1.

Temperature

1.1. Definition of temperature and its related terms

1.2. Temperature scales
1.3. Types of Temperature measurement
1.4. Resistance temperature detector (RTD)
1.5. Thermistors
1.6. Thermocouple

2. Pressure

2.1. Definition of pressure and its related terms

2.2. Parts of pressure instruments
2.3. Types of pressure sensors
2.4. Types of pressure transducers
2.5. Effect of environmental conditions on transducers
2.6. Low pressure measurement
2.7. Pressure switch
2.8. Liquid or Steam Pressure measurement
2.9. Failures and Abnormalities
5. Transmitters

5.1. Definition of transmitter

5.2. Types of transmitters
5.3. Pneumatic Transmitters
5.4. Differential Pressure Transmitter
5.5. Electronic Transmitter
5.6. Three-Valve Manifold
5.7. Operational Sequences of Three-Valve Manifold
5.8. Accessories
 1. TEMPERATURE
OBJECTIVES:

Upon Completion of this training one should be able to understand:

 Basic terms related to temperature 


 Different scales conversion 

 Basic temperature measuring techniques 

 RTD’s and its application 

 Thermocouple and its applications 

 Comparison betweenandThermocouplesRTD’s 

 State the effect on the indicated temperature for failures, open circuit and short
circuit; 
1.1 Temperature
Can be defined as

a) The condition of a body which determines the transfer of heat to or from

other bodies.
Or
b) The degree of hotness or coldness as referenced to a specific scale of
temperature measurement.

HEAT:

Energy that flows through a body and causes it, to increase its temperature, melt, boil,
expand, or undergo other changes is called heat.

Unit of heat is BTU (British thermal unit). The amount of thermal energy required to
raise the temperature of 1 lb of water 1 degree F at atmospheric pressure.
1 BTU = 1055 joules.

Calorie:

The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water 1 deg C
(starting at 15 deg C) at atmospheric pressure. 1 Cal = 4.184 joule.

Specific heat:

It is defined as the ratio of heat required to raise the temperature of a certain weight of a
substance 1oF to that required to raise the temperature of the same weight of water 1 oF
(measured under constant pressure)

Vaporization:

The change of physical state from liquid to gas is called vaporization.

Condensation:

The change of physical state from gas to liquid is called condensation.

6
 Latent heat of vaporization:

The amount of heat necessary to change a substance at the boiling point from liquid to
gas is called latent heat of vaporization.

Fusion:

The change of physical state from liquid to solid is called fusion (or freezing).

Melting:

The change of physical state from solid to liquid is called melting.

Latent heat of fusion:

The amount of heat that must be removed as a substance changes from a liquid to a
solid, or added as the solid becomes liquid is referred to as the latent heat of fusion.

1.2 Temperature scales:

Celsius: Melting point of ice is 0 and boiling point is 100.

oC = (oF –32) / 1.8.

Fahrenheit: Melting point of ice is 32 and boiling point is 212.

oF = (1.8 * oC ) + 32.

Kelvin: It is absolute scale.

K = oC +273.15.

Rankine:

oR = oF +459.67

7
Absolute zero:

A hypothetical temperature at which a substance would have no thermal energy. T

(abs.) = -273.15 oC

Triple point:

The temperature at which gaseous, liquid, and solid states of a substance exist
simultaneously.

For example, the triple point of mercury occurs at a temperature°Cand of pressure of 0.2 mPa.

THREE DIFFERENT SCALES AND THEIR COMPARISONS

 1.3 Types of Temperature measurement:
All temperature measurements in industry are of two basic groups.

i. Non Electric Type

Bimetallic, Liquid in glass, Filled thermal system.

ii. Electric Type

Thermocouple, RTD, Thermistors, Pyrometer (Radiation & Optical)

Temperature Indication:

Temperature is indicated by the changes it causes in certain instruments.

 Changes in density ( liquid in glass thermometers) 


 Changes in length or volume (bimetallic or filled system) 

 Voltage generated at junction of dissimilar metals (thermocouple) 

 Resonant frequency of crystals (quartz thermometers) 

 Changes in electrical resistance (Resistance thermometers) 
TEMPERATURE RANGES FOR DIFFERENT TEMPERATURE MEASURING DEVICES

10
 BIMETALLIC THERMOMETERS

Coefficient of thermal expansion:

It is the change in length or volume of a substance per degree of temperature change.

DIFFERENT CONDITIONS OF A BIMETAL STRIP

11
 APPLICATION OF A BIMETAL STRIP IN A TEMPERATURE GAUGE

If one end of strip is fixed , the distance the other end bends is directly proportional to
the square of the length of the metal strip, as well as to the total change in temperature,
while inversely proportional to the thickness of the metal. Invar (alloy of iron and
nickel) is used as low expansion material while brass (alloy of copper and zinc) is used
as high expansion material.

AN INDUSTRIAL TEMPERATURE A TEMPERATURE GAUGE AT CO-GEN

GAUGE PLANT
 LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETERS:

Its operation is based on the principle that liquids expand as temperature increases. It
consists of a small bore glass tube with a thin wall glass tube at its lower end. Liquid
filled is usually mercury or an organic compound.

FILLED THERMAL SYSTEMS:

The basic components of a filled system thermometer are

o Thermometer bulb
o Capillary tube
o Bourdon tube

The entire system is filled with filling fluid. A change in temperature causes the fluid to
expand or contract, in turn causing the bourdon tube to move.

Liquid filled system:

A bulb is inserted into the substance to be measured. Filling liquid inside the bulb
(commonly toluene or xylene) is heated or cooled until the temperature of the filling
liquid matches the temperature of the measured substance. Mercury is also used as
filling fluid due to rapid response to temperature changes.

A LIQUID FILLED THERMOMETER AND ITS DIFFERENT PARTS

13
Gas filled systems:
It operates on the principle that the pressure of a confined gas varies directly with its
absolute temperature.
P=kT, where k=constant, and T=absolute temperature.
Nitrogen gas is normally used as filled gas.

A
GAS FILLED TEMPERATURE GAUGE

Vapor pressure systems:

Liquid in vapor pressure system vaporizes during operation. Bulb is partially filled
with liquid while capillary and bourdon are filled with vapor. Liquids used are methyl
chloride, sulfur dioxide, ether alcohol, and toluene.
A gas remains gaseous under pressure at normal room temperature, but a vapor under
pressure at normal room temperature returns to its liquid or solid state.

Thermometer bulbs:

It is usually made of stainless steel due to good heat transfer properties.

Plain bulb: Not used where rapid response is important.

Averaging bulb: provides rapid response to temperature changes.

1
 Capillary bulb: It is wound in helix, increasing surface area and improving response
time.

THREE DIFFERENT TYPES OF BULBS

Capillary tube:

A capillary should contain the smallest possible volume of filling fluid. Change of
temperature in liquid in capillary can cause movement of bourdon tube.

Bourdon tubes:

Helical bourdon tube is commonly used. Bourdon tube uncoils due to temperature rise
in system. An attached linkage is used to indicate system temperature.

Advantages

Filled system thermometers are used with accuracy of ±0.5%.

Their advantages are:

 Lesser maintenance 
 No electric power requirement 
 Satisfactory time response and accuracy. 

Disadvantage

The disadvantage is that the entire system usually must be replaced in case of failure.

15
1.4 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR:
It works on the principle that electrical resistance of any material increases with
temperature increase and vice versa. A piece of nickel or platinum wire can be used to
measure resistance for different temperatures.
RTD resistance elements are constructed of platinum, copper or nickel. The metal
should have a high coefficient of resistance (change in resistance that occurs with a
change in temperature).

A platinum RTD is normally used to measure precise temperature from -259 to 631
oC. Pt 100 means: its platinum and temperature is 0 oC at 100 ohms resistance.

Measurement of unknown resistance:

The electrical circuit used for temperature measurement is a Wheatstone bridge. The bridge converts
the RTD’s change in resistan four separate electrical resistors, one of which is the RTD.

The bridge is initially balanced, with voltage output equal to zero, because all four
resistors are equal. If the resistance of the RTD changes, due to a temperature changes,
the bridge becomes unbalanced, resulting in a voltage output other than zero.

16

A.RTD BRIDGE CIRCUIT B. RTD RESISTANCE VS VOLTAGE GRAPH

 In two conductors RTD, these conductors become part of resistance being measured,
so ambient temperature variation will result in error of net temperature.

A TWO WIRE RTD CIRCUIT

Three conductor RTD cable is mostly used to minimize the effect of ambient
temperature variations on cable.
In three lead circuit, L1 and L2 are in opposite arms of the bridge. The change in L1 is
equal to L2. Because L3 is in series with the input voltage, the bridge output voltage is
unaffected.

Four conductor RTD is used to reduce temperature effects on cable. This circuit is used
in a system with long lead wires whose temperature varies greatly during
measurement.

17
 HREE WIRE AND A FOUR WIRE RTD CIRCUIT

Resistance elements are usually long spring like wires enclosed in a metal sheath. The
platinum element is surrounded by a porcelain insulating material that prevents a short
circuit from developing between the wire and the sheath. The sheath is made of Inconel,
an alloy of nickel, iron, and chromium. This material has excellent corrosion resistance
and can be used in extremely harsh environments for long periods of time without
deteriorating.

The thermo well protects the RTD from any contamination or corrosion caused by the
gases or liquids being measured.

A heavy metal head, made of cast iron or aluminum, covers the terminal block
containing the electrical connections between the RTD and Wheatstone bridge.
The main advantage of RTD is stability, linearity and accuracy.
1
RTD Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:

•The response time compared to thermocouples is very fast. In the

order of fractions of a second.

•An RTD will not experience drift problems because it is not self powered.
 •Within its range it is more accurate and has higher sensitivity than a thermocouple.

•In an installation where long leads are required, the RTD does not
require special extension cable.

•Unlike thermocouples, radioactive radiation (beta, gamma and neutrons) has minimal
effect on RTDs since the parameter measured is resistance, not voltage.

Disadvantages:

•Because the metal used for a RTD must be in its purest form, they
are much more expensive than thermocouples.

• In general, an RTD is not capable of measuring as wide a temperature range as a

thermocouple.

•A power supply failure can cause erroneous readings Small changes in resistance are
being measured, thus all connections must be tight and free of corrosion, which will
create errors.

• Among the many uses in a nuclear station, RTDs can be found in the reactor area
temperature measurement and fuel channel coolant
temperature.

Failure Modes:

•An open circuit in the RTD or in the wiring between the RTD an19d the bridge will
cause a high temperature reading.

•Loss of power or a short within the RTD will cause a low

19 temperature reading.
1.5 THERMISTOR
Its name is derived from thermally sensitive resistor. Resistance of a thermistor varies as
a function of temperature. Thermistor is an electrical device made of solid
semiconductor with high temperature coefficient of resistivity.
It is usually made of complex metal oxides (manganese-nickel, manganese –nickel –
iron).
In negative coefficient thermistor resistance decreases as temperature increases.

A positive coefficient thermistor (resistance increases as temp. increases) is connected in

series with a control relay to react to temperature limits or overload conditions. As
temperature increases the resistance of thermistor increases. This causes current in the
relay coil to decrease, and relay trips out. It is used to protect industrial motors.
Thermistor is very sensitive so it often does not require wheat stone bridge.

They are used in range of -260 to 315 oC.

20
 TEMPERATURE CURVES OF RTD, THERMOCOUPLES AND THERMISTORS

1.6 THERMOCOUPLE:
It works on the principle that if two wires made of different metals are joined at one end
and joined ends are at different temperatures than the open ends, a small voltage is
produced across the open ends. Joined ends are called hot junction while open ends are
called cold junction.
To keep the wires apart, porcelain insulator is used for higher temperature.

For accurate temperature measurement, reference junction temperature must remain

constant. Indicating or recording instruments use internal and automatic cold junction
compensation. Either a thermistor directly measures mV in junction box and is
compensated for net temperature output or a thermocouple added to actual
thermocouple can give net temperature

21
INTERNAL CONSTRUCTION OF A THERMOCOUPLE

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A THERMOCOUPLE

22
 Two main classes of thermocouples are

Noble metal thermocouples: platinum or gold is used as one wire. Highly resistant to
corrosion, low electric resistivity, good repeatability. Type S,R and B are all noble metal
thermocouples.

Base metal thermocouples: type J, T, E, and K are all base metal thermocouples.
Thermal emf developed is dependant on metals of thermocouple. Common types of
thermocouples are as follows.

A).COPPER-CONSTANTAN (T TYPE)

Copper element used as positive conductor and constantan element for negative
conductor. Constantan contains 55% copper and 45% Nickel. This thermocouple is used
in Oxidizing or reducing atmosphere.
Range: -300 oF to +600 oF

B).IRON –CONSTANTAN (J TYPE)

Iron element is used as positive conductor and constantan element for negative
conductor. This thermocouple is used in Oxidizing or reducing atmosphere.
Range: -100 oF to +1500 oF

C).CHROMEL- ALUMEL (K TYPE)

Chromium alloy is used as positive conductor and Alumel element for negative
conductor.This thermocouple is used in Oxidizing atmosphere.
Range: -300 oF to +1600 oF

D).CHROMEL-CONSTANTAN (E TYPE)
•
• This thermocouple is used in Oxidizing atmosphere.
• Chromel = 90% Nickel & Chromium = 9%
• Constantan = 44% Nickel & Cupper = 55%
• Range: +32 oF to +1600 oF

23
 E). PLATINUM RHODIUM/PLATINUM (R ,B, S TYPE)
•
• This thermocouple is used in Oxidizing atmosphere.

• In R type thermo couple, pt = 87% & Rh = 13%

• Range: Up to +2700 oF
• In S type thermo couple, pt = 90% & Rh = 10%
• Range: 0 oF to +2100 oF
• In B type thermo couple, pt = 70% & Rh = 30%
• Range: 1472 oF to +3092 oF

TEMPERATURE RANGES OF DIFFERENT THERMOCOUPLES

2
2
An extension wire made of the same material as the thermocouple is referred to as
thermocouple wire, but a wire made of different material (with characteristics similar to
the thermocouple’s) is referred to as compens used for type T and J because material is not expensive.
Compensating lead wire is
normally made of copper or copper/nickel alloy.

A PICTURES EXPLAINING THE REFERENCE JUNCTION OF A THERMOCOUPLE

SPECIAL PURPOSE THERMOCOUPLES

HOT BLAST:
It has fast response. It is used to measure temperature of preheated air to furnace.
26
GASKET THERMOCOUPLE:
It is mounted on studs or bolts to measure skin temperature of process lines, shell
vessels or other process machinery.

TUBE WALL THERMOCOUPLE:

It is used to measure furnace tube temperature. It is installed by welding pad to tube or
other surface.
 SPECIAL FEATURES OF THERMOCOUPLES

THERMOPILE:

Thermocouples connected in series to measure net voltage of thermocouples.

THERMOPILE

DIFFERENTIAL TEMPERATURE:

Two thermocouples can be used for measuring differential temperature between two points.
Connections are made in such a way the temperature of both thermocouples is equal , net emf is zero.
It can be used to measure
differential temperature of top and bottom of steam line.

27
 AVERAGE TEMPERATURE:

To measure average temperature across a vessel or duct, thermocouples may be used in

parallel connection. Net voltage produced at instrument is average voltage developed
by thermocouples.

For accurate measurement, resistance of all thermocouples and extension wires should
be same. Due to variation in temperature of thermocouple and length of extension wire,
a swamping resistor is used (1.5 Kilo ohm normally)

Thermocouple Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages:

• Thermocouples are used on most transformers. The hot junction is inside the
transformer oil and the cold junction at the meter mounted on the outside. With this
simple and rugged installation, the meter directly reads the temperature rise of oil
above the ambient temperature of the location.

• In general, thermocouples are used exclusive their rugged construction and low cost.

• A thermocouple is wider capable temperature of range measuring a

than an RTD

Disadvantages:

• If the thermocouple is located some distance away from the measuring device,
expensive extension grade thermocouple wires or compensating cables have to be used.

(Rev
0)
• Thermocouples are easy where not high radiation used fields in a rear present (for
example, in the reactor vault). Radioactive radiation (e.g., Beta radiation from neutron
0
2
-

activation), will induce a voltage in the thermocouple wires. Since the signal from
GEN
|

thermocouple is also a voltage, the induced voltage will cause an error in the
temperature transmitter output.

• Thermocouples are slower in response than Instrumentation R Field

• If the control logic is remotely located and temperature transmitters (milli-volt to
milli- amp transducers) are used, a power supply failure will of course cause faulty
readings.

Failure Modes:

An open circuit in the thermocouple detector means that there is no path for current
flow, thus it will cause a low (off-scale) temperature reading.

A short circuit in the thermocouple detector will also cause a low temperature reading
because it creates a leakage current path to the ground and a smaller measured voltage.
2. PRESSURE

Learning Objectives:
Upon Completion of this topic one should be able to understand:

1. Pressure and its different units

2. Definitions Of pressure related terms and head pressure calculation
3. Types of pressure instruments and their detail
4. Types of pressure sensors and transducers
5. Pressure transmitter installation

6. State the effect of the following failures or abnormalities:

a) Over-pressuring a differential pressure cell or bourdon tube;

b) Diaphragm failure in a differential pressure cell;
c) Blocked or leaking sensing lines; and
d) Loss of loop electrical power.
Field Instrumentation | GEN-02 (Rev 0)

30
 2.1 Definition of Pressure:
Pressure is defined as force divided by the area over which it is applied. Pressure
is often defined in terms of “Head”. Pressure is a ba is utilized for measurement of flow
(difference of two pressures), level (liquid
pressure of back pressure from a bubble tube), and temperature (fluid pressure
in a filled thermal system).
Pressure is measured as force per unit area. In English system force is measured
in pounds and a common unit of pressure is pounds per square inch (psi). The
pressure of atmosphere at sea level under standard conditions is 14.696 psi
absolute.
UNITS OF PRESSURE

Gravity dependent units:

Units such as Psi, Kg/cm2, inches of water, and inches of mercury are all gravity
dependent. The force at the bottom of each column is proportional to the height,
density, and gravitational acceleration.

Gravity independent units:

Units such as pounds-force per square inch and Kilogram-force per centimeter
square are independent of gravity because a specific value of gravitational
acceleration was selected in defining these units. Pascal is exactly the same at
every point, even on moon, despite changes in gravitational acceleration.

Pascal:
The English or SI (systems international) unit of pressure is defined as the
pressure or stress that arises when a force of one Newton (N) is applied
uniformly over an area of one square meter (m2). This pressure has been
designated one Pascal (pa).
Pa=N/m2 (100Kpa=1 Kg/cm2)

Definitions

Absolute pressure: Pressure above perfect vacuum or zero absolute.

Atmospheric pressure: Pressure exerted by earth’s atm barometric pressure. Atmospheric
pressure at sea level is 14.7psia or 29.9 inches
of mercury absolute.
Gauge pressure: Pressure above atmospheric pressure.

31
 Figure 2.1 pressure scales

Differential pressure: It is difference between two pressures. The rate of flow

through a restriction in a pipe is proportional to the square root of the differential
pressure. The loss in pressure increases as the flow rate increases.

Vacuum: Pressure below atmospheric pressure.

Static pressure: Force per unit area exerted on a wall by a fluid at rest or flowing
parallel to a pipe wall. It is also called line pressure.

Total pressure: All pressures, including static, acting in all directions.

Velocity pressure: Pressure exerted by the speed of flow. It is also called velocity
head or impact pressure.

Hydrostatic pressure: Pressure below a liquid surface exerted by the liquid

above.

32
 Conditions affecting liquid pressure
Surface pressure: any pressure acting on the surface is transmitted throughout
the liquid and contributes to the pressure at any location beneath the surface.

Depth: pressure is proportional to depth below the surface.

Density: pressure is proportional to the density (or relative density) of the liquid.

Relative density (specific gravity):

Water is used as reference in comparing the density of liquids or solids, while air
is used for gases. The ratio of density of a liquid or a solid to the density of water
is called relative density or specific gravity. Relative density is also used to
compare pressure in a liquid to the pressure at the same depth in water.

Calculation of Head Pressure:

P (Head) = 0.433 * Height (ft) * specific gravity.

Where P = Pressure, H = Height of liquid.

0.433 = PCF (pressure conversion factor).
PCF = Head (ft) * Density (weight) of water.
PCF = 1 ft * 62.4 lb/ft3 = 62.4 lb/ft2 = 62.4 lb/144 in2 = 0.433 psi

Boyle’sthe pressurelaw:of a gas varies inversely with its volume when the gas is
held at a constant temperature.

Charles’volumelaw:ofgas varies directly with its absolute temperature at a

constant pressure.

Absolute zero: the temperature at which molecules would stop moving (-273
oC).

Gas law: relationship between pressure, volume, and temperature is, PV = nRT,
n = no. of molecules of gas, R = a constant, T = absolute temperature.

33
 2.2 Parts of pressure instruments

Pressure instruments are functionally divided into two parts

1. Sensors
2. Transducers

2.3 There are two basic kinds of sensors

1. Wet sensors: contain liquid that responds to the pressure.

2. Dry sensors: use an elastic element that responds to pressure.

Pressure instruments can be divided in to two major categories.

1). Those that employ mechanical means to detect and communicate pressure
information from the process and secondary device

2). Those that rely on electrical phenomenon or relationship to carry out this
function

Mechanical pressure measurement systems:

In mechanical systems pressure is determined by balancing a sensor against the

unknown force. This can be done by another pressure or force.

Pressure balance sensors

The two most common pressure balance sensors are:

I. Manometers
II. Dead weight tester.

1. Force balance sensors

The most common force balance sensors are:

I. Bellows
II. Diaphragm

34
 III. Bourdon metallic devices

Pressure balance systems

I. Dead weight tester:

It works on the basis any pressure of communicated Pascal’s law to the surface of a
confined liquid is transmitted unchanged to every part of the liquid.

II. Manometer:

In this method the pressure created by a column of liquid is used to balance the
pressure to be measured.

Pressure reading is the difference in height from the top of the pressure column
to the top of the vented column. Mercury is normally used in manometers

Types of manometers:

Single leg manometer: It is used to measure barometric pressure. It is a closed

tube manometer with a vacuum on sealed side. Pressure applied to open end
forces liquid up into the sealed end. A barometer when moved vertically
indicates changes in elevation, becoming an altimeter.

U- Tube manometer: It is used to measure differential pressure.

Inclined tube manometer (slant manometer): It is used to provide greater

reading accuracy through the use of a longer tube.
 U-Tube manometer and slant manometer

Force balance systems

I. Bourdon tube
One end of the tube is sealed; the other is connected to the process. As the
pressure in the process increases, tube tends to straighten out. The resultant
motion is transferred through a linkage or rack-and-pinion mechanism to an
indicating pointer.
A bourdon tube is basically a spring that stretches as pressure is applied.
Bourdon tube metals must not be subject to hysteresis i.e. the metal must not
stretch a different amount for increasing or decreasing pressure, causing the
gauge two different reading for one pressure. The choice of metals depends on
corrosion resistance, flexibility, hysteresis characteristics, pressure range, and
cost.

36

Figure 2.3 Bourdon tube

 It exists normally in any of the three shapes.

a). ‘C’shape bourdon tube.

It is used up to ranges from 0 to 10,000 psig. The range depends on material
used, flatness of tube and cross sectional area of tube.

b).Spiral tube
Spiral element is actually a long C- type tube resembling a flat coil. One end is
rigid, and the movement of the free end is linked to a pointer of indicator.

c).Helical tube
Helical element is a long C-type spring wound like a vertical spring. It is more
sensitive to small changes.

Bourdon Tube shapes

II. Diaphragm pressure sensors

A diaphragm is a flexible disk that changes shape as the process pressure
changes. Disk is held firmly all around the outer edge. The process pressure
pushes on one side of the disk. Central portion of the disk moves in or out as the
process pressure changes. Two types of diaphragms are used.

37
 Diaphragm pressure sensor

• Single diaphragm: uses only one flexible element.

Single diaphragm

• Capsule diaphragm: uses two flexible elements.

38
 Diaphragm capsule may be made of phosphor bronze, stainless steel or other
metal alloys. Two diaphragms are welded together around the edge to make the
capsule. The inside of the diaphragm is then connected to the process pressure
and outside pressure is the reference. Outside of the capsule is exposed to the
atmosphere (for measuring gauge pressure). Capsule can be enclosed in sealed
container so that reference can be either a vacuum or one side of a process
pressure.

Capsule diaphragm

III. Bellows pressure sensors

It is formed from a homogenous piece of seamless tubing. When pressure is
applied to one end, the circular sections expand axially and this motion is used
as a measure of the pressure. It is usually made of brass or stainless steel.

Bellows pressure sensors

39
2.4 Pressure transducers

A device that converts the mechanical output of a pressure sensor to a standard

electrical is the transducer.
An electrical pressure transducer consists of three elements

1. Pressure sensing element: usually a bellow, diaphragm or bourdon tube.

2. Primary conversion element: Converts mechanical action of the pressure

sensing element into an electrical signal, usually resistance or voltage.

3. Secondary conversion element: It produces a standard signal according to the

needs of the control system.

40
 Potentiometric pressure transducers:
Potentiometer is a variable resistor. It is made by winding resistance wire around
an insulated cylinder. A movable electrical contact (a wiper) slides along the
cylinder, touching the wire at one point on each turn. The position of wiper
determines how much resistance between the end of wire and the wiper.
Disadvantage is that it generates discrete output i.e. the wiper does not move
continuously along the wire.

Potentiometric pressure transducers

Capacitive pressure transducers

It is based on the principle of capacitor. The transducer contains two metal

plates. One plate, the stator, is stationary. The other plate is a flexible metal
diaphragm that moves closer to the stator when the pressure rises. As the
pressure changes, the diaphragm moves and changes the capacitance of the
device.

C = K A/d where, C = capacitance,

K = Di-electric constant, A = Cross sectional area of plates, d = Distance between

plates.

The transducer is connected in an ac bridge circuit. Changes in the measured

pressure cause changes in the capacitance of the capacitor and in the bridge
circuit’s response. These changes cause c bridge circuit.

4
Response time of capacitance transducer is very fast, as ten milliseconds.

Capacitive pressure transducers

Reluctive pressure transducer

Coupled coils: two coils, each wound on an iron core, placed near each other. Ac
in one coil induces ac in other coil, so the coils are said to be coupled.

It works by changing the reluctance (resistance in magnetic circuit) between two

coils. The diaphragm between coils B1and B2 is made of a flexible magnetic
material. As pressure P1 changes compared to P2, the diaphragm moves and
changes the reluctance between coils B1 and B2, in turn changing the output
voltage, Vo, which indicates pressure. It is used to measure pressure between 10
psi to 10000 psi.

42
 Reluctive pressure transducer

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) pressure Transducer

Change in pressure causes the bellow to expand or contract, which moves a

magnetic core inside a primary and two secondary coils. The output voltage
from this device varies in proportion to the position of the core. The LVDT is
often used to convert a pneumatic signal to a proportional electrical signal.

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) pressure Transducer

43
Strain gauge pressure transducers

A strain gauge changes its electrical resistance as it is stretched and relaxed. It

can be attached to a pressure-sensing diaphragm. When diaphragm flexes, the
strain gauge stretches or relaxes, in turn converting pressure changes to electrical
changes. Strain gauges are all force balance devices.

Strain gauge pressure transducers

The metal wire strain gauge is made of very fine wire. The wire is fastened to a
pressure diaphragm or other flexing element.

A semiconductor strain gauge is connected to an electronic circuit to indicate

pressure. It is classified into two types.

P-type: resistance increases directly with applied strain or pressure.

N-type: resistance decreases as applied strain or pressure increases.

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 Strain gauge pressure transducers

Piezoelectric pressure transducers

A material that produces electric voltage when pressure is applied is referred to
as piezoelectric material, like barium titanate powder and crystals of quartz,
tourmaline, and Rochelle salts.

• Piezoelectric pressure transducers are force balance transducers.

• To amplify the voltage signal, amplifier input impedance should be high (greater
than 100 M ohms).
• It can measure up to 50000 psi. The instrument can indicate a pressure increase
over the full range in a period of time as short as 1 micro seconds.
• Piezoelectric transducers cannot measure steady pressures. They respond only to
changing pressures.

Pressure at P1 is transmitted to the piezoelectric crystal, Y1, by a diaphragm. The

signal is amplified by a charge amplifier. A second piezoelectric crystal, Y2, is
included to compensate for any acceleration of the device during use. Signals
from the compensating crystal are amplified by a second charge amplifier.

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A difference amplifier subtracts the amplified compensating signal from the
amplified signal produced by the pressure crystal. The difference indicates the
resulting pressure.

Piezoelectric pressure transducers

Response time

The time required for an output to make the change from an initial value to a
large specified percentage, usually 90, 95 or 99% of the final value.

2.5 Environmental conditions affecting a transducer

Ambient temperature: temperature of air surrounding a device.

Relative humidity: a measure of the moisture content of the air, specified as a

range of percent RH at a reference temperature. Temperature and relative
humidity combine to produce condensation.

Vibration: Oscillation or motion of device about its position of rest.

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2.6 Low pressure measurement

Vacuum: pressure below atmospheric pressure is called vacuum or absolute

pressure. One atmosphere of pressure is equal to 760 mm Hg. One torr (shorter name
of Torricelli, scientist) is equal to 1 mm Hg.

Low pressure measurement

2.7 Pressure switch

A pressure switch turns an electric circuit on or off at a preset pressure. This pressure is
referred to as the set point of the switch. The contacts in a switch may be normally
open or normally close.
Dead band is the difference between the value at which a control action occurs (set
point) and the value at which the control action is cancelled (reset point).

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2.8 Liquid or Steam Pressure measurement

When a liquid pressure is measured, the piping is arranged to prevent

entrapped vapors which may cause measurement error.
When steam pressure is measured, the steam should be prevented from entering
the Bourdon tube. If the gauge is below th provided in the pressure line to the
gauge.

2.9 Failures and Abnormalities

Over-Pressure:

All of the pressure sensors we have analyzed are designed to operate over a rated
pressure range. Plant operating systems rely on these pressure sensors to
maintain high accuracy over that given range. Instrument readings and control
functions derived from these devices could place plant operations in jeopardy if
the equipment is subjected to over pressure (over range) and subsequently
damaged. If a pressure sensor is over ranged, pressure is applied to the point
where it can no longer return to its original shape, thus the indication would
return to some value greater than the original.
Diaphragms and bellows are usually the most sensitive and fast-acting of all
pressure sensors. They are also however, the most prone to fracture on over-
pressuring. Even a small fracture will cause them to read low and be less
responsive to pressure changes. Also, the linkages and internal movements of the
sensors often become distorted and can leave a permanent offset in the
measurement. Bourdon tubes are very robust and can handle extremely high
pressures although, when exposed to over-pressure, they become
distended and will read high. Very high over-pressuring will of course rupture
the tube.
Faulty Sensing Lines:
Faulty sensing lines create inaccurate readings and totally misrepresent the actual
pressure, When the pressure lines become partially blocked, the dynamic
response of the sensor is naturally reduced and it will have a slow response to
change in pressure. Depending on the severity of the blockage, the sensor could
even retain an incorrect zero or low reading, long after the change in
vessel pressure. A cracked or punctured sensing line has the characteristic of
consistently low readings. Sometimes, there can be detectable down-swings of
pressure followed by slow increases.
Loss of Loop Electrical Power:
As with any instrument that relies on AC power, the output of the D/P Transmitters
will drop to zero or become irrational with a loss of power Supply.
5. TRANSMITTERS

OBJECTIVES:
Upon Completion of this topic one should be able to understand:

1. Function of transmitters
2. Types of transmitters
3. Pneumatic transmitter and its applications
4. Electronic transmitter and its applications
5. How to take transmitter into and out of service
 5.1 Definition of transmitter:

A transmitter is used to transmit signal from field to control room or if anywhere

else is required. A transmitter takes signal from the primary measuring element
and transmits that proportional signal at required place. A transmitter can
transmit signal over very wide ranges.

5.2 Types of transmitters:

Transmitters are divided into two types:

1. Pneumatic transmitters
2. Electronic transmitters

5.3 Pneumatic Transmitters:

To measure the signal of hazardous chemicals remotely, a pneumatic signal

transmission system is used. The pneumatic transmitter output is piped to the
recording or control instrument. Standard output range for a pneumatic
transmitter is 3 to 15 psi, 20 to 100 Kpa, or 0.2 to 1.0 bar or Kg/cm2. Transmitter
output signal is carried by tubing, usually ¼ inch copper or plastic, to the control
room. The live zero makes it possible to distinguish between true zero and a
dead instrument.
Pneumatic transmitters use a force balance principle that balances an input force
change to an output force change to nullify internal motion and increase
accuracy. Pressure transmitters usually apply process pressures to diaphragms
95 or bellows to generate linear force that is sensed by a pneumatic pilot that
facilitates the output change to the control instrument while internally
rebalancing the forces between input and output. Temperature transmitters
employ sealed helium bulb elements and bellows to convert temperatures to
pressures and linear forces according to the Ideal Gas Law that states that a fixed
amount of gas in a fixed volume will increase its pressure proportionately to an
increase in temperature. Pneumatic flow transmitters most often use a
differential pressure principle which resolves a balance between two opposing
pressure diaphragms which is then fed as a single force to the output section of
the device, similarly to the simple pressure transmitter. Level sensors may use the
differential pressure principle that measures liquid head, or a proportional float
mechanism that measures the force change of a partially submerged float as liquid
level goes up and down.

PNEUMATIC RELAY (Booster relay)

A relay is a pneumatic amplifier. The function of the relay is to convert a small

change in the input signal to a large change in the output signal. Typically a 1 psi
change in the input will produce approximately a 12 psi change in output.

5.4 Differential Pressure Transmitter:

Pneumatic DP transmitter, or DP cell, receives a supply of air at 20 psig (the

metric equivalent is 138 kPa) and reduces it to an output of 3 to 15 psig (20 to 100
kPa) that is directly proportional to the measured DP.
The electronic transmitter has output (normally 4 to 20 mA) that is proportional
to the differential pressure.
In the DP transmitter, process fluid (if not harmful to the instrument) is piped to
each side of a capsule containing twin diaphragms. Any pressure increase in the
high-pressure chamber causes the capsule to move toward the low- pressure side
and, in turn, to impart this motion to a laminated force bar. In the pneumatic
transmitter, the upper end of the bar reacts by moving the flapper toward the
nozzle, which is the source of supply air.
The nozzle feed line is connected to one side of a diaphragm in the air relay.

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 As the flapper covers the nozzle, a pressure build-up acts on the air relay
diaphragm. This opens the relay and delivers more air pressure to both the
feedback bellows and the output. This action continues until the pressure exerted
against the range rod by the bellows counterbalances the original pressure of the
force bar. The zero adjustment spring establishes a starting value (0 DP = 20 kPa).
The adjustable range wheel is the pivot point fo
The first step in calibrating this kind of transmitter is to vent the low side of the
transmitter to atmosphere. Then apply a known pressure to the high side. If the
transmitter range is 0 to 205 in of water, apply a pressure of 205 in of water and
expect the transmitter output to be 15 psi or 20 mA, depending on the kind of
transmitter. Position the adjustable range wheel to obtain the correct output.
97 With no pressure applied to the high side of the transmitter, the output should
be 3 psi or 4 mA. Now adjust the zero screw to obtain the correct output.
5.5 Electronic Transmitter:

In the 1950’s electric and electronic-20mA cont current signaling emulated the 3-15 psi
pneumatic signal. Current signaling
quickly became the preferred method because wires are easier to install and
maintain than pneumatic pressure lines and energy requirements are a lot lower
–you no longer needed a 20 to 50 horsepower compressor for instance. Also,
electronics allowed for more complicated control algorithms.

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 The 4-20 mA current loop is a very robust sensor signaling standard. Current
loops are ideal for data transmission because of their inherent insensitivity to
electrical noise. In a 4-20 mA current loop, all the signaling current flows through
all components; the same current flows even if the wire terminations are less
than perfect. All the components in the loop drop voltage due to the signaling
current flowing through them. The signaling current is not affected by these
voltage drops as long as the power supply voltage is greater than the sum of the
voltage drops around the loop at the maximum signaling current of 20 mA.
Figure 1 shows a schematic of the simplest 4-20 mA current loop. There are four
components:
1. A DC power supply;
2. A 2-wire transmitter;
3. A receiver resistor that converts the current signal to a voltage;
4. The wire that interconnects it all.
The two “R wire” symbolsresistanceof therepresentwiresrunningout tothe the sensors
and back to the power supply and HVAC/R controller.
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 Current supplied from the power supply flows through the wire to the
transmitter and the transmitter regulates the current flow within the loop. The
current allowed by the transmitter is called the loop current and it is
proportional to the parameter that is being measured. The loop current flows
back to the controller through the wire, and then flow through the Receiver
resistor to ground and returns to the power supply. The current flowing through
Receiver produces a voltage that is easily measured by an analog input of a

20 mA.
The transmitter is the heart of the 4-20 mA signaling system. It converts a
physical property such as temperature, humidity or pressure into an electrical
signal. This electrical signal is a current proportional to the temperature,
humidity or pressure being measured. In a 4-20 mA loop, 4 mA represents the
low end of the measurement range and 20 mA represents the high end

The Receiver Resistor:

It is much easier to measure a voltage than it is to measure a current. Therefore,

many current loop circuits (such as the circuit in Figure 1) use a Receiver Resistor

resistor. The current flowing through it produces a voltage that is easily

istor, the voltage will be 1 VDC at 4 mA of loop current and 5 VDC at 20 mA of
loop current. The
most common Receiver Resistor in a 4-

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 5.6 Three Valve Manifold:

A three-valve manifold is a device that is used to ensure that the capsule will not
be over-ranged. It also allows isolation of the transmitter from the process loop.
It consists of two block valves - high pressure and lowpressure block valve - and
an equalizing valve. Figure 1 shows a three valve manifold arrangement.

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 During normal operation, the equalizing valve is closed and the two block valves
are open. When the transmitter is put into or removed from service, the valves
must be operated in such a manner that very high pressure is never applied to
only one side of the DP capsule.

5.7 Operational Sequences of Three-Valve

Manifold Valving Transmitter into Service:

To put a DP transmitter into service an operator would perform the following

steps:
1. Check all valves closed.
2. Open the equalizing valve . this ensures that the same pressure will be applied
to both sides of the transmitter, i.e., zero differential pressure.
3. Open the High Pressure block valve slowly, check for leakage from both the
high pressure and low-pressure side of the transmitter.

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 4. Close the equalizing valve . this locks the pressure on both sides of the
transmitter.
5. Open the low-pressure block valve to apply process pressure to the low-
pressure side of the transmitter and establish the working differential pressure.
6. The transmitter is now in service.
Note it may be necessary to bleed any trapped air from the capsule housing.

Removing Transmitter from Service:

Reversal of the above steps allows the DP transmitter to be removed from

service.
1. Close the low-pressure block valve.
2. Open the equalizing valve.
3. Close the high-pressure block valve.
The transmitter is now out of service.
Note the transmitter capsule housing still contains process pressure; this will
require bleeding.

5.8 Accessories:

1) Pulsation Dampener
If the instrument is intended for use with a fluid under pressure and subject to
excessive fluctuation or pulsations, a dampener should be installed which
provides a steady reading.
2) Isolation valve
It allows to isolate the instrument and the sensing line for maintenance, or to stop
a leakage.

3) Instrument valve
It is installed in addition to or instead of an isolation valve. It isolates the
instrument from both the process and instrument line.
4) Blow down valve
It allows purging the instrument line of any accumulated sediments.
Fittings

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Flared fitting: It is formed by making a clean, square cut at the end of the tubing
and then flaring the end. A threaded connector forces the flared end of the tubing
onto a mating part.

Compression fitting: Made by slipping a ring (a sleeve or ferrule) over the end
of the tubing. Tightening the threaded connector compresses the ring around the
tubing, forcing it against a mating part.

Pipe fitting: A normal pipe thread is tapered i.e. the depth of male thread
becomes shallower as moved away from pipe. By tightening this fitting, shallow
threads form a tight seal with the female threads. This kind of fitting is used for
high pressures.

Socket fitting: it is made by soldering or welding each pipe end into a standard
connector. Used for high pressures.

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Piping
Following considerations must be kept in mind when installing the instruments.

Diameter: must be large enough for the instrument to respond quickly when the
pressure changes.

Length: keep instrument lines short and tight.

Slope: mount the instrument above pressure tap for gas service while below the
pressure tap for liquid service.

Flexibility: changes in temperature cause piping to expand and contract. Keep

lines flexible.

Temperature: to keep instrument lines from freezing, wrap electric heating cable
around the line or pass low pressure steam through a thin tube wrapped around
the line.