Soil Dynamics & & Earthquake Engineering: Content
Soil Dynamics & & Earthquake Engineering: Content
Soil Dynamics
&
Earthquake Engineering
Seismic Design of Retaining Wall
Content
1. Introduction
2. Types of Retaining Wall
3. Types of Retaining Wall Failures
4. Static Pressures on Retaining Walls
5. Dynamic Response of Retaining Walls
6. Seismic Pressures on Retaining Walls
7. Seismic Displacements of Retaining Walls
8. Seismic Design Considerations
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Introduction
• Earthquakes may cause permanent
d f
deformation on retaining structures.
ti t i i t t
• In some cases, the deformations are small and
can be negligible.
• In other cases, it may cause significant
damages: retaining structures collapses during
damages: retaining structures collapses during
earthquake with disastrous physical and
economic consequences.
Types of Retaining Walls
• Retaining walls are classified by relative mass,
fl ibilit
flexibility, and anchorage condition.
d h diti
1. Gravity Walls: thick and stiff, do not bend, rigid
body translation and/or rotation.
2. Cantilever Walls: bend and rotate, rely on
flexural strength to resist lateral earth pressure.
3. Braced Walls: constrained against movement by
the presence of external bracing elements.
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Types of Retaining Walls
Types of Retaining Wall Failures
1. Failure on Gravity Walls
– Sliding: occurs when horizontal force equilibrium
is not satisfied (lateral pressures on back of the
wall produce a thrust that exceeds the available
sliding resistance on the base of the wall)
– Overturning: occurs when moment equilibrium is
not satisfied (also involve bearing failure at base)
t ti fi d ( l i l b i f il tb )
– Gross instability: occurs as slope stability failures
that encompass the wall.
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Types of Retaining Wall Failures
Types of Retaining Wall Failures
2. Failure on Cantilever Walls
– Cantilever walls are subject to same failure
mechanism as gravity walls, and also to flexural
failure mechanism.
– Flexural Failure: occurs when the bending
moments required for equilibrium exceed the
fl
flexural strength of the wall.
l t th f th ll
– The structural ductility of the wall may influence
the level of deformation produced by flexural
failure.
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Types of Retaining Wall Failures
Figure 11 3 here
Figure 11.3 here
Types of Retaining Wall Failures
2. Failure on Braced Walls
– Braced walls usually fail by gross instability,
tilting, flexural failure, and/or failure of bracing
elements.
– Tilting: involves rotation about the point at which
brace acts on the wall.
– Failure of bracing elements: can include anchor
pullout, tierod failure, or bridge buckling
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Types of Retaining Wall Failures
Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
• Static earth pressures on retaining walls are
strongly influenced by wall and soil
t l i fl db ll d il
movement.
• Commonly used simplified approaches to
predict static earth pressures:
– Rankine Theory
Rankine Theory
– Coulomb Theory
– Logarithmic Spiral Method
– Stress‐Deformation Analysis
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Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
• Active earth pressures develop as a retaining
wall moves away from the soil behind it,
ll f th il b hi d it
including extensional lateral strain in soil.
• Minimum active earth pressures: develop
when the wall movement is sufficient to fully
mobilize the strength of soil behind the wall.
g
Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
• Passive earth pressures develop as a retaining
wall moves toward the soil, thereby producing
ll t d th il th b d i
compressive lateral strain in soil.
• Maximum passive earth pressures: develop
when the strength of soil is fully mobilized.
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Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
1. Rankine Theory
F
For minimum active condition:
i i ti diti
pA K A v '2c K a
where:
KA = coefficient of minimum active earth pressure
v’ = vertical effective stress at the point of interest
p
c = cohesive strength of the soil
Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
The value of Rankine’s Ka:
cos cos 2 cos 2
K A cos
cos cos 2 cos 2
where is inclination angle of backfill with the
horizontal line; or if = 0:
1 sin
KA tan2 45
1 sin 2
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Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
Minimum Rankine active earth pressure distribution for backfills with
various combination of frictional cohesive strength (After NAVFAC, 1982):
(a) frictional resistance, no cohesion
(b) cohesive soil, no frictional resistance
(c) combined cohesion and friction
Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
For maximum passive condition:
pP K p v '2c K p
where:
KP = coefficient of maximum passive earth
pressure
v’ = vertical effective stress at the point of interest
c = cohesive strength of the soil
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Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
The value of Rankine’s Kp:
cos cos 2 cos 2
K P cos
cos cos 2 cos 2
where is inclination angle of backfill with the
horizontal line; or if = 0:
1 sin
KP tan2 45
1 sin 2
Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
Maximum Rankine passive earth pressure distribution for backfills with
various combination of frictional cohesive strength (After NAVFAC, 1982):
(a) frictional resistance, no cohesion
(b) cohesive soil, no frictional resistance
(c) combined cohesion and friction
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Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
2. Coulomb Theory
Th
The value of Coulomb’s K
l f C l b’ Ka:
cos 2
KA
sin sin
2
cos 2 cos 1
cos sin
where:
= angle of interface friction between wall and soil
= 90o – A
Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
The value of A:
tan C1
A tan1
C2
where:
C1 tan tan cot 1 tan cot
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Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
The value of depends on interface materials:
f
Interface Friction
i i
Interface Materials
Angle,
Mass Clean sound rock 25
concrete Clean gravel, gravel‐sand mixture, coarse gravel 29‐31
against: Clean fine to medium sand, silty medium to coarse sand, silty 24‐29
or clayey gravel
Clean fine sand, silty or clayey fine to medium sand 19‐24
Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt 17‐19
Formed Medium‐stiff clay, stiff clay, and silty clay 17‐19
concrete Clean gravel, gravel‐sand mixture, well‐graded rock fills with 22‐26
against: spalls
Clean sand, silty sand‐gravel mixture, single‐size hard rock fill 17‐22
Steel sheet Silty sand, gravel, or sand mixed with silt or clay fine sandy silt, 11‐17
pile against: nonplastic silt
Clean gravel, gravel‐sand mixture, well‐graded rock fills with 14‐22
spalls
Clean sand, silty sand‐gravel mixture, single‐size hard rock fill 14‐17
(Source: After NAVFAC, 1982)
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Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
The value of Coulomb’s Kp:
cos 2
KP
sin sin
2
cos cos 1
2
cos sin
where:
= angle of interface friction between wall and soil
= 90o – P
Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
The value of P:
tan C 3
P tan1
C4
where:
C 3 tan tan cot 1 tan cot
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Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
3. Logarithmic Spiral Method
– Alth
Although the major principal stress axis may be nearly
h th j i i l t i b l
perpendicular to the backfill surface at some distance
behind a rough wall ( > 0), the presence of shear stress
on the interface can shift its position near the back of the
wall.
– The inclination of the principal stress axes vary within the
backfill The inclination of the failure surfaces also vary.
backfill The inclination of the failure surfaces also vary
– A logarithmic function is used to describe (curved) failure
surfaces for active and passive earth pressure condition.
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Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
– For active earth pressure conditions, the critical
failure surface consist a curved portion near the
failure surface consist a curved portion near the
back of the wall and a linear portion that extends
up to the ground surface.
– The Ka obtained from this method is more
accurate than Rankine or Coulomb theory, but is
only slightly different
only slightly different.
Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
Values of Ka for Log‐Spiral Failure Surfaces (Source: After Caquot and Kerisel, 1948)
20o 25o 30o 35o 40o 45o
0o 15o
‐15 10o
‐10 0 37
0.37 0 30
0.30 0 24
0.24 0.19
0 19 0.14
0 14 0.11
0 11
0o 0.42 0.35 0.29 0.24 0.19 0.16
10o 0.45 0.39 0.34 0.29 0.24 0.21
0o 0o ‐10o 0.42 0.34 0.27 0.21 0.16 0.12
0o 0.49 0.41 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.17
10o 0.55 0.47 0.40 0.34 0.28 0.24
0o 15o ‐10o 0.55 0.41 0.32 0.23 0.17 0.13
0o 0.65 0.51 0.41 0.32 0.25 0.20
10o 0.75 0.60 0.49 0.41 0.34 0.28
o 15o
‐15 10o
‐10 0 31
0.31 0 26
0.26 0 21
0.21 0 17
0.17 0 14
0.14 0 11
0.11
0o 0.37 0.31 0.26 0.23 0.19 0.17
10o 0.41 0.36 0.31 0.27 0.25 0.23
o 0o ‐10o 0.37 0.30 0.24 0.19 0.15 0.12
0o 0.44 0.37 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.19
10o 0.50 0.43 0.38 0.33 0.30 0.26
o 15o ‐10o 0.50 0.37 0.29 0.22 0.17 0.14
0o 0.61 0.48 0.37 0.32 0.25 0.21
10o 0.72 0.58 0.46 0.42 0.35 0.31
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Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
– The passive failure surface also has curved and
linear portions but the curved portion is more
linear portions, but the curved portion is more
pronounced than for active condition.
– The Kp obtained from this method is more
accurate than Rankine or Coulomb theory and
may be better used for prediction.
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Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
Values of Kp for Log‐Spiral Failure Surfaces (Source: After Caquot and Kerisel, 1948)
20o 25o 30o 35o 40o 45o
0o 15o
‐15 10o
‐10 1 32
1.32 1 66
1.66 2 05
2.05 2.52
2 52 3.09
3 09 3.95
3 95
0o 1.09 1.33 1.56 1.82 2.09 2.48
10o 0.87 1.03 1.17 1.30 1.33 1.54
0o 0o ‐10o 2.33 2.96 3.82 5.00 6.68 9.20
0o 2.04 2.46 3.00 3.69 4.59 5.83
10o 1.74 1.89 2.33 2.70 3.14 3.69
0o 15o ‐10o 3.36 4.56 6.30 8.98 12.20 20.00
0o 2.99 3.86 5.04 6.72 10.40 12.80
10o 2.63 3.23 3.97 4.98 6.37 8.20
o 15o
‐15 10o
‐10 1 95
1.95 2 90
2.90 4 39
4.39 6 97
6.97 11 80
11.80 22 70
22.70
0o 1.62 2.31 3.35 5.04 7.99 14.30
10o 1.29 1.79 2.50 3.58 5.09 8.86
o 0o ‐10o 3.45 5.17 8.17 13.80 25.50 52.90
0o 3.01 4.29 6.42 10.20 17.50 33.50
10o 2.57 3.50 4.98 7.47 12.00 21.20
o 15o ‐10o 4.95 7.95 13.50 24.80 50.40 115.00
0o 4.42 6.72 10.80 18.60 39.60 73.60
10o 3.88 5.62 8.51 13.80 24.30 46.90
Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
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Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
4. Stress‐Deformation Analysis
– Actual pressures act on retaining walls depend
A t l t t i i ll d d
on interaction between the wall and the
surrounding soil
– It is useful to estimate the pressures with stress‐
deformation analysis (finite element method).
– The accuracy of analysis depends on how good
Th f l i d d h d
the model of the actual field condition is.
Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
• Static Active Pressure Resultant for dry
h
homogeneous cohesionless soils backfill:
h i l il b kfill
PA 12 K A H 2
• Static Passive Pressure Resultant for dry
homogeneous cohesionless soils backfill
homogeneous cohesionless soils backfill:
PP 12 K P H 2
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Static Pressure on Retaining Walls
Note:
– PA and P
d PP act on h above the base of the wall of
t h b th b f th ll f
height, H
hA 13 H
hP 13 H
– KA and KP are obtained from previous methods
– For cohesive and/or saturated soils, PA and PP must
be determined from more detailed calculation
Dynamic Response of Retaining Wall
• Previous tests and analyses indicate that:
1. Walls can move by translation and/or rotation
with the amount depends on the design.
2. The magnitude and distribution of dynamic wall
pressures are influenced by the mode of wall
movement.
3. The maximum soil thrust acting on wall generally
occurs when the wall has translated or rotated
toward the backfill, while the minimum if it is
away from the backfill.
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Dynamic Response of Retaining Wall
4. The shape of the earth pressure distribution on
the back of the wall changes as the wall moves
the back of the wall changes as the wall moves.
The position of the soil thrust is highest when
the wall has moved toward the soil, and lowest
when it moves outward.
5. Dynamic wall pressures are influenced by the
dynamic response of the wall and back‐fill
dynamic response of the wall and back fill, and
and
can increase significantly near the natural
frequency of the wall‐backfill system.
Dynamic Response of Retaining Wall
Permanent wall displacement also increase at
frequencies near the natural frequency of wall
frequencies near the natural frequency of wall‐
backfill system. Dynamic response effects can also
cause deflections of different parts of the wall to
be out of phase.
6. Increased residual pressures may remain on the
wall after an episode of strong shaking has ended
wall after an episode of strong shaking has ended.
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Seismic Pressures on Retaining Walls
1. Yielding Walls
• Yielding walls: retaining walls that can move
sufficiently to develop minimum active and/or
maximum passive earth pressure.
• Methods used:
– Mononobe Okabe (M‐O) Method
Mononobe Okabe (M O) Method
– Steedman – Zeng Method
Seismic Pressures on Retaining Walls
1.1 Mononobe‐Okabe (M‐O) Method
A ti E th P
Active Earth Pressure Condition
C diti
Coefficient of minimum active earth pressure:
cos 2
K AE
sin sin
2
cos cos cos 1
2
cos cos
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Seismic Pressures on Retaining Walls
Critical failure surface for active condition:
tan C1E
AE tan1
C 2E
Where:
C1E tan tan cot 1 tan cot
Seismic Pressures on Retaining Walls
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Seismic Pressures on Retaining Walls
Passive Earth Pressure Condition
P i E th P C diti
Coefficient of minimum active earth pressure:
cos 2
K PE
sin sin
2
cos cos cos 1
2
cos cos
Seismic Pressures on Retaining Walls
Critical failure surface for passive condition:
tan C 3E
PE tan1
C4E
Where:
C 3E tan tan cot 1 tan cot
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Seismic Pressures on Retaining Walls
Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
• Dynamic Active Pressure Resultant for dry
h
homogeneous cohesionless soils backfill:
h i l il b kfill
PAE 12 K AE H 2 1 kv
• Dynamic Passive Pressure Resultant for dry
homogeneous cohesionless soils backfill
homogeneous cohesionless soils backfill:
PPE 12 K PE H 2 1 kv
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Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
Note:
Dynamic components PAE and
– Dynamic components, and PPE:
PAE PAE PA PPE PPE PP
Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
1.2 Steedman‐Zeng Method
T tf h diff d lifi ti
–To account for phase difference and amplification
effects within the backfill behind a retaining wall
can be considered using a simple pseudodynamic
analysis of seismic earth pressures.
–If the fixed‐base cantilever is subjected to
harmonic horizontal acceleration of amplitude ah,
harmonic horizontal acceleration of amplitude a
the acceleration at the depth z, below the top of
the wall can be expressed:
H z
az , t ah sin t
v s
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Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
–If the seismic wall pressures are assumed to result
from the soil within the triangular wedge inclined
from the soil within the triangular wedge inclined
at to horizontal, the mass of a thin element of
the wedge at a depth z is:
H z
m z dz
g tan
Where
h i h
is the unit weight of the soil.
i i h f h il
Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
–The total inertial force acting on the wall is:
ah
2H cos sin sin t
H
Qh (t ) m(z) a(z ,t ) dz
0 4 2g tan
where:
= 2vs/ = the wavelength of the vertically
propagating shear wave, and
= t – H/vs
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Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
–The special case of a rigid wedge is given as:
H 2ah a
lim Qh max h W khW
v s 2g tan g
Which is equivalent to M‐O method.
– The total (static + dynamic) soil thrust can be
obtained by resolving forces on the wedge:
Qh (t ) cos( ) W sin( )
PAE (t )
cos( )
Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
–Total earth pressure distribution:
PAE (t ) z i ( )
sin( k z cos(( ) z
pAE (t ) h sin t
z tan cos( ) tan cos( ) v s
–The position of the dynamic thrust varies with time:
22H 2 cos 2H sin 2 (cos cos t )
hd H
2H cos (sin sin t )
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Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
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Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
2. Nonyielding Walls
– Some retaining structures do not move
sufficiently to mobilize the shear strength of the
backfill soil The limiting conditions of
minimum active or maximum passive earth
pressure cannot be developed.
– Dynamic amplification was negligible for low
D i lifi ti li ibl f l
frequency input motions (i.e. motion at less than
half the fundamental frequency of the
unrestrained backfill: f0 = vs/4H)
Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
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Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
– For smooth rigid walls, the dynamic thrust and dynamic
overturning moment (about the base of the wall) can be
overturning moment (about the base of the wall) can be
expressed as:
ah
Peq H 2 Fp
g Meq
a heq
Meq H 3 h Fm Peq
g
where:
ah = amplitude of the harmonic base acc.
Fp and Fm = dimensionless dynamic thrust
and moment factor
heq = the point of application of the dynamic thrust
Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
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Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
3. Effect of Water on Wall Pressures
– Water outboard of a retaining wall can exert
dynamic pressures on the face of the wall.
– Water within a backfill can also affect the dynamic
pressures that act on the back of the wall.
– The total water pressures are divided into:
• Hydostatic pressure: increases linearly with depth; acts
on the wall before, during, and after earthquake.
• Hydrodynamic pressure: results from the dynamic
response of water itself.
Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
3.1 Water Outboard of Wall
– Amplitude of hydrodynamic pressure:
A lit d f h d d i
7 ah
pw w zw H
8 g
– The resultant of hydrodynamic pressure:
7 ah
Pw wH2
12 g
– The total water pressure on the face of the wall is
the sum of the hydrostatic and hydrodynamic
water pressures.
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Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
3.1 Water In Backfill
– Influence of water in backfill:
I fl f t i b kfill
• Altering the inertial forces within the backfill
• Developing hydrodynamic pressures within the backfill
• Allowing excess p.w.p generation due to cyclic straining
of the backfill soils
– If
If the permeability of soil is small, the inertial
the permeability of soil is small the inertial
forces will be proportional to the total unit weight
of the soil (restrained porewater condition).
– If the permeability of soil is high, the porewater
may remain stationary (free porewater condition).
Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
– The active thrust can be obtained from M‐O:
cos2
K AE 2
sin sin
cos cos cos 1
2
cos cos
tan C 1E
AE tan1
C 2E
with:
b (1 ru )
sat kh
tan1
b (1 ru )(1 kv )
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Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
– Soil thrust from partially submerged backfills may
be computed using average unit weight based on
be computed using average unit weight based on
the relative volumes of soil within the active
wedge that are above and below the phreatic
surface:
2 sat (1 2 ) d
– An
An equivalent hydrostatic thrust based on a fluid
equivalent hydrostatic thrust based on a fluid
of unit weight eq = w + ru b must be added to
the soil thrust.
Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
4. Finite Element Analysis
– Linear or equivalent linear analyses can be used to
estimate wall pressures, althought it is incapable
to represent actual modes of failures and the
result is difficult to interpret.
– Nonlinear analyses are capable of predicting
permanent deformations and pressures.
td f ti d
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Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
• The post earthquake serviceability of walls is
more closely related to the permanent
l l l t d t th t
deformation that occurs during earthquake.
• Large deformations may be acceptable for
some walls, while others may be considered
failure at smaller deformations.
• Methods used:
– Richard‐Elms Method
– Whitman‐Liao Method
– Finite Element Analysis
Seismic Pressure on Retaining Walls
1. Richard‐Elms Method
– The method is based on allowable permanent wall
displacements (analogous to Newmark sliding
block procedure for seismic slope stability).
– The method requires evaluation of the yield
acceleration for the wall‐backfill system.
– When the active wedge is subjected to
acceleration acting toward the backfill inertial
forces will act away from the backfill.
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Seismic Displacements of Retaining Walls
– Yield acceleration: the level
of acceleration that is just
of acceleration that is just
large enough to cause the
wall to slide on its base.
– When the acceleration is
equal to the yield acc.,
horizontal and vertical
q q
equilibrium required that:
N W ( PAE ) v
T Fh ( PAE ) h
Seismic Displacements of Retaining Walls
By substituting:
T N tan b and (PAE )h PAE cos( )
Fh ayW / g (PAE )v PAE sin( )
The yield acceleration can be expressed as:
P cos( ) PAE sin( )
ay tan b AE g
W
The permanent block displacement:
h bl k di l
v 2 a3 ay
d perm 0.087 max 4 max 0.3
ay amax
Where vmax and amax = max. peak ground velocity and acceleration
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Seismic Displacements of Retaining Walls
2. Whitman‐Liao Method
– There are several errors in Richard‐Elms Method:
• Neglect of the dynamic response of the backfill
• Neglect of the kinematic factors
• Neglect of the tilting mechanism
• Neglect of vertical acceleration
– The permanent displacements shall be:
2
37vmax 9.4ay
d perm exp
amax amax
Seismic Displacements of Retaining Walls
– Uncertainty due to statistical variability of ground
motions was characterized by:
motions was characterized by:
Lognormally distributed random variable Q
Mean value Q
Standard Deviation lnQ
– The mean value of permanent displacement and
variance:
2
2
9.4ay 9.4g 2
d perm
37vmax
exp Q M 2
ln d ay ln2 M ln2 Q
amax a
max
amax
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Seismic Displacements of Retaining Walls
Mean and Standard Deviation values for Gravity Wall Displacement Analysis
Factor Mean Standard Deviation
Model error
M 3.5 lnM 0.84
Soil resistance
ay a y , ay 0.04 to 0.065
Ground motion Q 1 lnQ 0.58 to 1.05
1 05
Source: After Whitman and Liao (1985)
Seismic Displacements of Retaining Walls
3. Finite Element Analysis
– Prediction of permanent deformations requires
the use of a nonlinear analysis.
– A rigorous analysis should be capable of
accounting for nonlinear, inelastic behavior of the
soil and of the interfaces between the soil and wall
elements.
l t
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Seismic Design Considerations
1. Gravity Walls
– Gravity walls are the simplest type of retaining wall.
– Gravity walls are designed by 1 of 2 approaches:
• Seismic‐pressure based approach
• Permanent‐displacement based approach
– Although the gravity wall design procedures are
oriented toward prevention of sliding failure, the
possibility of overturning due to bearing failure of
the soil beneath the base of the wall must also be
considered in design.
Seismic Design Considerations
1.1 Design Based on Seismic Pressures
– Gravity walls have traditionally been designed on
the basis of seismic earth pressures.
– The M‐O Method is commonly used along with
inertial force, using the same pseudostatic
acceleration applied to the active wedge, applied to
th
the wall itself.
ll it lf
– Pseudostatic accelerations are generally
considerably smaller than anticipated peak
acceleration.
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Seismic Design Considerations
– Gravity walls designed by the traditional approach
have generally performed well in earthquakes (may
have generally performed well in earthquakes (may
be because of the conservatism used in static wall
design with M‐O Method).
– Design pressures that account for backfill
amplification should be considered for design of
unusually tall or unusually displacement‐sensitive
unusually tall or unusually displacement sensitive
walls.
Seismic Design Considerations
1.2 Design Based on Allowable Displacements
Procedure of design:
1. Select an allowable permanent displacement, dall.
2. Calculate the yield acc., ay, required to produce dall.
1/4
2
vmax 3
amax
ay 0.087
dall
3 Calculate P
3. C l l PAE using the M‐O Method with the a
i h M O M h d i h h y as
pseudostatic acc. to represent the soil thrust that would
be expected to cause a maximum permanent
displacement equal to dall.
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Seismic Design Considerations
4. Calculate the wall weight required to limit the
allowable permanent displacement:
allowable permanent displacement:
P cos( ) PAE sin( ) tan b
W AE
tan b ay / g
5. Apply the factor of safety to the weight of the wall,
ranged from 1.1 to 1.2, but often can be used up to
1.5.
The actual wall design may use the value of ay:
2
amax 37M vmax
ay ln
9.4 amax dall
Seismic Design Considerations
2. Cantilever Walls
– Cantilever walls design is similar to gravity wall
design, except the bending failure must be also
considered (usually using M‐O Method to compute
the maximum soil thrust).
– The maximum overturning moment is used for
structural design of wall elements (to prevent
t t ld i f ll l t (t t
flexural failure of the wall itself) and to determine
the size of the wall footing required to prevent
bearing failure of the supporting soils.
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Seismic Design Considerations
2.1 Braced Walls
– Braced walls do not develop minimum active or
maximum passive earth pressures because the
lateral displacements are constrained by bracing
elements.
– The earth pressures that develop depend on the
stiffness of brace, and the relative stiffness of the
tiff fb d th l ti tiff f th
wall and soil.
Seismic Design Considerations
A. Non‐Yielding Braced Walls
• W ll th t
Walls that are braced sufficiently that they do not move
b d ffi i tl th t th d t
at all are usually designed to resist the earth pressures.
• To avoid cracking or yielding on walls, design pressures
are usually based on peak acceleration and may lead to
very high design pressures (conservatively designed).
• It is recommended that nonyielding abutments be
d
designed to resist lateral thrust obtained from M‐O
d l l h b df
method with a pseudostatic horizontal acceleration
50% greater than the effective peak acceleration.
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Seismic Design Considerations
B. Flexible Braced Walls
Anchored Bulkheads
Anchored B lkheads
Procedure of design:
1. Design the anchored bulkhead for static loading
conditions.
2. Select pseudostatic accelerations ah and av.
3. Compute the active soil thrust on the back of the wall
p
using the M‐O method. The active wedge is assumed to
originate at the bottom of the wall.
4. Compute the minimum required depth of wall
penetration by summing moments about the wall‐
tierod connection.
Seismic Design Considerations
10. Determine the required size of the anchor block to
satisfy horizontal force equilibrium considering the
satisfy horizontal force equilibrium considering the
active and passive pressures.
11. Locate the anchor block at sufficient distance between
the wall that the active wedge behind the wall does not
intersect the passive wedge in front of the anchor block.
12. Check the effects of redistribution of any earthquake‐
induced excess p w p after earthquake shaking ends.
induced excess p.w.p after earthquake shaking ends
Note: If present, all water pressures (hydrostatic,
hydrodynamic, and/or excess p.w.p must be included in
computation)
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Seismic Design Considerations
6. Compute the required anchor resistance by summing
the horizontal forces acting on the wall. The computed
the horizontal forces acting on the wall. The computed
anchor resistance Free earth support anchor
resistance.
7. Compute the distribution of bending moments over the
height of the wall. The maximum bending moment
Free earth moment support.
8 Compute the design bending moment as the product of
8. Compute the design bending moment as the product of
the free earth support moment and Rowe’s moment
reduction factor.
9. Set the design tierod force at level 30% greater than
the free earth support anchor resistance.
Seismic Design Considerations
Anchored bulkhead damage levels can be predicted by:
1 Eff
1. Effective Anchor Index (EAI):
ti A h I d (EAI)
d
EAI
H
where:
d = horizontal distance between the active
wedge and the tierod‐anchor connection
H = the height of the wall
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Seismic Design Considerations
The critical active failure plane is taken to originate at the
effective point of rotation of the wall, which can be
effective point of rotation of the wall, which can be
expressed as:
1 k'e 20
f H D
2 50
where:
kh
1 kv above
b h water table
the bl
k'e
(ah / g)max below the water table
1 2 (a / g) / 3
v max
Seismic Design Considerations
The inclination of the critical active failure plane can be
approximated as:
approximated as:
AE 45 135(k'e )1.75
2
for 0.10 ≤ k’e ≤ 0.50 and 25o ≤ ≤ 35o.
Beyond this range, the equation described before:
tan C1E
AE tan1
C 2E
can be used to estimate the inclination of the active
wedge.
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Seismic Design Considerations
2. Embedment Participation Index (EPI):
F f
EPI PE 1
FAE f H
where:
FPE and FAE = the potential active and passive thrust
For uniform backfill and foundation soils:
K
EPI PE r 2 1 r
K AE
where r = f / (f + H)
Seismic Design Considerations
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Seismic Design Considerations
Qualitative and quantitative descriptions of reported degrees of damage to anchored
bulkheads during earthquakes
Degree of Permanent Horizontal
Damage Description of Damage Displacement at Top of
Sheetpile (cm)
0 No damage < 2
1 Negligible damage to the wall itself; 2 – 10
noticeable damage to related structures
2 Noticeable damage to the wall 10 – 30
3 General shape of anchored sheetpile 30 – 60
preserved, but significantly damaged
4 Complete destruction > 60
Seismic Design Considerations
– Anchored bulkhead with high EAI and EPI values
(zone I) generally suffered little or no damage
(zone I) generally suffered little or no damage.
– Anchored bulkhead with low EAI and EPI values
(zone III) usually suffered severe damage.
– Anchored bulkhead with combination of EAI and
EPI values (zone II) is likely to suffer moderate
damage.
damage
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Seismic Design Considerations
Seismic Design Considerations
Tieback Walls
• Tieback walls are similar to anchored bulkheads; The
Tieback walls are similar to anchored bulkheads; The
primary differences are that tieback walls have multiple
anchors and the anchors are generally inclined.
• The stiffness and spacing of the anchors strongly
influence the permanent displacements of tieback walls;
Tieback walls with stiffer anchors and smaller anchor
spacing will develop smaller permanent displacement
spacing will develop smaller permanent displacement.
• Walls designed for higher static pressures suffer smaller
permanent displacements during earthquakes.
• Wall elements that extend into the foundation soils may
be subjected to very high bending moments at the base.
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Seismic Design Considerations
2.1 Reinforced Soil Walls
– During earthquake, a reinforced soil walls is
subjected to a dynamic soil thrust at the back of
the reinforced zone and to inertial forces within
the reinforced zone in addition to static forces.
– Instability in reinforced soil walls:
1. External instability: sliding or overturning failure of the
reinforced zone.
2. Internal instability: tensile or pullout failure of the
reinforcement.
Seismic Design Considerations
A. External Stability
• Reinforced walls is assumed similar to gravity walls.
R i f d ll i d i il t it ll
• Procedure of design:
1. Determine the peak horizontal ground surface acc., amax.
2. Calculate the peak acc. at the centroid of the reinforced zone
a
ac 1.45 max amax
g
3. Calculate the dynamic soil thrust
ac ( b )H 2
PAE 0.375
g
Where (b) is the unit weight of the backfill soils.
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Seismic Design Considerations
4. Calculate the inertial force acting on the reinforced zone
ac (r )HL
PIR
g
Where (r) is the unit weight of the backfill soils.
5. Add PAE and 50% of PIR to the static forces acting on the
reinforced zone and check sliding and overturning stability.
Note: The FS against sliding and overturning should be greater
than or equal to 0.75 FS static.
Seismic Design Considerations
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Seismic Design Considerations
B. Internal Stability
• IInternal stability depends on the nature of the
t l t bilit d d th t f th
reinforcement since the internal failure surface is
different for inextensible and extensible reinforcement.
• Procedure of design:
1. Determine the pseudostatic inertial force acting on the
potentially unstable internal failure zone
acWA
PIA
g
where WA is the weight of the failure mass.
2. Distribute PIA to each reinforcement layer in proportion to its
resistance area.
Seismic Design Considerations
3. Add the dynamic components of tensile force to the static
components of tensile force to obtain the total tensile forces
for each layer of reinforcement.
4. Check to see that the allowable tensile strength of the
reinforcement is at least 75% of the total tensile force in
each layer of reinforcement.
5. Check to see that each layer of reinforcement extends far
enough to avoid pullout failure with the FS not less than 0.75
FS static when the total tensile force is applied.
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Seismic Design Considerations
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