TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems

BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19
COOLING SYSTEMS 1

2 PRINCIPLES OF COOLING TECHNIQUES AND SYSTEMS

2.1 HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer is transportation or movement of heat energy from a region of higher temperature
to another of a lower temperature. It is because of heat transfer that cooling takes place.

2.1.1 Heat Transfer by Conduction

Heat transfer by conduction takes place in solids due to vibrations of the molecules of the solid.
For a solid of uniform cross-sectional area, the rate of heat transfer, 𝒅𝑸𝒕𝒉/𝒅𝒕 is proportional to
the temperature gradient 𝒅𝜽/𝒅𝒙 𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝑻/𝒅𝒙.

Let λ = Thermal conductivity of solid material in𝑾/𝒎 − ℃ 𝒐𝒓 𝑾/𝒎 – 𝑲,

Then

𝑑𝑄𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑇
= −λA = −λA
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

The negative sign signifies the fact that heat transfer is from a region of high temperature to one
of low temperature.

Under steady state conditions;

𝑑𝑄𝑡ℎ (𝜃2 − 𝜃1) (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)

̇ =
𝑄𝑡ℎ = −λA = −λA
𝑑𝑡 𝑏 𝑏

(𝜃2 − 𝜃1) (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)

=A =A
𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝑡ℎ

Where, 𝑏 = length or thickness of conduction

𝑏
𝑅𝑡ℎ = = thermal resistance of the solid in 𝑚2 − ℃ ⁄ 𝑊
λ

Thermal conductance in 𝑊/℃ (𝑜𝑟 𝑊/𝐾)

1
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19
(𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎) × (𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝐺𝑡ℎ =
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝜆𝐴 𝐴
=( )=( )
𝑏 𝑅𝑡ℎ

̇ = 𝐺𝑡ℎ (𝜃2 − 𝜃1) = 𝐺𝑡ℎ (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)

Hence 𝑄𝑡ℎ

The unit transmittance, U-factor or U-value of the material in𝑊/𝑚 − ℃ 𝑜𝑟 𝑊/𝑚 – 𝐾;

1 𝜆 𝐴
𝑈= = =
𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝑏 𝐺𝑡ℎ

When several solids of uniform or same thicknesses 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … . , 𝑏𝑛 have the same or common
cross-sectional area, and heat is conducted through all of them, then the effective thermal
resistance is the sum of the individual thermal resistance.

i.e.

𝑅𝑡ℎ(𝑒𝑓𝑓) = 𝑅𝑡ℎ(1) + 𝑅𝑡ℎ(2) + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑡ℎ(𝑛)

𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏𝑛
= ( )+( )+ ⋯+( )
𝜆1 𝜆2 𝜆𝑛

𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓
=( )
𝜆𝑒𝑓𝑓

The multiple materials can be replaced by a single material of thermal conductivity 𝝀eff and
thickness beff.

Hence

1 𝑏1
𝑈𝑒𝑓𝑓 = ( )=( )
𝑅𝑡ℎ(𝑒𝑓𝑓) 𝜆1

2
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19
An example is a wall consisting of bricks/concrete blocks, the mortar plaster and paints if a solid
is between two fluids, there will be convective resistances at the surfaces, Fig.2.1 (d). The overall
heat transfer must take into account all the resistances.

Hence

𝑅𝑡ℎ(𝑒𝑓𝑓) = 𝑅𝑡ℎ(𝑖) + 𝑅𝑡ℎ(𝑠) + 𝑅𝑡ℎ(𝑒)

Where,

𝑅𝑡ℎ(𝑖) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑡ℎ(𝑒) = Thermal convective resistances on the inside and outside of the solid.

𝑅𝑡ℎ(𝑠) = Thermal resistance of the solid

For a single bar that is lagged and not lagged, the variation of temperature with distance x is
shown in Fig.2.2.

Fig. 2.1 conducting solids surrounded by various environments.

3
TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19

Fig. 2.2 Temperature Distance Graphs

Fig. 2.3 Convectional Currents

4
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19
2.1.2 Heat Transfer by Convection
When a substance is heated, the atoms and molecules gain energy. Therefore, during thermal
conduction, atoms transfer their energy by colliding with their neighbours. In solids the
collisions occur when the atoms vibrate/ oscillate with larger amplitudes about their equilibrium
positions. In liquids and to a lesser extent in gaseous matter, the collisions occur as the atoms
move with higher speeds.

However, much of this heat transfer in liquids and gases is by connection through the mass
movement of atoms or molecules from a point of high temperature to a point of low temperature.
As a result of this heat transfer is accompanied with mass transfer of the liquid or gas. The
following is the macroscopic explanation when a part of a liquid or gas is heated, expands,
becomes less dense compared to other parts around it consequently.

For forced convection, the mass movement of the liquid or gas is seeded up with the aid of a
dense such as a fan and a pump.

If natural convection occurs in a closed space where there is no escape of the liquid or gas, then
the amount of heat supplied to the temperature from θ 1 to θ2 ;

(a) From liquid is given as;

𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑝 = 𝑀𝑙𝑞 𝐶𝑙𝑞 (θ2 − θ1) + 𝑀𝑛𝑟 𝐶𝑛𝑟 (θ2 − θ1 ) + 𝑄𝑑𝑡𝑎

(b) For gas or vapour is given as;

𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑝 = 𝑀𝑣𝑝 𝐶𝑣𝑝(θ2 − θ1) + 𝑀𝑛𝑟 𝐶𝑛𝑟 (θ2 − θ1) + 𝑄𝑑𝑡𝑎

Note:

In the enclosed space, there should be adequate free space to enable expansion of the liquid and
gas/vapour, the expansion can be adiabatic (constant pressure) or non-adiabatic

2. For the liquid, θ2 should be less than the vaporization temperature θvp the warmed part rises to
the top and at the same time colder parts of the liquid or gas move/flow down to fill the gap (or
replace it). With the process repeated, convectional currents are set up and continue to move as

5
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19
long as the heat source is being applied. In this way, the liquid or gas attains a uniform
temperature.

The free or natural convectional currents describes above occur in several daily instances. As an
example, consider the still air that trapped between the glass panes of a double-glazed window.
This air provides good thermal insulation so that the room of a house neither too cold nor too
hot. However, due to heat conduction by the outer glass into the trapped air, convectional
currents will be set up between the thermal insulation it is supposed to provide.

In situations where the liquid or gas in the enclosed space can be replaced with liquid or gas from
a large reservoir then the rate of heat supply or extraction is considered.

Hence rate of heat supply or extraction for a liquid is;

𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑀𝑙𝑞
= 𝑄̇ = 𝐶𝑙𝑞 (θ2 − θ1 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉𝑙𝑞
= ⍴𝑙𝑞 𝐶𝑙𝑞 (θ2 − θ1)
𝑑𝑡

And for a vapour or gas is;

𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑀𝑙𝑞
= 𝑄̇ = 𝐶𝑙𝑞 (θ2 − θ1 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉𝑙𝑞
= ⍴𝑙𝑞 𝐶𝑙𝑞 (θ2 − θ1)
𝑑𝑡

2.1.3 Heat Transfer by Radiation

Radiation involves heat transfer from a hotter body to a colder one through an intervening
medium without the action of the medium. Radiation through a gaseous medium is more
effective than through a liquid.

From the Stefen-Boltzman radiation law; the rate at which a body with surface area A sur at
absolute temperature T radiates heat energy is;

6
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19

𝑑𝑄
= 𝑅𝑒 𝜎𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 𝑇 4
𝑑𝑡

Where 𝜎 = 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑛′ 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

= 5.67 × 10−8 𝑊/𝑚2 – 𝐾 4

If the body has a uniform and steady temperature of T b and the surrounding or intervening
medium has an ambient temperature of T a, then

𝑑𝑄
= 𝑅𝑒 𝜎𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 (𝑇𝑏4 − 𝑇𝑎4)
𝑑𝑡

Where 0 ≤ 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 1

𝑅𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

At the extreme ends, the values of Re are given in the table below.

Nature of surface Emissivity Re

a. An ideal good emitter Re = 1
b. A very good emitter such as a shiny metallic surface Re ≅ 1
c. An ideal poor emitter Re = 0
d. A very poor emitter such as a dull malty surface Re ≅ 0
e. Other practical surfaces 0< Re <1

The term radiation means the continual emission of energy from the surface of all bodies. This
energy is called a radiant energy and is in the form of electromagnetic waves. When the radiant
energy falls on a body that is;

7
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19
(a) Opaque (non transparent), part will be reflected but a large percentage will be absorbed.
The absorbed energy raises the temperature of the body and hence heat energy is
transferred to the absorbing body.
(b) Transparent, part will be reflected, part will be absorbed but a large percentage will be
transmitted through the body. This effect is used for making glasses/transparent sheets
that is used in green house and dying cribs.

The nature of the radiant energy depends on the temperature of the body and categories can be
identified:-

(a) At and below 100 0C, the rate of radiation is low and the radiant energy have a relatively
long wavelength.
(b) From 100 0C to 300 0C, the radiant energy emitted has a mixture of waves of various
wavelength, with the red light being more prominent at higher temperatures\
(c) At 300 0C and below 800 0C, infrared (i.e. “beyond the red”) radiant energy emitted. At
300 0C, the wavelength of the radiant energy emitted is 5.0×10 6 m.
(d) From 800 0C to 3,000 0C, the very hot body emits enough radiant energy to be visible
ranging from “red hot” to white hot. However, infrared still predominates. At 800 0C the
body begins to appear “red hot.”
(e) At and above 3,000 0C, the radiant energy contains enough of the shorter wavelengths so
that visible light is seen. The temperature ranges are for the incandescent filament lamps,
at 3,000 0C, the extremely hot object or body appears “white hot.”

Thermography is the art and science of performing images of objects using infrared radiation
emitted by those objects. The image formed is called a thermograph (compare with photograph
when visible light is used).

The image can be obtained by:-

a) A camera equipped with a film or detector that is sensitive to infrared radiation.

b) A special device similar in principal to that of television camera and also sensitive to
infrared radiation.

The following are some of the applications of thermography:-

8
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19
i. Night vision equipment such binoculars commonly used by soldiers for night combat.
ii. Instruments used for detailed study of temperature distribution
iii. Local temperature variations in the human body are associated with various tumors such
as breast cancer. Thermography can therefore be used for detecting body tumors.
iv. Vascular disorders in human beings also lead to local temperature anomalies.
Thermography can also be used for studying these disorders.
v. Intrusion into premises by burglars, thieves or people who trespass can be detected easily
using the thermal energy radiated. Thermography can therefore be applied in alarm
systems as a detection technique.

2.2 The Heat Engine and Carnot Cycle

The operation of refrigeration and air conditioning systems is based upon the above. Joule’s
work on energy showed that mechanical work, electrical energy or other forms energy when
absorbed by matter raised its internal energy and hence temperature.

i.e. ∆𝑄𝑒𝑙𝑒 = ∆𝑈 or W= ∆𝑈

Where 𝑄𝑒𝑙𝑒 = electrical energy

W = work done

U = internal energy

If the matter is heated by a source of energy such as a flame, its internal energy and hence
temperature also increased.

Hence ∆𝑄𝑡ℎ = ∆𝑈

Generally therefore;

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒

( 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 ) = (𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 ) + (𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)
𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

i.e. 𝑄𝑡ℎ = 𝑊 + ∆𝑈

9
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19
Alternatively

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

( 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 ) = (𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦) − (𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 )
𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

i.e. 𝑄𝑡ℎ = ∆𝑈 − 𝑊

Any of the equations above is another way of stating the law of conservation of energy and
hence the first law of thermodynamics.

The first law is suitable for reversible processes and yet several processes in nature are
irreversible. Examples of these are:-

a) When a body falls to the ground its initial potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.
On impact, the kinetic energy is converted into sound and internal energy of the body.
The change in internal energy is shown by a change in temperature of the body.
However, it is not possible for internal and sound energy to combine and raise the object
above ground.
b) When sugar crystals are mixed with hot tea, they dissolve and spread throughout the
liquid. The crystals above the heat energy from the hot tea and the solution attained are
slightly cooler (i.e. of a lower temperature). On the other hand, we do not see sugar
solution losing internal energy and then spontaneously collecting to form crystals.

In addition to the above observations, Sadi Carnot, a young French engineer in Paris observed
that there were an analogy between the steam engine developed by Newcomen in 1712 and
improved by James Walt from 1763 to 1782 and the watermill. Using the concept that the steam
engine operates between two heat reservoirs at two different temperatures, and that caloric fell
from the hot to cold reservoir, Carnot was able to formulate very important theorems. Amongst
these was him establishing the theoretical limit for efficiency of real heat engine and devising an
ideal thermodynamic cycle. The work of Carnot laid the foundation for the second law of
thermodynamics and subsequent work led to the second law being a very profound statement
regarding the tendency of natural processes evolving from a state of order to one of disorder. In
this form, the law can be applied to a wide range of fields such as chemistry, microbiology,
telecommunications and obviously thermodynamics.

10
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19
The Carnot cycle is applicable to a reversible cycle for the operations of an ideal heat engine.
This ideal heat engine serves as a standard by which all other heat engines can be judged and
compared. The Carnot cycle consists of two isothermal and two adiabatic processes, Fig. 2.4 and
using PV diagrams that were proposed by E. Claperyron in 1834, the Carnot cycle can be easily
represented as shown in Fig. 2.4 and 2.5.

The various processes of the Carnot cycle are summarized in table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Carnot Cycle Processes

Location Processes
Point A The gas is heated to the high temperature,𝑇2 , by the heat reservoir on which
the piston cylinder stands.
Curve A to B With the piston cylinder still standing on the heat reservoir at 𝑇2 and the
piston released, the gas will expand isothermally. The volume increases from
𝑉𝑎 to 𝑉𝑏 . Since the expansion is isothermal, the change in internal energy ΔU
is zero. Consequently from the first law of thermodynamics, the heat energy
𝑄𝑡ℎ(2) absorbed by the gas is used to do the mechanical work 𝑊𝑎𝑏 on the
piston; i.e 𝑄𝑡ℎ(2) = 𝑊𝑎𝑏 is work done by the engine on the system and is
therefore input energy.
Point B When condition P b, Vb and T2 is attained, the cylinder is removed from the
high temperature reservoir and insulated from its surrounding by good
thermal insulation
Curve B to D With the piston cylinder placed upon an insulating stand, the gas is then allow
to undergo adiabatic (Qth = 0) expansion from B to D. Since the gas uses its
internal energy to produce the mechanical work Wdb, its temperature falls
from T2 to T1. (i.e Δ Wdb = Wdb)
Point D The piston cylinder is removed from the thermal insulation and placed on top
of a heat reservoir maintained at the lower temperature T1
Curve D to C The gas at T1 is mechanically compressed isothermally from D to C so that
the volume reduces from Vd to Vc. The work done by the gas Wdc is negative
to the one Wab (Wdc = Wab) and equals to thermal energy, Qth(1) discharged to

11
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19
the cold reservoir.
Point C When Pc, Vp and T1 is attained the cylinder is removed from the low
temperature reservoir and isolated from its surroundings by good thermal
insulation
Cure C to A With the piston cylinder placed upon an insulating stand, the gas undergoes
adiabatic (Qth = 0) compression from C to A. the adiabatic work done by the
gas is negative compared to the mechanical work done to expand the adiabatic
expansion from A to D (i.e Wca = W bd)
From here on the processes are repeated.

Carnot Theorem

a. All reversible engines operating between two given reservoirs have the same efficiently
b. No cyclical heat engine has a greater efficiency than a reversible engine operating
between the same two temperature

The complete Carnot cycles are shown in Fig.2.5

The input work done by the expanding gas on the piston 𝑊𝑎𝑏 = 𝑄𝑡ℎ(2)

The output work done by the expanding gas on the piston

= (work by gas for expansion) – (work by gas for compression)

= (𝑊𝑎𝑏 − 𝑊𝑑𝑐 ) = (𝑄𝑡ℎ(2) − 𝑄𝑡ℎ(1) )

Efficiency from the Carnot cycle,

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝜂𝑡ℎ =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘

𝑊𝑎𝑏 − 𝑊𝑑𝑐 𝑄𝑡ℎ(2) − 𝑄𝑡ℎ(1)

= =
𝑊𝑎𝑏 𝑄𝑡ℎ(2)

12
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19
𝑊𝑑𝑐 𝑄𝑡ℎ(1)
=1− =1−
𝑊𝑎𝑏 𝑄𝑡ℎ(2)

Since 𝑄𝑡ℎ(1) and 𝑄𝑡ℎ(2) are proportional to the temperature T 1 and T2 respectively

𝑇1
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 −
𝑇2

(a) Isothermal Expansion (b) Adiabatic Expansion

13
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19

(c) Isothermal Compression (d) Adiabatic Compression

Fig. 2.4: The Carnot Cycle Processes

(a) Ideal Gas (b) Real Gas

Fig. 2.5: The Carnot Cycle Reversible Processes

14
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19

Fig. 2.6: The Refrigeration Cycle (Reverse Carnot)

1.3 Refrigeration Cycle Processes

Through natural processes, heat energy flows from a hotter body to a colder body. It doesn’t flow
spontaneously in the reverse way. Bases on this common place observation, clauses R, presented
in 1850, and the statement called the clauses statement of the second law of thermodynamics

“It is impossible for a cyclical device to transfer heat continuously from a cold body to a hot
body without the input of work or other effect on the environment”

15
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19
It is possible to make heat flow from a cold reservoir to a hot reservoir but a device working on
the refrigeration cycle is required. Such a device is a heat pump or a heat engine working in the
reverse and therefore the refrigeration cycle, Fig.2.6 is the reverse of the Carnot cycle. Work is
done on the device which absorbs heat 𝑄𝑡ℎ(1) from a low-temperature reservoir.

The main components required from performing the refrigeration cycle are shown in Fig.2.7.
They are:-

 The refrigerant or working fluid moving through a hermetically sealed circuit.

 The refrigerant control unit that is either an expansion valves or a capillary tube
 The evaporator for boiling the liquid form of the evaporator
 The compressor for producing a high pressure fluid
 The condenser for converting the gaseous refrigerant into its liquid state by a cooling
process

The refrigeration cycles for the ideal gas, real gas and real working fluid are shown in Fig.2.6
while Table 2.2 gives the description of the process for Fig.2.6 (c).

Table 2.2 Refrigeration cycle processes

Location Processes
Point A The refrigerant is a liquid at a low section pressure 𝑃𝑎 and sub-cooled

temperature𝑇𝑆1 . The thermal energy is 𝑄𝐻

Curve A to B vapour The liquid refrigerant heats up to form in sections 2 and 4 respectively of
the evaporator while the gaseous refrigerants super heats to 𝑇𝑆2 in
section 5 of the evaporator, Fig.2.7.(b). The heat necessary to produce all
the above changes is radiant energy from the cabinet and its contents, this
heat energy is transmitted to the refrigerants through the walls of the
evaporator tube
Point B The super-heated vapour has thermal energy 𝑄𝑡ℎ(1) and parameters of

𝑃𝑏 , 𝑉𝑏 and 𝑇𝑆2 from pressure, volume and temperature respectively

16
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19
Curve B to D The super-heated vapour enters the compressor at a low junction
pressure. The compressor reduces the volume from 𝑉𝑏 to 𝑉𝑑
isothermally and discharges it at high pressure, Pd and as a dry hot
vapour into the air-cooled condenser. The work done by the compressor
causes the dry hot vapour to have the appropriate high pressure
At point D The dry and hot vapour has parameters,𝑃𝑏 , 𝑉𝑏 and 𝑇𝑆2 for pressure,
volume and temperature respectively. The thermal energy of the vapour
is still 𝑄𝑡ℎ(2)

Curve D to C The dry hot vapour is compressed more adiabatically through the cooling
processes in the condenser. In section 7, the dry-hot vapour is cooled, in
section 8, father cooling produces saturated vapour and in section 9, the
saturated vapour is sub-cooled to the condensing temperature 𝑇𝑆1 and
becomes a liquid again. This adiabatic process takes place where heat
from the refrigerant is first conducted to the outside surface of the
cooling tube and the radiated into the air.
At point C The refrigerant is a liquid whose pressure, volume and temperature
parameters are,𝑃𝑐 , 𝑉𝑐 and 𝑇𝑆2 respectively. Thermal energy is 𝑄𝑡ℎ(1)

Curve C to A The liquid refrigerant enters the expansion value where isothermal
increase in volume takes place. The expansion valve is required as a
pressure equalization device since the liquid leaving the condenser has a
high pressure while the one entering the evaporator has a low pressure.
As the pressure of the liquid is reduced in the expansion valve, there will
be a tendency for the temperature of the liquid to fall. Since the process
in this section of the cycle is isothermal, this is achieved by some of the
liquid flashing off into vapour and hence removing the energy tending to
cool the liquid. The volume of the refrigerant is therefore increased by
the amount of flash gas

The total energy of the refrigerant as it enters:-

17
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19

a. The evaporator = 𝑄𝑡ℎ(1)

b. The condenser = 𝑄𝑡ℎ(2)

The energy required to produce the cooling effect

= 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡

= 𝑄𝑡ℎ(2) – 𝑄𝑡ℎ(1)

The performance of the refrigeration system is measured by the coefficient of the performance,
COP defined as;

Coefficient of performance (COP)

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡

( )
𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
=
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜
( )
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡

𝑄𝑡ℎ(1) 𝑇𝑆1
= = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑄𝑡ℎ 𝛼 𝑇
𝑄𝑡ℎ(2) – 𝑄𝑡ℎ(1) 𝑇𝑆2 – 𝑇𝑆1

In order to have a high value of COP the evaporators and condensers should be large

a) Block Diagram

18
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19

b) Constructional Components

Fig. 2.7: Theoretical Main Parts of the Refrigeration Cycle

(a) Compound Cycle

19
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19

(b) Cascade Cycle

Fig. 2.8: Block Diagram Circuits of Multistage Cycles

(b) Basic

20
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19

(b) Circuit with Heat Exchange

Fig. 2.9: Absorption Type Cycle

Refrigeration Cycle Types

2.4.1 Multi-stage Vapour Compression Cycle

The previous section considered in detail, the single stage vapour compression cycle under
certain circumstances such as where 𝑇𝑆2 is unacceptably too high, the vapour compression must
be carried out in two or more stages. The two systems in use are compound and cascade cycle
system, Fig.2.8.

(a) Compound system

The same refrigerant is used throughout a common circuit but compression is carried out in two
or more stages. For the two-stage unit, Fig.2.8 (a), there are low-stage and high-stage
compressor. The gas from the first low-stage compressor is too hot to be passed directly to the
condenser. Hence it is first cooled in an inter-cooler using some of the available refrigerant from
the condenser. The inter-cooler is used to sub-cool the liquid passing to the evaporator.

(b) Cascade Cycle System

In this arrangement two refrigeration systems are used where one acts as a condenser to the
other. As a result of this, two different refrigerants such as with high pressure refrigerants such as
R13 commonly used in the low stages

21
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19
2.4.2 Absorption Refrigeration Cycle
It is possible to withdraw vapour from an evaporator by absorption, Fig.2.9

The two combinations used are:-

 Ammonia gas is absorbed into water,

 Water vapour is absorbed into lithium bromide

The first combination is toxic while the second type is non-toxic and hence may be used for air-
conditioning because water is used as the refrigerant, its applicability will be restricted to
systems that operates above its freezing point. The refrigerant vapour from the evaporator is
drawn into the chamber while the absorber is sprayed into the chamber. The resulting solution
called liquor is pumped up to the condenser pressure and the vapour is drawn off in the generator
by direct heating. The high pressure refrigerant gas is then condensed in the normal way and
passed through the expansion valve back into the evaporator. The weak liquor from the generator
is passed through another pressure-reducing valve to the absorber. If the overall efficiency of the
refrigeration system must be improves, a heat exchanger is added between the junction-to-liquid
heat exchanger for the refrigerant and the two liquor paths, Fig.2.9 (b). The liquor pump is
powered electrically while the low-grade heat energy required by the generator is obtained from
sources such as combusting oil and gas, hot water and steam (solar radiation may also be used).
The absorption system is suitable

 Is cheap source of low-grade heat or

 are severe limits to electrical power available

2.4.3 Air Cycle Cooling System

Any gas, when compressed has its temperature increases. On the other hand, if the gas is made to
do work while it expands, its temperature will fall. Since there is no change of state in the cycle,
only sensible heat is used. The air cycle is mainly applied for the air-conditioning and
pressurization of aircraft (aero-planes, rockets, helicopters etc.), However, the turbines used for
compression and expansion turn at very high speed for obtaining the required pressure ratios.
This inevitably makes the system to be noisy and to have lower COPs compared to other system.
The main features of the system are shown in Fig.2.10

22
 TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems
BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19
2.4.4 Thermo-electrical Cooling
The Palter effect can be used to cool the object by using a suitable semi-conductor, Fig.2.11.
However, this technique is still limited in size because of the high current required.

Fig. 2.10 Air Cycle Cooling

Fig. 2.11: Thermoelectric Cooling Circuit.

23