection should
be made considering the following elements
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Design traffic volume and composition:

 Current traffic – currently using the existing road
 Normal traffic growth – anticipated growth due to
population growth
 Diverted traffic – traffic that switches to a new facility
from nearby roads
 Converted traffic – traffic resulting from changes of
mode
 Change of destination traffic – traffic that has changed
to different destination due to new or improved
transport and not changes in land use
 Development traffic – traffic due to improvement on
adjacent land development that would have taken place
had the new or improved road not been constructed
 Induced traffic – traffic that did not previously exist in a
any form but results when new or improved transport
facilities are provided
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Traffic Capacity:
The maximum traffic flow occurs when the speed
falls to nearly a half of the free-flow speed. Hence it
is not desirable to design the road facility for
maximum capacity conditions.
Factors affecting traffic capacity include:
Roadway factors – geometric characteristics such
as number of lanes, lane width, shoulder width,
horizontal and vertical alignments, lateral and
vertical clearances, design speed, pavement
surface conditions etc.
Traffic factors – composition of traffic, lane
distribution, variation in traffic flow, traffic
interruptions, etc.
Traffic control conditions – traffic signs,
traffic signals, traffic regulation
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Traffic Capacity:
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Design Speed:
Definition: A design speed is a selected speed used to
determine the various geometric design features of the
roadway.
Design speed is the maximum safe speed selected for
designing specific section of road considering the
terrain, land use, classification of the road
The speed that a driver adopts on a road depends on:
Physical characteristics of the road and its
surroundings
Weather conditions in the area
Presence of other vehicles and the nature of these
vehicles, and
Speed limitations placed upon the vehicles either by
law or by mechanical devices fitted in vehicles
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Design Speed:
Highway type Terrain Design speed,
Kmph
National highway Level 120
Rolling 80
Mountainous 50
Steep 40
Feeder Road Level 100
Rolling 60
Mountainous 40
Steep 30
Density and character
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of adjoining land
use:
HH and population who uses the vehicle and mode of
transportation from the surrounding land area.
Economical and Environmental
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Consideration:
Economical: Highway economics is concerned
with the cost of a proposed improvement and
the benefits resulting from it. Final design
decisions on the proposed projects are
supported by the total economic analysis.
Environmental: It is essential that the
highway be considered as an element of the
total environment. The term “environment,”
as used here refers to the totality of
humankind’s surroundings: social, physical,
natural, and aesthetic. It includes the human,
animal, and plant communities and the forces
that act on all three.
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Road user characteristics:

Pedestrian considerations :
 Walking speed
 Walkway capacities
 Level of Service of pedestrian walkways
 Pedestrian at intersections
 Consideration of disabled persons

Bicycle Facility :
 Safety for bicycle users,
 Types of carriageway for bicycle-way,
 Bicycle-safe drainage grades
 Adjusting manhole covers to the grade
 Maintaining a smooth, clean riding surface
Vehicle size and performance:
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The vehicle characteristics affecting the road

design are as:
 Width of the vehicle: width of traffic lane,
width of shoulder, width of parking space;
 The height of vehicle: clearance to be
provided to overhead structures ;
 Overall length of vehicle: design of
horizontal curves, valley curves, safety
regulations;
 Vehicle loads: bridge design, pavement
thickness, design of ruling gradients
 Vehicle speed: Super-elevation, limiting
radius, sight distances, width of pavement on
straights and curves, width of shoulder,
intersection design, traffic capacity of a lane.
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Design Vehicles:
Dimensions Vehicle type Maximum dimensions, m
Width All 2.5
Height Single decked vehicle 3.8 – 4.2
Double decked vehicle 4.75
Length Single unit with two axle 11.00
Single unit with more than 12.00
two axle
Tractor semi-trailer 16.00
combination
Tractor Trailer 18.00
combination
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Weight of the vehicles:

IRC suggests that single axle load
should not exceed 10.2 tonnes (102
kN) and for tandem axle 18 tonnes
(180 kN). The gross load of any
vehicle or combination of vehicles
should not exceed the weight worked
out by the following formula: 2
W 1525( L  7.3)  14.7 L

Where, W is the gross weight of the

vehicle in kg, L is the distance
between the extreme axles in m.
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Safety:
Road traffic safety refers to the methods
and measures used to prevent road
users from being killed or seriously
injured. ... The third level is about reducing
the crash risk which involves applying the
road-design standards and guidelines (such
as from AASHTO), improving driver behavior
and enforcement.
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Elements of Geometric Design:

1.Elements of cross section
• Typical Cross Section of highway(urban and hill roads)*
• Pavement surface & characteristics
• Traffic lane, carriageway, shoulder
• Camber*
• Extra widening of pavement*
• Super elevation*
2.Elements of horizontal alignment
• Tangents*
• Turning angle
• Horizontal curvature*
• Transition curve*
3. Sight distances
• SSD, OSD*
• Setback requirement*
4. Element of vertical alignment
• Gradient*
• Grade compensation*
• Vertical curves*
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Typical cross sections of highway

CL

Road way

Shoulder Shoulder
Carriage way
Camber
Side slope
Formation Width

Bed Width

Side drain

CL

Road boundary
Road way

Building line
Control line
Road boundary
Building line
Control line

Shoulder
Carriage way

Side slope
Formation Width

Bed Width
Side drain

Right of Way
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CL

Road way

Shoulder Shoulder
Carriage way
1:n 1:m

Side drain

Street lighting

Road side
CL
plantation

Foot path
15cm Carriage way
Side drain

Kerb stone
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Typical cross sections of highway (Urban):

Arterial roads (Path): These roads generally
are spaced at less than 1.5 km in highly
developed central business district (CBD) and
at 8 km or more in sparsely developed urban
fringes.
Sub-arterials roads (Sadak): There spacing
varies from about 0.5 km in CBD to 3.5 km to
5 km in the suburban fringe
Collector roads (Marg): Located in residential
neighborhoods, business areas and industrial
areas
Local roads (Upa-Marg): Local road may be
residential, commercial or industrial,
depending upon the prominent use of the
adjoining land
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Arterial roads (Path):

 Sub-arterial roads
30

(Sadak):
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Arterial roads (Path):

 Sub-arterials roads
32

(Sadak):
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Collector roads (Marg):

Local roads (Upa-Marg):

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Hill Roads:
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Hill Roads:
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Cross Section Elements:
Pavement Surface & Characteristics:
Important surface characteristics of
pavements are friction, unevenness, light
reflecting characteristics and drainage of
surface.
Friction: Friction between vehicle tyre
and pavement surface affect the
operating speed and distance required in
stopping and accelerating the vehicle.
When a vehicle negotiates the horizontal
curve, the lateral friction developed
counteracts the centrifugal force and thus
governs the safe operating speed.
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For the calculation of stopping sight

distances, NRS recommends
coefficient of friction as: 0.42 at
the speed of 20 km/h and 0.28
at the speed of 120 km/h.
Coefficient of side friction for the
super-elevation is taken as 0.17
and 0.12 for the speed of 30
km/h and 120 km/h
respectively.The ranges of
coefficients are distributed
uniformly for other values of speed.
Pavement unevenness:
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Pavement unevenness affects vehicle operation

cost, comfort, safety, wear and tear of tyres, and
other moving parts.
Pavement unevenness is measured in terms of
unevenness index, which is cumulative measure
of vertical undulations of the pavement surface
recorded per unit horizontal length (mm/km). An
unevenness index value less than 1500
mm/km is considered as good, a value
less than 2500 mm/km is satisfactory
up to speed of 100 Kmph and values
greater than 3200 mm/km is
considered as uncomfortable even for
55 Kmph.
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Light reflecting characteristics:

Light reflecting characteristics of the
pavement surface increase the night
visibility. The glare caused by the reflection
of head light considerably high on wet
pavement surface than dry surface.
 White roads have good visibility at night, but
caused glare during daytime
 Black roads has no glare during day, but has
poor visibility at night
 Concrete roads has better visibility and less
glare
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Carriage way width and number of lane:

Width of the carriage way or the width of the
pavement depends on the width of the traffic
lane and number of lanes. Width of a traffic lane
depends on the width of the vehicle and the
clearance. Side clearance improves operating
speed and safety. The maximum permissible
width of a vehicle is 2.44 and the desirable side
clearance for single lane traffic is 0.68 m. This
requires minimum of lane width of 3.75 m for a
single lane road. However, the side clearance
required is about 0.53 m, on both side and
1.06 m in the center. Therefore, a two-lane
road requires minimum of 3.5 meter for each
lane.
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According to NRS:
Width of carriage way ,m
Single lane Intermediate Two Multilane
lane lanes carriage
way
(width
per lane)
3.8/3.5 5.5
(5.0-6.0) 7.0 3.5
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Number of Lane:
Number of traffic lane is the function of Design
hourly volume and the capacity of the traffic lane.
Number of traffic lane can be found by using the
formula below:

N
n  ......................................( I )
C
1000V
C ...............................( II )
S
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Where, N is the design hourly traffic volume,

Veh/hr; C is the traffic capacity of a single lane; V
is design speed Kmph; S is the average spacing of
vehicles in m (s=V*tr+6.1)m.
Similarly, carriage way width can be calculated by
using the following relationship. It is that strip of
road which is considered for the movement of
vehicular traffic.

Where, Tw is width of traffic lane; n is the number

of traffic lane.

Cw Tw n......................................( III )

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Road Margin:
Shoulder: Shoulder is the portion of
roadway on either side of the
carriage way which is periodically
used for overtaking, parking or
repairing vehicles, fixing traffic
sign and signal, stacking
construction material. Well
maintained shoulder increases the
lifetime of pavement.
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Shoulder:
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Type of carriage way Total shoulder width; m

(both side included)
Two and four lanes 4.0 to 6.0
(black topped)

Single lane (surface 4.0 to 5.0

dressed)

Single lane (gravelled 3.0 to 5.0

surface)
Note: Lateral slops on shoulder 5% for gravel and 8% for turf.
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Median Strip: For more than 4 lane road-It

is the grassy or paved area that divides a
highway so that traffic going in one direction is
kept separate from traffic going in the opposite
direction. The glare from the opposing vehicle
can also be prevented from the median strip.
Width=3m-5m (1.2-1.5 for bridges).
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Cycle tracks: Cycle tracks are provided in

urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic on
the road is very high. Minimum width for cycle
track should be kept 2 m and it may be
increased by 1 m for each additional cycle
lane.
Footpaths or sidewalks: These are
exclusive "Right of Way" to pedestrians,
especially in urban areas. They are provided for
the safety of the pedestrians when both the
pedestrian traffic and vehicular traffic is high.
Minimum width is 1.5 meter and may be
increased based on the traffic. The footpath
should be either as smooth as the pavement or
smoother than that to induce the pedestrian to
use the footpath.
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NRS recommendation for sidewalk: In

urban areas, the sidewalk should be
provided as per the number of pedestrians
estimated for future. Usually, a 60 cm
width should be provided for a
pedestrian density of 30
pedestrian /min, subject to a minimum
sidewalk of 2.5 m on each side of
carriageway for urban roads.
Guard rails: Provided at the edge of the
shoulder when the road is constructed on a
fill so that the vehicles are prevented from
running off the embankment, especially
when the height of the fill exceeds 3 m.
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Embankment slopes: It should be as

flat as possible for the purpose of safe
traffic movement and for aesthetic
reasons. However, from the slope
stability point of view a steeper slope
may be possible, it may be kept as flat as
permitted by economic considerations.
Drainage: The pavement surface should
be impermeable to prevent seepage of
water into the pavement layers.
Minimum 0.5% slope should be
adopted.
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Right of way: Right of way (ROW) or

land width is the width of land acquired
for the road, along its alignment. It should
be adequate to accommodate all the
cross-sectional elements of the highway
and may reasonably provide for future
development. The right of way width is
governed by:
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NRS recommends the minimum width of

Right of way as in the table below.
Type of Road Minimum Right of way, Building line,
m m

National Highway 50 (25m on either side 62

of the road center line)

Feeder Road 30 (15m on either side 42

of the road center line)

District Road 20 (10m on either side 32

of the road center line)
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Height of embankment or depth of

cutting: It is governed by the topography
and the vertical alignment.
Side slopes of embankment or cutting:
It depends upon the height of the slope, soil
type etc.
Drainage system and their size which
depends on rainfall, topography etc.
Sight distance considerations: On
curves there is restriction to the visibility on
the inner side of the curve due to the
presence of some obstructions like building
structures etc.
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Kerbs:
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the
carriage way and the shoulder or islands
or footpaths. Different types of kerbs are
shown in the figure below (IRC
recommendation).
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Camber: Camber is the cross slope

provided to raise middle of the road
surface in the transverse direction to
drain off rainwater from road surface.
The objectives of providing camber
are:
 Surface protection especially for
gravel and bituminous roads
 Sub-grade protection by proper
drainage
 Quick drying of pavement which in
turn increases safety
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Too steep slope is undesirable for road which will

erode the surface. Camber is measured in 1 in n
or n% (eg. 1 in 50 or 2%). Amount of camber
mainly depend upon amount of rainfall in the
area and type of road surface.
Disadvantages of steep camber
 Transverse tilt of vehicles
 Uncomfortable during driving
 Unequal wear of tyres
 Discomfort when crossing the crown during
overtaking operation
 Formation of cross ruts due to rapid flow of water
 Most of the vehicle has the tendency to travel
along the center line.
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Type of road surface Camber, percent

Earthen 5

Gravel 4

Bitumen (rural area) 3

Bitumen (urban area) 2.5

NRS recommendation for the values of camber

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x
y n
R


W/2

W
*Generally adopted for very flat slopes such as PCC or RCC
Figure : Straight
Pavement line camber
R 2R
n  tan   
W /2 W
2R y

W x
y nx............................( IV )
 61

n
R

W/2

W
*Perfect for highways and areas with lots of
2
rain: Parabolic type of camber
Figure
y x
y R 2R 2
2
 2
 *
x (W / 2) W W
2R
n
W
2x2 2nx 2
y n  ....................................(V )
W W
 62

n
R

W/2

Figure :Composite type of camber

Tutorial No. 1: The width of pavement is 7.0 m.

If the centerline of the road has an elevation
412.23m, find the elevation of the edge of the
pavement and the center of lane if:
a) Straight line camber is provided
b) Parabolic camber is provided
 63

Tutorial No. 2: The centerline of a double

lane road has an elevation of 320.50 m as
recorded from longitudinal profile. The
camber is 2.5% and cross fall of the
shoulder is 5%. Calculate the elevation of
road surface at the center of lane, edges of
the pavement and road edge if the
shoulder is 1.5 m wide for
i)straight line camber is provided
ii)parabolic camber is provided. Take the
lane width equal to 3.5m.
 64

Sight Distance:

For operating a motor vehicle safely

and efficiently, it is of utmost
importance that drivers have the
capability of seeing clearly ahead.
Therefore, sight distance of
sufficient length must be provided so
that the drivers can operate and
control their vehicles safely.
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Sight distance available from a

point is the actual distance along
the road surface, which a driver
from a specified height above the
carriageway has visibility of
stationary or moving objects.
Restriction to sight distance may be
caused at horizontal curves, by
objects obstructing vision at the
inner side of the road or at vertical
summit curves or at intersections.
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Sight Distance

Line of Sight

Sight Distance at Horizontal Curve

Object height = 0.1 m

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Sight Distance
Sight line

Sight Distance

Sight Distance at Intersection

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The standards for sight distance should satisfy

the following three conditions:
 Driver traveling at the design speed has
sufficient sight distance or length of road visible
ahead to stop the vehicle, in case of any
obstruction on the road ahead, without collision.
 Driver traveling at the design speed should be
able to safely overtake, at reasonable intervals,
the slower vehicle without causing obstruction
or hazard to traffic of opposite direction.
 Driver entering an uncontrolled intersection
(particularly un-signalized Intersection) has
sufficient visibility to enable to take control the
vehicle and to avoid collision with another
vehicle.
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Apart from the three situations mentioned

above, the following sight distances are
considered by the IRC in highway design:
 Intermediate sight distance: This is
defined as twice the stopping sight distance.
When overtaking sight distance cannot be
provided, intermediate sight distance is
provided to give limited overtaking
opportunities to fast vehicles.
 Head light sight distance: This is the
distance visible to a driver during night
driving under the illumination of the vehicle
head lights. This sight distance is critical at
up-gradients and at the ascending stretch of
the valley curves.
 70

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD): The

minimum sight distance available on a
highway at any spot should be of sufficient
length to stop a vehicle traveling at design
speed, safely without collision with any
other obstruction. The absolute minimum
sight distance is therefore equal to the
stopping sight distance, which is also
sometimes called non-passing sight
distance.
The sight distance available on a road to a driver
at any instance depends on
 Features of the road ahead,
 Height of the drivers eye above the road surface.
 Height of the object above the road surface.
 71

 NRS has suggested the height of

eye level of drivers as 1.0 m and the
height of the object as 0.10 m above
the road surface.
 IRC recommendation: stopping
distance available at a summit
curve is that distance measured
along the road surface at which an
object of height 0.15 m can be seen
by a driver where eye is at a height
of 1.2 m above the road surface.
 72

The distance within which a motor

vehicle can be stopped depends
upon the factors listed below :
 Total reaction time of the driver
 Speed of vehicle
 Efficiency of brakes
 Frictional resistance between the
road and the tyres
 Gradient of the road
 73

Brain

I-E
P- Perception
I - Intellection
E - Emotion

Spinal Cord
V - Volition
V
P

Stimulus Response
Reflex action

Reaction time & PIEV Process

For the calculation of stopping sight distances, NRS
recommends coefficient of friction as: 0.42 at the
speed of 20 km/h and 0.28 at the speed of 120 km/h.
 74

Analysis of stopping distance:

The stopping distance of a vehicle
is the sum of:
 The distance traveled by the
vehicle during the total reaction
time know as lag distance
 The distance traveled by the
vehicle after the application of the
brakes, to a dead stop position
which is known as the braking
distance.
 75

Lag distance: During the total

reaction time or PIEV time the vehicle
may be assumed to proceed forward
with a uniform speed at which the
vehicle has been moving and this
speed may be taken as the design
speed. If ‘v’ is the design speed in
m/sec and ‘tr’ is the total reaction
time of the driver in seconds, then
the lag distance will be ‘v.tr’ metres.
The NRS has recommended the total
reaction time 2.5 secs.
 76

Braking distance: Assuming a level

road, the braking distance may be
obtained by equating the work done in
stopping the vehicle and the kinetic
energy developed.
If F is the maximum frictional force
developed and the braking distance is
l, then work done against friction
force in stopping the vehicle is F x l =
f W l, where W is the total weight of
the vehicle.
 77

The kinetic energy at the design speed of v m/sec

will be: 2
1 Wv
mv 2 
2 2g
Wv 2
fWl 
2g
v2
or , l 
2 gf

Stopping Distance lag distance  braking distance

v2
SD, m vtr  .......... .......... .......... ...(VI )
2 gf
Here, l = Braking distance; v = speed of vehicle,
m/sec; f = Design coefficient of friction; g =
acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 m/sec2.
 78

Stopping distance at slopes:

v2
SD, m vtr  ...........................................(VII )
n
2 g * efficiency * ( f  )
100
SD=SSD
Object

SD=SSD

SD=SSD
a) Single lane road with one-way traffic b) Two lane lane road

SD SD

SSD = 2SD
c) Single lane road with two-way traffic
 79

The safe stopping distance values calculated in

the similar manner for various design speeds
and recommended by NRS are given in Table
below.
Design speed, km/h Minimum stopping sight distance, m
120 200
100 145
80 110
60 85
50 65
40 45
30 30
20 20
Tutorial: Calculate the safe stopping sight distance on a
national highway in rolling terrain at an ascending
gradient of 3% and brake efficiency of 80%. Assume
relevant data as per NRS recommendation.
 80

Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD):

The minimum distance open to the vision
of the driver of a vehicle intending to
overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety
against the traffic of opposite direction is
known as the minimum overtaking sight
distance (OSD) or the safe passing sight
distance available. The overtaking sight
distance (OSD) is the distance measured
along the center of the road which a
driver with eye level 1.2 m above the
road surface can see the top of an object
1.2 m above the road surface.
 81

A1 A2 B1 B2 A3

C2 C1
s b s
d1 d3
d2

Overtaking Manoeuvre
 82

Analysis of Overtaking Sight

Distance : Figure shows the overtaking
manoeuvre of vehicle A traveling at
design speed, and another slow vehicle
B on a two-lane road with two-way
traffic. Third vehicle C comes from the
opposite direction. The overtaking
manoeuvre may be split up into three
operations, thus dividing the overtaking
sight distance into three parts, d1, d2
and d3.
 83

 d1 is the distance travelled by

overtaking vehicle A during the
reaction time tr sec of the driver from
position A1 to A2.
 d2 is the distance travelled by the
vehicle A from A2 to A3 during the
actual overtaking operation, in time T
sec.
 d3 is the distance travelled by on-
coming vehicle C from C1 to C2
during the overtaking operation of A,
i.e. T secs.
 84

Certain assumptions are made in

order to calculate the values of d1,
d2 and d3.
In Figure A is the overtaking vehicle
originally traveling at design speed
vm/sec; B is the overtaken or slow
moving vehicle moving with uniform
speed vb m/sec; C is a vehicle
coming from opposite direction at
the design speed vm/sec.
 85

1. It may be assumed that the vehicle A

is forced to reduce its speed to the
speed vb of the slow vehicle B and
moves behind it allowing a space s, till
there is an opportunity for safe
overtaking operation. The distance
traveled by the vehicle A during this
reaction time is d1 and is between the
positions A1 and A2.
d1 vb tr m
 86

2. From position A2 , the vehicle A

starts accelerating, shifts to the
adjoining lane, overtakes the vehicle B
and shifts back to its original lane ahead
of B in position A3 in time T sec. The
straight distance between the position
A2 and A3 is taken as d2. The minimum
distance between position A2 and B1
may be taken as the minimum spacing s
of the two vehicles while moving with
the speed v b m/sec. The minimum
spacing between vehicles depends on
s (and
their speed 0.7vb is6.1given
) m by empirical
 87

The minimum distance between B2

and A3 may also be assumed equal
to s as mentioned above. If the
taken by vehicle A for the overtaking
operation from position A2 to A3 is T
second, the distance covered by the
slow vehicle B from position B1 to
B2 traveling at a speed of vb m/sec.
b vbT m d 2 (b  2 s ), m
 88

1 2
d 2 (b  2 s ) vb T  aT
2
1 2
b vbT , 2 s  aT
2
4s
T 
a
d 2 (vbT  2 s ) m
 89

3. The distance traveled by vehicle

C moving at design speed v m/sec
during the overtaking operation of
vehicle A i.e. during time T is the
distance d2 between positions C1 to
C2 . d 3 vT , m
Thus,
OSD d1  d 2  d 3 vbtr  vbT  2s  vT , m.......... ........(VIII )

Note: In case the speed of overtaken vehicle vb is not

given, the same may be assumed as vb = (v – 4.5)
m/sec and v is the design speed in m/sec.
 90

Speed; Speed; Max. overtaken

km/hr m/sec acceleration (a);
m/sec2
25 6.93 1.41
30 8.34 1.30
40 11.10 1.24
50 13.86 1.11
65 18.00 0.92
80 22.20 0.72
100 27.80 0.53
 91

Note:
1. At overtaking sections, the
minimum overtaking distance
should be (d1 + d2 + d3 ) when two-
way traffic exists.
2. On divided highways and on
roads with one way traffic
regulation, the overtaking distance
should be (d1 +d2) as no
vehicle is expected from the
opposite direction.
 92

Overtaking Zone:
1. Minimum Length of Overtaking Zone= 3×OSD
2 . Desirable Length of Overtaking Zone=
5×OSD
SP2

OSD
SP2
SP1
SP1

OSD = Overtaking Sight Distance

= (d1+d2) for one-way traffic
= (d1+d2+d3) for two-way traffic
SP1 = Sign Post ‘Overtaking Zone Ahead’
SP2 = Sign Post ‘End of Overtaking Zone’
 93

Tutorials:
1. A vehicle is moving at a speed of 90 Kmph
decided to overtake another slow moving vehicle.
Calculate the safe overtaking sight distance.
Considering the following:
a. Two Lane road with two way traffic.
b. One lane road with one way traffic. Assume all
necessary data. Take a=3.6 Kmph/sec.
2. The speed of the overtaking and overtaken
vehicles are 60Kmph and 30 Kmph respectively on
a two way traffic road. If the acceleration of
overtaking vehicle is 1m/sec2. Calculate the
following:
a. Safe overtaking sight distance
b. Minimum and desirable length of overtaking zone
 94
Horizontal Curves:
A horizontal highway curve is a curve in plan to
provide change in direction to the central line of
a road. When a vehicle traverses a horizontal
curve, the centrifugal force acts horizontally
outwards through the Centre of gravity of the
vehicle.
The centrifugal force developed depends on the
radius of the horizontal curves and the speed of
the vehicle negotiating the curve. This
centrifugal force is counteracted by the
transverse frictional resistance developed
between the tyre and the 2 pavement surface.
Wv
Centrifugal force PPisgiven by the equation:
gR
95
 96

The ratio of the centrifugal force to the weight

of the vehicle, P/W is known as the
centrifugal ratio or the impact factor. The
centrifuge ratio is thus equal to v2/gR.
The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle
negotiating a horizontal curve has two effects;
 Tendency to overturn the vehicle
outwards about the outer wheels
 Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally,
outwards
The analysis of stability of those two conditions
against overturning and transverse skidding of
the vehicles negotiating horizontal curves
without Super-elevation are given below:
 97

1. Overturning effect:
The centrifugal force that tends the
vehicle to overturn about the outer
wheels B on horizontal curve without
super-elevation is illustrated in figure
below. The overturning moment due to
centrifugal force P is P×h; this is resisted
by the restoring moment due to weight
of the vehicle W and is equal to W×b/2,
where h is the height of the centre of the
gravity of the vehicle above the road
surface and b is the width of the wheel
base or the wheel track of the vehicle.
 98

Inner side of curve Outer side of curve

C.G.
P

A B
b/2 b/2
W

The equilibrium condition for overturning will

occur when P×h = W×b/2, or when P/W =
b/2h. This means that there is danger of
overturning when the centrifugal ratio
P/W or v2 /gR attains a values of b/2h.
 99

2. Transverse skidding effect:

The centrifugal force developed has
also the tendency to push the
vehicle outwards in the transverse
direction. If the centrifugal force P
developed exceeds the maximum
possible transverse skid resistance
due to the friction, the vehicle will
start skidding in the transverse
direction.
 100

Inner side of curve Outer side of curve

C.G.
P

FA= f.RA FB= f.RB

A B
W

RA
RB
Shaded areas show the pressure
under wheels

The equilibrium condition for the transverse skid

resistance developed is given by:
P  FA  FB  f ( RA  RB )  fW
 101

Since P/w = f, the centrifugal ratio

P/W is equal to ‘f ‘. In other words
when the centrifugal ratio
attains a value equal to the
coefficient of lateral friction (f)
there is a danger of lateral
skidding.
Thus to avoid overturning and lateral
skidding on a horizontal curve, the
centrifugal ratio should always be
less than b/2h and also ‘f’.
 102

If the pavement is kept horizontal

across the alignment, the pressure
on the outer wheels will be higher
due to the centrifugal force acting
outwards and hence the reaction RB
at the outer wheel would be higher.
When the limiting equilibrium
condition for overturning occurs the
pressure at the inner wheels
becomes equal to zero. At that
condition the vehicle will overturn
and skid.
 103

Super-elevation:
In order to counteract the effect of
centrifugal force and to reduce the
tendency of the vehicle to overturn or skid,
the outer edge of the pavement is raised
with respect to the inner edge, thus
providing a transverse slope throughout
the length of the horizontal curve, this
transverse inclination to the pavement
surface is known as Super-elevation or
cant or banking. The Super-elevation ‘e’ is
expressed as the ratio of the height of
outer edge with respect to the horizontal
width.
 104

P Cos

W Sin
C.G.  P
Inner side of
curve
 Outer side of
curve

E
P Sin

M 
W Cos L
 105

NL
e   tan 
ML

In practice the inclination Ө with the

horizontal is very small and the value of tanӨ
seldom exceeds 0.07. Therefore the value of
than Ө is practically equal to sinӨ. Hence, e
= tan Ө = sin Ө = E/B which is measured as
the ratio of the relative elevation of the outer
edge, E to width of pavement, B.
If e is the Super-elevation rate and E is the
total super elevated height of outer edge, the
total rise in outer edge of the pavement with
respect to the inner edge = NL = E = eB.
 106

Analysis of Super-elevation:
The force acting on the vehicle while
moving on a circular curve of radius R
meters, and at speed of v m/sec are:
 The centrifugal force P = Wv2/gR acting
horizontal outwards through the centre of
gravity
 The weight W of the vehicle acting
vertically downloads through the CG
 The frictional force developed between
the wheels and the pavement surface
counteracts transversely along the
pavement surface
 107

The centrifugal force is thus opposed by

corresponding value of the friction
developed and by a component of the
force of gravity due to the Super-
elevation provided.
For equilibrium condition,
PCos WSin  FA  FB

PCos WSin  f ( RA RB ) WSin  f (WCos  PSin )

P (Cos  fSin ) WSin  fWCos
 108

Dividing by W cosӨ,
P
(1  f tan  )  tan   f
W
P tan   f

W 1  f tan 
The value of coefficient of lateral friction, ‘f’ is
taken as 0.15 for design purposes. The value of
tan Ө or transverse slope due to Super-
elevation seldom exceeds 0.07 or about 1/15.
Hence the value of f tan Ө is about 0.01. Thus
the value of (1- f tan Ө) in the above equation
is equal to 0.99 and may be approximate to
1.0.
 109

P
tan   f e  f
W
2
P v

W gR
2
v
e  f  ................................................(IX )
Where,
gR
e = rate of Super-elevation = tan Ө
f = design value of lateral friction coefficient
= 0.15
v = speed of the vehicle, m/sec
R = radius of the horizontal curve, m
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2
 110

1. If f=0, e=v2/gR, the pressures

on the outer and inner wheels will
be equal; but this will result in a
very high value of Super-
elevation. (equilibrium Super-
elevation)
2. If e=0, f=v2/gR, the frictional
force has to fully counteract
the centrifugal ratio.
 111

Numerical Example :
1. The radius of a horizontal circular curve is
100 m. The design speed is 50 Kmph and
the design coefficient of lateral friction is
0.15.
a. Calculate the super-elevation required if
full lateral friction is assumed to develop
b. Calculate the coefficient of friction needed
if no super-elevation is provided
c. Calculate the equilibrium super-elevation
 112

Maximum super-elevation:
Super-elevation. IRC recommends the
maximum values of super-elevation as:
1. emax = 7% in plain and rolling terrain
and in snowbound areas
2. emax = 10% on hill roads not bound
by snow
3. emax =4% on urban roads
Minimum super-elevation:
113

Design Radius (meter) of horizontal curve for camber of :

speed 4% 3%. 2.5% 2% 1.7%
(Kmph)

20 50 60 70 90 100
25 70 90 110 140 150
30 100 130 160 200 240
35 140 180 220 270 320
40 180 240 280 350 420
50 280 370 450 550 650
60 470 620 750 950 1100
80 700 950 1100 1400 1700
 114

Super-elevation design:
Steps for super-elevation design:
Step 1: The super-elevation for 75% of
design speed is calculated neglecting
friction

Step 2. If the calculated value of “e” is

less than 7% or 0.07 the value so obtained
is o.k. If the value of “e” exceeds 0.07
then provide the maximum super-elevation
= 0.07 and proceed with steps 3 or 4.
 115

Step 3: Check the “f" for the maximum

value of e= 0.07.

If the value of “f” thus calculated is less

than 0.15 the super-elevation is (e=0.07)
safe for the design speed. If not follow the
step 4.
Step 4: The allowable speed (va m/sec)
at the curve is calculated by considering
the design coefficient of lateral friction
and the maximum super-elevation,
 116

Numerical Examples:
1. A two lane road with design speed 80 Kmph
has horizontal curve of radius 480m. Design the
rate of super-elevation for mixed traffic. By how
much should the outer edge of the pavement be
raises with respect to the centerline. Assume the
width of the pavement at the horizontal curve is
7.5m.
2. The design speed of a highway is 80Kmph.
There is a horizontal curve of radius 200m.
Calculate the super-elevation needed to
maintain this speed. If the maximum super-
elevation of 0.07 is not to be exceeded,
calculate the maximum allowable speed on this
horizontal curve. Safe limit of coefficient of
lateral friction is 0.15.
 117

Methods of introducing super-

elevation:
1.Elimination of crown of the camber: This
may be done by two methods. In the first
method, the outer half of the cross slope is
rotated about the crown at a desired rate such
that the surface falls on the same plane as the
inner half and the elevation of the center line is
not altered.
Levels of outer Positions of crown
edge Center Line Center Line

Outer edge Outer edge

Method II: Shifting crown outwards (diagonal
Method I: Rotating outer edge about the crown
crown method)
 118

2. Super-elevation is gradually attained

to its full value at the start of the circular
curve: When the crown of the camber is
eliminated, the Super-elevation available at
this section is equal to the camber. But the
Super-elevation to be provided at the
beginning of circular curve may be greater
than the camber (in many cases when the
design Super-elevation is more than the
minimum). Hence the pavement section will
have to be rotated further till the desired
super-elevation is obtained.
 119

a. Center line rotation: By rotating the

pavement cross section about the Centre line,
depressing the inner edge and raising the outer
edge each by half the total amount of Super-
elevation, i.e. by E/2 with respect to the Centre.
b. Inner edge rotation: By rotating the
pavement cross section about the inner edge of the
pavement section raising both the Centre as well
as the outer edge of the pavement such that the
outer edge is raised by the full amount of super-
elevation, E with respect to the inner edge.
 120

Center Line Center Line Outer Edge

Outer edge
E/2 E
E/2
Inner edge
Inner edge

Rotating about center line Rotating about inner egde

Tangent
runout

Length of
Normal Crown run off Fully superelevated curve
Outside edge of pavement

eW/2
CL Profile
-eW/2
-nW/2
Inside edge of pavement
A B C D E

CL Profile
center line
level
A B C D E

Crowned Pavement revolved about Centerline

 121

c. Outer edge rotation: It

consists of progressively revolving
the straight line slope about the
outer edge thereby depressing the
center line and inner edge
gradually.
 122

Widening of Pavement on Horizontal

Curves: Extra widening refers to the additional
width of carriageway that is required on a
curved section of a road than required width on
a straight alignment. This widening is done due
to the following reasons:
 123

1. An automobile has a rigid wheelbase and only front

wheels can be turned; when this vehicle takes a turn to
negotiate a curve, the rear wheel do not follow the same
path as that of front wheels. This phenomenon is called as
off tracking. Normally, the rear wheels follow the inner
path of the curve as compared with those of
corresponding front wheels. The off tracking depends
upon the length of wheelbase and turning angle or the
radius of the curve negotiated.
 124

B R2
l

C O
A
R1
Wm

2. In the case of higher speeds when super

elevation and lateral friction developed are fully
able to counteract the outward thrust due to the
centrifugal force, some transverse skid may occur
and the rear wheel may take paths on the outside
of those traced by the front wheels on the
horizontal curves.
 125

3. The paths traced by the wheels of

trailers is also likely to be either side
of the central path, depending on
the speed, rigidity of the universal
joints and pavement roughness.
4. Psychological tendency of the
driver is such that in curves
(especially in cutting or in the areas
with obstruction inside) they prefer
to take the outer lane for greater
visibility.
 126

5.While two vehicles cross or overtake at

horizontal curve there is a psychological
tendency to maintain greater clearance
between the vehicles, than on straights to
increase speed.
The Extra widening on the horizontal curve
(We) depends on the following factors:
 Length of wheel base
 Radius of the curve
 Psychological factor which is the function of
speed and radius of the curve.
Generally, extra widening on the
horizontal is provided on the horizontal
curves when the radius is less than
 127

Analysis of extra widening: Extra

widening on horizontal curve is divided
into two parts: mechanical and
psychological widening.
1. Mechanical Widening: Mechanical
widening (Wm) is provided to account the
off tracking due to the rigidity of wheels.

B R2
l

C O
A
R1
Wm
 128

Where,
 R1 – Radius of the path traversed by the
outer rear wheel, m
 R2 - Radius of the path traversed by the
outer front wheel, m
 Wm – Mechanical widening, m
 l – Length of the wheelbase, m
 129

Wm=OC-OA=OB-OA=R2-R1
ΔOAB, OA2=OB2-BA2
R12=R22-l2
R1=R2-Wm

(R2-Wm)2=R22-l2
l 2=Wm(2R2-Wm)

l
Wm= 2/(2R2-Wm)

l
Wm= 2/2R
 130

Here, R is the mean radius of the

curve. Mechanical widening
calculated above is required for one
vehicle negotiating a horizontal
curve having n traffic lanes. The
total mechanical widening required
is given by:
nl 2
Wm  ...............................................................................( xiii )
2R
 131

2. Psychological widening: Extra

width of pavement is also provided for
psychological reasons such as to provide
greater maneuverability of steering at
high speeds, to allow for the extra space
requirements for the overhangs of
vehicles and to provide greater
clearance for crossing and overtaking
vehicles on the curve. An empirical
formula has been recommended by the
IRC for finding the additional
psychological widening Wps which is
dependent on the design speed and the
radius of the curve.
 V 132

W ps  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( xiv )

9.5 R
where, V is the design speed in Kmph
and R is the radius of the curve in m.
Hence the total widening We required
on horizontal curve is given by:
2
nl V
We   ............................................................................( xv)
2 R 9 .5 R
 133
Methods on introducing extra widening:
The widening is gradually introduced staring
from the beginning of the transition curve or
the tangent point and progressively increased
at uniform rate, till the full value of designed
widening 'We' is reached at the end of
transition curve where full values of super
elevation is also provided. The full value of
extra width (We) is continued throughout the
length of the circular curve and then decreased
gradually along the length of the transition
curve. Usually We is equally distributed i.e
We/2 on inner and outer sides of the curve.
But the sharp curves on the hill roads the
extra widening We may be provided in full on
inside of the curve.
 We/2
134
Circular Curve

We/2

Extra widening of carriageway on horizontal curve

We

Widening pavement on sharp curve

 135

Numerical examples:
1. Calculate the amount of extra width
required on a horizontal curve of radius 300m
on a two lane highway. The design speed is 80
Kmph. Assume the length of wheel base is
6.2m.
2. Find the total width of the pavement on a
horizontal curve for a new national highway
along a rolling terrain with a ruling minimum
radius. Assume suitable data.
 136

Design of Horizontal transition curve:

Transition curve is provided to
change the horizontal alignment
from straight to circular curve
gradually and has a radius which
decreases from infinity at the
straight end (tangent point) to the
desired radius of the circular
curve at the other end (curve
point).
 137

Objectives:
 To introduce gradually the centrifugal force
between the tangent point and the beginning of
the circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk on the
vehicle to provide the comfort to the passengers.
 To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for
his own comfort and security.
 To provide gradual introduction of super elevation
 To provide gradual introduction of extra widening.
 To enhance the aesthetic appearance of the road.
 138

Cubic parabola

Bernoulli's Lemniscate

Spiral

Types of Transition Curves

 139

Length of transition curve:

The length of the transition curve should
be determined as the maximum of the
following three criteria:
 Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
 Rate of introduction of designed super-
elevation
 Minimum length by IRC empirical formula
 140

1. Rate of change of centrifugal

acceleration:
At the tangent point, radius is infinity and
hence centrifugal acceleration (v2/R) is zero
as the radius is infinity. At the end of the
transition, the radius has minimum value
Rmin. Hence the centrifugal acceleration is
distributed over the length of transition curve
(Ls). The centrifugal acceleration should be
developed such that it will not cause
discomfort to the passengers of a vehicle
travelling at the design speed. It is obvious
that larger the length of transition, lower will
be the rate at which the centrifugal
acceleration is introduced.
 141

Let the length of transition curve be Ls

meter. If t =Ls/v is the time taken in
second to traverse this transition length at
uniform design speed of v m/sec. The
maximum centrifugal acceleration of v2/R
is introduce in time t through the
transition length Ls and hence the rate of
change of centrifugal acceleration C is
given by:
 142

The maximum allowable value of

the rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration without causing
discomfort is depend on the
speed and varies inversely with
the radius. IRC recommendation
for the value of C for the design
speed V Kmph.
[0.5<C<0.81]
 143

2. Rate of introduction of
super-elevation: In the open
areas with sufficient space for
roadway clearance is not
desirable to raise the out edge of
road at a larger rate than 1 in
150. In case of built up and hilly
areas, rate of rise of outer edge
may be taken as 1 in 100 and 1
in 60 respectively.
 144

Let W be the normal width of the

carriageway and We extra widening at the
circular curve. Hence, the total width of
carriageway at the circular curve is
(W+We). If the e is the rate of super-
elevation based on 75 % of design speed,
then the total rise of outer edge with
respect to inner edge is equal to E =
e(W+We). If the pavement is rotated
about the center line after neutralizing the
camber then the maximum amount by
which the outer edge is raised at a circular
curve with respect to center is E/2.
 (W+We).
145

E = e(W+We)

Rotation with respect to inner edge

 146

If the rate of introducing the super-

elevation is 1 in N then the length
of transition curve is given by at
centre line rotation:

Similarly, if the pavement is rotated

about the inner edge, the length of
the transition curve is given by:
 147
3. Using empirical formula: According to the IRC recommendation
the length of transition curve Ls should be not less than the value given
by the following equation for the terrain classification.
a. For plain and rolling terrain:

b. For hilly and steep terrain:

V=Kmph
The length of transition curve should be higher of the
three above values mentioned above.
 148

Numerical example:
1. A highway with 2 lanes, each 3.5m wide
has 0.6m of extra-widening at a horizontal
curve of radius 150 m. Design the length
of transition curve if design speed is 65
Kmph. Desired rate of introducing super-
elevation is 1 in 80. Assume pavement is
rotated about the inner edge.
2. Design the transition curve for national
highway constructed in plain terrain of the
country having minimum ruling radius.
Assume suitable data if necessary.
 149

Setback distance on horizontal

curve:
In the design of horizontal alignment, the
sight distance along the inner side of the
curve should be considered. There may be
sight obstruction like buildings, cut
slopes, or trees on the inner side of the
curve should be removed to provide
adequate sight distance.
As mentioned above the absolute minimum
sight distance, i. e. safe stopping sight
distance must be available at every section
of the highway.
 150

1. Case Lc > S: Lc is the length of

curve which is greater than the sight
distance S. The angle subtended by the arc
of length S at the center is α. The sight
distance is measured along the center line
of the road and the angle subtended at the
center is equal to S/R radians.
LC

 /2


 151

Therefore half central angle is given by:

 S 180 S
 radians  deg ree
2 2R 2R
The distance from the obstruction to the
centre of radius is: 
RCos
2
Therefore the set-back distance in the case
of narrow (single lane) roads the required
m is given by:

m R  RCos ..........................................( xxii )
2
 152

In the case of wide roads (two or more lanes),

if the distance d is the distance between
the center line of the road and the center
line of the inside lane in meter, the sight
distance is measured along the middle of the
inner side lane and the set-back distance, m is
given by:
'
m' R  ( R  d )Cos ................................................(xxiii)
2
' 180S
 deg rees
2 2 ( R  d )
 153

2. Case Lc < S: If the sight

distance (S) required is greater than the
length of the curve (Lc), then the angle
subtended at the center is determined
with reference to the length of circular
curve Lc and the set-back distance is
SD
worked out in two parts as given below:
LC
C

B G
D
A

 /2 F E

m CG  GF

 /2

 154

From the geometry of the figure, set-back distance is:

m CG  GF
'
CG R  RCos
2
S  Lc '
GF  Sin
2 2
' 180Lc
 deg rees
2 2 ( R  d )
 ' ( S  Lc )  '
m' R  ( R  d )Cos  Sin .............................................(xxiv)
The clearance 2of obstruction 2 2 up to the set-back
distance is important when there is cut slope on the
inner side of the horizontal curve.
 155

Numerical example:
1. A national highway with design speed 80
Kmph has a horizontal curve of radius
equal to the minimum ruling radius. Design
all the geometric features of this curve, with
suitable data. Specify the minimum set-
back distance from the center line of the
two lane highway on the inner side of the
curve up to which the building should not
be constructed for considering intermediate
sight distance. Assume the length of the
circular curve is greater than the sight
distance. The length of curve is 300m.
 156

Gradient: Gradient is the rate of rise

or fall along the length of the road with
respect to the horizontal. It is expressed as
the ratio of 1 in x (1 vertical unit to x
horizontal units). Some time it is also
expressed as a percentage. The ascending
gradients are given positive sign and are
denoted as +n and descending gradient
are given negative sign and are denoted as
–n. The angle which measures the change
of direction at the intersection of two
grades is called deviation angle N, which
is equal to the algebraic difference
between the two grades.
 157

B
N= + n1 - (-n2) = n1+n2

A C
 158

Types of gradients:
Gradients are divided into the
following categories:
Momentum gradient
Ruling gradients
Limiting gradient
Exceptional gradient
Minimum gradient
 159

Momentum grade: Momentum

grades are those grades on which
the momentum gained by the
vehicles at the beginning of a steep
climbing section is used to overcome
the road resistance due to grade. In
fact any minor ascending grade may
be referred as momentum grade if
the same is overcome by vehicle
with its initial momentum.
 160

Ruling gradient: It is the maximum

gradients within which the designer
attempts to design the vertical profile
of road. Gradients up to the ruling are
adopted as normal in design of
vertical alignment and accordingly
the quantities of cut and fill are
balanced. Hence, ruling gradient is
also called as “Design gradients”.
 161

Limiting gradient: In some cases

of unfavorable topography, it is
necessary to adopt steeper gradients
than ruling gradients, which are
known as limiting gradients. Length
of such gradients should be limited.
 162

Exceptional gradient: In some

extra ordinary situations, it is
necessary to provide exceptional
gradients to provide still steeper
gradients at least for short stretches
and in such cases the steeper
gradient upto exceptional gradient
may be provided. However,
exceptional gradient is strictly limited
only for short distance not more than
100m.
 163

NH Terrain type
Mountain Rolling Level
Max. average gradient 5% 4% 3%
Max. grade 8% 6% 5%
Max. length of grade in excess of av. grade 150m 210m 250m
Min. length of recovery 210m 300m 600m
At grade specified @3% @2% @2%

FR
Max. average gradient 7% 6% 5%
Max. grade 10% 8% 7%
Max. length of grade in excess of av. grade 120m 180m 210m
Min. length of recovery 150m 150m 300m
At grade specified @3% @3% @2%

DR
Max. average gradient 7% 6% 5%
Max. grade 12% 10% 7%
Max. length of grade in excess of av. grade 100m 120m 100m
Min. length of recovery 150m 150m 150m
At grade specified @4% @3% @3%
 164

Compensation of grades on
Horizontal Curve: At horizontal curves the
curve resistance developed is equal to When there
is a horizontal curve in addition to the gradient,
there will be increased resistance to friction due to
both gradient and curve. It is necessary that in such
cases the total resistance due to grade and curve
should not normally exceed the resistance due to
the maximum value of the gradient specified. When
sharp horizontal curve is to be introduced on a road
which has already the maximum permissible
gradient, then the gradient should be decreased to
compensate for the loss of tractive effort due to the
curve. This reduction in gradient at the horizontal
curve is called grade compensation.
 165

Grade compensation % subject to a

maximum value of 75/R, Where R-radius
of the circular curve; m

According to the IRC the grade

compensation is not necessary for
gradient flatter than 4%.
Numerical Example:
While aligning a hill road with a ruling gradient
of 6%, a horizontal curve of radius 60 m is
encountered. Find the compensated gradient at
the curve.
 166

Vertical curves: Due to the change in

grades in the vertical alignment of highway, it
is necessary to introduce vertical curves at the
intersection of different grades to smoothen
out the vertical profile. Vertical curves should
be simple in application and should result in a
design that is safe and comfortable in
operation, pleasing in appearance, and
adequate for drainage.
Summit curves: Summit curves with
convexity upwards are formed in any one of
the case illustrated in the figure below. The
deviation angle between the two interacting
gradients is equal to the algebraic difference
between them.
 167

N
N n2=0

N = n1

N=n1 + n2

N +n2 -n1
N
+n1 -n2
N = n1 - n2
N = -n1 + n2
 168

The design of the summit curve is governed

by the consideration of sight distance,
transition curves are not necessary. The
deviation angles in vertical curves are very
small a simple parabola is nearly congruent
with a circular arc, also a parabola is very
easy for arithmetic calculation for computing
ordinates. The use of simple parabola as
summit curve is found to give good riding
comfort too. Because of these reasons in
actual practice a simple parabolic curve is
used as summit curve instead of circular arc.
a. Length of summit curve for safe
stopping sight distance (SSD)
 169

N
i2
x
y

i1

L/2 L/2
L

H is height of driver's eye level and h height of the

object above road surface, then length of summit curve
is2 equal to When 1. L > SSD
NS
L 2
......................................................( xxix)
( 2 H  2h )
 170

2. L < SSD:
The general equation for the length of the
parabolic summit curve, when it is less than the
sight distance is given by: The general equation
for the length of the parabolic summit curve,
when it is less than the sight distance is given
by:
 171

Length of summit curve for safe

overtaking sight distance (OSD)
or intermediate sight distance.
(ISD=2 OSD):
i. The length of curve is greater than
the overtaking sight distance or
intermediate sight distance (L > S):
H=h
 172

ii. When the length of the curve is less

than sight distance (L< S)

Numerical Example:
Design a vertical curve for the following data: i1=
+2.5%, i2= -1.2%, OSD = 245m, height of driver's
eye from the road surface=1.22m.
 173

b. Valley curve : Valley curve or

sag curves are vertical curves with
convexity downwards. They are formed
when two gradients meet as illustrated in
figure below:
 When a descending gradient meets another
descending gradient,
 When a descending gradient meets a flat
gradient,
 When a descending gradient meets an
ascending gradient,
 When an ascending gradient meets another
ascending gradient,
 174

N= - n2 - n1 N= n1 - n2

N=-n1+n2 N= -n1

N
 175

Design consideration of
Valley Curve: There is no restriction to
sight distance at valley curves during day
time. But visibility is reduced during night. In
the absence or inadequacy of street light, the
only source for visibility is with the help of
headlights. Hence valley curves are designed
taking into account of headlight distance. In
valley curves, the centrifugal force will be
acting downwards along with the weight of
the vehicle, and hence impact to the vehicle
will be more. This will result in jerking of the
vehicle and cause discomfort to the
passengers.
 176

Thus the most important design

factors considered in valley curves
are:
 Impact-free movement of vehicles
at design speed and
 Availability of stopping sight
distance under headlight of vehicles
for night driving.
 177

For gradually introducing and increasing the

centrifugal force acting downwards, the best
shape that could be given for a valley curve
is a transition curve. Cubic parabola is
generally preferred in vertical valley curves.
During night, under headlight driving
condition, sight distance reduces and
availability of stopping sight distance under
head light is very important. The head light
sight distance should be at least equal to
the stopping sight distance. There is no
problem of overtaking sight distance at
night since the other vehicles with
headlights could be seen from a
considerable distance.
 178


Driver’s Comfort h
P O

Safety for night driving

 179

Length of Valley Curve: The valley curve

is made fully transitional by providing two
similar transition curves of equal length.
The transition curve is set out by a cubic
parabola y = bx3 where b = 2N/3L2. The
length of the valley transition curve is
designed based on two criteria:
 Comfort criteria: The allowable rate of
change of centrifugal acceleration is limited
to a comfortable level of about 0.6 m/sec3.
 Safety criteria: The driver should have
adequate headlight sight distance at any
part of the curve.
 180

L/2 L/2

x
BVC
EVC
n2
- n1

N
y PVI
 181

Comfort criteria :The length of the

valley curve is based on the rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration that will ensure comfort.
Let c is the rate of change of acceleration, R the
minimum radius of the curve, v is the design
speed and t is the time, then c is given as:
3
We know the length of transition curve:Ls  v
CR
Minimum radius (R) at any point on the curve is:
Ls L  L
R  ;  Ls  
N 2N  2
v3 v3 N Nv 3
Ls   L2s 
CR CLs C Nv 3
L 2 Ls 2
Total length of the Valley curve is C
 182

Safety criteria (head light sight

distance): Length of the valley curve for
headlight distance may be determined for
following conditions:
Case 1: Length of valley curve greater
than stopping sight distance (L > S) :The
total length of valley curve L is greater than
the stopping sight distance SSD. The sight
distance available will be minimum when the
vehicle is in the lowest point in the valley.
This is because the beginning of the curve will
have infinite radius and the bottom of the
curve will have minimum radius which is a
property of the transition curve.
 183

 Stan 
BVC
h EVC h

n2
- n1

N
PVI

Case I: L > S
 184

Where N is the deviation angle in radians, h

is the height of headlight beam, is the
head light beam inclination in degrees and
S is the sight distance. The inclination is
approximately 1 degree.

NS 2
L
2h  2 S tan 

If the average height of the headlight is

taken as h = 0.75 m and the beam angle is
one degree then the length of Valley curve
is given by: NS 2
L 
1.5  0.035S
 185

Case 2: Length of valley curve

smaller than stopping sight distance
(L < S) : In this case the minimum sight
distance is from the beginning of the
curve. The important points are the
beginning of the curve and the bottom
most part of the curve. If the vehicle is at
the bottom of the curve, then its headlight
beam will reach far beyond the endpoint
of the curve whereas, if the vehicle is at
the beginning of the curve, then the
headlight beam will hit just outside the
curve. Therefore, the length of the curve
is derived by assuming the vehicle at the
beginning of the curve.
 186

h 
Stan 

N h

Case I: L < S
 187

Where N is the deviation angle in radians,

h is the height of headlight beam, is the
head light beam inclination in degrees
and S is the sight distance. The inclination
is approximately 1 degree.
2h  2 S tan 
L 2 S 
N
If the average height of the headlight is
taken as h1 = 0.75 m and the beam angle
is one degree then the length of Valley
curve is given by: 1.5  0.035S
L 2 S 
N
 188

Numerical Examples:
A valley curve is formed with a
descending grade of 3% meeting
with ascending grade of 2.5%.
Design the length of valley curve
to fulfill both comfort and
headlight sight distance
requirements for a design speed of
80 Kmph. Assume allowable rate
of change of centrifugal
acceleration C=0.6m/s3.
 189

END OF CHAPTER

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