Energy Engineering Lab

Lab Report

Submitted To

Mr. Muhammad Umar Mushtaq

Submitted By

Adil Sana

Roll N0.

UW-14-Ch. E-BSc-018

Department of Chemical Engineering

University of Wah
Wah Cantt
Lab Reports Energy Engineering

Acknowledgement

All, praise is to Almighty Allah who has sustained us throughout this work.

A special thanks to our teacher, Mr. Muhammad Umar Mushtaq, for his incessant co-operation
and suggestions towards the completion of the labs.

We are also grateful to the head of department Prof. Dr. A.K. Salariya, for their profound
gratitude.

I like to thank my loving parents from the core of heart, it is just because of their prayers,
selfless efforts, support, encouragement and their belief on me that today i have achieved
remarkable success in my life. Their support and affection is the most precious gift for me in
my life.

Last but not least, I would to appreciate the guidance given by other teachers that has improved
our skills by their comment and tips.

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Lab Reports Energy Engineering

Preface

The main purpose of this lab was the analysis of the different fuels. This report include some
properties, analysis process, and application of fuels. In analysis process, Oven, Engler
viscometer, Saybolt viscometer, Redwood viscometer, Brookfield Viscometer, Aniline point
apparatus, Flue Gas Analyzer, PENSKY Marten closed cup apparatus, pour and cloud point
apparatus are used.

This report is divided in different experiments. First of all theory of the apparatus and some
terms and properties of fuel. Next is detailed description of experimental work. Afterwards
observations and calculations is presented. And at the discussion on results is written. Some
viva voce questions are also added.

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgement ....................................................................................................................... i

Preface ........................................................................................................................................ ii

List of Figures:........................................................................................................................... ix

List of Tables: ............................................................................................................................. x

1 Experiment # 1.................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Title: ............................................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Objective: ..................................................................................................................... 1

1.3 Apparatus: .................................................................................................................... 1

1.4 Chemicals:.................................................................................................................... 1

1.5 Theory: ......................................................................................................................... 1

1.5.1 Contents: ............................................................................................................... 1

1.5.2 Introduction: ......................................................................................................... 2

1.5.3 Types of coal: ....................................................................................................... 2

1.5.4 Chemical composition of coal: ............................................................................. 3

1.5.5 Composition of different types of coal: ................................................................ 4

1.5.6 Analysis of coal: ................................................................................................... 4

1.5.7 Effect of Moisture on coal: ................................................................................... 5

1.5.8 Effect of volatile matter on coal: .......................................................................... 5

1.5.9 Effect of ash: ......................................................................................................... 5

1.5.10 Fixed Carbon: ....................................................................................................... 5

1.5.11 Basis for reporting of coal Analysis: .................................................................... 5

1.5.12 Calorific Value: .................................................................................................... 6

1.5.13 Gross Calorific Value: .......................................................................................... 6

1.5.14 Net Calorific Value:.............................................................................................. 6

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1.6 Procedure: .................................................................................................................... 6

1.6.1 Moisture Content .................................................................................................. 6

1.6.2 Procedure: ............................................................................................................. 6

1.6.3 Observation and Calculations: .............................................................................. 7

1.6.4 Volatile Matter:..................................................................................................... 7

1.6.5 Procedure: ............................................................................................................. 7

1.6.6 Observation and Calculations: .............................................................................. 7

1.6.7 Ash ........................................................................................................................ 8

1.6.8 Procedure: ............................................................................................................. 8

1.6.9 Observation and Calculations: .............................................................................. 8

1.6.10 Fixed carbon: ........................................................................................................ 8

1.6.11 Procedure: ............................................................................................................. 8

1.6.12 Observation and Calculations: .............................................................................. 9

1.7 Results:......................................................................................................................... 9

1.8 Viva voce: .................................................................................................................... 9

2 Experiment # 2.................................................................................................................. 10

2.1 Title: ........................................................................................................................... 10

2.2 Objective: ................................................................................................................... 10

2.3 Apparatus: .................................................................................................................. 10

2.4 Chemicals:.................................................................................................................. 10

2.5 Theory: ....................................................................................................................... 10

2.5.1 Viscosity: ............................................................................................................ 10

2.5.2 Apparent Viscosity: ............................................................................................ 12

2.5.3 Definition: ........................................................................................................... 12

2.5.4 Non-Newtonian Fluid: ........................................................................................ 12

2.5.5 Factors affect Viscosity: ..................................................................................... 13

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2.5.6 How Viscosity is measured in Lab: .................................................................... 13

2.5.7 Principle of Above Viscometers: ........................................................................ 13

2.5.8 Viscosity Index (V.I): ......................................................................................... 16

2.5.9 Engler Viscometer: ............................................................................................. 16

2.5.10 Basic part of viscometer: .................................................................................... 17

2.5.11 Arrangement of Apparatus: ................................................................................ 18

2.6 Procedure: .................................................................................................................. 19

2.7 Precautions: ................................................................................................................ 19

2.8 Observation and Calculations: ................................................................................... 19

2.8.1 Engler viscometer: .............................................................................................. 19

2.8.2 Degree Engler: .................................................................................................... 20

2.8.3 Kinematic Viscosity: .......................................................................................... 20

2.8.4 For Dynamic Viscosity: ...................................................................................... 20

2.8.5 Kinematic Viscosity Vs Time Of Flow: ............................................................. 21

2.8.6 Saybolt Viscometer: ........................................................................................... 22

2.8.7 Kinematic Viscosity Vs Time Of Flow: ............................................................. 22

2.8.8 Redwood Viscometer: ........................................................................................ 23

2.8.9 Kinematic Viscosity Vs Time Of Flow: ............................................................. 24

2.8.10 Graphical representation of the data: .................................................................. 25

2.9 Result: ........................................................................................................................ 26

2.10 Viva voce: .............................................................................................................. 26

3 Experiment # 3.................................................................................................................. 28

3.1 Title: ........................................................................................................................... 28

3.2 Objective: ................................................................................................................... 28

3.3 Apparatus: .................................................................................................................. 28

3.4 Chemicals:.................................................................................................................. 28

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3.5 Theory: ....................................................................................................................... 28

3.5.1 Working Principle: ............................................................................................. 28

3.5.2 Mechanism of Viscometer: ................................................................................. 29

3.5.3 Torque:................................................................................................................ 30

3.5.4 Components of Brookfield Viscometer: ............................................................. 30

3.5.5 How to make selection of Spindle: ..................................................................... 30

3.5.6 Sample Container Size: ...................................................................................... 31

3.5.7 Sample Conditions:............................................................................................. 31

3.5.8 Spindle Immersion:............................................................................................. 32

3.5.9 Sensitivity and Accuracy: ................................................................................... 32

3.6 Procedure: .................................................................................................................. 32

3.7 Observation and Calculations: ................................................................................... 33

3.7.1 For Kinematic Viscosity: .................................................................................... 33

3.7.2 Graphs:................................................................................................................ 34

3.8 Result: ........................................................................................................................ 34

3.9 Viva voce: .................................................................................................................. 34

4 Experiment # 4.................................................................................................................. 36

4.1 Title: ........................................................................................................................... 36

4.2 Objective: ................................................................................................................... 36

4.3 Apparatus: .................................................................................................................. 36

4.4 Chemicals:.................................................................................................................. 36

4.5 Theory: ....................................................................................................................... 36

4.5.1 Aniline Point:...................................................................................................... 36

4.5.2 Diesel Index: ....................................................................................................... 36

4.5.3 Cetane Index: ...................................................................................................... 37

4.5.4 Knocking: ........................................................................................................... 37

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4.5.5 Octane Number: .................................................................................................. 37

4.5.6 Difference between Gasoline and Diesel Engine: .............................................. 37

4.5.7 Applications of Aniline Point: ............................................................................ 38

4.5.8 Apparatus Description: ....................................................................................... 38

4.6 Procedure: .................................................................................................................. 40

4.7 Observations and Calculations:.................................................................................. 40

4.8 Results:....................................................................................................................... 41

4.9 Viva voce: .................................................................................................................. 41

5 Experiment # 5.................................................................................................................. 43

5.1 Title: ........................................................................................................................... 43

5.2 Objective: ................................................................................................................... 43

5.3 Apparatus: .................................................................................................................. 43

5.4 Theory: ....................................................................................................................... 43

5.4.1 American Petroleum Institute (API) and Specific Gravity: ................................ 43

5.4.2 Units of API Gravity: ......................................................................................... 44

5.4.3 Other systems used for correlations: .................................................................. 44

5.4.4 Applications of Specific Gravity: ....................................................................... 44

5.4.5 How API Gravity or the Specific Gravity is measured: ..................................... 45

5.4.6 Density of Petroleum Products versus Temperature: ......................................... 47

5.4.7 How to Use Above Figure: ................................................................................. 48

5.5 Procedure: .................................................................................................................. 48

5.6 Observations and calculations: .................................................................................. 49

5.7 Viva voce: .................................................................................................................. 50

6 Experiment # 06................................................................................................................ 51

6.1 Objective: ................................................................................................................... 51

6.2 Apparatus: .................................................................................................................. 51

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6.3 Chemical: ................................................................................................................... 51

6.4 Theory: ....................................................................................................................... 51

6.4.1 Flue Gas: ............................................................................................................. 51

6.4.2 Removal of flue gas: (Scrubbing) ....................................................................... 51

6.4.3 Flue gas analyzer: ............................................................................................... 52

6.5 Applications: .............................................................................................................. 52

6.5.1 Appliance testing: ............................................................................................... 52

6.5.2 Ambient air monitoring: ..................................................................................... 53

6.5.3 Domestic Boilers and Hot Water Heaters: ......................................................... 53

6.6 Procedure: .................................................................................................................. 54

6.7 Observations and calculations: .................................................................................. 54

6.8 Viva voce: .................................................................................................................. 54

7 Experiment # 7.................................................................................................................. 56

7.1 Title: ........................................................................................................................... 56

7.2 Objective: ................................................................................................................... 56

7.3 Apparatus: .................................................................................................................. 56

7.4 Theory: ....................................................................................................................... 56

7.4.1 Flash Point: ......................................................................................................... 56

7.4.2 Principle of Operation: ....................................................................................... 56

7.4.3 Fire Point: ........................................................................................................... 56

7.4.4 Flammable Limits: .............................................................................................. 57

7.4.5 Ignition Temperature: ......................................................................................... 57

7.4.6 Type of Information Given by Flash Point:........................................................ 57

7.4.7 Difference between Open Cup and Closed Cup: ................................................ 57

7.4.8 Typical Applications: ......................................................................................... 57

7.5 Procedure: .................................................................................................................. 58

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Lab Reports Energy Engineering

7.6 Viva voce: .................................................................................................................. 59

8 Experiment # 8.................................................................................................................. 60

8.1 Title: ........................................................................................................................... 60

8.2 Objective: ................................................................................................................... 60

8.3 Apparatus: .................................................................................................................. 60

8.4 Theory: ....................................................................................................................... 60

8.4.1 Introduction: ....................................................................................................... 60

8.5 Physical principles: .................................................................................................... 60

8.5.2 Heat transfer: ...................................................................................................... 61

8.5.3 Radiation:............................................................................................................ 62

8.5.4 Thermal mass:..................................................................................................... 62

8.6 Procedure: .................................................................................................................. 62

8.7 Observation and Calculations: ................................................................................... 63

8.8 Viva Voce: ................................................................................................................. 64

9 Experiment # 9.................................................................................................................. 66

9.1 Title: ........................................................................................................................... 66

9.2 Objective: ................................................................................................................... 66

9.3 Apparatus: .................................................................................................................. 66

9.4 Chemicals:.................................................................................................................. 66

9.5 Theory: ....................................................................................................................... 66

9.5.1 Cloud Point: ........................................................................................................ 66

9.5.2 Freezing Point: .................................................................................................... 66

9.6 Applications of Cloud Points: .................................................................................... 66

9.7 Procedure: .................................................................................................................. 67

9.8 Result: ........................................................................................................................ 67

10 Experiment # 10................................................................................................................ 68

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10.1 Title: ....................................................................................................................... 68

10.2 Objective: ............................................................................................................... 68

10.3 Apparatus: .............................................................................................................. 68

10.4 Chemicals: .............................................................................................................. 68

10.5 Theory: ................................................................................................................... 68

10.5.1 Pour Point: .......................................................................................................... 68

10.5.2 Pour Point Depressants: ...................................................................................... 68

10.5.3 Applications of Pour Point: ................................................................................ 69

10.6 Procedure:............................................................................................................... 69

10.7 Result:..................................................................................................................... 69

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Lab Reports Energy Engineering

List of Figures:
Figure 1-1 Types of Coal ........................................................................................................... 2
Figure 1-2 Composition of Coal ................................................................................................ 4
Figure 2-1 Engler Viscometer ................................................................................................. 18
Figure 2-2 Comparison Between KV and Time ...................................................................... 21
Figure 2-3 Comparison Between KV and Time ...................................................................... 21
Figure 2-4 Comparison between KV and Time for oil ............................................................ 22
Figure 2-5 Comparison between KV and Time for water ....................................................... 23
Figure 2-6 Deviation of KV with respect to time for water .................................................... 24
Figure 2-7 Deviation of KV with respect to time for oil ......................................................... 24
Figure 2-8 Deviation of KV with respect to temperature ........................................................ 25
Figure 2-9 Deviation of time with respect to temperature for water ....................................... 25
Figure 2-10 Deviation of timewith respect to temperature for oil ........................................... 26
Figure 3-1 Brookfield Viscometer ........................................................................................... 29
Figure 3-2 Deviation of KV with respect to Torque................................................................ 34
Figure 4-1 Aniline Point Apparatus ......................................................................................... 39
Figure 6-1 Flue Gas Analyzer.................................................................................................. 52
Figure 6-3 Composition of Flue Gas ....................................................................................... 54

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List of Tables:
Table 1-1 Composition of different types of coal ...................................................................... 4
Table 2-1 Values of Redwood Viscometer Constants ............................................................. 14
Table 2-2 Viscosity Scale ........................................................................................................ 15
Table 2-3 Temperature Vs KV And DV .................................................................................. 20
Table 2-5 Deviation of KV and DV ......................................................................................... 22
Table 2-6 Deviation of KV and DV with respect to time ........................................................ 23
Table 3-1 Deviation of KV with respect to Torque ................................................................. 33
Table 5-1 Specific Gravity Of Crude and its products ............................................................ 47
Table 7-1 Samples and their Flash Points ................................................................................ 58
Table 8-1 Technical Specification of Vacuum Tube ............................................................... 63

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Coal Analysis Experiment # 1

Experiment # 1

1.1 Title:
Coal Analysis

1.2 Objective:
To perform “Proximate analysis” of given sample of air dried coal:

a) To determine the percentage of moisture content.

b) To determine the percentage of moisture matter.
c) To determine the percentage of Ash.
d) To determine the percentage of fixed carbon.

1.3 Apparatus:
Muffle furnace, Crucible and Petri dish, Oven, Stop watch, Balance, Desiccator and
given sample of Coal.

1.4 Chemicals:
Coal

1.5 Theory:

1.5.1 Contents:
 Introduction
 Types of coal
 Chemical composition of coal
 Comparison of different types of coal
 Coal analysis
 Proximate analysis
 Ultimate analysis
 Basic report of coal analysis
 Definitions

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Coal Analysis Experiment # 1

1.5.2 Introduction:
Coal was known to man thousands of years ago. Asian writing tells us that 3000 years
ago Chinese knew the several kind of black rocks wood burn and in part of the country there
was little wood they use to dig in to the earth to find this black rock for their fire purposes.

1.5.3 Types of coal:

There are four types of coal

1. Peat
2. Lignite
3. Bituminous
4. Anthracite

Coal is formed vegetable matter which gets converted in to the coal via different stages
of maturity of coal mainly,

1. Peat
2. Lignite
3. Bituminous
4. Anthracite

Figure 0-1 Types of Coal

1.5.3.1 Peat:
Peat is the first state in the formation of coal (if it is not deeply burry it will never
become coal) from wood under the action of pressure, temperature and bacteria. Peat is brown

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Coal Analysis Experiment # 1

in color and highly fibrous in nature. With increase in depth the color became darker and finally
black. The type of peat usually dug for fuels consist of the partially decay reaps and mosses
growing in bogs. Peat bogs often called mosses are found in the Ireland, Scotland and
summerset as well as many part of the world.

1.5.3.2 Lignite:
It is the second layer in the formation of from wood. Brown coal results from the first
state alternation of buried peat. It is brown and often be seen to compose of decay woody
material.

1.5.3.3 Bituminous:
The most common type of coal use in houses and factories is called bituminous coal. It
is always black and is made up of bands or layers which varies from bright and glassy to dull
and sooty. This type of coal generally breaks in to rectangular blocks or long planes of cleavages
(cleat of coal).

1.5.3.4 Anthracite:
Anthracite is the form of coal showing the greatest amount of change or alternation of
the peaty layers of which it was originally formed. It is hard and show little sign of bending but
as a shines rather like dull steal and it breaks in to skew shape blocks.

1.5.4 Chemical composition of coal:

Coal contain a variety of chemical ingredients not all of which are combustible. Coal is
sub divided in two classes

1. Combustible
2. Non Combustible

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Coal Analysis Experiment # 1

Solid Fuel

Combustible Non combustible

Non Volatile
Volatile
Carbonaceous Moisture Inorganic Ash
Hydrocarbons
Polymeric

Figure 0-2 Composition of Coal

1.5.5 Composition of different types of coal:

Table 0-1 Composition of different types of coal

Peat Lignite Bituminous Anthracite

Carbon Content % 23 42 75-90 91-93
Moisture Content % 53 35 6-10 1-2
Volatile Matter % 26 28 20-40 2-9
Ash % 6 6 8.35 7
Caloric Value (Kcal/Kg) 4600 6000 7900 7700

1.5.6 Analysis of coal:

The primary methods for the analysis of coal are

1. Ultimate analysis
2. Proximate analysis

1.5.6.1 Ultimate Analysis:

 Elemental carbon
 Elemental hydrogen
 Elemental sulfur
 Elemental nitrogen
 Elemental Ash

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Coal Analysis Experiment # 1

 Elemental Heating Value

1.5.6.2 Proximate analysis:

Moisture, Ash, Volatile matter and fixed carbon.

1.5.7 Effect of Moisture on coal:

 Reduce caloric value
 Increase consumption of coal
 Increase heating time
 Transportation of coal carry extra weight of moisture present in it we pay extra for transport

1.5.8 Effect of volatile matter on coal:

 Low ignition temperature
 Burns with long yellow smelly flame
 Low caloric value
 Require large volume of combustion
 High tendency to catch fire when store in open place

1.5.9 Effect of ash:

 A coal with high ash content harder and stronger
 Low caloric value

1.5.10 Fixed Carbon:

Fixed carbon = 100 – (Moisture + VM + Ash)

1.5.11 Basis for reporting of coal Analysis:

 Run off mine coal
 Receive after size reduction
 Air dry
 Dry coal
 Dry ash free
 Dry mineral matter free
 Mineral matter free

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Coal Analysis Experiment # 1

1.5.12 Calorific Value:

The quantity of heat liberated by the combustion of unity, quantity of fuel is called
calorific value.

1.5.12.1 Unit:
Kcal/Kg for solid and liquid, Kcal/nm3 for gasses.

Nm3 = Volume of gas at normal temperature and pressure which is 25Ċ and 760mmHg
respectively.

1.5.13 Gross Calorific Value:

It is higher calorific value/heating value. Gross calorific value is the quantity of heat
liberated by combusting the fuel in oxygen saturated with water vapors, original material and
final product of bacterial at a reference temperature (25Ċ) and water obtain from the fuel be in
liquid state.

G.C.V = N.C.V + mλ

1.5.14 Net Calorific Value:

Net calorific value is the quantity of heat liberated by combusting the fuel in oxygen
saturated with water vapors, original material and final product of bacterial at a reference
temperature (25Ċ) and water obtain from the fuel be in vapor state.

N.C.V = G.C.V – mλ

1.6 Procedure:

1.6.1 Moisture Content

1.6.2 Procedure:
 Take 1g of powdered air dried sample of cal (-72 BS) in Petri dish and weight it.
 Place the sample in oven and heat it for about 105 ̴ 110C° for one hour.
 Remove the dish from oven, cool it in the desiccator and weight it as soon as it gets cool.
 Calculate the loss in weight.
 Calculate the percentage moisture in the coal sample.

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Coal Analysis Experiment # 1

1.6.3 Observation and Calculations:

Weight of sample (air dried cool) = Z1 = g

Weight of sample after heating = Z1 = g

Loss in weight = Z3 = (Z1 − Z2 ) = g

Z
% age moisture = M1 = (Z3 ) ∗ 100 = %
1

1.6.4 Volatile Matter:

1.6.5 Procedure:
 Take a translucent silica crucible and tare it, till constant weight obtained.
 Take 1g of air dried coal (-72 B.S) in crucible whose moisture content has already been
determined.
 Heat the sample for exactly seven minutes in the muffle furnace at a steady temperature of
900-950 C°.
 Remove the crucible from muffle furnace and cool it in the desiccator as weigh as soon as
cool.
 The loss in the weight is due to the volatile matter evolved as a result of decomposition of
coal plus moisture that was already present in the coal as such and was measured in the
moisture test.
 The measured moisture content is being subtracted from the total loss in weight as observed
during volatile matter test and is reported as volatile matter less moisture.

1.6.6 Observation and Calculations:

Weight of sample (air dried coal) = W1 = g

Weight of sample after heating = W2 = g

Loss in weight = W3 = (W1 − W2 ) = g

W
% Age volatile matter (including moisture) = M2 = W3 ∗ 100 = %
1

% Age volatile matter (less moisture) = M3 = (M2 − M1 ) = %

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Coal Analysis Experiment # 1

1.6.7 Ash

1.6.8 Procedure:
 Take a crucible and tare it till a constant weight is obtained.
 Take 1g of air dried sample (-72 BS) in crucible.
 Heat the sample in the furnace at about 800 C° till al the organic matter has been burned
away (ensuring complete combustion in gentle current of air usually half to one hour.
 The residue of inorganic matter is weigh as ash.

OR

 First heat the sample at 400 ̴ 450 C° for 30 min after which incineration is completed by
heating the sample at 775 ± 25 C° for one hour. (Initial rate of combustion is kept slow
because some coal turned to spit or decrepitates).
 The FBR (fuel research board) have found the employing two stages heating, better results
are obtained due to reduced decapitation of coal.

1.6.9 Observation and Calculations:

Weight of sample (air dried coal) = W1 = g

Weight of sample after heating = W2 = g

Loss in weight = W3 = (W1 − W2 ) = g

W
% Age of ash (including moisture) = M4 = W3 ∗ 100 = %
1

% Age of ash (less moisture) = M5 = (M4 − M1 ) = %

1.6.10 Fixed carbon:

1.6.11 Procedure:
 It is the solid carbonaceous residue (other than ash) resulting from volatile matter test. Its
value is calculated by subtracting moisture, volatile matter and ash from 100%.
 It brings the total of the proximate analysis automatically 100%.

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Coal Analysis Experiment # 1

% Age fixed carbon = 100 − (M1 + M3 + M4 ) = %

1.6.12 Observation and Calculations:

% Age fixed carbon = 100 − (M1 + M5 + M3 ) = %

M5 = 100 − (M1 + M3 + M4 ) = %

M6 = 100 − (M1 + M3 + M5 ) = %

1.7 Results:
The complete analysis:

1. % Age moisture content =

2. % Age volatile matter less moisture =
3. % Age ash =
4. % Age fixed carbon =

1.8 Viva voce:

1. Write brief introduction about most altered form of coal?

Anthracite is the form of coal showing the greatest amount of change or

alternation of the peaty layers of which it was originally formed. It is hard and show little sign
of bending but as a shines rather like dull steal and it breaks in to skew shape blocks.

2. Write the effect of moisture on coal?

 Reduce caloric value
 Increase consumption of coal
 Increase heating time
 Transportation of coal carry extra weight of moisture present in it we pay extra for transport
3. Why bituminous coal has more calorific value than the anthracite?

Bituminous coal has more calorific value than the anthracite because of higher hydrogen
content

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Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

2 Experiment # 2

2.1 Title:
Oil and water analysis

2.2 Objective:
a) Determine the Kinematic Viscosity of the given sample of lubricating oil at room
temperature 35°C, 45°C, 55°C, 65°C using Engler Viscometer.
b) Report the dynamic viscosity (at above temperatures) and degree Engler (°E)
c) Plot the graphs relating
i. Temperature vs. Kinematic Viscosity
ii. Temperature vs. Time of flow
iii. Kinematic Viscosity and Time of Flow
d) Report the comparison of coefficients of developed equation with coefficients of standard
equation. (At any arbitrary value).

2.3 Apparatus:
Thermometer, Beaker, Specific Gravity Bottle and Engler Viscometer.

2.4 Chemicals:
Oil and water.

2.5 Theory:

2.5.1 Viscosity:
2.5.1.1 Definition:
Viscosity is the measure of the internal friction of a fluid. These frictions become
apparent when a layer of fluid is made to move in relation to another layer. The greater the
friction, the greater the amount of force required to cause this movement. This is called “shear”.

Shearing occur whenever the fluid is physically moved or distributed, as in pouring , or

spreading, spraying, mixing etc. highly viscous fluid therefore, required more force to move
then less viscous materials.

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Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

F dv
α
A dx

F dv
= η
A dx

Where ‘𝜂’ is known as viscosity

The velocity gradient dv/dx is a measure the change in speed at which the intermediate layers
move which respect to each other. It describes the shearing the liquid experiences and is thus
called, “shear rate”.

Its unit of measure is called the reciprocal seconds (Sec-1).

The term F/A indicate the force per unit area required to produce the shearing action. It
is referred to as “shear stress” and will be symbolized by “F”. Its unit of measurement is” Dyne
per square centimeter” (dyne/ cm2).

Using these simplified terms, viscosity may be defined mathematically by the following formula

Shear stress F
η = Viscosity = =
Shear rate S

η = F/S

2.5.1.2 Units:
The fundamental unit of viscosity is “Poise”

2.5.1.3 Poise:
A material requiring a shear stress of l dyne/cm2 to produce a shear rate of one
reciprocal second has a viscosity of 1 poise.

2.5.1.4 S.I units:

Pascal-seconds (Pa.s).

2.5.1.5 Units Conversion:

1Pa.s = 10 Poise

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Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

2.5.2 Apparent Viscosity:

The ratio of shear stress to rate of shear of a non-Newtonian fluid such as lubricating
grease or a multi-grade oil, oil calculated from Poiseuille’s equation measured in poises. The
apparent viscosity changes with changing rates of shear and temperature must, therefore be
reported as the value at a given shear rate and temperature.

2.5.3 Definition:
The value obtained by applying the instrumental equation used in obtaining the viscosity
of Newtonian fluid to viscometer measurement of a non-Newtonian fluid.

2.5.4 Non-Newtonian Fluid:

2.5.4.1 Case 1:
When the viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate, we call the fluid shear thinning.
Psedo plastic fluid is another name.

2.5.4.2 Case 2:
When the viscosity increases as the fluid is subjected to a higher shear rate, the fluid is
called Shear-Thickening eg Dilatants.

12
Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

2.5.5 Factors affect Viscosity:

2.5.5.1 Size and structure of molecule:
Viscosity increases with increase in size and structure of molecules.

2.5.5.2 Intermolecular forces of Attraction:

Viscosity increases with increases in Intermolecular forces of Attraction. e.g. H20 is
more viscous than alcohol.

2.5.5.3 Effect of Temperature:

In liquids, viscosity decreases with increases in Temperature as Intermolecular forces
of Attraction are decreased & K.E increased. In gases viscosity increase with increase in
temperature.

2.5.5.4 Density:
Greater the density greater will be the viscosity of liquid.

2.5.6 How Viscosity is measured in Lab:

It is measured by Oswald Viscometer.

2.5.6.1 Commercial Scale:

Commercially it is measured by three makes of commercial viscometers:

1. Redwood viscometer (Used in common wealth countries).

2. Saybolt viscometer (Used in U.S.A).
3. Engler viscometer (Used in Europe).

2.5.7 Principle of Above Viscometers:

“A fixed volume of a liquid at fixed temp is allowed to flow through a standard capillary
tube & the time of flow is noted”. The results are sometimes expressed in terms of time by
taken oil to flow through a particular instrument e.g.

Viscosity = l00 Redwood sec at 20°C

Kinematic viscosity is measured by this method is expressed in stokes or centistokes.

Kinematic viscosity of liquid fuel is given by

13
Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

𝐁
η = AT
𝐓

where

T = Time of flow of oil (at a fixed temp) through the viscometer. ‘A’ and ‘B’ are viscometer
constants and depend upon the dimensions of the viscometer capillary through which oil flows.

For Redwood viscometer No.1, T is the time of flow of 50 c.c. of oil and values of
constants B and A for various values of T are given in Table

Table 2-1 Values of Redwood Viscometer Constants

Values of T Values of A Values of B

– 100 seconds 1.78 0.0026

>100 seconds 0.50 0.00247

Redwood Viscometer I is used for low viscosity oils whereas Redwood Viscometer II
is used for highly viscous oil (its oil flow port area is larger). The value of constants A and Bare
different for the two viscometers as their flow port diameter are different. These values are
supplied with the viscometers. No of seconds required for flow of fixed quantity of oil (usually
50c.c. at a fixed temp) is a measure of viscosity. High viscosity oil takes longer time to flow
out.

In British practice, the standard instrument for measuring viscosity is Redwood

viscometer. It consists of metal cup with an axially-placed orifice in the base. The hole can be
closed by a metal ball or a rod, the metal cup can be heated and the oil is stirred to ensure
uniform temperature conditions. When the ball is removed a thin stream of oil runs into a small
graduated glass flask and the time to fill the flask is recorded which represents the viscosity of
oil. Kinematic viscosity (expressed in Stokes/centistokes) is related to absolute/dynamic
viscosity (expressed as poise/centipoise) as

µ
η=
ρ

14
Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

ρ = Density of oil, gm/cm3

µ = absolute viscosity of oil, poise = gm/cm.sec

𝜂 = Kinematic viscosity, stokes

Saybolt universal and Saybolt Furol are similarly different viscometer used for different
viscosity oils.

In American practice, Saybolt viscometer is used. Similar to Redwood Viscometer No.

l and No. 2, Saybolt also used two standard.

In the Engler Viscometer shown, the water-bath is heated by gas ring and its temperature
is kept uniform with the help of a stirrer. The oil cylinder is fitted with three gauge points, which
indicate the amount of oil to be poured in it and also helps in leveling the instrument. The
loosely fitted oil cylinder cover carries a thermometer which can be rotated to stir the oil; the
jet fitted at the bottom of oil cylinder is slightly tapered. The valve pin which seats itself on the
jet is lifted to start the test and the time of outflow of flow of 200 c.c. of water at 20°C is taken
as 52 second.

Table 2-2 Viscosity Scale

15
Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

2.5.8 Viscosity Index (V.I):

The viscosity of a liquid decreases with increase in temperature. The change
in viscosity with change in temperature is expressed by viscosity index. It is an empirical
number indicating the rate of change of viscosity of oil from l00°F to 210°F. Low viscosity
index means a large change in viscosity with change in temperature. A high viscosity index
shows relatively small change in viscosity with temperature.

Paraffinic oil has very high viscosity index = 100

While naphthenic oil has very low viscosity index = 0

Viscosity index of an oil is determined by measuring its viscosity at two temperature

and comparing the results with those for a standard oil of V.I = 100 and for a standard oil of
V.I = 0.

L−U
Viscosity Index = × 100
L−H

Where

U = viscosity of oil sample at 100°F

L = viscosity of standard oil of V.I = 0 at 210°F

H = viscosity of standard oil of V.I = l00 at 2l0°F

Value of L and H are obtained from table after the viscosity of sample has been
determined at 100°F. Viscosity Index measures the paraffinity of oil. Lubricating oil should in
general have high viscosity index. Viscosity index improvers (e.g. polybutene) are used for
improving it. High V.I oils are used where there is a wide temperature variation.

2.5.9 Engler Viscometer:

2.5.9.1 Apparatus Description:
The Engler Viscometer is mainly used in Germany .It generally measures the
viscosity of oil. It is the viscometer with tumultuous relative regimens and it measure the
viscosity referred to the water. It is showed in Engler Degree and represents the ratio between

16
Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

the down flow times in seconds of 200ml of the sample through to calibrate capillary hole and
the 200 time taken by milliliter distilled water.

2.5.10 Basic part of viscometer:

2.5.10.1 Thermostat: (A)
The basic function of the thermostat used in this apparatus is to maintain the constant
temperature for the heating of oil taken in the bath placed within the thermostat Bath Thermostat
bath is made of Brass and servers the required temperature. Thermostat is arranged coaxially to
the first one and it is equipped with thermometer and agitator to shovels to set in action by hand.
In this container the heating liquid comes place that it will have to carry the oil to the
temperature of test.

2.5.10.2 Thermometer: (B)

There are two thermometer are used in this apparatus One is placed in the oil bath for
the measurement of the temperature of the oil used the second thermometer is placed is the
Thermostat bath which shows the temperature is then can be adjusted.

2.5.10.3 Cover: (C)

The container is fortified of wall cover double with two holes one for thermometer that
measure the temperature of the liquid and the other for a valve pin in wood, in order to close
the outflow hole.

2.5.10.4 Valve: (D)

The valve pin passed through the cover and seats in the discharge pipe. When the pin is
lifted the oil start flowing through the platinum discharge tube and time of flow of 200 ml of oil
is measure.

2.5.10.5 Stirrer: (E)

Stirrer is use for the uniform distribution of the heat supplied to the fuel placed in the
metal bath.

2.5.10.6 Jet: (J)

The oil container is constituted from brass metal with to the center of the base a hole,
communicating with a small calibrated with platinum capillary through wish the liquid will

17
Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

have to flow down. The capillary allows the oil to flow through it and time a flow of oil is used
for the measurement of viscosity.

2.5.10.7 Level Gauge: (G)

Three needle point gauges are fixed in the oil bath placed to 1200 one from the other,
mark it the level that must catch up the liquid for measuring the oil on the one hand, and on the
other to serve for the correct adjustment of the horizontal position of the apparatus.

2.5.10.8 Leveling Screw: (T)

Leveling screw is used for the correct horizontal position of the viscometer and it also
help in keeping the correct level of the oil in the bath.

Figure 2-1 Engler Viscometer

2.5.11 Arrangement of Apparatus:

It consists of two metal basins, one placed within the other, one serving as an oil
reservoir and the other as a thermostat. The oil bath is fixed in to the thermostat by support and
by the discharge pipe F .A valve pin D passed through the lid and seats in the discharge pipe.
Three needle-point gauges are fixed in the oil bath equidistance from the bottom for measuring
the oil on one hand and the other to serve for the correct adjustment of horizontal position of

18
Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

the apparatus .when the oil bath is filled to gauge level it should contain 240 ml. A tripod
supports the apparatus .A measuring flask having on its neck two marks, one registering 200ml,
the other 240ml, is placed under the platinum discharge tube when a determination to be made.
To test the correctness of the apparatus the time taken for 200ml of water at 20°C flow out of
the bath and is filled to gauges, is noted. Before removing the valve the water should be allowed
to acquire a state of rest after being stirred by rotating the lid with the thermometer in position.
Exactly time same procedure is adopted when the oil is being tested.

2.6 Procedure:
 Clean the oil cup with soft tissue to remove any oil already present in cup.
 Pour the water in the cup to filling marks, keeping pointed rod in the vertical position (and
cover up) which act as ball valve to close the orifice.
 When cup has been filled with water up to the level gauge, lower the cover and insert a
thermometer into the cup (make sure the vertical rod is closing the orifice when you cover
down the cup).
 Collect 200ml of Water in the beaker (after placing beaker beneath the orifice) and note the
time to out flow (in seconds) at room temperature by up lifting the venial Rod.
 Repeat the same procedure with the sample of oil and measure the time of flow for 200ml
of oil sample.
 Heat the sample to achieve the required temperature and note the time (seconds) of outflow
of sample at 35°C, 45°C, 55°C, and 65°C respectively.

2.7 Precautions:
 Do not switch ‘ON’ the thermostat /heater without water in water bath.
 Make sure the temperature for flow of water and for oil sample is the same.

2.8 Observation and Calculations:

Room Temperature T1 = 25oC

Density of water at room temperature = 1000 Kg/m3

2.8.1 Engler viscometer:

19
Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

Table 2-3 Temperature Vs KV And DV

Sr # Set Temperature Time to Degree Kinematic Density Dynamic

No. Point Attained oC flow t (Sec) Engler Viscosity of Oil Viscosity
o o
C T2 Water Oil E (centistokes) at T2 d2 (poise)
1 35 34 10.43 168 16.107 1.218 0.9228 1.124

2 45 44 8.66 106 12.24 0.926 0.9174 0.850

3 50 50 7.32 98 11.1 0.552 0.88 0.485

2.8.2 Degree Engler:

Efflux time of sample of oil for 200 ml
°E =
Efflux time for water for 200 ml

2.8.3 Kinematic Viscosity:

V = 0.08°E - (0.0864 / °E)

Where °E = 1.35 to 3.2

And for °E > 3.2V = 0.076°E - (0.04 /°E)

Similarly

V = 0.00147 × t - (3.74 / t)

2.8.4 For Dynamic Viscosity:

For dynamic viscosity (at temperature T) determine sp. Gravity of oil sample (at
temperature T) and density of oil sample (at temperature T) with sp. gravity bottle method

Sp. Gravity of oil = (mass of oil / mass of water) = (Mo / Mw)

Density of oil = Sp. gravity of oil × density of water (at temperature T)

Dynamic Viscosity of oil = Kinematic Viscosity × density of oil

20
Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

2.8.5 Kinematic Viscosity Vs Time Of Flow:

2.8.5.1 Engler Viscometer for oil:
1.4

1.2

1
Kinematic Viscosity

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time

Figure 2-2 Comparison Between KV and Time

2.8.5.2 Engler Viscometer for water:

1.5

1.2
Kinematic Viscosity

0.9

0.6

0.3

0
0 3 6 9 12
Time

Figure 2-3 Comparison Between KV and Time

21
Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

2.8.6 Saybolt Viscometer:

Table 2-4 Deviation of KV and DV

Sr # Set Temperature Time to Degree Kinematic Density Dynamic

No. Point Attained oC flow t Engler Viscosity of Oil Viscosity
o o
C T2 (Sec) E (centistokes) at T2 d2 (poise)
Water Oil
1 35 35 29 363 12.5 0.94 0.92 0.864
2 45 45 27 250 9.25 0.698 0.91 0.635
3 55 55 25.63 163 6.35 0.496 0.9052 0.429

2.8.7 Kinematic Viscosity Vs Time Of Flow:

2.8.7.1 Saybolt Viscometer for Oil:

0.9

0.8

0.7
Kinematic viscosity

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time of flow

Figure 2-4 Comparison between KV and Time for oil

22
Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

2.8.7.2 Saybolt Viscometer for Water:

1
0.9
Kinematic viscosity 0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
25 25.5 26 26.5 27 27.5 28 28.5 29 29.5
Time of flow

Figure 2-5 Comparison between KV and Time for water

2.8.8 Redwood Viscometer:

Table 2-5 Deviation of KV and DV with respect to time

Sr # Set Temperature Time to Degree Kinematic Density Dynamic

No. Point Attained oC flow t (Sec) Engler Viscosity of Oil Viscosity
o o
C T2 Water Oil E (centistokes) at T2 d2 (poise)

1 35 35 4.08 19.2 2.99 0.210 0.87 0.1827

2 45 45 3.97 9.00 2.26 0.142 0.85 0.1207

3 47 47 3.65 7.4 2.02 0.1188 0.83 0.098604

23
Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

2.8.9 Kinematic Viscosity vs Time Of Flow:

2.8.9.1 Redwood Viscometer for Water:
0.25

0.2
Kinematic viscosity

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
3.6 3.65 3.7 3.75 3.8 3.85 3.9 3.95 4 4.05 4.1 4.15
Time of flow

Figure 2-6 Deviation of KV with respect to time for water

2.8.9.2 Redwood Viscometer for Oil:

0.25

0.2
Kinematic viscosity

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time of flow

Figure 2-7 Deviation of KV with respect to time for oil

24
Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

2.8.10 Graphical representation of the data:

2.8.10.1 Kinematic Vs Temperature:
2.5

2
Kinematic Viscosity

1.5
Redwood
1 Saybolt
Engler
0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature

Figure 2-8 Deviation of KV with respect to temperature

2.8.10.2 Time of flow Vs Temperature:

For Water

35

30

25
Time of flow

20
Redwood
15
Saybolt

10 Engler

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature

Figure 2-9 Deviation of time with respect to temperature for water

25
Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

For Oil

400

350

300

250
Time of flow

200 Redwood

150 Saybolt
Engler
100

50

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature

Figure 2-10 Deviation of timewith respect to temperature for oil

2.9 Result:
Viscosity is inversely proportional to the temperature. Increase in temperature decreases
the viscosity.

2.10 Viva voce:

1. What factors that affect viscosity?

Size and structure of molecule:

Viscosity increases with increase in size and structure of molecules.

Intermolecular forces of Attraction:

Viscosity increases with increases in Intermolecular forces of Attraction. e.g. H20 is

more viscous than alcohol.

Effect of Temperature:

In liquids, viscosity decreases with increases in Temperature as Intermolecular forces

of Attraction are decreased & K.E increased. In gases viscosity increase with increase in
temperature.

26
Oil and water analysis Experiment # 2

2. What is apparent viscosity?

The ratio of shear stress to rate of shear of a non-Newtonian fluid such as lubricating
grease or a multi-grade oil, oil calculated from Poiseuille’s equation measured in poises. The
apparent viscosity changes with changing rates of shear and temperature must, therefore be
reported as the value at a given shear rate and temperature.

3. Write definition of poise?

A material requiring a shear stress of l dyne/cm2 to produce a shear rate of one reciprocal
second has a viscosity of 1 poise.

1Pa.s = 10 Poise

27
Oil Analysis Experiment # 3

3 Experiment # 3

3.1 Title:
Oil Analysis

3.2 Objective:
a) Determine the Dynamic Viscosity of the given sample of lubricating oil at room
temperature, 25°C, 30°C, 35°C and 40“C using Brookfield Viscometer
b) Report the Kinematic Viscosity at above temperatures.
c) Using Viscosity conversion Nomogram find the equivalent of kinematic viscosity in
Saybolt Universal second, Redwood No.1, Redwood No. 2 and Engler Degree.
d) Plot the graphs relating
i. Temperature vs. Kinematic Viscosity
ii. Torque produced Vs Kinematic viscosity
iii. Torque produced, kinematic viscosity Vs Temperature

3.3 Apparatus:
Thermometer, Beaker, Specific Gravity Bottle, Brookfield Viscometer

3.4 Chemicals:
Oil

3.5 Theory:

3.5.1 Working Principle:

The Brookfield Viscometer is of the rotational variety. It measures the torque required
to rotate an immersed element (the spindle) in a fluid. The spindle is driven by a motor through
a calibrated spring; deflection of the spring is indicated by a pointer and dial (or a digital
display). The viscous drag of the fluid against the spindle is measured by the spring deflection.

The measurement range of a DV-E (in centipoises or millipascal seconds) is determined

by the rotational speed of the spindle, the size and the shape of the spindle, the container in
which the spindle is rotating, and the full scale torque of the calibrated spring. By utilizing a

28
Oil Analysis Experiment # 3

multiple speed transmission and interchangeable spindles, a variety of viscosity ranges can be
measured, thus enhancing versatility of the instrument.

3.5.2 Mechanism of Viscometer:

For a given viscosity, the viscous drag, or resistance to flow (indicated by the degree to
which the spring Winds up), is proportional to the spindle’s speed of rotation and is related to
the spindle’s size and shape (geometry). The drag will increase as the spindle size and/or
rotational speed increase. It follows that for a given spindle geometry and speed, an increase in
viscosity will be indicated by an increase in deflection of the spring. For any Viscometer model,
the minimum range is obtained by using the largest spindle at the highest speed; the maximum
range by using the smallest spindle at the slowest speed. The Viscometer is composed of several
mechanical subassemblies. See Figure for a schematic view of the major components of a basic
dial-reading Viscometer.

Figure 3-1 Brookfield Viscometer

The stepper drive motor (which replaced the synchronous motor and multiple-speed
transmission) is located at the top of the instrument inside the housing to which the nameplate
is attached. The Viscometer main case contains a calibrated beryllium-copper spring, one end
of which is attached to the pivot shaft, the other end is connected directly to the dial. This dial

29
Oil Analysis Experiment # 3

is driven by the motor drive shaft and in tum drives the pivot shaft through the calibrated spring.
In dial reading models, the pointer is connected to the pivot shaft and indicates its angular
position in relation to the dial. In Digital models, the relative angular position of the pivot shaft
is detected by an RVDT (rotary variable displacement transducer) and is read out on a digital
display. Below the main case is the pivot cup through which the lower end of the pivot shaft
protrudes. A jewel bearing inside the pivot cup rotates with the dial or transducer; the pivot
shaft is supported on this bearing by the pivot point. The lower end of the pivot shaft comprises
the spindle coupling to which the Viscometer’s spindles are attached.

3.5.3 Torque:
The rotational or turning effect of force measured by the physical quantity is known as
torque.

3.5.4 Components of Brookfield Viscometer:

1. DV-E viscometer
2. Model a laboratory stand
3. Spindle set with case
4. Guard leg
5. Shipping cap

3.5.5 How to make selection of Spindle:

When performing a test according to an existing specification or procedure, use the
spindle and speed specified. When conducting an original test, the best method for spindle and
speed selection is trial and error. The goal is to obtain a Viscometer display (% torque) reading
between 10 and 100, remembering that relative error of measurement improves as the reading
approaches 100. If the reading is over 100, select a slower speed and/or a smaller spindle.
Conversely, if the reading is under l0, select a higher speed and/or a larger spindle. If the
approximate viscosity of the sample fluid is known, a faster method for honing in on the right
spindle/speed combination is available by referring to the factor finder supplied with the
Viscometer. The goal is to select a combination whose range brackets the estimated viscosity
of the sample.

For any given spindle/speed combination, the maximum range available is equal to the
spindle Factor multiplied by 100. This maximum is also called “Full Scale Range” or “FSR”.

30
Oil Analysis Experiment # 3

For Digital Viscometers that have the autorange key, selecting a speed and spindle and then
depressing and holding the autorange key will cause the screen to display FSR in cp (mPa.s).

The minimum recommended range equals the Factor multiplied by 10. For example: a
#2 spindle on an LVT Viscometer at 12 RPM has a Factor of 25. The maximum range of this
combination is 25 times 100, or 2500 cp The minimum recommended viscosity that should be
measured is 25 times 10, or 250 cp Therefore, if the viscosity of the sample fluid is estimated
to be 4000 cp, another spindle/ speed combination must be selected in order to make the
measurement. If the sample fluid is around 2000 cp, however, this spindle and speed would be
suitable. With a little practice, a quick glance at the factor finder will suffice to make an
appropriate selection of spindle and speed. When conducting multiple tests, the same
spindle/speed combination should be used for all tests. When a test must be performed at several
speeds, select a spindle that produces on-scale readings at all required speeds. This may
necessitate using a display reading less than 10, which is acceptable as long as the reduced
accuracy of such a reading is recognized.

3.5.6 Sample Container Size:

For measurements with standard Viscometer models manufacturer recommends a
container with an inside diameter of 3 1/4 inches (83 mm) or larger. The usual vessel for this
purpose is a 600 mL low form Griffin beaker. Use of a smaller container will result in an
increase in viscosity readings, particularly with the #1 and #2 spindles. When utilizing a smaller
container, the simplest approach is to report the dimensions of the container and ignore the
probable effect on calibration. As long as the same size container is used for all subsequent
tests, there will be no correlation problem.

3.5.7 Sample Conditions:

The sample fluid should be free from entrapped air. Air can be removed by gently
tapping the container on a table top or by careful use of a vacuum apparatus. The sample should
be at a constant and uniform temperature. This can be verified by checking the temperature at
several different locations within the container. Be sure to bring the sample, spindle, and guard-
leg to the same temperature before taking a viscosity reading. Temperature uniformity can often
be maintained by agitation prior to a measurement, but first determine that such agitation won’t
affect viscosity of the sample fluid. Factors used to calculate viscosity values from the
Viscometer readings are independent of temperature. A constant temperature water bath may

31
Oil Analysis Experiment # 3

be used to maintain the desired temperature. Homogeneity of the sample is also quite important,
especially in dispersed systems where settling can occur. In many cases, simple stirring just
prior to the test will keep the components dispersed.

3.5.8 Spindle Immersion:

The spindle should be immersed up to the middle of the shaft indentation (notch).
Failure to do so could result in incorrect viscosity readings. In some cases the sample fluid may
change its rheological structure during the act of spindle immersion. To avoid this, insert the
spindle in a different portion of the sample than the one intended for measurement. The spindle
may then be moved horizontally to the center of the sample container. This must be done before
attaching the spindle to the Viscometer.

3.5.9 Sensitivity and Accuracy:

Brookfield Viscometers are guaranteed to be accurate to within 11% of the full-scale
range of the spindle/speed combination in use (this percentage, expressed in centipoise values,
is equal to the spindle Factor; accuracy of a spindle/speed combination with a factor of 25 would
therefore be within U25 cP). Repeatability is to within lg 0.2% of the full scale range. The
relative error of a particular viscosity reading is dependent upon the actual display (% torque)
reading. In general, relative error of the viscosity value will improve as the reading approaches
100. This is because the tolerance of D l% of full scale viscosity applies to all readings, and
represents a smaller percentage of measured viscosity as the actual reading increases.

3.6 Procedure:
 Insert the center spindle in the test material until the fluid level is at the immersion
groove on the spindle’s shaft. With a disk type spindle, it is sometimes necessary to tilt
the spindle slightly while immersing to avoid trapping air bubbles on its underside
surface. (Brookfield recommends that you immerse the spindle in this fashion before
attaching it to the Viscometer). Be sure that the motor is OFF before attaching the
spindle. Select a spindle and attached it to the coupling nut. Lift the shaft slightly,
holding at firmly with one hand while screwing the spindle on with the other (note left
hand thread). Avoid putting side thrust on the shaft.
 To make a viscosity measurement, select a speed and follow the instruction in spindle
and speed section. Allow time for the indicated reading to stabilize. The time required

32
Oil Analysis Experiment # 3

for stabilization will depend on the speed at which the viscometer is running and the
characteristics of the sample fluid. For maximum accuracy, flashing readings below
10% should be avoided
 Switch the MOTOR ON/OFF switch to turn the motor “OFF” when changing a spindle
or changing samples, remove spindle before cleaning.

3.7 Observation and Calculations:

Room Temperature = 25oC

Table 3-1 Deviation of KV with respect to Torque

No. of obs RPM Torque Dynamic Kinematic

Viscosity (cp) Viscosity
(stokes)

1 100 62.4 187 204.105

2 60 37 184.5 201.42

3 50 30.2 182 198.64

4 30 17.9 179 195.37

5 20 11.5 173 188.8

3.7.1 For Kinematic Viscosity:

For kinematic viscosity (at temperature T) determine sp. Gravity of oil sample using
density of oil sample (at temperature T) with sp. gravity bottle method

Sp. Gravity of oil = (mass of oil/mass of water) = (Mo/Mw)

Density of oil = Sp. gravity of oil × density of water

Dynamic Viscosity of oil = Kinematic Viscosity × Density of oil

Dynamic Viscosity
Kinematic Viscosity of oil =
Density of Oil

33
Oil Analysis Experiment # 3

3.7.2 Graphs:
3.7.2.1 Torque produced Vs Kinematic viscosity:
206

204
Kinematic viscosity(stokes)

202

200

198

196

194

192

190

188
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Torque (%)

Figure 3-2 Deviation of KV with respect to Torque

3.8 Result:
Viscosity is inversely proportional to the temperature. Increase in temperature decreases
the viscosity.

3.9 Viva voce:

1. What is working principle of Brookfield Viscometer?

The Brookfield Viscometer is of the rotational variety. It measures the torque required
to rotate an immersed element (the spindle) in a fluid. The spindle is driven by a motor through
a calibrated spring; deflection of the spring is indicated by a pointer and dial (or a digital
display). The viscous drag of the fluid against the spindle is measured by the spring deflection.

2. What are components of Brookfield Viscometer?

1. DV-E viscometer
2. Model a laboratory stand
3. Spindle set with case
4. Guard leg

34
Oil Analysis Experiment # 3

5. Shipping cap

3. Write accuracy of Brookfield Viscometer?

Brookfield Viscometers are guaranteed to be accurate to within 11% of the full-scale

range of the spindle/speed combination in use. Repeatability is to within lg 0.2% of the full
scale range. The relative error of a particular viscosity reading is dependent upon the actual
display

35
Diesel Analysis Experiment # 4

4 Experiment # 4

4.1 Title:
Diesel Analysis (Aniline Point and Diesel Index)

4.2 Objective:
To Determine the Diesel Index of given sample of Diesel Oil via Aniline Point test, also
calculate the Cetane number (approximate) of the sample.

4.3 Apparatus:
Thermometer, Beaker, Diesel Sample, Aniline, Stirrer

4.4 Chemicals:
Diesel Oil

4.5 Theory:

4.5.1 Aniline Point:

It is the lowest temperature at which the oil is completely miscible with an equal volume
of aniline. It is an aromatic content of oil. Aniline is used in this method, because aniline is
miscible by most of the aromatics. Higher the aniline point lower the aromatics and higher the
paraffin content with very high cetane number making oil suitable for use in diesel engine.

4.5.2 Diesel Index:

The aniline point is the directly proportional to the diesel index by equation high the
diesel index, more satisfactory will be the ignition of the fuel oil and high speed engine and it
should be 50 for medium speed engine, and for normal speed engine it should be about 35 and
should not be less than 25.

𝐀𝐧𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐏𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 (𝐅)∗𝐀𝐏𝐈 𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲

Diesel Index =
𝟏𝟎𝟎

36
Diesel Analysis Experiment # 4

4.5.3 Cetane Index:

The cetane index is an estimation of the cetane number from fuel physical properties
such as the 10%, 50% and 90% boiling point and the API.

4.5.4 Knocking:
One consequence of the auto ignition temperature relates to the conditions in
automobiles known as Knocking generally, straight chain hydrocarbon have lower auto ignition
temperature than branched chain hydrocarbon. Gasoline has a relatively high auto ignition
temperature and, therefore requires an ignition source (a spark from a spark plug) to initiate
combustion. However, as the engine becomes hot during use, ignition of the fuel can occur
before the spark ignites the fuel. This premature ignition produces a “knocking” or ”pinging”
sound and robs the engine of power, and if it continues, the engine may be damaged. Since
straight chain hydrocarbons in the gasoline boiling range have lower auto ignition temperatures
they have greater tendency to produce knocking than do the branched chain compound of
similar molecular weight

4.5.5 Octane Number:

Vital that the fuel does not auto-ignite before the flame first reaches it. This cause
Knock. Knock is the most single important parameter which limits gasoline engine efficiency
and power. This is dependent on the spontaneous ignition temperature. SIT is lowest for large
alkenes and higher for aromatics are the best. An octane number is defined for each fuel as the
percentage of iso-octane in an isooctane heptane’s mixture which gives the same knocking
tendency as the fuel. Additives such as tetra-ethyl-led (TEL) improve octane numbers of fuel
by suppressing auto-ignition. It is cheaper to produce a high octane gasoline by the use of TEL
instead if increasing the aromatics content. At the max power of spark ignition engine is
determined by the RON. As compression ratio increases so does power, to the point where auto
ignition takes place this is also dependent on mixture ratio. Fuel must be burned in vapor phase
but is supplied as liquid. If volatility too low, there is problem with lubrication. If too high,
problems with vapor lock. Typical boiling range 30-l50°C.if vapor pressure is too low there
may be a problem with vapor lock.

4.5.6 Difference between Gasoline and Diesel Engine:

The main difference between the gasoline engine and the diesel engine are

37
Diesel Analysis Experiment # 4

 Gasoline engine intakes a mixture of gas and air compress it and ignite the mixture with
a spark. The diesel engine takes in just air compress it and then injects the fuel into the
compressed air. The heat of the compress air lights the fuel spontaneously.

 A gasoline engine compresses at ratio of 8:1 to 12:1, while a diesel engine compresses
at a ratio 14:1 to as high as 25:1. The higher compression ratio of the diesel engine leads
to better efficiency.

 Gasoline engine generally use either carburetion, in which the air is and fuel is mixed
long before the air enters the cylinder or port fuel injection in which the fuel is injected
just prior to the intake stroke (outside the cylinder). Diesel engines use direct fuel
injection the diesel fuel injected directly into the cylinder.

4.5.7 Applications of Aniline Point:

The applications of aniline point are following

 Aromatics dissolve aniline (itself an aromatic substance) more readily than paraffin’s
or iso-paraffins, the higher the aniline point lower the aromatics and higher the paraffin
content with very high cetane number making the oil suitable for use in diesel engine.

 Aniline point of oil also gives an indication of the possible deterioration of rubber
sealing, packing etc. in contact with the oil.

 The aromatics have a tendency to dissolve natural rubber and certain types of synthetic
rubber. Therefore, in such cases a low aromatic content in the lubricant (i.e. with high
aniline point) is desirable.

 Aniline point of cetane is 95°C. Hence, higher the aniline point, better the diesel fuel
and the lubricant.

4.5.8 Apparatus Description:

4.5.8.1 Test Tube and Cork:
Test tube used in aniline point test is approximately 25mm in diameter and 150mm in
length, made of heat resistance glass and fitted with a cork bored to hold the thermometer
centrally and provided with another hole through which the stirrer can operate freely.

38
Diesel Analysis Experiment # 4

4.5.8.2 Stirrer
Stirrer can either can be of metal or glass rod bent at the bottom into a ring of about
15mm diameter at right angles to the main axis.

4.5.8.3 Thermometer
It is used to note the temperature of mixture.

4.5.8.4 Pipettes
It is used to measure the volume of aniline and other compound is of 5ml capacity.

4.5.8.5 Heating and Cooling Bath

Heating media is used to make miscible the liquids and cooling bath is used to cool
down the solution. Ice water, or solid carbon dioxide or acetone can also be used as cooling
media.

Figure 4-1 Aniline Point Apparatus

It is the lowest temperature at which oil is completely miscible with an equal volume of
aniline. It is the measure of the aromatic contents of the oil, hence a characteristic property of
diesel.

39
Diesel Analysis Experiment # 4

4.6 Procedure:
 Take equal volume of Aniline (C6H5NH2) and Diesel sample in a round bottom tube and
sample in a beaker containing water after inserting thermometer and stirrer into it.

 Heat the beaker (water bath) till two separate layers of liquids become miscible with
continuous stirring.

 As soon as the miscibility occurs, the source of heat is removed and apparatus is allowed
to cool down (stirring being continued) till cloudiness appears (during separation of two
layers).

 Note the thermometer reading which indicates the approximate Aniline point.

Or

 Using the automatic Aniline Point tester, heat mixture of Aniline and sample (taken in
equal volumes) with continuous stirring will opaque homogenous solution becomes
transparent by observing it under light bulb.

4.7 Observations and Calculations:

Aniline Point for a given sample = 91 °C

= 195.8 °F

Mass of empty specific gravity bottle = 17.7966 g

Mass of oil and specific gravity bottle = 27.4304 g

Mass of oil = 9.6338 g

Volume of oil = 10 ml

Density of oil = m/V

= 0.96338 g/cm3

= 0.96338 g/ml

Specific gravity of oil = 0.96338

40
Diesel Analysis Experiment # 4

141.5
API Gravity = Specific gravity − 131.5

141.5
API Gravity = 0.96338 − 131.5

API Gravity = 15.39

Aniline Point (F)∗API Gravity

Diesel Index = 100

195.8∗15.39
Diesel Index = 100

Diesel Index = 30.1336

Diesel index = Cetane Number + 3

Cetane Number = Diesel index - 3

Cetane Number = 30.1336 – 3

Cetane Number = 27.1336

4.8 Results:
Aniline Point for a given sample (T) = 195.8 °F

Diesel Index for a given sample (Z) = 30.1336

Cetane Number for a given sample (Y) = 27.1336

4.9 Viva voce:

1. What is knocking?

One consequence of the auto ignition temperature relates to the conditions in

automobiles known as Knocking generally, straight chain hydrocarbon have lower auto ignition
temperature than branched chain hydrocarbon.

2. Write definition of aniline point?

It is the lowest temperature at which the oil is completely miscible with an equal volume
of aniline. It is an aromatic content of oil. Aniline is used in this method, because aniline is
miscible by most of the aromatics.

41
Diesel Analysis Experiment # 4

3. What are applications of aniline point?

The applications of aniline point are following

 Aromatics dissolve aniline (itself an aromatic substance) more readily than paraffin’s
or iso-paraffins, the higher the aniline point lower the aromatics and higher the paraffin
content with very high cetane number making the oil suitable for use in diesel engine.

 Aniline point of oil also gives an indication of the possible deterioration of rubber
sealing, packing etc. in contact with the oil.

 The aromatics have a tendency to dissolve natural rubber and certain types of synthetic
rubber. Therefore, in such cases a low aromatic content in the lubricant (i.e. with high
aniline point) is desirable.

 Aniline point of cetane is 95°C. Hence, higher the aniline point, better the diesel fuel
and the lubricant.

42
Specific Gravity Experiment # 5

5 Experiment # 5

5.1 Title:
Specific Gravity Measurements

5.2 Objective:
a) To determine the specific gravity of given sample of oil using specific gravity bottle
method at room temperature.
b) Report the API and density of sample at room temperature
c) Calculate the approximate value of Gross Calorific and specific gravity 6O/60 from the
figure A or C
d) Report the difference of experimental and observed specific gravity 60/60, API and
G.C.V.

5.3 Apparatus:
Specific Gravity Bottle, Beaker, Weight Balance

5.4 Theory:

5.4.1 American Petroleum Institute (API) and Specific Gravity:

The specific gravity of oil is the ratio of its weight to the weight of an equal volume of
water.

It is commonly designated as ‘Sp.gr 60/60F’, indicating that both the oil and the water are
weighed and measured at a temperature of 60°F. The oil industry uses a scale adopted by The
American Petroleum Institute (API) for measuring the density of fuels, giving readings in degree
API. The relationship between specific gravity and API gravity is

141.8
API = − 131.5
sp. gr ,60/60F

43
Specific Gravity Experiment # 5

API gravity is a measure of how heavy or light petroleum liquid is compared to water.
API gravity of water is taken as 10. If API gravity of a liquid is greater than 10, it is lighter and
floats on water; if less than l0, it is heavier and sinks. A light fuel, which has a low specific
gravity, has a higher API gravity than a heavy fuel.

Specific gravity of water at 4 °C = 1.000

Specific gravity of water at 15.5°C (60 °F) = 1.001

5.4.2 Units of API Gravity:

Although mathematically, API gravity has no units, it is nevertheless referred to as being
in ‘degrees API’ “API

5.4.3 Other systems used for correlations:

Many other specialized systems of measuring density and specific gravity such as degree
Baume (°Be) and degree Twaddle (°Tw) exist. On Baume scale at 200C (68oF), the relationship
between specific gravity and degree Baume is given as

140
°Be = − 130 (For liquids lighter than water)
Sp.gravity

148
°Be = 145 − Sp.gravity (For liquids heavier than water)

An older version of the scale for liquids heavier than water, at a reference temperature of l5.5°C
(59.9 °F), uses 144.32 rather than 145.

5.4.4 Applications of Specific Gravity:

 Specific gravity determines the maximum power per unit of weight/volume.
Hydrocarbons of 10W specific gravity (paraffins) possess the maximum thermal energy
per unit volume. Hydrocarbons of high specific gravity (aromatics) possess the
maximum thermal energy per unit weight. However, high calorific value of normal
paraffins cannot be fully utilized because of their low anti-knock ratings.
 Aromatics produce more carbon deposits than paraffins. These considerations together
favor the use of iso-paraffins for aviation gasoline. The lighter the crude oil (the higher

44
Specific Gravity Experiment # 5

°API), the larger is the content of the lighter constituents like gasoline and kerosene.
Aromatics have higher specific gravity than paraffins.
 It provides an indication to find the heating value of fuel.
 It is used to suggest whether hydrogen and carbon contents are higher or lower.
 Higher specific gravity means higher carbon to hydrogen ratio. Hence, heavier oils have
lower gross calorific value on weight basis but higher gross C.V. on volume basis.
 Aromatics have higher specific gravity than paraffins. Hence, knowledge of specific
gravity can predict the quality of a product.
 Increase in specific gravity means decrease in paraffin contents. An increase in specific
gravity increases the amount of heat per unit volume.

5.4.5 How API Gravity or the Specific Gravity is measured:

Hydrometer is used for the determination of specific gravity up to 0.001.

For higher values, specific gravity bottle is used. For a semi-solid mass like tar, an indirect
method is used. Tar is mixed with equal volume of kerosene to make a thick solution.

Specific gravity of tar is given by

ρT = 2ρM − ρK

Where,

ρT = Specific Gravity of Tar.

ρM = Specific Gravity of mixture of tar and kerosene.

ρK = Specific Gravity of Kerosene.

When we use the hydrometer to measure API or specific gravity we immerse hydrometer
in the fuel and observe the depth to which it sinks. For an accurate determination, a correction
must be made for the change in density of the liquid at the temperature of the reading from the
density at (l5.5°C) 60°F due to thermal expansion. Tables are available for finding the amount
of this correction, or the following formula can be used (with high accuracy between 30 to 90
degree API) for converting degrees API at some observed temperature degree API at 60 °F

45
Specific Gravity Experiment # 5

Deg API at 60 °F = [0.002(60 — observed temp °F) + 1] × [observed deg API]

The density of a fuel, being directly depended upon the hydrogen and carbon content of
the liquid, is also related to the heating value of the fuel. The relationship between the API
gravity of a fuel and the heating value appears in the following

Specific gravity can be used to find the gross calorific value of petroleum products using
following formula of U.S Bureau of Mines

G.C.V = 12400 - 2100ρ

Where ρ = Specific gravity of oil at 15.5°C

G.C.V = Gross Calorific Value (Kcal/Kg or Kcal/liter)

46
Specific Gravity Experiment # 5

Table 5-1 Specific Gravity Of Crude and its products

Crude 0.78 – 0.96

Gasoline 0.7 – 0.76

Diesel 0.82 – 0.86

Lube oil < 0.9

Reduced crude 0.92 – 0.96

5.4.6 Density of Petroleum Products versus Temperature:

There are figures which provide us with approximate relationship of density with
temperature. It can be used to convert density of fuel oil or any other Petroleum product at 15°C
to density at any other desired test temperature, t°C

47
Specific Gravity Experiment # 5

5.4.7 How to Use Above Figure:

In order to determine the density of fuel oil (having density 0.95 at 15°C) at any desired
temperature say 40°C, draw a vertical line at 40°C to the point where it meets 0.95 Density-
Temperature line. From the point of intersection, draw a horizontal line. This line, meets the
Density temperature line at 0.935. S0 the density of the fuel oil at 40°C is 0.935. The inverse
approximation can be made similarly.

5.5 Procedure:
 Clean and dry the specific bottle and weigh it (including stopper) when empty.
 Fill the bottle with water to the top and place the stopper, by doing so the excess water
will escape from the capillary of the stopper.
 Thoroughly wipe and clean the bottle outside and carefully weigh it.
 Do the same procedure by filling the bottle with different samples of oils and observe
the temperature of oils immediately and apply density correction for temperature and
calculate the API using formula.
 At calculated API, report the specific gravity, and Gross Calorific Value from the chart
provided.

48
Specific Gravity Experiment # 5

5.6 Observations and calculations:

Room Temperature = T = 250 C

Weight of empty specific gravity bottle =M1=23.5 g

Weight of Sp. Gravity bottle + Water =M2=31.8 g

Weight of Oil Sample =M3=M2-M1=8.3 g

Weight of Sp. Gravity bottle + oil Sample =M4=31.8 g

Weight of Oil Sample =M5=M4-M1=8.21 g

As we know that

Specific gravity of oil at room temperature

Sp. Gravity = (Density of oil) / (Density of water)

= (M5/M3)

=0.96

For API Gravity (Experimental Value)

API = 141.5/(Sg.Gr) - 131.5

API = 141.5/0.98 - 131.5

API =14.88

Experimental Value of G.C.V

G.C.V = 124000-2100(d2)

G.C.V = 124000-2100(0.962)

G.C.V = 112343.04

49
Specific Gravity Experiment # 5

5.7 Viva voce:

1. What are units of API?

Although mathematically, API gravity has no units, it is nevertheless referred to as being

in ‘degrees API’.

2. Write specific gravity of crude oil and its products?

Typical specific gravity of crude and its products are given below;

Crude 0.78 – 0.96

Gasoline 0.7 – 0.76

Diesel 0.82 – 0.86

Lube oil < 0.9

Reduced crude 0.92 – 0.96

3. Write formula of API gravity?

141.8
API = − 131.5
sp. gr ,60/60F

50
Flue gas Analyzer Experiment # 6

6 Experiment # 06

6.1 Objective:
To find out the composition of coal by Flue Gas Analyzer.

6.2 Apparatus:
Flue Gas Analyzer

6.3 Chemical:
Coal

6.4 Theory:

6.4.1 Flue Gas:

Flue gas is the gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue, which is a pipe or channel for
conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace, oven, furnace, boiler or steam generator. Quite often,
the flue gas refers to the combustion exhaust gas produced at power plants. Its composition
depends on what is being burned, but it will usually consist of mostly nitrogen (typically more
than two-thirds) derived from the combustion of air, carbon dioxide (CO2), and water vapor as
well as excess oxygen (also derived from the combustion air). It further contains a small
percentage of a number of pollutants, such as particulate matter (like soot), carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides, and sulfur oxides.

6.4.2 Removal of flue gas: (Scrubbing)

At power plants, flue gas is often treated with a series of chemical processes and
scrubbers, which remove pollutants. Electrostatic precipitators or fabric filters remove
particulate matter and flue-gas desulfurization captures the sulfur dioxide produced by burning
fossil fuels, particularly coal. Nitrogen oxides are treated either by modifications to the
combustion process to prevent their formation, or by high temperature or catalytic reaction with
ammonia or urea. In either case, the aim is to produce nitrogen gas, rather than nitrogen oxides.
In the United States, there is a rapid deployment of technologies to remove mercury from flue
gas typically by adsorption on sorbents or by capture in inert solids as part of the flue-gas

51
Flue gas Analyzer Experiment # 6

desulfurization product. Such scrubbing can lead to meaningful recovery of sulfur for further
industrial use.

6.4.3 Flue gas analyzer:

A portable electronic device, a flue gas analyzer measures and displays the products of
combustion from both domestic and commercial fossil fuelled appliances. Additionally, they
can measure the ambient air quality in rooms or buildings.

Figure 6-1 Flue Gas Analyzer

6.5 Applications:
Flue Gas Analyzers should be used for the following two purposes:

6.5.1 Appliance testing:

A Flue gas analyzer measures flue gases - You place its' probe in the chimney or
appliance exhaust and see what levels of Oxygen (O2), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Carbon
Dioxide (CO2) and flue gas temperatures are present.

They are no more complicated to operate than a video camera and perform a similar
function as they are your "eyes" inside the appliance. Some analyzers offer additional
information such as boiler efficiency, data logging, differential pressure and other gas
measurements. They should also offer the option to either print or store the measurements for
later review.

52
Flue gas Analyzer Experiment # 6

6.5.2 Ambient air monitoring:

A Flue gas analyser also measures room air, provided it has been switched on or
"calibrated" in fresh, outdoor air. This is invaluable, for example, when trying to find out
whether there is CO leaking from an appliance or pinpointing why a CO alarm is being
triggered.

Appliances such as boilers, heaters, fires and cookers are like vehicle engines, mixing
air and fuel and creating products of combustion. If these products, such as Carbon Monoxide
"the Silent Killer", are not safely removed they can kill or injure people. Using a flue gas
analyzer lets you check this is happening both safely and efficiently. This is important because
Carbon Monoxide, a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas, is responsible for killing over 50
people a year, mainly from poorly installed or serviced appliances.

6.5.3 Domestic Boilers and Hot Water Heaters:

Flue gas analysers usually display a CO/CO2 ratio. This shows the ratio of carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide in the exit flue (chimney) of the appliance.

Generally when this level is below 0.004 the boiler is considered to be running
efficiently. When between 0.004 and 0.008 this indicates a potential problem and investigation
and retesting must take place. When above 0.008 the appliance must be fully investigated,
cleaned and retested. This is not applicable to all boiler and heater types, especially those using
oil or solid fuel. However, if the CO level in the flue of a gas appliance is above 100ppm (parts
per million) then an investigation must take place. For oil or coal fired appliances the CO should
not be above 200ppm. Equally, Oxygen (O2) levels should be in the region of 3-5% for gas
appliances and 5 - 8% for oil & solid fuel appliances - Any other levels suggests an inefficient
use of energy, wasting fuel and money, or a potentially unsafe situation where too much CO is
created through oxygen deficiency.

Flue Temperatures for gas appliances should be less than 200 degrees centigrade or less
than 300 degrees centigrade for oil and solid fuel appliances. For Gas Hobs and Cookers, if CO
levels at approx. 300mm (12”) above the top of the blue flame are above 9 ppm then there is
most likely a problem requiring investigation.

53
Flue gas Analyzer Experiment # 6

6.6 Procedure:
 Take coal and break it into small pieces.
 Now place these small pieces of coal in the box.
 Put some kerosene oil on coal for the ease of burning of coal.
 Now burn the coal with the help of ignition source such as matches or lighter.
 Now stop the burning of coal and attach the flue gas analyzer.
 Print out the readings given by the flue gas analyzer.

6.7 Observations and calculations:

Figure 6-2 Composition of Flue Gas

6.8 Viva voce:

1. What is flue gas?

54
Flue gas Analyzer Experiment # 6

Flue gas is the gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue, which is a pipe or channel for conveying
exhaust gases from a fireplace, oven, furnace, boiler or steam generator.

2. What is flue gas analyzer?

A portable electronic device, a flue gas analyzer measures and displays the products of
combustion from both domestic and commercial fossil fuelled appliances. Additionally, they
can measure the ambient air quality in rooms or buildings.

3. Write is ambient air monitoring

A Flue gas analyser also measures room air, provided it has been switched on or "calibrated"
in fresh, outdoor air. This is invaluable, for example, when trying to find out whether there is
CO leaking from an appliance or pinpointing why a CO alarm is being triggered.

55
Flash point Experiment # 7

7 Experiment # 7

7.1 Title:
Petrol Analysis (Flash Point)

7.2 Objective:
To determine the flash point of the given sample of petroleum fraction using PENSKY
MARTEN closed cup apparatus. Compare the results with theoretical values (from literature)
of petroleum fractions being used.

7.3 Apparatus:
Thermometer, beakers, sample of petroleum friction and PENSKY Marten closed cup
apparatus.

7.4 Theory:

7.4.1 Flash Point:

It is the minimum temperature at which oil gives out sufficient vapors to form an
in- flammable mixture with air and catches fire momentarily when flame is applied. Generally
it should be above 150°F (65.5 °C). For products less than 150°F required special regulations
exit regarding safety in storage and handling.

7.4.2 Principle of Operation:

Flash points are determined by a particular vapor/air concentration
above the surface of the liquid hydrocarbons. When a critical is reach flashing occurs applying
a test flame. The flash point of a liquid hydrocarbon is influenced largely by the lighter, more
volatile components since these are more easily vaporized.

7.4.3 Fire Point:

It is the lowest temperature at which vapor given off by oil ignites and continues to
burn for at least 5 seconds. In most cases fire point is 5 - 40 °C higher than flash point and
determined the same manner as flash point is. It gives an idea of fire hazards during the storage
and use of oil.

56
Flash point Experiment # 7

7.4.4 Flammable Limits:

Flammable limits are defined as the upper and the lower concentration of
fuel vapors in air that will bum a suitable ignition source is introduced. If the fuel concentration
is either too rich (the ratio of fuel to oxygen is too high) or to lean (the ratio of fuel oxygen is
too low) burning will not continue with the ignition source is removed.

7.4.5 Ignition Temperature:

Auto ignition temperature is the minimum temperature at which a
solvent will ignite when the liquid is dropped on the surface of a hot plate (with no other ignition
source present). In contrast, the lowest temperature at which a vapor-air mixture above a liquid
will ignite when a suitable ignition source (such as a flame or spark is introduced) is the flash
point. Both of the above mentioned ignitions temperatures will vary with exact method by
which they are measured and, therefore, any reported value must be considered as approximate.

7.4.6 Type of Information Given by Flash Point:

It gives us the idea about,

 Nature of the BP diagram of the system.

 Volatility of liquids fuels.
 Explosion hazardous
 Amount of low boiling fraction present in the liquid fuels.

7.4.7 Difference between Open Cup and Closed Cup:

In “closed cup” the oil is heated in the close vessel until the temperature is reached at which
vapor in the air space one sufficient to form an inflammable mixed and so ignite when flame is
applied.

In “open cup” apparatus the cup has no cover and the air above the liquid is in free content with
surrounding atmosphere.

7.4.8 Typical Applications:

 The monitoring of crude distillation side stream strippers.
 Heating oil blending.

57
Flash point Experiment # 7

7.5 Procedure:
 The oil cup is cleaned and dried (care being taken that no traces of any low flash solvent
used in cleaning remain in the cup of apparatus).
 The sample oil is then passes into the cup upto the level indicated by the filling mark.
 Place the lid over cup in its position and insert a thermometer in the holder.
 The apparatus is heated at the rate of from 9 - 11 °F per minute and the stirrer is rotated at
rate from 1 -2 revolution per second.
 Apply the test flame at a temperature intervals of 2 “F (up to 220 °F ) or at intervals of 5 °F
(ab0ve22O °F)in such a manner that the flame is lowered in one half second, left in its
lowered position for one seconds and quickly raised (while the test flame is being applied,
stirring is stopped)
 When the flash point is nearly reached a blue halo (circle of light) is often formed or
observed round the test flame (this is not the actual flash).
 The temperature at which a distinct flash is visible in the two observation flash points, this
reading of temperature is recorded as flash point of sample under observation.

Observation and Calculation:

Table 7-1 Samples and their Flash Points

Serial Sample of Petroleum Flash Point Flash Point

o o
Number Fraction F C
1 Kerosene 154 68
2 Diesel 179 81.7
3 Petrol -45 -42.77

Results:

1. The flash point of sample no. 1 = 154 0F.

2. The flash point of sample no. 2 = 179 0F.
3. The flash point of sample no. 3 = -45 0F.

58
Flash point Experiment # 7

7.6 Viva voce:

1. What is ignition temperature?

Auto ignition temperature is the minimum temperature at which a solvent will ignite
when the liquid is dropped on the surface of a hot plate (with no other ignition source present).

2. Write information given by flash point?

It gives us the idea about,

 Nature of the BP diagram of the system.

 Volatility of liquids fuels.
 Explosion hazardous
 Amount of low boiling fraction present in the liquid fuels.
3. What is flash point?

It is the minimum temperature at which oil gives out sufficient vapors to form an in-
flammable mixture with air and catches fire momentarily when flame is applied.

59
Solar Thermal Unit Experiment # 8

8 Experiment # 8

8.1 Title:
Solar thermal unit

8.2 Objective:
To find out the efficiency of solar thermal unit

8.3 Apparatus:
Solar thermal unit, solar panel, Fluid

8.4 Theory:

8.4.1 Introduction:
Solar water heating has been around for many years because it is easiest way to use sun
to save energy and money. The first solar water heater that resembles the concept still in use
today was a metal tank that was painted black and placed on the roof where it was tilted toward
the sun. The concept worked, but it usually took all day for the water to heat, then, as soon as
the sun went down it cooled of quickly because the tank was not insulated.

Solar water heating system includes storage tanks and solar collectors. There are two
types of solar water heating systems: active, which have circulating pumps and controls, and
passive, which don’t.

8.5 Physical principles:

Understanding solar thermal systems require the knowledge of several energy terms and
physical principles. This section present important terms and principles and show how they
apply in solar thermal system.

8.5.1.1 Insolation:
Insolation is the amount of the sun’s electromagnetic energy that falls on any given
object. Simply put, when we are talking about solar radiation, we are referring to insolation.

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8.5.1.2 Atmosphere:
The atmosphere absorbs certain wavelengths of light more than others. The exact
spectral distribution of light reaching the earth’s surface depends on how much atmosphere the
light passes through, as well as the humidity of the atmosphere. In the morning and the evening,
the sun is low in the sky and light waves pass through more atmosphere than at noon. The winter
sun light also passes through more atmosphere verses summer.

8.5.1.3 Angle of incidence:

The sun’s electromagnetic energy travels in a straight line. The angle at which these
rays fall on an object is called the angle of incidence. A flat surface receives more solar energy
when the angle of incidence is closer to zero (normal, perpendicular) and there fore receives
significantly less in early morning and late evening. Because the angle of incidence is so large
in the morning and the evening on earth, about six hours of usable solar energy is available
daily. This is called solar window.

8.5.2 Heat transfer:

Because all natural systems seek a balance that always moves from warm to cool. Heat
moves by three methods

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

8.5.2.1 Conduction:
Conduction occurs when a solid material is heated. Molecules exposed to heat source become
energized. These energetic molecules collide with neighboring less-energetic molecules
transferring their energy. The greater the energy transfer ability of the solid’s molecules the
more energy they can transfer and better the solids conductivity. Copper has high conductivity
while glass has low conductivity.

8.5.2.2 Convection:
Like conduction, convection occurs by molecules motion but in a fluid (such as gas or
liquid), rather than in a solid. When a gas or liquid is heated, the energized molecules begin to
flow.

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8.5.3 Radiation:
Radiation occurs not by molecular action but rather by emission of electromagnetic
waves, generally in the invisible, infrared spectrum. Because radiation does not rely on the
presence of matter (molecules) for transport, it can occur in vacuum.

8.5.4 Thermal mass:

Thermal mass is the measure of a material’s molecules ability to hold thermal energy.
The higher the thermal mas, the material’s energy capacity, the more efficiently the material
can store sensible heat. Rock and masonry are two such materials that have thermal mass and
are solids. Water is a fluid with good energy capacity making it a good thermal mass medium
for energy storage.

8.6 Procedure:
 Open inlet valve to allow cold water into overhead tank through electronic valve
(normally closed) controlled by instrument microprocessor by pressing the water filing
button, and subsequently into collector tubes. Fill tank in accordance to the experiment
requirement. Thus the amount of water (Mw) enters in to the collector tubes and the
tank can be estimated from flow sensor mounted on the pipe inlet. If there is no water
in the system storage tank microcontroller gives alarm indication. The microcontroller
indicates the water level 25%, 50%, 85% and 100%, when the system tank filled 100%
the controller closed to the electronic valve. Non return valve is used to keep water in
stand by condition. The cold water flow rate and temperature sensor is mounted on the
vertical pipe line to monitor the input cold water condition, the other hot water flow rate
and temperature sensors on the horizontal pipe line to monitor the hot water condition.
 Note initial temperature (Ti) of the water before it is being irradiated to sun with initial
time.
 Note the intensity of sunshine from the light meter (which is provided with the
apparatus) in Watts/m2 after interval of every 5 minutes or so.
 Note change in temperature of the water in the tank every 5 minutes or so.
 Leaving the system exposed to sun for a reasonable span of time or if the temperature
of water become 70 ºC.
 Note the final temperature of water.

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 After completion of the experiment water should be in the system otherwise in case of
empty tubes, it may damage the glass tubes.

Table 8-1 Technical Specification of Vacuum Tube

Weight 2.35 kg
Structure All glass coaxial double pipe
Tank Capacity 145 Liters
Outer tube diameter 58 mm
Inner tube diameter 47 mm
Wall thickness 1.6 mm
Collector tube length 1800 mm
Outer tube transmittance 0.91 mm
Coating material Sputtering AL/N/AL
Absorbance >91%
Absorbance area 0.118 m2

8.7 Observation and Calculations:

External diameter of collector tube = 50.2 mm

Length of collector tube Lc = 1800 mm

Surface area = 2πr × Lc

Surface area = 0.284 m2

Total surface area of 18 tubes = 18 × 0.284 m2

= 5.1006 m2

5.1066 m2
Lighting area (Ac) = 2

= 2.5533 m2

GR = J/m2.s

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Solar Thermal Unit Experiment # 8

Sr # Time (min) GR (t)

1 0 200 watt/m2
2 5 203 watt/m2
3 10 204 watt/m2
4 15 206 watt/m2
5 20 208 watt/m2

Av. GR = Suppose 204 watt/m2 or J/m2.s

QR = solar heat going into the collector tubes

QR = lightning area × intensity × time

QR = 2.533 m2 × 204 watt/m2 × 20 min × 60 sec

QR = 620078.4 Watt. sec

8.8 Viva Voce:

1. Explain Radiation?

Radiation occurs not by molecular action but rather by emission of electromagnetic waves,
generally in the invisible, infrared spectrum. Because radiation does not rely on the presence of
matter (molecules) for transport, it can occur in vacuum.

2. What is thermal mass?

Thermal mass is the measure of a material’s molecules ability to hold thermal energy. The
higher the thermal mas, the material’s energy capacity, the more efficiently the material can
store sensible heat. Rock and masonry are two such materials that have thermal mass and are
solids. Water is a fluid with good energy capacity making it a good thermal mass medium for
energy storage.

3. Write about conduction?

Conduction occurs when a solid material is heated. Molecules exposed to heat source
become energized. These energetic molecules collide with neighboring less-energetic
molecules transferring their energy. The greater the energy transfer ability of the solid’s

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molecules the more energy they can transfer and better the solids conductivity. Copper has high
conductivity while glass has low conductivity.

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Cloud Point Analysis Experiment # 9

9 Experiment # 9

9.1 Title:
Oil Analysis (Cloud Point Analysis)

9.2 Objective:
To determine the cloud point of the given sample of oil.

9.3 Apparatus:
Cloud Point Apparatus

9.4 Chemicals:
Oil

9.5 Theory:

9.5.1 Cloud Point:

When oil is cooled at a specific rate, the temperature at which it becomes cloudy or hazy
is called the cloud point of oil. The haziness us due to the separation of crystals of wax or
increase of viscosity at low temperature. Cloud point is important for fuel oils which have to
pass through unheated filters or fine mesh e. g a jet plane may be exposed to -60°C and if solid
wax separates from fuel oil the carburetor may be blocked up.

9.5.2 Freezing Point:

It is the temperature at which the fuel oil freezes completely and cannot flow at all. This
is important in case of aviation gasoline because at high altitudes where low temperatures are
encountered, fuel supply from fuel tank to engine may be impeded due to chocking of pipeline
if the freezing point of the fuel oil is not sufficiently low. Paraffins possess higher freezing
points than Naphthenic and aromatics. Aviation gasoline should have freezing point below 600
°C to avoid trouble due to crystal formation in feed lines and filters.

9.6 Applications of Cloud Points:

 Cloud indicates the suitability if lubricants in cold condition are used.
 The difference of pour point and cloud point is 4 - 6 °F.

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9.7 Procedure:
 The oil is dried by passage through filter paper until perfectly clear at a temperature least
above the cloud point.
 In to the test jar is poured the oil to a depth 51 - 57 mm.
 It is important that the inside of the jacket shall be clean and dry. The next important
factor is the cooling.
 First the assembly is inserted into a cooling medium at 30 - 35°F. So that only about
one inch of the jacket projects above the liquid medium.
 As the cooling proceed the test jar is Withdrawn quickly, but without disturbing the oil,
for every 2 °F fall and examined for cloud, and replaced within 3 seconds.
 If no cloud appears when it reaches 50 ° F it is transferred to a second cooling bath at
0-5 °F and examined as before.
 Should there be sign of cloud at 20°F it is transferred to a third cooling bath at 30 °F to
2°F.
 The first distinct cloudiness or haze in the oil at the bottom of the test jar is regarded as
the cloud point.

9.8 Result:
Cloud point of Diesel fuel = -4 to -20 °F

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Pour Point Analysis Experiment # 10

10 Experiment # 10

10.1 Title:
Oil Analysis

10.2 Objective:
To determine the pour point of the given sample of oil.

10.3 Apparatus:
Pour Point Apparatus

10.4 Chemicals:
Oil

10.5 Theory:

10.5.1 Pour Point:

The temperature at which the oil just ceases to flow (or pour) is called the pour point. It
determines the temperature below which, oil cannot be used as a lubricant. Naphthenic and
aromatics have lower pour point than paraffin’s but they are undesirable in fuel oils and diesel
fuels. Asphalts act as pour point depressants as they inhibit the growth of wax crystals.
Increasing lighter hydrocarbons reduce pour point.

10.5.2 Pour Point Depressants:

The pour point is the lowest temperature at which a lubricant will flow. In order to obtain
flow of oil at low temperature (fluidity), pour depressants are added to the lubricating oil to
lower the pour point. These additives tend to inhibit the formation of wax at the low
temperatures. In many formulations, especially those containing viscosity improvers,
supplemental pour depressants are not needed since other additives also have pour point
depressant properties. Typical applications include diesel and gasoline engine oils, transmission
fluids, tractor fluids, hydraulics fluids, and circulation fluids.

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10.5.3 Applications of Pour Point:

 Pour point indicates the suitability if lubricants in cold condition are used.
 Lubricants used in a machine working at low temperatures should possess low pour
points; otherwise solidification of lubricants will cause jamming of the machine.
Presence of waxes in the lubricating oil raises the pour point.
 The difference of pour point and cloud point is 4 - 6 °F.

10.6 Procedure
 For pour point determination proceeds as for cloud point, but before cooling, the oil
shall be heated without stirring to 115 °F in bath at 118 °F, and then cooled in air to
90°F. If the pour point of the oil is below -30°F.
 Cooling is as before, but instead of withdrawing the test jar at every 2 °F it is withdraw
at every 5 °F.
 When the jar is tilted to ascertain whether the oil is still fluid.
 As soon as the oil ceases to flow the jar is held in a horizontal position for exactly 5
seconds.
 If the oil shows any movement under these conditions the test jar is held on a horizontal
position for exactly 5 seconds.
 The pour point is taken as the temperature 5 °F above the temperature at which it just
ceases to flow.

10.7 Result:
Pour point of Diesel fuel = -40 °F

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