By: Engr. YURI G.

MELLIZA

Fuel - a substance composed of chemical elements, which in rapid chemical union with oxygen produced combustion.
Combustion - is that rapid chemical union with oxygen of an element, whose exothermic heat of reaction is sufficiently
great and whose rate of reaction is sufficiently fast, whereby useful quantities of heat are liberated at elevated
temperatures. It is the burning or oxidation of the combustible elements.

TYPES OF FUEL
1) Solid Fuels
Example: a. coal
b. charcoal
c. coke
d. woods
2) Liquid Fuels (obtained by the distillation of petroleum)
Example: a. Gasoline
b. kerosene
c. diesoline
d. Fuel oil
e. alcohol (these are not true hydrocarbons, since it contains oxygen in the molecule)
3) Gaseous Fuels (a mixture of various constituent’s hydrocarbons, its combustion products do not have
sulfur components)
Example:
a. Natural Gas (example: methane, ethane, propane)
b. Coke oven gas -obtained as a byproduct of making coke
c. Blast furnace gas - a byproduct of melting iron ore
d. LPG
e. Producer Gas - fuel used for gas engines
4) Nuclear Fuels
Example: a. Uranium
b. Plutonium

COMBUSTIBLE ELEMENTS
1. Carbon (C)
2. Hydrogen (H2)
3. Sulfur (S)

TYPES OF HYDROCARBONS

1) Paraffin - all ends in "ane"

Formula: CnH2n+2
Structure: Chain (saturated)
Example:
GAS
a. Methane(CH4)
b. Ethane (C2H6)
LPG
a. Propane (C3H8)
b. Butane (C4H10)
c. Pentane (C5H12)
GASOLINE
a. n-Heptane (C7H16)
b. Triptane (C7H16)
c. Iso- octane (C8H18)

FUEL OIL
a. Decane (C10H22)
b. Dodecane (C12H26)
c. Hexadecane (C16H34)
d. Octadecane (C18H38)
 2) Olefins - ends in "ylene" or "ene"
Formula: CnH2n
Structure: Chain (unsaturated)
Example:
a. Propene (C3H6)
b. Butene (C4H8)
c. Hexene ( C6H12)
d. Octene ( C8H16)
3) DIOLEFIN - ends in "diene"
Formula: CnH2n-2
Structure: Chain (unsaturated)
Example:
a. Butadiene (C4H6)
b. Hexadiene (C6H10)
4) NAPHTHENE - named by adding the prefix "cyclo"
Formula: CnH2n
Structure: Ring (saturated)
Example:
a. Cyclopentane (C5H10)
b. Cyclohexane (C6H12)

5) AROMATICS - this hydrocarbon includes the;

A. Benzene Series (CnH2n-6)
B. Naphthalene Series (CnH2n-12)
Structure: Ring (unsaturated)
Example:
a. Benzene (C6H6)
b. Toluene (C7H8)
c. Xylene (C8H10)

6)ALCOHOLS - These are not true hydrocarbon, but sometimes used as fuel in an internal combustion
engine. The characteristic feature is that one of the hydrogen atom is replaced by an OH radical.
Example:
a. Methanol (CH4O or CH3OH)
b. Ethanol (C2H6O or C2H5OH)

Saturated Hydrocarbon - all the carbon atoms are joined by a single bond.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbon - it has two or more carbon atoms joined by a double or triple bond.
Isomers - two hydrocarbons with the same number of carbon and hydrogen atoms, but at different structure.
STRUCTURE OF CnHm
A. Chain Structure (saturated)

B. Chain Structure (unsaturated)

C. Ring Structure (saturated)

Complete Combustion: Occurs when all the combustible elements has been fully oxidized.
C  O2  CO2
Incomplete Combustion: Occurs when some of the combustible elements have not been fully oxidized and it may
result from;
a. Insufficient oxygen
b. Poor mixing of fuel and oxygen
c. the temperature is too low to support combustion.
Result: Soot or black smoke that sometimes pours out from chimney or smokestack.
C  21 O2  CO

THE COMBUSTION CHEMISTRY

A. Oxidation of Carbon

C  O2  CO2
12  32  44
3  8  11
B. Oxidation of Hydrogen

H2  21 O2  H2O
2  16  18
1 8  9

C. Oxidation of Sulfur
S  O2  SO2
32  32  64
1 1  2
Composition of Air
a) Volumetric or Molal analysis
O2 = 21%
N2 = 79%
b) Gravimetric Analysis
O2 = 23.3%
N2 = 76.7%

Moles of N2 79
  3.76
Mole of O2 21
COMBUSTION WITH AIR and Theoretical air requirement

Fuel  Air  Pr oducts

A) Combustion of Carbon with air

C  O2  3.76N2  CO2  3.76N2

12  32  3.76(28)  44  3.76(28)
kg of air
 11.44
kg of C

B) Combustion of Hydrogen with Air

H2  21 O2  21 (3.76)N2  H2O  21 (3.76)N2
2  16  21 (3.76)( 28)  18  21 (3.76)( 28)
kg of air
 34.32
kg of H

C) Combustion of Sulfur with air

S  O2  (3.76)N2  SO2  (3.76)N2

32  32  (3.76)( 28)  64  (3.76)( 28)
kg of air
 4.29
kg of H
Theoretical Air

The minimum amount of air that supplies sufficient oxygen for the complete combustion of all the carbon, hydrogen,
and sulfur present in the fuel is called the theoretical amount of air

A kg of air
  
 F Theoretica l Kg of Fuel

EXCESS AIR
It is an amount of air in excess of the theoretical air required to influence complete combustion. With excess air, O2 is
present in the products. Excess air is usually expressed as a percentage of the theoretical air. But in actual
combustion, although there is an amount of excess air, the presence of CO and other emission gases in the products
cannot be avoided.
Example: 25% excess air is the same as 125% theoretical air.

COMBUSTION OF HYDROCARBON FUEL(CnHm)

A) Combustion of CnHm with 100% theoretical air

CnHm  aO2  a(3.76)N2  bCO2  cH2O  a(3.76)N2
where
a  n  0.25m
bn
c  0.5m

 A  137.28(n  0.25m) kg of air

  
 F t 12n  m kg of CnHm

B) With excess air

CnHm  (1  e)aO2  (1  e)a(3.76)N2  bCO2  cH2O  dO2  (1  e)a(3.76)N2

where
d  e(n  0.25m)
A 137.28(1  e)(n  0.25m) kg of air
    Actual A/F Ratio
 F a 12n  m kg of CnHm

Note: The values of a,b,c, and d above in terms of n and m is applicable only for the combustion of one type of
hydrocarbon.

EQUIVALENCE RATIO

(F A )actual
ER 
(F A )Stoichiome tric
DEW POINT TEMPERATURE
The Dew Point Temperature (tdp) is the saturation temperature corresponding the partial pressure of the water vapor in
the mixture (products of combustion).

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
Ultimate Analysis gives the amount of C, H2, O2, N2, S and moisture in percentages by mass, sometimes the
percentage amount of Ash is given.

A  O  kg of air
   11.44C  34.32 H2  2   4.29S
 F t  8  kg of fuel
where: C, H, O and S are in decimals obtained from the Ultimate Analysis

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
Proximate Analysis gives the percentage amount of Fixed Carbon, Volatiles, Ash and Moisture.

100%  %FC  %Volatiles  %Ash  %Moisture

ORSAT ANALYSIS
Orsat Analysis gives the volumetric or molal analysis of the products of combustion or exhaust gases on a Dry Basis.

100%  %CO2  %O2  %N2  %CO  %NOx  %CH  ...

MASS FLOW RATE OF FLUE GAS
a) Without considering Ash loss:

A 
mgas  mFuel   1
F 

b) Considering Ash loss

A 
mgas  mFuel   1  Ash Loss 
F 

where ash loss in decimal

Combustion with CO in the products due to incomplete combustion (100% theoretical air)

CnHm  aO2  a(3.76)N2  bCO2  cH2O  dCO  a(3.76)N2

Combustion with CO in the products due to incomplete combustion (with excess air)

CnHm  (1 e)aO2  (1 e)a(3.76)N2  bCO2  cH2O  dCO  fO2  (1 e)a(3.76)N2

Typical Real-World Engine Combustion Process:

Fuel (CnHm)  Air (O 2 and N2 )  CO2  H2O  O 2  N2  CH(VOC' s)  CO  NOx

CH(VOC' s) - Volatile Organic Compounds
CO - Carbon Monoxide
NO x - Nitrogen Oxides
Emissions

Emissions are any kind of substance released into the air from natural or human sources — flows of gases, liquid
droplets or solid particles. Not all emissions become air pollutants, but many do, causing significant health and
environmental problems. The amount of air pollutants in an area depends on the number and size of emission sources,
along with the weather and lay of the land.

The main sources of emissions are:

 Point Sources
Point sources are stationary industrial facilities such as pulp and paper mills and factories that burn fossil fuels. They
operate under ministry authorization (a regulation, permit, approval, or code of conduct), or under an air-discharge
permit issued by Philippine Govt.
 Area Sources
Area sources are stationary sources that are not normally required to obtain a discharge permit from the ministry. They
include prescribed burning, residential wood use, light industry, and other residential, commercial and institutional
sources. Emissions from most of these area sources individually are small compared to point sources, but can be
significant when considered collectively.

 Mobile Sources
Mobile sources include motor vehicles mainly involved in the transportation of people and goods (e.g., passenger cars,
trucks and motorcycles), aircraft, marine vessels, trains, off-road vehicles, and small off-road engines (e.g., agricultural,
lawn/garden, construction and recreational equipment).

 Natural Sources
Natural sources of emissions occur in nature without the influence of human beings, such as wildfires, plants, wildlife
and marine aerosol.

Pollutants:

Air pollutants are any gas, liquid or solid substance that have been emitted into the atmosphere and are in high enough
concentrations to be considered harmful to the environment, or human, animal and plant health.

Pollutants emitted directly into the air are called "primary pollutants." "Secondary" pollutants" are formed in the air, when
they react with other pollutants. Ground-level ozone is an example of a secondary pollutant that forms when nitrogen
oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight.

We come in contact with many kinds of air pollutants every day. Depending on the type and amount emitted, these
pollutants may affect air quality at the local, regional, and/or global scale. For example, smoke from woodstoves or
backyard burning, and motor vehicle exhaust are pollutant mixtures that affect air quality in our neighborhoods and
communities, and inside our homes. Smoke from forest fires or ground-level ozone can cover an entire region. Long-
lasting pollutants can contribute to serious global problems, such as ozone depletion and climate change.

An air pollutant can become dangerous to our health when we are exposed to it for a long time, and also when we
breathe in a large amount of it. Health effects can last for a short while (e.g., coughing) or become a long-term problem
(e.g., lung and heart disease, cancer). Pollution can also cause death. The young, the elderly and those with pre-existing
heart or lung disease are the most sensitive to the effects of air pollution.

Common Pollutants

Air pollutants can be visible (e.g., the brownish-yellow colour of smog) or invisible. Besides affecting human health and
the environment, air pollutants can also hamper our ability to see very far (visibility).

Air pollution can have local and regional impacts — such as ground-level ozone and wood smoke. It can also have
wide-reaching, global effects — such as climate change and depletion of the ozone layer.

Health effects from local air pollution can last for a short while (e.g., coughing) or become a long-term problem (e.g.,
lung and heart disease, cancer). Pollution can also cause death. An air pollutant can become dangerous to our health
when we are exposed to it for a long time, as well as when we breathe in a large amount of it.

The Most Significant Air Pollutants

The air pollutants that pose the most serious local threat to our health are particulate matter andground-level ozone —
the key ingredients of smog. They mainly affect the lowest part of the atmosphere, which holds the air we breathe.
Particulate matter is a significant problem in rural areas, as well, due to wood burning.

Particulate Matter (PM)

Particulate matter refers to tiny solid or liquid particles that float in the air. Some particles are large or dark enough to
be seen as smoke, soot or dust. Others are so small that they can only be detected with a powerful, electron microscope.
PM occurs in two forms: primary and secondary.

 Primary PM is emitted directly into the atmosphere by wood burning (e.g., in wood stoves, open burning, wood
stoves) and fossil fuel burning (e.g., in motor vehicles, oil/gas furnaces and industry). Primary PM also includes
pollen, spores and road dust.
 Secondary PM is formed in the atmosphere through chemical reactions involving nitrogen dioxide, sulphur
dioxide, volatile organic compounds and ammonia.
We measure particulate matter in microns (micrometres). One micron is a millionth of a metre. Particulate matter
between 10 and 2.5 microns in diameter or less is called PM10. That’s about seven times smaller than the width of a
human hair. It is invisible to the naked eye and small enough to inhaled into our nose and throat.
Particulate matter that’s 2.5 microns and less is called PM2.5. This is the particulate matter of greatest concern because
it can travel deep into the lungs and become lodged there, causing heart and lung disease, and premature death. Fine
particles that comprise PM2.5 are also efficient at scattering light, resulting in a degradation in visibility.

Ground-Level Ozone (O3)

Ground-level ozone is formed by the reaction of two types of chemicals — volatile organic compounds and nitrogen
oxide — in the presence of sunshine and warm temperatures. When the air is still (stagnant), the ozone will build up.

Ground-level ozone usually occurs in the warmer months of the year. Ground-level ozone collects over urban areas that
produce large amounts of VOCs and NOx. Rural areas can be affected, too, though. That’s because the ozone can
travel up to several hundred kilometres away, carried by the wind.

Low concentrations of ground-level ozone can irritate the eyes, nose and throat. Ozone can also irritate the lung airways,
and make them red and swollen (inflammation). People with lung problems are most at risk, but even healthy people
who are active outdoors can be affected when ozone levels are high.

Exhaust Pollutants

HYDROCARBONS (HC): Hydrocarbon emissions result when fuel molecules in the engine do not burn or burn only
partially. Hydrocarbons react in the presence of nitrogen oxides and sunlight to form ground-level ozone, a major
component of smog. Ozone can irritate the eyes, damage lungs, and aggravate respiratory problems. It is our most
widespread urban air pollution problem. Some kinds of exhaust hydrocarbons are also toxic, with the potential to cause
cancer.

NITROGEN OXIDES (NOx): Under the high pressure and high temperature conditions in an engine, nitrogen and
oxygen atoms in the air we breathe react to form various nitrogen oxides, collectively known as NOx. Nitrogen oxides,
like hydrocarbons, are precursors to the formation of ozone. They also contribute to the formation of acid rain.

CARBON MONOXIDE (CO): Carbon monoxide is a product of incomplete combustion and occurs when carbon in the
fuel is partially oxidized rather than fully oxidized to carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide reduces the flow of oxygen in the
bloodstream and is particularly dangerous to persons with heart disease.

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2): Carbon dioxide does not directly impair human health, but it is considered a “greenhouse
gas”. In other words, as it accumulates in the atmosphere, it is believed to trap the earth’s heat and contribute to the
potential for climate change.

Evaporative Emissions

HYDROCARBONS: Hydrocarbons also escape into the air through fuel evaporation. With today’s efficient exhaust
emission controls and today’s clean burning gasoline formulations, evaporative losses can account for a majority of the
total hydrocarbon pollution from current model cars on hot days when ozone levels are highest. Evaporative emissions
occur from fuel.

Other Kinds of Air Pollutants

There are many more air pollutants than particulate matter and ground-level ozone. They are usually grouped into four
categories, as shown in the table below.

Pollutant Category Types of Pollutants

Common Air Contaminants(CACs)

(also known as "criteria air contaminants") particulate matter (PM), sulphur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO) and ammonia (NH3).

Ground-level ozone (O3) is often included with CACs because it is a byproduct of CAC interactions.

Persistent Organic Pollutants(POPs)

e.g., dioxins and furans

Heavy Metals

e.g., mercury

Air Toxics
e.g., benzene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs)

Table of Common Pollutants

Not included here are the pollutants that influence the larger atmosphere, causing global environmental
problems: stratospheric ozone depletion and global climate change.

MAIN (COMMON) POLLUTANTS

Pollutant Description and Sources Health Impact Environment

Particulate Matter (PM)

Dust, soot, and tiny bits of solid material. PM10 — Particles smaller than 10µm (microns) in diameter.

Far too small to see — 1/8th the width of a human hair. • Road dust; road construction

• Mixing and applying fertilizers/ pesticides

• Forest fires

• Coarse particles irritate the nose and throat, but do not normally penetrate deep into the lungs. • PM is the main
source of haze that reduces visibility.

• It takes hours to days for PM10 to settle out of the air.

• Because they are so small, PM2.5 stays in the air much longer than PM10, taking days to weeks to be removed.

• PM can make lakes and other sensitive areas more acidic, causing changes to the nutrient balance and harming
aquatic life.

PM2.5–Particles smaller than 2.5µm in diameter • Combustion of fossil fuels and wood (motor vehicles, woodstoves
and fireplaces)

• Industrial activity

• Garbage incineration

• Agricultural burning • Fine particles are small enough to make their way deep into the lungs. They are associated
with all sorts of health problems — from a runny nose and coughing, to bronchitis, asthma, emphysema, pneumonia,
heart disease, and even premature death.

• PM2.5 is the worst public health problem from air pollution in the province. (Research indicates the number of hospital
visits increases on days with increased PM levels).

Ground level Ozone (O3)

Bluish gas with a pungent odour • At ground level, ozone is formed by chemical reactions between volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the presence of sunlight.

• VOCs and NO2 are released by burning coal, gasoline, and other fuels; and naturally by plants and trees.

• Exposure for 6-7 hours, even at low concentrations, significantly reduces lung function and causes respiratory
inflammation in healthy people during periods of moderate exercise. Can be accompanied by symptoms such as chest
pain, coughing, nausea, and pulmonary congestion. Impacts on individuals with pre-existing heart or respiratory
conditions can be very serious.

• Ozone exposure can contribute to asthma, and reduced resistance to colds and other infections. • Ozone can
damage plants and trees, leading to reduced yields.

• Leads to lung and respiratory damage in animals.

• Ozone can also be good: the ozone layer above the earth (the stratosphere) protects us from harmful ultraviolet rays.

Other Pollutants • sulphur dioxide (SO2)

• carbon monoxide (CO)

• nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

• total reduced sulphur (TRS)

• volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

• persistent organic pollutants (POPs)

• lead (Pb)

• polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

• dioxins and furans

Most of these pollutants come from combustion and industrial processes or the evaporation of paints and common
chemical products. • The health impacts of these pollutants are varied.

• Sulphur dioxide (SO2), for example, can transform in the atmosphere to sulphuric acid, a major component of acid
rain.

• Carbon monoxide is fatal at high concentrations, and causes illness at lower concentrations.

• Dioxins and furans are among the most toxic chemicals in the world. • While some of these pollutants have local
impact on the environment (e.g., lead) or are relatively short lived (NO2) some are long lived (POPs) and can travel the
world on wind currents in the upper atmosphere.

Combustion of Hydrocarbon Fuel

a) With 100% theoretical air

CnHm  aO2  a(3.76)N2  bCO2  cH2O  a(3.76)N2

where
a  n  0.25m
bn
c  0.5m
b) With excess air e

CnHm  (1  e)aO2  (1  e)a(3.76)N2  bCO2  cH2O  dO2  (1  e)a(3.76)N2

where
d  e(n  0.25m)
 c) With exhaust pollutants (emission gases)
CnHm  aO 2  a(3.76)N 2 )  bCO2  cH2O  dO 2  fN2  gCH  hCO  iNOx
CH(VOC' s) - Volatile Organic Compounds
CO - Carbon Monoxide
NOx - Nitrogen Oxides
Note : The above values of a, b, c and d in terms of n and m may not apply to actual
combustion process

Combustion of Solid Fuels

a) Combustion with 100% theoretical air

aC  bH2  cO2  dN2  fS  gH2O  xO 2  x(3.76)N2  hCO2  iH2O  jSO2  kN2

b) Combustion with Excess air e

aC  bH2  cO 2  dN2  fS  gH2O  (1  e)xO 2  (1  e)x(3.76)N2  hCO 2  iH2O  jSO 2 

LO2  mN 2

c) Combustion with exhaust pollutants (emission gases)

aC  bH2  cO 2  dN2  fS  gH2O  (1  e)xO 2  (1  e)x(3.76)N2  hCO 2  iH2O  jSO 2 

LO 2  mN 2  nCO  oCH  pNO x

Note: In balancing combustion equation for Solid fuels, convert the Ultimate Analysis of Coal to Molal or
volumetric analysis, then reduced to and Ashless basis

Example: Reduction of coal analysis to Molal ashless analysis

Kg of C per kg of CO2 formed

C  O2  CO2
12  32  44
3  8  11
kg of C 3

kg of CO2 11

Kg of H per kg of H2O formed

H 2  1 2 O 2  H2 O
2  16  18
1 8  9
kg of H 1

kg of H2O 9

Kg of S per kg of SO2 formed

S  O2  SO2
32  32  64
1 1  2
kg of S 1

kg of SO2 2

Total Mass of Products

mPr oducts  niMi

mPr oducts  nCO2MCO2  nH2OMH2O  nO2MO2  nSO 2MSO 2  nN2MN2  nCOMCO  nCHMCH  nNOxMNOx

Total Moles of Products

nPr oducts  ni

nPr oducts  nCO2  nH2O  nO2  nSO 2  nN2  nCO  nCH  nNOx

Dew Point Temperature

t dp  ( tsat ) Saturation temperatur e correspond ing the partial pressure of H2O (PH2O )
nH2O
PH2O  (P)
nPr oducts
P  total pressure of product

Total Moles of Dry Flue Gas

nDry Flue Gas  nCO2  nO2  nSO 2  nN2  nCO  nCH  nNOx
% of CO2 in the dry flue gas

nCO2 nCO2
x 100%  x 100%
nDry Flue Gas nCO2  nO2  nSO 2  nN2  nCO  nCH  nNOx
Total Mass of Fuel

a. For Hydrocarbon of Hydrocarbon Mixture

mFuel  nFMF

b. For Solid Fuels

mFuel  niMi
mFuel  nCMC  nH2MH2  nO2MO2  nN2MN2  nSMS  nH2OMH2O

Mass Flow Rate of Products (Known Fuel flow rate)

kg m kg
of Products  Products x Fuel Flow Rate
hr mFuel hr

Volume of Products at the product Pressure and Temperature (m 3)

nPr oducts (R)T 3

VPr oducts  m
P

Volume flow rate of Products at the product Pressure and Temperature (m 3/hr)

m3 V m3
of Products  Products x Fuel Flow Rate n
hr mFuel hr

Molecular Weight of Products

nCO2MCO2  nH2OMH2O  nO 2MO2  nSO 2MSO 2  nCOMCO  nCHMCH  nNOxMNOx  nN2MN2  ...niM
M
nPr oducts
Gas Constant of Products

8.3143 KJ
R
M kg - K
(niMi )Ri
R  xiRi 
(niMi )
Specific Heat of Products

Cp  x iCpi
C v  x i C v i
R  Cp  C v
Cp
k
Cv
Rk KJ
Cp 
k  1 kg - K
R KJ
Cv 
k  1 kg - K

Example No. 1: In the figure below, Determine

a. Percent excess air
b. Volumetric Analysis of Products
c. Orsat Analysis

Combustion equation of CH4 with 100% theoretical air

CH4  2O 2  7.52N2  CO2  2H2O  7.52N2
A
   17.16
 F  Theoretica l
A 4000
    20
 F  Actual 200
A A
   (1  e) 
 F  Actual  F  Theoretica l
20
e  1  0.14  14%
17.6
Actual combustion equation
CH4  (1.14)2O 2  (1.14)7.52N2  CO2  2H2O  dO 2  (1.14)7.52N2
d  e(n  0.25m)  0.28
CH4  2.28O 2  8.573N2  CO2  2H2O  0.28O 2  8.573N2
Example No. 2 (Combustion of Gasoline)
Typical gasoline C8H18 is burned with 20% excess air by weight. Find
a. the air-fuel ratio
b. the percentage CO2 by volume in the dry exhaust gases
c. kg of water vapor formed per kg of fuel
d. volume of dry exhaust gas per kg of fuel if T = 290 K and P = 101.33 KPa
e. the partial pressure of the water vapor in the exhaust
f. the dew point temperature of the products

Fuel: C8H18
Excess air: e = 20%
Product Temperature = 290 K
Product Pressure = 101.33 KPa

Combustion with 100% theoretical air

C8H18  aO2  a(3.76)N2  bCO2  cH2O  a(3.76)N2
C8H18  12.5O2  47N2  8CO2  9H2O  47N2
Combustion with e = 20%
C8H18  (1.20)12.5O2  (1.20)47N2  8CO2  9H2O  dO2  (1.20)47N2
C8H18  15O2  56.4N2  8CO2  9H2O  2.5O2  56.4N2  Actual Combustion eq.

a. Actual Air – Fuel Ratio

A 15(32)  (56.4)( 28)
    18.06
 F  ACTUAL 12(8)  1(18)

b. the percentage CO2 by volume in the dry exhaust gases

nd  moles of dry exhaust gas
nd  8  2.5  56.4  66.9
8
y CO2  x100%  11.95%
66.9
c. kg of water vapor formed per kg of fuel
n  moles of exhaust gas
nd  8  9  2.5  56.4  75.9
kgH2O  9(18)  162 kg
kgH2O 162 162 kg
   1.42
kgC8H18 12(8)  1(18) 114 kg
d. volume of dry exhaust gas per kg of fuel if T = 290 K and P = 101.33 KPa

nd  moles of dry exhaust gas

nd  8  2.5  56.4  66.9
PV  nRT
66.9(8.3143)( 290) 3
Vd  m
101.33
Vd  1,591.9 m3
Vd 1,591.9 m3
  14
kgC8H18 114 kgC8H18
e. the partial pressure of the water vapor in the exhaust
n  moles of exhaust gas
n  8  9  2.5  56.4  75.9
9
y H2 O  x100%  11.86%
75.9
P
y H2 O  H2 O
P
PH2O  0.1186(101.33)  12.015 KPa
f. the dew point temperature of the products
DPT  saturation temperatur e correspond ing PH2O
PH2O  12.015 KPa
From Steam Table
DPT  46.467C
if the mixture is cooled below DPT, condensati on of H2O in the
mixture will occur

COMBUSTION ENGINEERING
(Activity No. 2- January 14, 2017)
Name ________________________________

The following data were obtained from a boiler test: Heat absorbed by is 75% of the HHV of coal fuel as fired.
Ultimate analysis of coal as fired is; C = 62%, H2 = 4%, O2 = 8%, N2 = 1 %, S = 2%, H2O = 8% and Ash = 15%. Orsat
analysis is: CO2 = 13%, CO = 1%, O2 = 5% and N2 = 81%. Fuel and air temperature and pressure are, 25C and 101
KPa, respectively. Flue gas temperature is 300C and P = 101 KPa. Determine
a. Ultimate analysis on an ashless basis
b. Molal analysis of fuel on an ashless basis
c. Combustion equation
d. Actual air – fuel ratio in kg/kg
e. Volumetric Analysis of Products
f. Molecular Weight and Gas Constant of Products
g. Cubic meter of CO2 per kg of fuel burnt
h. Cubic meter of CO per kg of Fuel burnt
i. Cubic meter of SO2 per kg of fuel burnt
 Ultimate xi % yi %
Fuel Mi xi/Mi
Analysis (Ashless) (Ashless)

C 62 72.94 12 6.08 64.9

H2 4 4.71 2 2.35 25.1

O2 8 9.41 32 0.29 3.1

N2 1 1.18 28 0.04 0.4

S 2 2.35 32 0.07 0.8

H20 8 9.41 18 0.52 5.6

ASH 15 - - - -

100 100 9.36 100

Mi Mass
Air ORSAT ANALYSIS
yi % Mass (kg/kgm) (kg)
Fuel
(Ashless) (kg) Mass
Gas ni Mi Components ni
(kg)
C 64.9 779.0 O2 16.0 32 511.4 CO2 13 44 572.0

H2 25.1 50.3 N2 80.6 28 2255.4 H2O 5.26 18 94.6

O2 3.1 100.5 SO2 0.8 64 50.3

N2 0.4 12.6 O2 5 32 160.0

S 0.8 25.1 N2 81 28 2268.0

H20 5.6 100.5 CO 1 28 28.0

ASH - - CH 50.9 13 661.9

100 1067.9 2766.8 157.0 3834.7

3834.7

ORSAT ANALYSIS Volumetric

Mi (kg/kgm) yiMi
Components ni Analysis

CO2 13 44 8.3 5.7

H2O 5.26 18 3.3 0.9

SO2 0.8 64 0.5 0.5

O2 5 32 3.2 1.6

N2 81 28 51.6 22.7

CO 1 28 0.6 0.3

CH 50.9 13 32.4 6.6

157.0 100 M = 38.3

R = 0.217
 ORSAT ANALYSIS

Components ni P

CO2 13 613.2 101

H2O 5.26 247.9 T

SO2 0.8 37.0 573

O2 5 235.8

N2 81 3820.7

CO 1 47.2

CH 50.9 2401.5

COMBUSTION ENGINEERING
(Activity No. 5 - February 11, 2017)
Name ________________________________

1. A gaseous fuel mixture has the following volumetric analysis, CH4 = 60% ; CO = 30% and O2 = 10% If this fuel
is burned with 30% excess air by volume, determine
a. The combustion equation
b. The actual fuel ratio
c. The Orsat analysis
d. The dew point temperature
Combustion Equation
60CH4  30CO  10O2  162.5O2  611N2  90CO2  120H2O  37.5O2  611N2
A
 10.52
F
ORSAT ANALYSIS
CO2  12.2%
O2  5.1%
N2  82.7%
DPT  52.8C
2. Calculate the theoretical Oxygen/fuel ratio and Air/fuel ratio on a mass basis for the combustion of ethanol,
C2H5OH.
C2H5OH  aO2  a(3.76)N2  bCO2  cH2O  a(3.76)N2
C2H5OH  3O2  11.28N2  2CO2  3H2O  11.28N2
A kg
 8.95
F kg
A mol
 14.28
F mol
O2 kg
 2.09
Fuel kg

3. Producer gas from bituminous coal contains following molar analysis.

CH4 = 3 % , H2 = 14.0%, N2 = 50.9%, O2 = 0.6%, CO = 27.0% and CO2 = 4.5%. This is burned with 25%
excess air, Calculate the air/fuel ratio on a volumetric basis and on a mass basis.
3CH4  14H2  50.9N2  0.6O2  27CO  4.5CO2  32.38O2  121.73N2 
34.5CO2  20H2O  6.48O2  172.63N2
A kg
 1.8
F kg
A mol
 1.54
F mol
COMBUSTION ENGINEERING
SPECIAL EXAM

A steam boiler of a SPP burns 1000 kg/hr of coal having an ultimate analysis of C = 57% ; H2 = 5% ;O2 = 18% ; N2 =
1.05% ; S = 4.45% ; M = 11% ; Ash = 3.5 % .Excess air required for complete combustion is 50%. The plant elevation
is 760 m and sea level condition is Ps = 760 mm Hg and Ts = 300K. The average flue gas temperature in the brick
stack is expected to be 220C, and an actual draft of 29.93 mm of H2O with 10% losses. Velocity coefficient k in the
stack is 0.45. Determine the following,
a. The Ultimate analysis of coal on an “Ashless Basis”
b. The Volumetric or Molal analysis on an “Ashless” basis
c. The Combustion equation
d. The actual air/fuel ratio
e. The Molecular weight and Gas constant of the products
f. The theoretical draft in mm of H2O
g. The theoretical and actual velocity of the flue gas in the stack
h. The required height and diameter of the smoke stack in meters
Note: Assume standard lapse rate in the atmosphere prevails, and round off your answers to two decimal places.

COMBUSTION PROBLEMS
Problem 1: Calculate the theoretical oxygen and air required to burn 1 kmol of carbon, and 1 kmol of
Hydrogen.

Problem 2: Calculate the theoretical Oxygen--fuel ratio and Air--fuel ratio on a mass basis for the
combustion of ethanol, C2H5OH.

Problem 3: Determine the molal analysis of the products of combustion when octane C8H18 is burned with
100% excess air.

Problem 4: A certain fuel has the composition C10H22. If this fuel is burned with 50% excess air, what is the
composition of the products of combustion?

Problem 5: A sample of pine bark has the following ultimate analysis, percent by mass: 5.6% H, 53.4% C,
0.1% S, 0.1% N, 37.9% O, and 2.9% ash. This bark will be used as a fuel by burning it with no excess air in
a furnace. Determine the air--fuel ratio on a mass basis and the molar analysis of products of combustion.

Problem 6: Producer gas from bituminous coal contains following molar analysis.

Methane 3.0%; Hydrogen 14.0%; Nitrogen 50.9%; Oxygen 0.6%; Carbon monoxide 27.0% and carbon
dioxide 4.5%.

This is burned with 25% excess air, Calculate the air--fuel ratio on a volumetric basis and on a mass basis.

Problem 7: Coal from a mine, has the following ultimate analysis, percent by mass:

Sulfur 0.6%, Hydrogen 5.7%, Carbon 79.2%, Oxygen 10.0%, Nitrogen 1.5%, and Ash 3.0%.

This coal is to be burned with 30% excess air. Calculate the air--fuel ratio on a mass basis.

Problem 8: The ultimate analysis of a sample of Bituminous coal received from a mine contains 74.4% of
Carbon, 12% of Hydrogen, 2% of Oxygen and 3.8% of Sulfur. Calculate the amount of theoretical dry air
required for complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel.

Problem 9: The proximate and ultimate analyses of a certain coal are given below. From these calculate
the theoretical dry air-fuel ratio required for complete combustion. \begin{center}

Proximate Ultimate
M = 5.0% C = 65.3%
VM = 38.0% H = 5.37%
FC = 43.07% O = 10.69%
A = 10.39% N = 1.50%
S = 3.75%

Problem 10: Butane is burned with air and a volumetric analysis of the combustion products on a dry basis
yields the following composition.

CO2 = 7.8%, CO = 1.1%, O2 = 8.2% and N2 = 82.9%

Determine the percent of excess air used in this combustion process.

Problem 11: A solid fuel is burned with air and the following volumetric analysis on a dry basis is obtained
from the products of combustion.

CO2 = 10.5%, O2 = 5.3% and N2 = 84.2%

Determine the composition of the fuel on a mass basis and the percent of
excess air utilized in the combustion process.

Problem 12: An old boiler test provides the data as follows:

Fuel ultimate analysis:

C = 57.5% ; N = 1.0% ; H = 3.7%

S = 3.3% & O = 5.8% : A = 16.5%
M = 12.0%

HHV = 25586 kJ/kg

Flue Gas analysis:

CO2 = 13.0% ; O2 = 7.0% CO = 1.0% ; N2 = 79.0%

Combustible solid refuse = 20% : Flue gas temperature = 1850C:

Relative humidity of Air 64%. The radiation and unaccounted-for loss is
assumed to be 3%. Calculate the boiler efficiency.

Problem 13:

Calculate the boiler heat balance on the dry basis for the data as follows:

Fuel ultimate analysis:

C = 71.81% ; N = 1.2% ; H = 5.23%

S = 3.34% ; O = 10.15% &; A = 8.27%
HHV = 30428 kJ/kg

Flue Gas analysis:

CO2 = 14.2% ; O2 = 4.3% ; CO = 0.3% & N2 = 81.2%

Combustible Solid Refuse = 0.115 kg per kg of coal burned

Flue gas temperature = 2400C

Fuel and room temperature = 300C

Relative humidity of Air = 50%.