Radiation Protection Distance Learning Project Page 1

Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

RADIATION PROTECTION
Module – 1.2

Use of this material, acknowledging the IAEA as the source, is permitted for
non-profit training
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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

PART 1

BASIC KNOWLEDGE

MODULE 1.2

BASIC MATHEMATICS

CONTENTS

OVERVIEW.................................................................................................... 5
MATERIALS................................................................................................... 5
LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................. 6
1. ROUNDING............................................................................................. 7
1.1 Significant Figures .............................................................................. 7
1.2 How to Use Rounding ......................................................................... 8
1.3 When to Use Rounding ....................................................................... 9
1.4 How to Determine the Number of Decimal Places ............................ 10
SELF-CHECK 1 ........................................................................................... 10
2. ALGEBRA ............................................................................................. 11
2.1 What Do Equations Mean? ............................................................... 11
2.2 Manipulating Equations..................................................................... 13
2.3 Summary of Equation Solving Operations ........................................ 16
SELF-CHECK 2 ........................................................................................... 17
3. EXPONENTS AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION ....................................... 18
3.1 Exponents ......................................................................................... 18
3.1.1 Multiplying and dividing .............................................................. 18
3.1.2 Fractions, zero and negative exponents .................................... 19
3.1.3 Summary of the rules of exponents ........................................... 21
3.1.4 Using a scientific calculator to calculate exponents ................... 21
3.1.5 Base ten..................................................................................... 21
3.2 Scientific Notation ............................................................................. 22
SELF-CHECK 3 ........................................................................................... 23
4. INTRODUCTION TO LOGARITHMS .................................................... 24
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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

4.1 Why Do We Use Logarithms?........................................................... 24

4.2 What are Logarithms?....................................................................... 24
4.3 The Advantages of Logarithms ......................................................... 25
4.4 Rules of Logs .................................................................................... 25
4.5 Common and Natural Logarithms ..................................................... 26
SELF-CHECK 4 ........................................................................................... 26
5. COMMON LOGS .................................................................................. 27
5.1 Introduction to Common Logs ........................................................... 27
5.2 How to Find the Common Log of a Number...................................... 27
5.3 Antilogs of Common Logs ................................................................. 28
5.4 How to Find the Antilogs of Common Logs ....................................... 28
SELF-CHECK 5 ........................................................................................... 29
6. NATURAL LOGS .................................................................................. 29
6.1 Introduction to Natural Logs .............................................................. 29
6.2 How to Find the Natural Log of a Number......................................... 30
6.3 Antilogs of Natural Logs .................................................................... 30
6.4 How to Find the Antilogs of Natural Logs .......................................... 31
SELF-CHECK 6 ........................................................................................... 31
7. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS ............................................................... 32
7.1 Introduction to Exponential Functions ............................................... 32
7.2 How to Find the Value of Exponential Functions............................... 32
7.3 Manipulating Natural Logs and Exponential Functions ..................... 33
7.3.1 Using rules of manipulating equations ....................................... 33
7.3.2 Using log rules ........................................................................... 34
SELF CHECK 7 ........................................................................................... 35
8. GRAPHS ............................................................................................... 35
8.1 Features of Graphs ........................................................................... 36
8.1.1 Axes ........................................................................................... 36
8.1.2 Scales ........................................................................................ 37
8.1.3 Interpolation and extrapolation................................................... 38
8.1.4 Line of best fit............................................................................. 39
8.1.5 The area under a graph ............................................................. 40
8.2 Examples of Graphs ......................................................................... 42
8.2.1 Linear Relationships................................................................... 42
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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

8.2.2 Exponential Relationships.......................................................... 43

8.2.3 Log/log graphs ........................................................................... 47
SELF-CHECK 8 ........................................................................................... 48
9. SIMPLE PROBABILITY AND COUNTING STATISTICS ...................... 49
9.1 Probability ......................................................................................... 50
9.2 Counting Statistics ............................................................................ 50
9.3 Standard Deviation ........................................................................... 52
9.3.1 Determining the standard deviation for a single measurement of
count .......................................................................................... 54
9.3.2 Determining the standard deviation for a single measurement of
count corrected for background ................................................. 55
9.3.3 Determining the sample standard deviation of a single count rate
................................................................................................... 56
9.3.4 Determining the sample standard deviation of a single
measurement of count rate corrected for background ............... 57
9.3.5 Determining the standard deviation for a series of single
measurements of count.............................................................. 59
9.4 Confidence levels and standard error ............................................... 61
9.5 Error Bars on Graphs........................................................................ 63
SELF-CHECK 9 ........................................................................................... 64
KEY POINTS ............................................................................................... 64
APPENDIX A ............................................................................................... 68
APPENDIX B ............................................................................................... 81
GLOSSARY OF TERMS.............................................................................. 89
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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

OVERVIEW
This module is intended to provide you with the information and skills you will
need to carry out the basic mathematics calculations in subsequent modules.
An ability to manipulate numbers and equations successfully is important as it
will help you to assess hazards arising from the use of sources of radiation. It
is also important that you are able to use graphical methods to analyze
measurement data, and that you can extract correct information from
published graphs. An understanding of counting statistics will allow you to
quantify the accuracy of the measurements that you have taken and help you
to assess the level of hazard in the workplace.

Although you may already be familiar with some of the information in this
module, it is advisable that you complete the self-check questions at the end
of each section before attempting the final assignment.

MATERIALS
You will need access to a scientific calculator or logarithmic tables, a ruler and
log/log and log/linear graph paper.
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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this module you will be able to do the following:

1) Interpret numerical data to appropriate levels of accuracy.

2) Use rounding correctly to produce sensible results.

3) Use symbols to represent values in order to solve problems.

4) Manipulate algebraic symbols in formulae.

5) Use scientific notation to express large and small numbers simply.

6) Perform simple calculations using numbers expressed as bases and

powers.

7) Perform simple calculations using common logs, natural logs and

exponentials.

8) Draw graphs with linear and log scales.

9) Obtain data from graphs.

10) State the significance of the area under the curve.

11) Explain how probability indicates the chance of an event occurring.

12) Calculate errors on a set of numbers.

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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

NOW YOU ARE READY TO START WORK

1. ROUNDING
Rounding a number means restricting the number of digits (single numbers)
which are included when recording the number. There are certain rules which
help us decide when numbers should be rounded and how they should be
rounded. This section will help you to understand these rules and apply them
correctly.

When you are carrying out a calculation the numbers you use will be in one of
the following forms:

• Whole numbers 1;32;512

• Whole numbers and decimals 2.5;40.67;600.2

• Decimals 0.1;0.03;0.007

1 3 9
• Fractions ; ;
2 4 10

For convenience, fractions will only be used when calculating results in the
algebra section of this module. Fractions can be converted to decimals by
dividing the number above the line (the numerator) by the one below the line
3
(the denominator).For example, can be written as 3 ÷ 4 = 0.75.
4

Throughout this training material, decimals points will be shown as ‘ . ’, e.g.

2.1, and thousands will be shown by leaving a space between the thousands
and the hundreds digits, eg 13 456 means thirteen thousand four hundred and
fifty six.

1.1 Significant Figures

The number of digits which should be reported in the result of a calculation

depends on the type of calculation and how accurate the result needs to be.
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One way of stating this is to decide on the number of significant figures to

quote.‘0’ is not a significant figure unless it is between two other numbers, for
example 103, or unless it is the last digit after a decimal point, eg 2.10. (Both
these numbers are examples of numbers with three significant figures.)For
example, 13 456 to two significant figures can be written as 13 000 (note that
the noughts are not significant). This is a convenient way of reporting a result
but it does not indicate the size of the answer. For example, 13 000 and 2.1
can both represent rounding to two significant figures. The number of
significant figures may, however, be an indication of the accuracy of the
number. This is one of the major factors determining how many significant
figures should be quoted.

1.2 How to Use Rounding

Rounding may be done in terms of significant figures, as discussed in the last

paragraph, or as decimal places. The number of decimal places is the
number of digits after the decimal point. For example, the number 2.10 has
two decimal places (but three significant figures).

It is normal practice to round up if the digit to be rounded is greater than, or

equal to, five. For example the numbers 2.55, 2.56, 2.57, 2.58 and 2.59 would
be written as 2.6 when rounded to two significant figures (or one decimal
place). The numbers 2.50, 2.51, 2.52, 2.53 and 2.54 would be written as 2.5
when rounded to two significant figures (or one decimal place). This is called
rounding down and is the normal practice for digits less than 5.

Table 1 shows how significant figures, decimal places and rounding are used.

Table 1
Significant Figures, Decimal Places and Rounding

Number of Significant Figures Number of Decimal Places

Calculated
Number
Four Three Two Four Three Two
525.7910 525.8 526 530 525.7910 525.791 525.79
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0.003417 0.003417 0.00342 0.0034 0.0034 0.003 0.00

1.3 When to Use Rounding

There are two principal reasons why figures are rounded, namely,

• to give a sensible answer, and

• to indicate the accuracy of a measurement.

For some calculations, the answer is only sensible if the result is quoted to a
pre-determined level of significance. A simple example of this would be if you
wanted to calculate the number of people that could sit around a table which
has a 345 cm circumference. If each person is allowed 75 cm of space, the
answer will be 345 divided by 75, which is 4.6 people! Obviously, 0.6 of a
person does not have any meaning when talking about how many people can
sit around a table. If you apply the rounding rules given in Section 1.2 you will
give the answer as five. But this is an example of ‘normal practice’ and does
not necessarily provide a very sensible answer. To sit five people around the
table would make it very crowded; in this case, four would be a better answer.

Remember Always think about what your answer means in practical terms.

The accuracy of a number can be inferred from the number of decimal places
or significant figures given in the number. For example if the length of a
football field is given as 110 m, this implies that the field has been measured to
the nearest 10 m. Its actual length may be anywhere between 105 m and 114
m. If the length of the field is recorded as 108.54m, this implies that it has
been measured to the nearest one hundredth of a metre (centimetre). This
would represent a very accurate measurement. The number of decimal
places quoted in this case is determined by the method of measurement. It is
obviously not sensible to quote the length of the football field as 108.54 m if
the measurement was done with a tape having the metre as the smallest unit.
It would be more sensible to quote 109 m, ie rounded to the nearest metre.
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1.4 How to Determine the Number of Decimal Places

There are some simple rules that can be applied to determine how many
decimal places or significant figures should be quoted in a number. These
rules are as follows:

• Think about what the answer means. (As in the example of fitting people
around a table.)

• If the number is the result of a calculation, it should be quoted to the same

number of decimal places or significant figures as the least accurate
number used in the calculation. For example,

2.1 x 3.45 x 1.3 = 9.4185 = 9.4 (rounded)

• If the number is a measurement, consider how it was obtained and what its
accuracy might be. (As in the football field example.)

• Consider how accurate the result needs to be. (For example, the answer
may only need to be to the nearest ten.)

SELF-CHECK 1
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:

1. Write the following numbers to 3 significant figures:

a) 3 212

b) 5 678

c) 203 456

2. Write the following numbers to 2 decimal places:

a) 0.0023

b) 3.567
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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

c) 25.995

3. Write the distances to the accuracy required:

a) 15.6 m to the nearest metre.

b) 123 m to the nearest ten metres.

c) 3 567 m to the nearest thousand metres.

Now check your answer with the model answers in your workbook.

2. ALGEBRA
Algebra is a branch of mathematics used for solving problems. Equations are
constructed in which letters are substituted for the unknown quantities. A
relationship is obtained between known and unknown values. For example, y
= b + 2 means that the value of y is always two units more than the value of b.

2.1 What Do Equations Mean?

An equation is a mathematical sentence which relates two or more quantities.

Equations can be used to determine the value for some factor which changes
because of the change in a related factor. A good example of this is the
simple equation which relates the temperature measured in degrees celsius
(ºC) to the same temperature measured in degrees fahrenheit (ºF):

F = 1.8C + 32

This equation means that one division on the celsius scale is equal to 1.8
divisions on the fahrenheit scale. (There are 100 divisions between the
freezing point and boiling point of water on the celsius scale and 180 divisions
on the fahrenheit scale.) The +32 indicates that there is a difference between
the two scales of 32 fahrenheit divisions, ie 0ºC, the freezing point of water, is
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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

equivalent to 32ºF. The equation can be used to find the fahrenheit

equivalent of any celsius temperature.

Example

What is 25ºC in degrees fahrenheit?

C = 25

F = 1.8C + 32

Substitute in C = 25

F = 1.8 x 25 + 32 = 77

This means that 25ºC is equivalent to 77ºF.

An equation can be designed from given information. For example, we might

need to design an analogue scale for a radiation monitor for which the needle
position on the scale is equal to twice the current from the detector. If we write
the needle position as x and the current as c, we can produce an equation

x = 2c

If the needle is on the third mark when the current is zero, ie there is an offset
of 3, the equation becomes

x = 2c + 3

This equation can then be used to calculate the position of the needle for any
value current by substituting the value of the current into the equation.

For c = 1, the value of x can be calculated as 5.

Similarly, for c = 2, x = 7, and so on for any value of c.

In this system of writing equations, 2c means 2 multiplied by c. Other ways

! of writing 2 multiplied by c are 2.c or 2*c. A full stop or an asterisk can be

used to prevent confusion with x, which is sometimes used as a multiplication
sign or to represent an unknown.
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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

2
Also means 2 divided by a. Another way of writing 2 divided by a is 2/a.
a

2.2 Manipulating Equations

The following information shows how equations can be manipulated to find the
value of any of the terms:

The simplest rule to remember is that the two sides of an equation must be
treated in exactly the same way. When manipulating the equation, when you
change one side, you must always do the same to the other.

Remember What you do to one side of an equation you must also do to the other.

This can be demonstrated as follows:

Y = 2a + 3d

To obtain 2a on its own, we need to subtract 3d from the right hand side. If we
subtract 3d from the right we must do the same to the left to maintain the
balance, as follows:

Y = 2a + 3d

Y - 3d = 2a + 3d -3d

Y - 3d = 2a

Another way of thinking about this is change the side - change the sign.

This can also be seen for fractions in the following equation:

2a
S =
3d

To calculate a, it must be on its own on one side of the equation. This can be
achieved as follows:

Multiply each side by 3d to give

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2a
S x 3d = x 3d
3d

As mentioned above, S multiplied by 3d can be more clearly written as

3dS:

3dS = 2a

Divide both sides by 2 to give

3dS
=a
2

We have now found a in terms of S and d.

Be careful when there is more than one term in the denominator, such as 3d +
2b. Sometimes brackets are used to link the terms together. (This is a good
idea and you will be less likely to make a mistake.) An example is shown
below:

2a
S=
(3d + 2b)

2a
S(3d + 2b) = .(3d + 2b)
(3d + 2b)

S(3d + 2b) = 2a

Terms inside the brackets are linked; you must remember to carry out the
same calculations on each value in the bracket if you want to move them to
the other side of the equation. The term outside the brackets multiplies each
term inside the brackets. So the equation becomes

3dS + 2bS = 2a

Note that it does not matter in what order the numbers and letters are written.
In other words 3dS is the same as 3Sd which is the same as dS3 or S3d or
any other combination. However, it is usual to write the number first, followed
by the letters in alphabetical order.
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The left hand side of the equation is divided by 2 to obtain the term a by itself.
Note that every term must be divided by 2.

3dS 2bS 2a
+ =
2 2 2

3
dS + bS = a
2

Now try the same method to obtain the term b by itself.

2a
Start with S =
(3d + 2b)

You should have gone through the following steps:

2a
S=
(3d + 2b)

2a
S(3d + 2b) = (3d + 2b)
(3d + 2b)

S(3d + 2b) = 2a

S(3d + 2b) 2a
=
S S

2a
3d + 2b =
S

2a
3d - 3d + 2b = - 3d
S

2a
2b = - 3d
S
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2a
2b - 3d
= S
2 2

2a 3d
b= -
2S 2

a 3d
b= -
S 2

As you become familiar with manipulating equations, you will find that you do
not need to write the simple steps, for example

2a
2b = - 3d
S

will be written

a 3d
b= -
S 2

without the intermediate step.

2.3 Summary of Equation Solving Operations

• The sign of a number or an unknown changes to the opposite sign when it

is moved to the other side of the equation.

• When letters and numbers appear next to each other, they are multiplied.

• 2a or 2.a or 2*a are the short ways of writing 2 x a.

• When letters and numbers appear one above the other, the number on top
(called the numerator) is divided by the number below (the denominator).

a
• or a/2 are the short ways of writing a ÷ 2.
2

• When a denominator is moved to the other side of the equation it becomes

a numerator.
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• When a numerator is moved to the other side of the equation it becomes a

denominator.

• When the numerator or denominator contains more than one number linked
by a + or - sign they should be linked together by brackets and treated as a
single term until they can be separated easily.

SELF-CHECK 2
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:

1. Write the following imaginary statement as an algebraic equation using

the letters shown:

The level of radiation (R) from an exposure unit is equal to the half the
unit’s quoted output (O) and divided by the number of absorber plates
(p).

2. Use the equation a = b - 2c to find

a) the value of b in terms of a and c; and

b) the value of c in terms of a and b.

af - 3c - d
3. Find the value of b from the equation b =
2

if a = 2, f = 3, c = 1 and d = 4.

Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.
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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

3. EXPONENTS AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

When you are measuring or calculating quantities to do with radioactivity and
radiation protection there will be occasions when the values may be very large
or very small. It is helpful to write these numbers in a way which makes them
easier to use. One way of doing this is to use exponents (also called powers
or indices) and scientific notation. Note that the word ‘indices’ is the plural
form of ‘index’.

3.1 Exponents

Remember The exponent, power or index of a number is the number of times it is

multiplied by itself.

For example,

22 is the same as 2 x 2 or two to the power of two. We generally refer

to this as two squared.

23 is the same as 2 x 2 x 2 or two to the power of three. We generally

refer to this as two cubed.

Two is called the base of the number and three is the exponent, power or
index.

Remember In general terms, bp is described as b raised to the power p and is the

same as b multiplied by itself p times.

3.1.1 Multiplying and dividing

Multiplying and dividing numbers written in the form of exponents follows

simple rules, provided that the same base is used.

When numbers incorporating exponents are multiplied together, the

Remember

exponents are added as follows

bm x bn = bm+n [1]
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For example:

22 x 23 = 25

Prove this yourself by working out the values of 22, 23 and 25.

A special case of this multiplication is when a number written in exponent form

is multiplied by itself n times.

bm x bm x bm x bm x (n times) = bm+m+m+m+(n times) = (bm)n

Remember Hence, for a number written in exponent form multiplied by itself n times:

(bm)n = bmn [2]

For example,

(22)2 = 22 x 22 = 24

Prove this yourself by working out the values of 22 and 24.

When numbers incorporating exponents are divided, the exponents are

Remember

subtracted as follows:

bm ÷ bn = bm-n [3]

For example,

25 ÷ 22 = 25-2 = 23 = 2 x 2 x 2 = 8

Prove this yourself by working out the values of 25, 22 and 23.

3.1.2 Fractions, zero and negative exponents

The exponent does not have to be a whole number but may be a fraction or a
number with decimal places. If the exponent is a fraction in the form of 1/m,
where m is a whole number, it is called a root. If n is two, then the power is
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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

called the second or square root, if n is three, it is the third or cube root, if n
is four it is the fourth root, and so on.

For example,

91/2 = the square root of 9 = √9 = 3

81/3 = the cube root of 8 = 3√8 = 2

Remember b1/m means the mth root of b as follows:

b1/m = m√b [4]

Occasionally, the exponent may be shown as zero. In this case, a general rule
applies where any base with an exponent of zero is equal to 1.

Remember Any base with an exponent of zero is equal to 1 as follows:

b0 = 1 [5]

For example,

10 = 1

20 = 1

If the exponent is a negative number, e.g. 2-3, it means that the result is the
reciprocal of the positive exponent, i.e. one divided by the positive exponent
(1/23).

Remember If the exponent is a negative number, the result is the reciprocal of the
positive exponent as follows:

b-p = 1/bp [5]

For example,

10-1 = 1/10 = 0.1

10-2 = 1/102 = 1/100 = 0.01

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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

10-3 = 1/103 = 1/1000 = 0.001

3.1.3 Summary of the rules of exponents

Figure 1 summarises the rules of exponents. Remember that these rules only
apply if the same base is used.

Remember

bm x bn = bm+n

(bm)n = bmn

bm ÷ bn = bm-n

b1/m = m√b

b-m = 1/bm

Figure 1
The Rules of Exponents

3.1.4 Using a scientific calculator to calculate exponents

A scientific calculator may be used to find exponents. Although this may vary
from calculator to calculator, the basic method is to use the xy (or yx) button.
Firstly, press the number corresponding to the base (e.g. 2 in the calculation of
23), then press the xy (or yx) button. Finally, press the number corresponding
to the exponent (e.g. 3 in the calculation of 23). Note that some calculators
may also have a x1/y (or y1/x) button which can be used in a similar way to
calculate exponents involving fractions. If you have a scientific calculator you
might like to practice using the examples of exponent calculations given
above. If you do not have a scientific calculator, you will need to calculate by
long hand or by using logarithms (see Section 2).

3.1.5 Base ten

The normal way that numbers are written is based on a system of 10, eg every
time we complete one set of ten units we move on to the next set as follows:
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10 digits become the value ten (10).

10 lots of ten become one hundred (100 or 102).

10 lots of one hundred become one thousand (1 000 or 103).

10 lots of one thousand becomes ten thousand (10 000 or 104).

We call this system base 10 or the decimal system. Other bases in use in
some industries are base 2 (the binary system used in electronics) and base
16 (the hexadecimal system used in computers).

3.2 Scientific Notation

Very large or very small numbers can be written in a simple form using powers
to the base ten. Scientific notation is a way of writing numbers by putting
only one digit before the decimal point and using powers of ten. The use of
scientific notation makes it easier to manipulate very large or very small
numbers without making a mistake.

For numbers greater than ten, the power of ten will always be positive. The
following examples show numbers written in scientific notation:

12.3 = 1.23 x 101

123 = 1.23 x 102

123 000 000 = 1.23 x 108

For numbers less than one, the power of ten will always be negative, meaning
that the number is being divided by the power of ten. The following examples
show small numbers written in scientific notation:

0.123 = 1.23 x 10-1

0.0123 = 1.23 x 10-2

0.0000000000123 = 1.23 x 10-11

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Remember A quick way of working out the power of ten is to count how many
places you must move the decimal point to get back to the original
number. If the decimal point must move to the left, then the power of ten
is negative. If the decimal point must move to the right the power of ten
will be positive.

The base 10 value is often replaced by the letter E, particularly on computer

generated tables. ‘E’ stands for exponent. Here are some examples:

1.25 x 102 = 1.25 E 02

3.57 x 104 = 3.57 E 04

1.23 x 10-3 = 1.23 E - 03

Occasionally d (for decimal) is used in place of E, but this is not common.

SELF-CHECK 3
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:

1. Calculate these values:

a) 23

b) 34

2. Write base y raised to the power x.

3. Multiply or divide the following exponents but leave the answers as a

power:

a) 23 x 2-4

b) 23 ÷ 2-4

c) b1/3 x b2/3

d) c2 ÷ ca
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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

4. Using the rules of exponents calculate the following:

a) 161/2

b) 70

c) 2-2

5. Write the following numbers in scientific notation:

a) 3 500

b) 23

c) 56 784

Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.

4. INTRODUCTION TO LOGARITHMS

4.1 Why Do We Use Logarithms?

In the days before calculators, logarithms (or logs as they are usually called)
were devised as a way of making difficult calculations simpler. It is much
easier to add numbers together than to multiply them. Similarly, it is much
easier to subtract numbers than to divide and the original purpose of logs was
to allow this simplification. Nowadays, most people use electronic calculators
to perform difficult calculations and logs are rarely used for this purpose.
However, an understanding of how logs work is particularly important in
radiation protection as they provide a basis for understanding the mechanisms
of radioactive decay.

4.2 What are Logarithms?

Logs are used to convert numbers into powers of a particular base.

Remember The log of a number is the power to which the base must be raised to
produce the number.
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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

For example, the number y may be expressed in an imaginary numbering

system by writing it as base b raised to the power x as follows:

y = bx [1]

Remember that the log of a number is the power to which the base is raised.
If you apply this definition to the number y, then log y to the base b (logb) is
equal to x. This is written as follows:

logb y = x [2]

4.3 The Advantages of Logarithms

You will remember from Section 3 that multiplication and division of numbers
raised to a power are carried out by addition and subtraction of the powers.
Since logs convert numbers to powers, the multiplication or division of any
number can now be carried out by simple addition or subtraction. This is the
advantage of logs.

Remember 4.4 Rules of Logs

The rules of exponents can be rewritten in terms of logs as shown in Figure 2.
These rules apply to all logs, but remember that the base must be the same
throughout the equation.

logb b = 1

logb(mn) = logbm + logbn

logb (mn) = n logb m

logb (m ÷ n) = logbm - logb n

logb (1/m) = -logb m

Figure 2
The Rules of Logs
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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

4.5 Common and Natural Logarithms

There are two bases which are most commonly used in logs ─ the base 10
(our normal system of counting) and base e (where e is a continuous number
approximately equal to 2.718 and which has special meaning in the field of
radiation protection). Logs to the base 10 are called common logs, (or
Briggsian logs), and logs to the base e are called natural logs (or Napierian
logs).

SELF-CHECK 4
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:

1. Use the definition of a log to work out the following log values:

a) log10 1

b) log10 10

c) log10 100

2. Using your answers from question 1 and using the rules of logs, work out
the following log values: (Take the value of log10 3 as 0.4771.)

a) log10 (3 x 100)

b) log10 33

c) log10 (3 ÷ 100)

d) log10 (1/3)

3. What are the two bases most commonly used in logs?

Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.
Radiation Protection Distance Learning Project Page 27
Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

5. COMMON LOGS

5.1 Introduction to Common Logs

Remember that common logs are logs to the base 10. They may be written as
log10 but are generally just written as log. Hence, common log equations may
be written in the form:

log y = x [1]

where y is the number that you want the common log of and x is the
corresponding common log value.

5.2 How to Find the Common Log of a Number

There are two ways of finding the common log of a number. The most
convenient way is to use a scientific calculator. The other, more traditional
method is to use common log tables. The log tables method is shown in detail
in Appendix A. If you do not have access to a scientific calculator, you will
need to study this method of working out common logs. If you have access to
a scientific calculator, you do not need to study this method but you may be
interested in doing so.

As different types of calculator compute common logs in different ways, it

would be impossible to explain all of the methods in this module. In general,
however, by pressing the ‘log’ button on your calculator either before or after
the number you want the common log of, you should be able to find the
corresponding log value. Try computing the following common logs values
using your calculator:

a) log 1

b) log 10

c) log 100
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You should get the answers a) 0, b) 1 and c) 2 (as you have already worked
out in question 1 of self-check 4).

If you have any difficulties in using your calculator to find common logs, you
are advised to refer to the calculator’s instruction manual or to ask your
supervisor for help.

5.3 Antilogs of Common Logs

Now you know how to find the common log of a number. However, it is often
necessary to be able to convert known common log values back into numbers.
This is basically done by inversing equation 1 in section 5.1 and is known as
taking the antilogarithm (or antilog for short) of a common log value. In
mathematical terms, antilogs of common logs are abbreviated to log-1 and
antilog equations may be written in the form:

y = log-1 x [2]

where y is the number corresponding to the known common log value x.

5.4 How to Find the Antilogs of Common Logs

In simple terms, to find the original number of a common log value we need to
use the calculator or log tables backwards. The log tables method for finding
the antilogs of common logs is detailed in Appendix A but the calculator
method is simpler. In general, you can find the antilog of a common log value
by pressing the ‘shift’ or ‘inverse’ button on your calculator then the ‘log’ button
either before or after the value you want the antilog of. Try computing the
following antilogs using your calculator:

a) log-1 0

b) log-1 1

c) log-1 2

You should get the answers a) 1 b) 10 and c) 100. (Note that this is the
reverse of the calculations you carried out in section 5.2).
Radiation Protection Distance Learning Project Page 29
Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

Again, if you have any difficulties in using your calculator to find antilogs, you
are advised to refer to the calculator’s instruction manual or to ask your
supervisor for help.

SELF-CHECK 5
1. Find the common log values of the following numbers by using your
calculator:

a) 4 567

b) 1.09

2. Find the common antilogs (log-1) of the following log values by using your
calculator:

a) 3.5482

b) 1.4114

Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.

6. NATURAL LOGS

6.1 Introduction to Natural Logs

Remember that natural logs are also known as logs to the base e (where e is
a continuous number approximately equal to 2.718). Log to the base e of a
number may be written as ln. For example loge3, can be written as ln 3. Like
common logs, natural log equations can be written in the form:

ln y = x [1]

where y is the number that you want the natural log of and x is the
corresponding natural log value.
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Although you could use logs to the base e to carry out multiplication and
division in the same way as logs to the base 10 they are not normally used for
that purpose. They are, however, useful in solving some of the special
properties of radiation which you will learn about in other modules.

6.2 How to Find the Natural Log of a Number

Like common logs, there are also two ways of finding the natural log of a
number – either by using a calculator or by using natural log tables. The
method of using natural log tables is shown in detail in Appendix B. Again, if
you do not have access to a scientific calculator, you will need to study this
method of working out natural logs. Those students who do have access to a
scientific calculator do not need to study this method but you may be
interested in doing so.

In general, natural logs can be computed on a calculator by pressing the ‘ln’

button either before or after the number you want the natural log of. Try
computing the following natural logs using your calculator:

a) ln 1

b) ln 10

c) ln 100

You should get the answers a) 0, b) 2.3026 and c) 4.6052.

If you have any difficulties in using your calculator to find natural logs, you are
advised to refer to the calculator’s instruction manual or to ask your supervisor
for help.

6.3 Antilogs of Natural Logs

Now you know how to find the natural log of a number, you need to learn how
to convert known natural log values back into numbers. Again this is done by
taking the antilog of the log value. In mathematical terms, antilogs of natural
logs are abbreviated to ln-1 and natural antilog equations may be written in the
form:
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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

y = ln-1 x [2]

where y is the number corresponding to the known natural log value x.

6.4 How to Find the Antilogs of Natural Logs

The method of finding antilogs of natural logs is similar to the method used for
common logs in that you need to use the calculator or log tables backwards.
The log tables method for finding the antilogs of natural logs is detailed in
Appendix B but the calculator method is simpler. In general, you can find the
antilog of a natural log value by pressing the ‘shift’ or ‘inverse’ button on your
calculator then the ‘ln’ button either before or after the value you want the
antilog of. Try computing the following natural antilogs using your calculator:

a) ln-1 0

b) ln-1 2.3026

c) ln-1 4.6052

You should get the answers a) 1 b) 10 and c) 100. (Note that this is the
reverse of the calculations you carried out in section 6.2).

Again, if you have any difficulties in using your calculator, refer to the
calculator’s instruction manual or to ask your supervisor for help.

SELF-CHECK 6
1. Find the natural log values of the following numbers by using your
calculator:

a) 4.65

b) 46.5

2. Find the natural antilogs of the following natural log values by using your
calculator:

a) 0.693
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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

b) 2.708

Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.

7. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

7.1 Introduction to Exponential Functions

Remember that the definition of the log of a number is the power to which the
base has to be raised to equal the number as follows:

ln y = x [1]

If this definition is applied to a number y which equals ex (y = ex), then:

ln ex = x [2]

As e is a constant number, ex depends on the value of x. We therefore say

that e is a function of x. In addition, as x is the exponent of e, ex is known as
the exponential function.

Exponential functions are very important in radiation protection as they give a

useful mathematical description of physical phenomena such as radioactive
decay. Furthermore, the relationship ln ex = x is a very important relationship
which is used in deriving equations for radioactive decay and half-lives.

Note from equation 2, that if we want to convert ex to an ordinary number, we

need to take the ln of it. This is a very important fact to remember when
manipulating radioactive decay equations.

To convert ex to an ordinary number you must take the natural log (ln) of
Remember

it.

7.2 How to Find the Value of Exponential Functions

We find the value of exponential functions in the same way as we find antilogs
of natural logs. This can be shown as follows:
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From above:

ln ex = x [1]

Taking the antilog of both sides:

ex = ln-1 x [2]

Therefore, if we find the antilog of a natural log value, we can find the value of
the exponential function.

The log tables method for finding the value of exponential functions is detailed
in Appendix B. In general, you can find the value of exponential functions by
pressing the ‘shift’ or ‘inverse’ button on your calculator then the ‘ln’ button
either before or after the value you want the antilog of. Notice that your
calculator should show the exponential ‘ex’ above the ‘ln’ key. Try computing
the following exponentials using your calculator:

a) e1

b) e3.5

c) e-2

You should get the answers a) 2.718 (i.e. e) b) 33.115 and c) 0.135

7.3 Manipulating Natural Logs and Exponential Functions

Many of the calculations of radioactive decay require you to be able to
manipulate equations involving natural logs and exponential functions. It is
therefore important that you try to memorise the rules of manipulating
equations from section 2.2 and the log rules from section 4.4 as these rules
are particularly useful for manipulating radioactive decay equations.

7.3.1 Using rules of manipulating equations

From section 2.2, you will remember that what we do to one side of an
equation, we must do to another. If we have an equation:
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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

a = ex [1]

and we wish to find x, this can be done by finding the ln values of each side as
follows:

ln a = ln ex [2]

But ln ex = x

so ln a = ln ex = x

Hence

ln a = x [3]

where a = ex

This is an important rule to remember as it will be used in later modules to

show how radioactive decay equations can be manipulated.

Remember
a = ex is the same as ln a = x.

7.3.2 Using log rules

From section 7.1, we know that

ln ex = x [1]

This property can also be shown by using log rules. Remember that:

logb (m)n = n logb m [2]

and

logb b = 1 [3]

Hence:

ln ex = x ln e = x [4]
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Remember The rules of logs are useful for manipulating radioactive decay
equations.

SELF CHECK 7
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following question
in your workbook:

1. Find the value of the following exponential functions by using your

calculator:

a) e1.335

b) e 10.3562

c) e-5.5

2. Using the rules of manipulating equations and the rules of logs to prove
that b = ext is the same as ln b = xt.

Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.

8. GRAPHS
Graphs are a means of using drawings to show mathematical relationships
between two or more measurements or sets of data. These measurements or
sets of data are called variables. Graphs can be used for the following
purposes:

• To show information as a picture to make it easier to understand. A graph

represents a mathematical equation of the relationship between two
variables.

• To investigate the relationship between the variables. For example, the

count rate of a radioactive source decreases with time. This can be shown
graphically by plotting the count rate at certain times on a graph.
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• To estimate unknown values of variables which cannot be measured,

(maybe because they lie outside the range of collected data).For example,
the count rate/ time graph can be used to predict the count rate of the
radioactive source at some time in the future.

• To obtain information which can be derived from measured data. For

example, the time taken for half a radioactive sample to decay (half-life) can
be estimated from the count rate/time graph.(This will be explained in
Module 2.3.)

• To increase the accuracy of data.

8.1 Features of Graphs

8.1.1 Axes

A graph has two axes; the horizontal axis, usually called the x axis, and the
vertical axis, usually called the y axis. The axes are marked off in a suitable
scale and points are plotted on the graph corresponding to x and y values.

Figure 3 below shows how a point is plotted on a simple graph. The plotted
point corresponds to a value of x equal to 3, and a value of y equal to 6.This
can be written as the point (3,6).

7
6
5
4
y-axis
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4

x axis

Figure 3
A Simple Graph
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It is usual practice to plot the variable which is being controlled on the x-axis
and the other variable on the y-axis. For example, in the count rate/time graph
considered earlier, time would be plotted on the x-axis and count rate on the y-
axis.

8.1.2 Scales

In the simple graph shown in Figure 3, the axes are marked in a linear scale.
Each axis is divided into equal divisions to cover the range of data collected.
Note that it is not necessary for both axes to have the same scale. Nor is it
necessary for the zero to be shown. Scales may start at any number unless
there is a good reason for showing the zero.(It may actually be a data point.)

One or both axes may also be marked in a log scale. This is an advantage if
the variables are related by an exponential function. It may also be useful if
the numbers in the data have a very large range (hundreds or thousands). In
a log scale, the axis is marked off in equal sections corresponding to 100, 101,
102, etc. Each of these larger sections is called a cycle and is divided into
divisions corresponding to a log scale. Figure 4 shows an example of
log/linear graph paper in which the x-axis is linear and the y-axis is log.

100

y-axis 10

1
0 1 2 3
x-axis

Figure 4
Log/linear Graph Paper

This is called two cycle log/linear graph paper because the log scale has two
cycles. It could be used for plotting data from one (100) to one hundred (102),
or from ten (101) to a thousand (103) or for any equivalent range. Log/linear
graph paper is used for plotting counting data against time for a radioactive
source.
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Figure 4 shows an example of graph paper in which both scales are two cycle
log. Log/log graphs are used when the numbers to be plotted extend over a
large range. You will find examples in reference books. It is important that
you can read the log scales correctly in order to extract correct information
from the graph.

100

y-axis 10

1
1 10 100
x-axis

Figure 4
Log/log Graph Paper

Care must be taken when plotting numbers on log scales. It is very easy

! to make a mistake. Notice that log scales do not have a zero.

8.1.3 Interpolation and extrapolation

Information may be obtained for points on a graph between measured data

points by drawing lines from the graph line to the x- and y-axes. This is called
interpolation. Lines AB and BC on Figure 5 show how the y value
corresponding to x = C can be found by interpolation. A line is drawn from the
value C on the x-axis up to the graph line at point B. This is shown by the grey
dotted line. A horizontal line is then drawn from B across to the y-axis. This is
shown by another grey dotted line. The point at which this line intersects the
y-axis gives the value of y corresponding to x = C.

Information may be obtained for values beyond the measured data.(The

values may be higher or lower than the measured data.)This is called
extrapolation. Figure 5 shows how the graph line has been extrapolated to
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Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

find the value of y when x equals zero. The graph has been extended
backwards to cut the y-axis at point D. This is shown by the black dotted line.
The point D gives the value of D corresponding to x equals zero.

B
A

y-axis

0 C
x-axis

Figure 5
A Graph Illustrating Interpolation and Extrapolation

It is important to remember what a graph means. Interpolation or extrapolation

may not be valid.

8.1.4 Line of best fit

When a graph is drawn using data obtained from an equation, eg a graph of x

against y where the data are obtained from the equation y = 2x2, a line or
curve can be drawn connecting all the points. There will be no errors in the
numbers (assuming that the calculations have been done correctly). Graphs
used in radiation protection are usually drawn from experimental data. All
experimental data, especially counting data from radioactive materials will
have errors. The size of the errors can be shown on a graph by plotting error
bars. (You will learn how to calculate errors in counting data later in the
module.) The line or curve drawn on the graph will not necessarily pass
through each plotted point. It should be drawn so that the points are evenly
scattered on either side, and it should pass through all the error bars
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(assuming that they have been plotted correctly). This is called the line of
best fit. The process of drawing a graph and putting in a line of best fit allows
the accuracy of individual data points to be increased.

Figure 6 shows a line of best fit with data points either side of it and error bars.

30

25

20
y-axis

15

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
x-axis

Figure 6
A Graph Drawn from Experimental Data

8.1.5 The area under a graph

This refers to the area between the graph line and the x-axis. It may have
some significance, especially if the x-axis measures time. The area can be
found accurately by a mathematical process called integration. Although you
should know that integration means the area under the curve, learning the
process of integration is beyond the scope of this course. The area may also
be found approximately by counting the squares on the graph paper. Two
situations in radiation protection where the area under a graph has some
significance are given here:

• A graph of counts against radiation energy for a given radionuclide.

This type of graph is obtained by a process called gamma spectrometry
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which is discussed in a later module. Figure 7 shows a simple example.

The area under the graph gives the total counts for the radioactive sample.

400

Counts

200

0.0
340 350 360 370 380

Energy keV

Figure 7
Graph of Number of Counts Against Energy for a Radioactive
Sample

• A graph of radiation dose rate against time. The area under the graph
gives the total dose. This will be mentioned later in the course when you
learn about radiation doses caused by the intake of radionuclides. Figure 8
gives an example of a dose rate against time graph. The curve shows how
the dose rate to a given body organ following an intake of radioactive
material changes over a fifty year time interval. The area under the curve
gives the total dose to the body organ.

1.0

Dose Rate

0.5

0.0
0.0 12.5 25. 0 37.5 50.0
Time

Figure 8
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Graph of Dose Rate Against Time

These examples are given to help you understand why the area under the
curve may be important in radiation protection. Do not worry if you do not
understand the specific example at this stage.

8.2 Examples of Graphs

There are many types of graphs but only those which have some relevance to
radiation protection are considered here. Three types will be considered:

• Those which illustrate a linear relationship between two variables.

• Those which illustrate an exponential relationship between two variables.

• Those which use log/log graph paper because the data extends over a
large range.

8.2.1 Linear Relationships

Table 2 contains data for six similar radioactive sources. The meaning of the
term activity and the unit in which it is measured are not important at this
stage.

Table 2
Radioactive Sources and Activity

Number of Amount of
Sources Activity

1 2

2 4

3 6

4 8

5 10
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6 12

If the data are plotted on a graph using linear scales, it will look like Figure 9.
The number of sources (the variable which is being controlled) is plotted on
the x-axis and the activity on the y-axis. A straight line can be drawn though
all the points. This shows that it is a linear relationship.

16

14

12

10
Activity

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Sources

Figure 9
Graph of Number of Sources Against Activity

Interpolation can be used to predict the activity of 1.7 sources as shown by the
dotted lines on the graph. The activity of 1.7 sources would be about 3.5
units. The graph has been extended past the measured points to find the
activity of eight sources. This is an example of extrapolation.

8.2.2 Exponential Relationships

In Section 7, you learnt about the exponential function ex. Many relationships
used in radiation protection are exponential e.g. the law of radioactive decay,
and you should be able to plot a graph of exponential data. You should also
be able to obtain necessary information from this graph. If the data are plotted
on linear graph paper, a curve like the one shown in Figure 10 is obtained.
Radiation Protection Distance Learning Project Page 44
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3000

2500

2000

ex 1500

1000

500

0
0 2 4 6 8
Number

Figure 10
Exponential Graph on Linear Graph Paper

If the same data are plotted on log/linear graph paper, it looks like Figure 11.

10000

1000
ex

100

10

1
0 2 4 6 8
Number

Figure 11
Exponential Graph on Log/linear Graph Paper

There are four log cycles represented on this graph paper. You can see that
when the data from an exponential relationship are plotted on log/linear graph
paper, a straight line can be drawn. It is much easier to draw a straight line
through points than it is to try to fit a curve. Another advantage of the log axis
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is that it enables both small and large numbers to be plotted with equal
accuracy. An example is given in Example 1.

Example 1

Question

By using the data in Table 3 and plotting a graph on log/linear graph paper,
find the value of y when x equals 7.

Table 3
Data for Graph

Value of y 1.8 3.3 10.4 33 102 310

Value of x 1 2 4 6 8 10

The data in Table 3 is to be plotted on log/linear graph paper and the graph
used to find the value of y when x equals 7. First try plotting the graph
yourself, and then use it to find the required value. Then look at the answer
below.

Answer

Step 1 You must first decide how many log cycles are required on the
graph paper. The y values range from 1.8 to 310. 1 to 10 is one
cycle; 10 to 100 is the second cycle; 100 to 1000 is the third
cycle. Therefore three-cycle graph paper is needed.

Step 2 Mark the scales on the axes.

Step 3 Plot the points. Be careful plotting numbers on the log scale.

Your graph should look like Figure 12 below:

Radiation Protection Distance Learning Project Page 46
Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

1000

100

Values of Y

10

1
0 2 4 6 8 10
Values of X

Figure 12
Log/Linear Graph of y against x

Step 4 Find the point (A) on the x-axis where x equals 7. Draw a line up
from that point to the graph line. (AB on Figure 13 below.)

Step 5 Draw a line from B parallel to the x-axis across to the y-axis. (BC
on Figure 13 below.)

Step 6 Read the value on the log axis at point C. Be careful when
reading the log scale. (C = approximately 56.)
Radiation Protection Distance Learning Project Page 47
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1000

100
B

Values of Y

10

1
0 2 4 6 A 8 10
Values of X

Figure 13
Log/Linear Graph of y against x

8.2.3 Log/log graphs

The important thing about log/log graphs is that you are able to extract
information from them correctly. Look at the example given in Figure 14.
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Figure 14
Example of a Log/Log Graph

Notice that both the x and y scales are logarithmic. The x-axis is measuring
time in days following a nuclear reactor shutdown. The y-axis is measuring
the amount of radioactivity in the fuel (TBq or terabecquerels) per unit of
reactor power (MW or megawatts). The time values go from one to 1 000
days and the radioactivity values go from 1 000 to 100 000 TBq, so a log scale
has been used to cover the large numerical range of data. It does not matter if
you do not understand what the values on the y-axis mean. Just make sure
you can read the scale by estimating the value of the radioactivity at 10 days
and at 120 days. Then look at the answer below.

If you follow the 10 day line up to where it cuts the graph and then draw a line
across the y-axis the intercept on the y-axis will tell you the radioactivity at 10
days. The intercept is approximately 2 x 104 (or 20 000) TBq/MW. Do the
same thing for a time of 120 days. The intercept on the y-axis is
approximately 7 x 103 (or 7 000) TBq/MW.

SELF-CHECK 8
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:
Radiation Protection Distance Learning Project Page 49
Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

1. Calculate the values of y in the equation y = x2 for values of x equal to 1,

2, 3, 4, 5.Plot these values against x using normal linear graph paper.

2. Plot the following data on log/linear graph paper.

Value of a Value of b

1 1

1.5 4

2.0 16

2.5 70

3.0 300

Use your graph to estimate the value of b when a equals 2.2 and when a
equals 4.0.

3. Use the log/log graph given in Figure 14 to estimate the value on the y-
axis for time equal to:

a) 1 day

b) 80 days

c) 1 000 days

Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.

9. SIMPLE PROBABILITY AND COUNTING STATISTICS

The mathematics of probability and statistics is quite complex. In this section
you will be introduced to a few of the simpler concepts which will allow you to
work out the errors associated with counting radioactive sources.
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9.1 Probability

Probability is described as the extent to which an event is likely to take place.

This could be the chance that a particular side of a coin will be facing upwards
after the coin has been thrown in the air and caught. As there are two faces to
a coin and only one will be showing (assuming that it does not balance on its
edge), the probability that a particular side will be showing is equal to the
number of actions (eg number of coin tosses) divided by the possible
outcomes (eg one face or the other). In this simple case, the probability
would be ½ or 0.5 or 50%. A probability of 1.0 or 100% exists for an
event that must occur. A probability of zero means that an event will
definitely not occur.

There are many areas of mathematics which deal with probabilities. However,
the only areas of relevance to radiation protection are those dealing with the
counting of radioactive samples. This topic will be covered in the following
section and most of the examples will deal specifically with this type of
counting.

The decay of radioactive material is described in detail in Module1.3 Ionizing

Radiation and Radioactive Decay. It will be used in this module to help explain
the mathematical concepts of probability and counting statistics. At this stage
you do not need to understand how materials decay.

9.2 Counting Statistics

Consider what would happen if you were asked to collect data on the coin
tossing example described in Section 9.1. In theory, for every 100 tosses of
the coin it should land on one particular face 50 times. However, you know
that this will not necessarily happen. If you toss the coin for ten sets of 100
tosses you may obtain the numbers 47, 56, 49, 54, 53, 54, 48, 47, 51 and 46.
The more sets of 100 tosses you do the closer you will get to an average of
50, the number predicted by the theory. These variations in results are not
due to any problem with the coin tossing but are a product of the statistical
nature of coin tossing.
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In a similar way, if you were to count a radioactive sample several times you
would obtain a range of different results. The variation in counts occurs
because of the statistical nature of the behaviour of radiation, not because the
counter is not working correctly. Table 4 contains a set of counting data for a
radioactive sample that was counted 240 times. The first row contains the
number of counts in a given time interval. The second row contains the
number of times each result was obtained, i.e. the frequency of the count.

Table 4
Sample Counting Data

Counts 52 60 73 78 82 92 98 108 121 147

Count 3 10 21 30 39 41 38 28 20 10
Frequency

If the data are plotted on a graph, the overall outcome will look like Figure 15
below.

45

40

35

30
Frequency

25

20

15

10

0
0 50 Counts 100 150

Figure 15
Graph of Sample Counting Data

This curve is called a Gaussian or Normal Distribution curve. (You may

also have heard the terms ‘binomial distribution’ or ‘Poisson distribution’. For
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radioactivity measurements, these forms of distribution can all be considered

to be the same provided that counts are above about 30.) The shape of the
curve indicates the statistical nature of radioactive decay. The highest point
on the curve gives the value of the most probable count, in this case 92. The
width of the curve gives the range of values over which the measured count
could vary and is a measure of the error in the counts. You can work out the
sample average (or mean) count by summing all the counts and dividing by
the number of times the count was performed as shown in Equation 1:

n =
∑n [1]
N

where n is the mean count of the sample

∑n is the sum of the counts (Note that ∑ is a sign meaning sum of..)

N is the number of times the count was performed

So, for the data given above:

∑n = (52 x 3) + (60 x 10) + (73 x 21) + (78 x 30)+ (82 x 39) + (92 x 41) + (98 x
38) + (108 x 28) + (121 x 20) + (147 x 10) = 22 237

N = 240

Hence

22 237
n= = 92.65
240

Since part of a count cannot exist, the mean count of the sample is given as
93.

In a true normal distribution the average or mean value is the same as the
most likely value.

9.3 Standard Deviation

Standard deviation is a way of assessing the uncertainty of a value by
quantifying the width of a distribution curve such as that shown in Figure 15.
The smaller the standard deviation the narrower the curve will be (i.e. the data
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are more closely grouped). If the data cover a wide range of numbers then the
curve will be wide and the standard deviation is large. This is illustrated in
Figure 16. (The symbol for standard deviation is σ, the Greek letter sigma.) A
small standard deviation means that both the data and the calculated mean
value of the data are more certain.

Figure 16
Distributions
The area under the normal distribution curve can be divided into segments of
equal width on either side of the peak of the curve. These segments are
called standard deviations. They measure how much the data deviate from
the mean value. The size of the segments are chosen so that plus or minus
one standard deviation (written as ± 1σ) covers 68.26% of the data, ± 2σ
covers 95.46% of the data and ± 3σ covers 99.74% of the data. This is shown
in Figure 17.
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Figure 17
Normal Distribution and Standard Deviations

Note that confidence levels are usually rounded to the nearest 1%. Thus
± 1σ covers 68% of the data and ± 2σ covers 95% of the data.

9.3.1 Determining the standard deviation for a single measurement of

count

Whenever only a single measurement of count (nsc) is taken from a radioactive

sample, this count is considered as being the mean result (i.e. n = nsc).
The standard deviation of the sample is taken to be the square root of the
count as follows:

Remember σ sc = n sc [2]

where σ sc is the standard deviation of a single measurement of count

nsc is the number of counts

Example 1 shows how standard deviation for a single measurement of count

may be calculated in practice.

Example 1

Question
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A radioactive sample was counted and found to have a count of 566 counts.
What is the standard deviation of the count?

Answer

From Equation 2:

σsc = n sc = 566 = 24 (to two significant figures (2 sf))

Hence, the standard deviation in the count is 24 counts (to 2 sf).

9.3.2 Determining the standard deviation for a single measurement of

count corrected for background

When we determine the count from a radioactive sample, we need to take into
consideration the naturally occurring background count (this is further
explained in Module 1.3 Ionizing Radiation and Radioactive Decay.). Hence,
when determining the net standard deviation, we need to consider the
standard deviation for both the background count and the sample count. To
do this, we first need to determine the standard deviation associated with each
and then we need to determine the cumulative standard deviation. This is
determined as follows:

σscnet = σsc 2 + σb 2

where σsc = n sc = standard deviation in the single count

σb = n b = standard deviation in the background count

Hence

σscnet = nsc + nb [3]

where σscnet is the net standard deviation in the count (i.e. the single count
corrected for background)

nsc is the number of counts from the sample

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nb is the number of background counts

Example 2 shows how the net standard deviation for a single measurement of
count (corrected for background) may be calculated in practice.

Example 2

Question

A radioactive sample was counted and found to have a count of 566 counts. A
background count was measured at 20 counts. What is the standard deviation
of the count corrected for background?

Answer

nsc = 566

nb = 20

From Equation 3:

σscnet = nsc + nb = 566 + 20 = 24 counts (to 2 sf)

Hence, the standard deviation in the count (corrected for background) is 24

counts (to 2 sf).

Note that the standard deviation from Example 1 is equal to that of Example 2
(to 2 sf). This is because the background count is very low in comparison to
the sample count. Hence, for counts where the background count is much
lower than the sample count, the contribution to the standard deviation is
negligible and may be ignored and we can calculate the standard deviation for
a sample by using Equation 2 above.

9.3.3 Determining the sample standard deviation of a single count rate

Section 9.3.1. shows how to work out the sample standard deviation for a
single measurement of count but this is not applicable for a single
measurement of count rate (i.e. σsc = n sc only applies to total counts, not to

count rate). This is because, when considering count rate, we also need to
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take into account the time. Hence, if a single measurement is made of count
rate, the standard deviation of the sample is given as follows:

R
Remember
σscr = [4]
t

where σ scr is the standard deviation of a single count rate measurement

R is the measurement rate

t is the measurement time

Example 3 shows how the standard deviation for a single measurement of

count rate may be calculated in practice.

Example 3

Question

A sample is counted for five minutes and showed a count of 7 280 counts.
What is the standard deviation of this count rate?

Answer

7 280
R= = 1 456 counts per minute (cpm)
5

T = 5 minutes

From Equation 4:

R 1 456
σscr= = = 17 cpm (to 2 sf)
t 5

Hence, the standard deviation in the count rate is 17 cpm (to 2 sf).

9.3.4 Determining the sample standard deviation of a single

measurement of count rate corrected for background

Again, when determining the count rate from a radioactive sample, we should
take into consideration the naturally occurring background count rate. Hence,
when determining the net standard deviation, we need to consider the
standard deviation for both the background count rate and the sample count
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rate. To do this, we first need to determine the standard deviation associated

with each and then we need to determine the cumulative standard deviation.
This is determined as follows:

σscrnet = σscr 2 + σb 2 [5]

Rscr
where σscr = = standard deviation in the single measurement of
tscr
count rate

Rb
σb = = standard deviation in the background measurement rate
tb

σscrnet = the standard deviation of the single measurement of count rate

corrected for background

Example 4 shows how the net standard deviation for a single measurement of
count rate (corrected for background) may be calculated in practice.

Example 4

Question

A sample was counted for 5 minutes and had a count of 7 280 counts.
Background on this counter was measured at 32 cpm with a counting time of
30 minutes. What is the net standard deviation for this sample?

Answer

Rscr = 7 280 = 1456 cpm

5

Rb = 32 cpm

Rscr 1456
σscr = = = 17 cpm (to 2 sf)
tscr 5

Rb 32
σb = = = 1 cpm (to 1 sf)
tb 30

From Equation 5:
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σscrnet = σscr 2 + σb 2 = 17 2 + 12 = 17 cpm (to 1 sf)

Hence the standard deviation (corrected for background) is 17 cpm (to 2 sf).

Again, by comparing Examples 3 and 4, it can be seen that the contribution to

the net standard deviation from the background count rate is very small in
comparison to that from the sample count rate. Hence, for most count rate
measurements (except for very low count rates) the background standard
deviation may be ignored and we can calculate the standard deviation for a
sample by using Equation 4 above.

9.3.5 Determining the standard deviation for a series of single

measurements of count

Data are much more likely to be good data if a series of single measurements
are taken where possible. For example, it is more accurate to take five
readings of count and average them than to take just one reading (note that all
of the measurements must be taken under the same conditions to be valid). In
this case, the mean is taken as being the sum of the five readings of count
divided by the number of counts (see Equation 1) and hence, calculation of the
standard deviation becomes more complex (see Equation 6):

2
∑ (n - n )
Ω= [6]
N−1

where Ω is the standard deviation for a series of measurements of count

n is the mean of the counts

n is the value of the single measurement of count

N is the total number of measurements performed

Example 4 shows how this is applied to a set of data.

Example 5

Question
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The results of ten counts on the same sample are given below. Find the
standard deviation of the counts.

Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Result 10 9 7 10 9 12 7 10 12 10
(n)

Answer

Step 1 First calculate the average value of n ( n ) by adding up all the

results and dividing by the number of results (10).

n =
∑n =
96
= 9.6
N 10

Step 2 Calculate the difference between each result and the average value
(n - n ).

Step 3 Square the values obtained in step 2 to remove negative values ((n
2
- n ) ).

The values obtained in steps 2 and 3 are shown below.

n 10 9 7 10 9 12 7 10 12 10

n- n 0.4 -0.6 -2.6 0.4 -0.6 2.4 -2.6 0.4 2.4 0.4

2 0.16 0.36 6.76 0.16 0.36 5.76 6.76 0.16 5.76 0.16
(n - n )
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2
Step 4 Sum all the values of (n - n ) .

∑(n - n )2 = 26.4

Step 5 The number of measurements (N) is equal to 10. Divide the value
obtained in step 4 by N - 1.

∑ (n - n ) 2
= 2.9
9

Step 6 Take the square root of the value obtained in step 5.

2
∑ (n - n)
Ω = = 1.7 counts
N − 1

The standard deviation of the counts is 1.7 counts.

9.4 Confidence levels and standard error

When taking measurements from radioactive materials, it is important to be
aware of the possible error in your measurement. We do this by quoting our
measurements to a particular confidence level which is based on different
numbers of standard deviations. For example, if we quote our measurements
to within one standard deviation, we have confidence that our measurements
will fall within this range 68% of the time. Hence, this range is known as the
68% (or 1σ) confidence level. This 68% confidence level is also known as
the standard error of the mean as it is the error associated with one standard
deviation.

Confidence levels can be quoted at different levels and Table 5 summarises

the number of standard deviations equivalent to commonly used confidence
levels.

Table 5
Confidence Levels

Confidence Level Number of Standard

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(%) Deviations

50 0.7

68 1.0

90 1.6

95 2.0

Hence, the answers to Examples 1and 2 can be quoted as 566 ± 24 counts (at
the 68% or 1σ confidence level) or 566 ± 48 (at the 95% or 2σ confidence
level). Likewise, the answers to Examples 3 and 4 can be written as 7280 ±
17 counts per minute (at the 68% or 1σ confidence level) or 7280 ± 34 counts
per minute (at the 95% or 2σ confidence level).

If more than one measurement is taken (as in Example 5), the value of the
standard error will be reduced as the more measurements taken give a result
closer to the true mean. In this case, the standard error (i.e. at the 68% or 1σ
confidence level) is given by

Ω
E= [7]
N

where E is the standard error

Ω is the standard deviation of the multiple measurements

N is the number of measurements performed

and the error at the 95% confidence level is taken as twice this value.

Hence, for Example 5, the standard error is given by:

1 .7
E= = 0.5 counts
10

This can therefore be quoted as 9.6 ± 0.5 counts (at the 68% or 1σ confidence
level) or 9.6 ± 1 count (at the 95% or 2σ confidence level).
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Note that the error in counting data is normally quoted at the 95% (or 2σ)
confidence level. This means that only 5% of the measured data would be
expected to be outside this range and is thus considered as acceptable
accuracy.

9.5 Error Bars on Graphs

Error bars should be shown on graphs to indicate the accuracy of the data
points. The size of the error bar is dependent on the value of the standard
deviation. The error may be given as plus or minus one standard deviation
(the standard error) or quoted to a specific confidence level, normally 95% for
counting data. It is normal procedure to assume that the error in time
measurements is negligible compared with the error in the counting data.
Figure 18 shows how the error bars for a count of 100 would appear on a
graph.

A
B
120

100

Counts 80

60

40

20

Time

Figure 18
Plotting Error Bars
Remember that the standard deviation for a single count of 100 is found by
taking the square root of the number (σsc= √100 = 10). Now look at Table 5 to
find out how many standard deviations are equivalent to the 95% confidence
level.

The error at the 95% confidence level is equal to two standard deviations, i.e.
± 20. Line A shows the error bar plotted at the 95% confidence level. The
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standard error is plus or minus one standard deviation (± 10 in this example).

Line B shows the error bar plotted for standard error.

SELF-CHECK 9
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:

1. What percentage of measured data would you expect to find within the
following ranges:

a) ±1σ ?

b) ±2σ ?

2. Assume that you have measured the count from a radioactive sample
and have a result of 64 counts. What is the result quoted to:

a) the 95% confidence level (number ± the variation)?

b) the 90% confidence level (number ± the variation)?

3. The following set of measurements have been obtained: 65, 68, 64, 59,
68, 61, 59, 64, 64, 62. Find the mean and give the error at the 95%
confidence level.

Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.

KEY POINTS
ROUNDING

• When rounding whole numbers or decimals of 5,6,7,8,9 the next size unit
(tenths, units, tens, etc) is increased by 1. For example 0.5 becomes 1;
107 becomes 110.
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• When rounding whole numbers or decimals of 1,2,3,4, the next size unit
(tenths, units, tens, etc) remains the same. For example 0.4 becomes 0;
103 becomes 100.

ALGEBRA

• Algebra is a way of calculating unknown values by constructing

equations where we substitute letters for the ‘unknown’ and combine
these with the known values, e.g. Y = b + 2.

• When solving an equation, remember that the two sides of an equation

must balance.

• When manipulating an equation, remember what you do to one side you

must do to the other.

POWERS

• cb is the same as writing the base c raised to the power b, or c multiplied

by itself b times.

• b2 is the same as b x b. In this case we say the b is squared.

• b3 is the same as b x b x b. In this case we say the b is cubed.

• b-2 is the same as writing 1

b2

• b-3 is the same as writing 1

b3

• b1/2 is the square root, also written as √b.

• b1/3 is the cube root, also written as 3√b.

LOGARITHMS

• Logs are used to convert numbers into powers of a particular base.

• Multiplication and division of numbers raised to a power is carried out by

addition and subtraction of the powers. As logs convert numbers to
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powers, the multiplication or division of any number can be carried out by

simple addition or subtraction.

• There are 5 rules of logs which you should remember.

• Logs to the base 10 are called common logs and logs to the base e are
called natural logs.

• It is often necessary to convert log values back into numbers. This is

known as taking the antilogarithm (or antilog) of a log value.

• The exponential function (ex) can be found in the same way as finding
the antilog of a natural log.

• To convert ex to an ordinary number you must take the natural log of it.

GRAPHS

• Graphs are a way of showing information as a picture. In many cases

this makes that information easier to understand. Graphs are also useful
to show the variation in one value as another value changes.

• A graph is plotted, with a vertical line (y-axis) and a horizontal line (x-
axis). These axes represent the two types of value we wish to plot.

• Log graphs do not have a value of 0. You should therefore remember

that when you read a log graph, the cycles scales start at 1.0 and goes to
10 of the power you are using.

PROBABILITY

• If only one measurement of count is made, the standard deviation is

taken as the square root of the count:

σ sc = n sc

• If only one measurement of count rate is made, the standard deviation is

taken as:
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R
σscr =
t

• The standard deviation of single measurements of count or count rate

can be corrected for background. However, if the count from the
radioactive source is much larger than that from background, the
contribution to the standard deviation from background may be ignored.

• If a series of single measurements of count are made, the standard

deviation is given by the following equation:

2
∑ (n - n)
Ω =
N − 1

• The standard error for a single measurement of count or count rate may
be taken as ± 1σ.

• The standard error for a series of single measurements of count or count

Ω
rate may be taken as ± . The error at the 95% confidence level is
N
taken as twice this value.

• The error in counting data is usually quoted to the 95% confidence level.
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APPENDIX A

COMMON LOGS

How To Find The Common Log Of A Number Using Log Tables

A log number consists of two parts; the number before the decimal point,
called the characteristic, and the number after the decimal point, called the
mantissa. Example 1 shows you how to find the log of a number using the
common log tables. Work through the example and then try the sample
questions yourself.

Example 1

Question

Find the common log of the number 123.4 (log 123.4) by using the common
log tables given on page 79.

Answer

Step 1 Write the number in scientific notation.

123.4 = 1.234 x 102

Step 2 The power of ten becomes the characteristic.

The power of ten is 2 so the characteristic is 2

Step 3 By using log tables and following the method below, find the
number 1.234 and hence the mantissa:

In the log tables, the figures in the left hand column are the
whole number and the first decimal place (0.0). The figures in
the top row are the second decimal (0.00).

In the left hand column find 1.2; then move along the row of
numbers to the column under 3. This is the mantissa of 1.23
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and equals 0.0899.

Now look at the column under 1.24 and find the mantissa. You
will see the number 0.0934.

We need the log of 1.234, somewhere between the logs of

1.23 and 1.24. We can therefore estimate the mantissa of
1.234 as approximately 0.0915.

Step 4 To find the log of 123.4, combine the characteristic and the
mantissa.

Hence the log of 123.4 is 2.0915 or log 123.4 = 2.0915

NOTE The mantissa given in log tables is always a positive value and
does not depend on the location of the decimal point in the
original number. This means that the numbers 0.01234,
0.1234, 1.234, 12.34 etc. will all have the same mantissa.
However, the characteristic for a number less than one will be
negative. Therefore the log of a number less than one will
consist of a negative characteristic and a positive mantissa, eg
the log of 0.1234 has a characteristic of -1 and a mantissa of
0.0915. The log is written with a bar across the top of the
characteristic, eg 1 .0915. This information is included so that
you can understand why logs are written with bars over the
characteristic. It does not affect the way you use logs.

See how the logs of the following numbers have the same
pattern.

log 123.4 = 2.0915

log 12.34 = 1.0915

log 1.234 = 0.0915

log 0.1234 = 1 .0915

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log 0.01234 = 2 .0915

SELF-CHECK 10
1. Find the common logs of the following numbers by using the common log
tables on page 79:

a) 4 567

b) 0.4567

2. Find the common logs of the following numbers by using the common log
tables in Appendix A:

a) 1.09

b) 125

c) 0.00897

Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.

Finding the Number Corresponding to a Log Value Using Log Tables

The number corresponding to a given log value is called the antilogarithm (or
antilog for short) and is abbreviated to log-1. In simple terms, to find the
original number of a log value, we have to use the log tables backwards.

Example 2 shows how to find the antilog of a number using the common log
tables on page 79.

Example 2

Question

Find the common antilog of the log value 2.0915 (log-1 2.0915).
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Answer

Step 1 Separate the characteristic and the mantissa.

The characteristic is 2 and mantissa is 0.0915.

Step 2 The characteristic becomes the power of ten.

The power of ten is 2 (102).

Step 3 By using log tables and following the method below, find the
number corresponding to the mantissa:

Remember that this time we are using the log tables backwards.
We need to look in the tables (not in the side column) to find the
mantissa.

In the table the closest numbers to the mantissa are 0.0899 and
0.0934.

Now look up the corresponding numbers in the left column and

at the top of the column. This gives a number somewhere
between 1.23 and 1.24. We can estimate the number as 1.235.

Step 4 To find the original number corresponding to log-1 2.0915,

combine the corresponding number (1.235) and the power of ten
(102).

Hence the antilog of 2.0915 is 1.235 x 102

orlog-1 2.0915 = 1.235 x 102

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SELF-CHECK 11
1. Find the common antilogs (log-1) of the following log values by using the
common log tables on page 79:

a) 3.657

b) 1 .657

2. Find the common antilogs (log-1) of the following log values by using the
common log tables on page 79:

a) 3.5482

b) 1.4114

c) 2 .6537

d) 7 .1178

Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.

Calculations Using Logs

As previously mentioned, logs can be used to make calculations simpler.

Example 3 shows how multiplication can be performed using logs.

Example 3

Question

Find the answer to the following calculation by using the log tables on page 79.

1350 x 350 = ?

Answer
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To find the answer to this calculation, we need to use our rules of logs. We
have to consider the calculation in three stages. This calculation uses all the
things that we have learnt so far about logarithms. It is therefore important
that you understand the previous notes before you try to follow this example.

Stage 1 First we need to use our rules of logs to convert the whole
calculation to logs.

Step 1 Applying the rules of logs to the calculation gives the following:

log (1350 x 350) = log 1350 + log 350

Step 2 The log tables have numbers from 1.0 to 9.99. To find the logs
of the numbers in the calculation, first write the numbers in
scientific notation:

1350 = 1.350 x 103

350 = 3.50 x 102

Step 3 Look up 1.350 in the log tables:

In the log tables the figures in the left hand column are the
whole number and the first decimal place, 0.0. The figures in
the top row are the second decimal 0.00.

In the left hand column find 1.3, then move along the row of
numbers to the column under 5. This is the log of 1.35 and
equals 0.1303. This is the mantissa of log 1350.

Step 4 Combine the mantissa and the characteristic. Remember that

the characteristic is the power of ten, which in this case is 3.

log 1350 = 3.1303

Step 5 Now do the same for the number 350. This gives the following:
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log 350 = 2.5441

Stage 2 We now have our calculation in log values. By applying the rules
of logs, we can do the calculation much more simply by adding rather than by
multiplying.

Step 1 Applying the rules of logs to the calculation gives the

following:

log (1350 x 350) = log 1350 + log 350

Step 2 Now we can add the two log values together to obtain a log
value answer to the calculation:

log (1350 x 350) = 3.1303 + 2.5411 = 5.6744

Stage 3 Now we have the log value answer to our calculation. To find the
ordinary number answer, we need to convert our log value back to an ordinary
number. To do this we need to find the antilogarithm (log-1) of the log value
(5.6744) That is, we need to find log-1 5.6744.

Step 1 Separate the characteristic and the mantissa.

The characteristic is 5 and the mantissa is 0.6744

Step 2 The characteristic becomes the power of ten.

The power of ten is 5 (105).

Step 3 Look up the log value in the log tables to find the number
corresponding to the mantissa:

Remember that this time we are using the log tables

backwards. We need to look in the tables (not in the side
column) to find the mantissa.

In the table the closest numbers to the mantissa are 0.6739

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and 0.6749.

Now look up the corresponding numbers in the left column

and at the top of the column. This gives a number
somewhere between 4.72 and 4.73. We can estimate the
number as corresponding to 4.725.

Step 4 To find the original number corresponding to log-1 5.6744,

combine the corresponding number (4.725) and the power of
ten (105).

Hence the antilog of 5.6744 is

orlog-1 5.6744 = 4.725 x 105

Step 5 We have now converted our antilog back to an original

number and hence we now have a solution to our original
multiplication question:

1350 x 350 = 4.725 x 105

Logs can also be used to perform division. Example 4 below shows how to do
this.

Example 4

Question

Find the answer to the following calculation by using the log tables given in
Appendix A.

0.175 ÷ 345 = ?

Answer

As in the previous example, we proceed in three stages.

Stage 1 First we need use to our rules of logs to convert the whole
calculation to logs.
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Step 1 Applying the rules of logs to the calculation gives the following:

log (0.175 ÷ 345) = log 0.175 - log 345

Step 2 The log tables have numbers from 1.0 to 9.99. To find the logs
of the numbers in the calculation, first write the numbers in
scientific notation, as follows:

0.175 = 1.75 x 10-1

345 = 3.45 x 102

Step 3 Look up 1.75 in the log tables:

In the log tables the figures in the left hand column are the whole
number and the first decimal place, 0.0. The figures in the top
row are the second decimal 0.00.

In the left hand column find 1.7, then move along the row of
numbers to the column under 5.This is the log of 1.75 and
equals 0.2430. This is the mantissa of log 0.175.

Step 4 Combine the mantissa and the characteristic. Remember that

the characteristic is the power of ten, which in this case is -1.

log 0.175 = 1 .2430

Step 5 Now do the same for the number 345. This gives the following:

log 345 = 2.5378

Stage 2 We now have our calculation in log values. By applying the rules
of logs, we can do the calculation much more simply by subtracting rather than
by dividing.

Step 1 Applying the rules of logs to the calculation gives the following:
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log (0.175 ÷ 345) = log 0.175 - log 345

Step 2 Now we can subtract the two log values to obtain a log value
answer to the calculation:

log 0.175 - log 345 = 1 .2430 - 2.5378

= 4 .7052

Stage 3 Now we have the log value answer to our calculation. To find the
ordinary number answer, we need to convert our log value back to an ordinary
number. To do this we need to find the antilogarithm (log-1) of the log value
( 4 .7052) That is, we need to find log -1 4 .7052.

Step 1 Separate the characteristic and the mantissa.

The characteristic is 4 and the mantissa is 0.7052.

Step 2 The characteristic becomes the power of ten.

The power of ten is -4 (10-4).

Step 3 Look up the log value in the log tables to find the number
corresponding to the mantissa:

Remember that this time we are using the log tables backwards.
We need to look in the tables (not in the side column) to find the
mantissa.

In the table the closest numbers to the mantissa are 0.7050 and
0.7059.

Now look up the corresponding numbers in the left column and

at the top of the column. This gives a number somewhere
between 5.07 and 5.08. We can estimate the number as
corresponding to 5.072.
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Step 4 To find the original number corresponding to log-1 4 .7052,

combine the corresponding number ( 4 .7052) and the power of
ten (10-4).

Hence the antilog of 4 .7052 is 5.072 x 10-4

orlog-1 4 .7052 = 5.072 x 10-4

Step 5 We have now converted our antilog back to an original number

and hence we now have a solution to our original multiplication
question:

0.175 ÷ 345 = 5.072 x 10-4

SELF-CHECK 12
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:

1. Find the answers to the following calculations by using the common log
tables on page 79:

a) 679 x 345 = ?

b) 9 876 x 1 234 = ?

2. Find the answers to the following calculations:

a) 0.0257 ÷ 2.56 = ?

b) 0.0012 ÷ 4.79 = ?

Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.

TABLE OF COMMON LOGARITHMS

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APPENDIX B
NATURAL (NAPIERIAN) LOGARITHMS

Using Natural Log Tables

Natural log tables can be used for the following purposes:

• To find the natural log of a number.

• To find the value of ex.

Using natural log tables for numbers less than 10

The natural log for numbers from 1.0 to 9.99 may be obtained from the natural
log tables (see Table 6).

Example 1

Question

Find the natural log (ln) of 3.85 by using the natural log tables.

Answer

The natural log of 3.85 can be read directly from the table:

ln 3.85 = 1.3481

Natural Log Tables for numbers greater than 10

For numbers greater than 9.99 the values of natural logs for 10, 100, 1 000,
etc. are required. These are given on page 86 for powers of ten up to 109.

Example 2

Question

Find the natural log of 38.5 by using the natural log tables.
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Answer

The natural log of 38.5 is found by writing 38.5 in scientific notation and using
the rules of logs, thus:

38.5 = 3.85 x 10

ln 38.5 = ln (3.85 x 10) = ln 3.85 + ln 10

ln 38.5 = 1.3481 + 2.3026 = 3.6507

ln 38.5 = 3.6507

Evaluating ex for Values of x

When finding the value of ex , it is important to consider whether the value of x

is a positive (+) or a negative (-) number. This is because different methods
are used for evaluating positive and negative values of x. The size of x is also
important in evaluating ex .The following sections show the methods to be
used for evaluating different values of x.

Positive values of ex

Natural log tables are used ‘backwards’ to find positive values of ex . We do

this in the same way as we find antilogs in the common log system.

Example 3

Question

Find the value of e0.7031 by using the natural log tables.

Answer

0.7031
The term, e , can be evaluated by finding 0.7031 in the table (not in the
side columns) of the natural log tables. You will find it in the row for 2.0 under
the column for 2.
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e0.7031 = 2.02

Notice that if the number is not in the table you will have to find the closest
number and make an approximation as you did with common logs.

Natural log tables can be used to find values of ex for x values between 0.0000
and 2.3026 by reading directly from the tables. For values greater than 2.3026
the natural log for an appropriate power of ten must be subtracted to bring the
number into the range 0.0000 to 2.3026.

Example 4

Question

Find the value of e8.2341 by using the natural log tables given in Appendix B.

Answer

The term e8.2341 is outside the range of the natural logs table. It can be
evaluated using the following method:

Step 1 The maximum value in the table is 2.3026. The number 8.2341
is outside this value by 5.9315 (8.2341 - 2.3026).

Step 2 To bring 8.2341 back into the range of the table, a number
greater than 5.9315 (but less than 8.2341 so that it doesn’t go
negative) must be subtracted. Look at the natural logs for
powers of ten and find the value which meets these conditions.
In this case it is 6.9078 which is ln 103 (to four decimal places).

8.2341 - 6.9078 = 1.3263

8.2341 = 6.9078 + 1.3263

8.2341 = ln 103 + ln 3.768

Step 3 Using the rule of logs this becomes

8.2341 = ln (3.768 x 103)

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Step 4 This is of the form ln y = x, where y = ex. Therefore

e8.2341 = 3.768 x 103

Negative values of ex

There will be many cases where your answers to radiation calculations will be
in the form of e-x. To calculate ex for negative values of x, you use a similar
method to that used for calculating large numbers.

Since ln 10-1 = - ln 10 (applying the rules of logs), the natural logs of the
negative powers of ten are the same as for the positive powers of ten but with
a negative sign in front. This is demonstrated in Example 6:

Example 6

Question

Find the value of e-0.6 by using the natural log tables given in Appendix B.

Answer

Step 1 Find the number corresponding to the log of a power of ten

which when added to -0.6 will produce a positive number
between 0 and 2.3026.

-0.6 + 2.3026 = 1.7026

-0.6 = 1.7026 - 2.3026

Step 2 Look up 1.7026 in the natural log tables. This corresponds to

approximately 5.489. Also from the log tables, 2.3026
corresponds to 10 (or 101).

Step 3 From above:

-0.6 = ln 5.489 - ln 101

Step 4 Using the rule of logs

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nlogb m = logb (mn)

ln 101 = ln 10-1.

Therefore:

-0.6 = ln 5.489 + ln 10-1

Step 5 Again using the rule of logs logb (mn) = logb m + logb n

-0.6 = ln (5.489 x 10-1)

Step 6 From Section 6.3,ln a = x is the same as a = ex. Therefore:

e-0.6 = 5.489 x 10-1

SELF CHECK 13
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following question
in your workbook:

1. Find the natural log values (ln) for the following numbers by using the
natural log tables.

a) 4.65

b) 46.5

c) 465

2. Find the value of e 10.3562 by using the natural log tables.

3. Find the natural log of 56 (ln 56) by using the natural log tables.

4. Find the value of e1.335 by using the natural log tables.

5. Find the value of e-5.5 by using the natural log tables.

Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.
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NATURAL LOG TABLES

The natural logarithm of a number is the exponent of the power to which the
base e (2.7182818) must be raised in order to equal the number.

Example: loge 4.12 = ln 4.12 = 1.4159

The table gives the natural logarithms of numbers from 1.00 to 9.99 directly,
and permits finding logarithms of numbers outside that range by the addition
or subtraction of the natural logarithms of powers of 10.

Example: ln 679 = ln 6.79 + ln 102 = 1.9155 + 4.6052 = 6.5207

ln 0.0679 = ln 6.79 - ln 102 = 1.9155 - 4.6052 = -2.6897

Natural Logarithms of 10k

ln 10 = 2.302585 ln 104 = 9.210340 ln 107 = 16.118096

ln 102 = 4.605170 ln 105 = 11.512925 ln 108 = 18.420681

ln 103 = 6.907755 ln 106 = 13.815511 ln 109 = 20 723266

To obtain the common logarithm, the natural logarithm is multiplied by log10 e,

which is 0.434294 or log10 N = 0.434294 ln N.
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Table 6 NATURAL LOG TABLES

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.0 0.0000 0.0100 0.0198 0.0296 0.0392 0.0488 0.0583 0.0677 0.0770 0.0862
1.1 0.0953 0.1044 0.1133 0.1222 0.1310 0.1398 0.1484 0.1570 0.1655 0.1740
1.2 0.1823 0.1906 0.1989 0.2070 0.2151 0.2231 0.2311 0.2390 0.2469 0.2546
1.3 0.2624 0.2700 0.2776 0.2852 0.2927 0.3001 0.3075 0.3148 0.3221 0.3293
1.4 0.3365 0.3436 0.3507 0.3577 0.3646 0.3716 0.3784 0.3853 0.3920 0.3988
1.5 0.4055 0.4121 0.4187 0.4253 0.4318 0.4383 0.4447 0.4511 0.4574 0.4637
1.6 0.4700 0.4762 0.4824 0.4886 0.4947 0.5008 0.5068 0.5128 0.5188 0.5247
1.7 0.5306 0.5365 0.5423 0.5481 0.5539 0.5596 0.5653 0.5710 0.5766 0.5822
1.8 0.5878 0.5933 0.5988 0.6043 0.6098 0.6152 0.6206 0.6259 0.6313 0.6366
1.9 0.6419 0.6471 0.6523 0.6575 0.6627 0.6678 0.6729 0.6780 0.6831 0.6881
2.0 0.7 0.6981 0.7031 0.7080 0.7129 0.7178 0.7227 0.7275 0.7324 0.7372
2.1 0.7419 0.7467 0.7514 0.7561 0.7608 0.7655 0.7701 0.7747 0.7793 0.7839
2.2 0.7885 0.7930 0.7975 0.8020 0.8065 0.8109 0.8154 0.8198 0.8242 0.8286
2.3 0.8329 0.8372 0.8416 0.8459 0.8502 0.8544 0.8587 0.8629 0.8671 0.8713
2.4 0.8755 0.8796 0.8838 0.8879 0.8920 0.8961 0.9002 0.9042 0.9083 0.9123
2.5 0.9163 0.9203 0.9243 0.9282 0.9322 0.9361 0.9400 0.9439 0.9478 0.9517
2.6 0.9555 0.9594 0.9632 0.9670 0.9708 0.9746 0.9783 0.9821 0.9858 0.9895
2.7 0.9933 0.9969 1.0006 1.0043 1.0080 1.0116 1.0152 1.0188 1.0225 1.0260
2.8 1.0296 1.0332 1.0367 1.0403 1.0438 1.0473 1.0508 1.0543 1.0578 1.0613
2.9 1.0647 1.0682 1.0716 1.0750 1.0784 1.0818 1.0852 1.0886 1.0919 1.0953
3.0 1.0986 1.1019 1.1053 1.1086 1.1119 1.1151 1.1184 1.1217 1.1249 1.1282
3.1 1.1314 1.1346 1.1378 1.1410 1.1442 1.1474 1.1506 1.1537 1.1569 1.1600
3.2 1.1632 1.1663 1.1694 1.1725 1.1756 1.1787 1.1817 1.1848 1.1878 1.1909
3.3 1.1939 1.1969 1.2000 1.2030 1.2060 1.2090 1.2119 1.2149 1.2179 1.2208
3.4 1.2238 1.2267 1.2296 1.2326 1.2355 1.2384 1.2413 1.2442 1.2470 1.2499
3.5 1.2528 1.2556 1.2585 1.2613 1.2641 1.2669 1.2698 1.2726 1.2754 1.2782
3.6 1.2809 1.2837 1.2865 1.2892 1.2920 1.2947 1.2975 1.3002 1.3029 1.3056
3.7 1.3083 1.3110 1.3137 1.3164 1.3191 1.3218 1.3244 1.3271 1.3297 1.3324
3.8 1.3350 1.3376 1.3403 1.3429 1.3455 1.3481 1.3507 1.3533 1.3558 1.3584
3.9 1.3610 1.3635 1.3661 1.3686 1.3712 1.3737 1.3762 1.3788 1.3813 1.3838
4.0 1.3863 1.3888 1.3913 1.3938 1.3962 1.3987 1.4012 1.4036 1.4061 1.4085
4.1 1.4110 1.4134 1.4159 1.4183 1.4207 1.4231 1.4255 1.4279 1.4303 1.4327
4.2 1.4351 1.4375 1.4398 1.4422 1.4446 1.4469 1.4493 1.4516 1.4540 1.4563
4.3 1.4586 1.4609 1.4633 1.4656 1.4679 1.4702 1.4725 1.4748 1.4770 1.4793
4.4 1.4816 1.4839 1.4861 1.4884 1.4907 1.4929 1.4951 1.4974 1.4996 1.5019
4.5 1.5041 1.5063 1.5085 1.5107 1.5129 1.5151 1.5173 1.5195 1.5217 1.5239
4.6 1.5261 1.5282 1.5304 1.5326 1.5347 1.5369 1.5390 1.5412 1.5433 1.5454
4.7 1.5476 1.5497 1.5518 1.5539 1.5560 1.5581 1.5602 1.5623 1.5644 1.5665
4.8 1.5686 1.5707 1.5728 1.5748 1.5769 1.5790 1.5810 1.5831 1.5851 1.5872
4.9 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6
5.0 1.6094 1.6114 1.6134 1.6154 1.6174 1.6194 1.6214 1.6233 1.6253 1.6273
5.1 1.6292 1.6312 1.6332 1.6351 1.6371 1.6390 1.6409 1.6429 1.6448 1.6467
5.2 1.6487 1.6506 1.6525 1.6544 1.6563 1.6582 1.6601 1.6620 1.6639 1.6658
5.3 1.6677 1.6696 1.6715 1.6734 1.6752 1.6771 1.6790 1.6808 1.6827 1.6845
5.4 1.6864 1.6882 1.6901 1.6919 1.6938 1.6956 1.6974 1.6993 1.7011 1.7029
5.5 1.7047 1.7066 1.7084 1.7102 1.7120 1.7138 1.7156 1.7174 1.7192 1.7210
5.6 1.7228 1.7246 1.7263 1.7281 1.7299 1.7317 1.7334 1.7352 1.7370 1.7387
5.7 1.7405 1.7422 1.7440 1.7457 1.7475 1.7492 1.7509 1.7527 1.7544 1.7561
5.8 1.7579 1.7596 1.7613 1.7630 1.7647 1.7664 1.7681 1.7699 1.7716 1.7733
5.9 1.7750 1.7766 1.7783 1.7800 1.7817 1.7834 1.7851 1.7867 1.7884 1.7901
6.0 1.7918 1.7934 1.7951 1.7967 1.7984 1.8001 1.8017 1.8034 1.8050 1.8066
6.1 1.8083 1.8099 1.8116 1.8132 1.8148 1.8165 1.8181 1.8197 1.8213 1.8229
6.2 1.8245 1.8262 1.8278 1.8294 1.8310 1.8326 1.8342 1.8358 1.8374 1.8390
6.3 1.8405 1.8421 1.8437 1.8453 1.8469 1.8485 1.8500 1.8516 1.8532 1.8547
6.4 1.8563 1.8579 1.8594 1.8610 1.8625 1.8641 1.8656 1.8672 1.8687 1.8703
6.5 1.8718 1.8733 1.8749 1.8764 1.8779 1.8795 1.8810 1.8825 1.8840 1.8856
6.6 1.8871 1.8886 1.8901 1.8916 1.8931 1.8946 1.8961 1.8976 1.8991 1.9006
6.7 1.9021 1.9036 1.9051 1.9066 1.9081 1.9095 1.9110 1.9125 1.9140 1.9155
6.8 1.9169 1.9184 1.9199 1.9213 1.9228 1.9242 1.9257 1.9272 1.9286 1.9301
6.9 1.9315 1.9330 1.9344 1.9359 1.9373 1.9387 1.9402 1.9416 1.9430 1.9445
7.0 1.9459 1.9473 1.9488 1.9502 1.9516 1.9530 1.9544 1.9559 1.9573 1.9587
7.1 1.9601 1.9615 1.9629 1.9643 1.9657 1.9671 1.9685 1.9699 1.9713 1.9727
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N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
7.2 1.9741 1.9755 1.9769 1.9782 1.9796 1.9810 1.9824 1.9838 1.9851 1.9865
7.3 1.9879 1.9892 1.9906 1.9920 1.9933 1.9947 1.9961 1.9974 1.9988 2.0001

7.4 2.0015 2.0028 2.0042 2.0055 2.0069 2.0082 2.0096 2.0109 2.0122 2.0136
7.5 2.0149 2.0162 2.0176 2.0189 2.0202 2.0215 2.0229 2.0242 2.0255 2.0268
7.6 2.0281 2.0295 2.0308 2.0321 2.0334 2.0347 2.0360 2.0373 2.0386 2.0399

7.7 2.0412 2.0425 2.0438 2.0451 2.0464 2.0477 2.0490 2.0503 2.0516 2.0528
7.8 2.0541 2.0554 2.0567 2.0580 2.0592 2.0605 2.0618 2.0631 2.0643 2.0656
7.9 2.0669 2.0681 2.0694 2.0707 2.0719 2.0732 2.0744 2.0757 2.0769 2.0782

8.0 2.0794 2.0807 2.0819 2.0832 2.0844 2.0857 2.0869 2.0882 2.0894 2.0906

8.1 2.0919 2.0931 2.0943 2.0956 2.0968 2.0980 2.0992 2.1005 2.1017 2.1029
8.2 2.1041 2.1054 2.1066 2.1078 2.1090 2.1102 2.1114 2.1126 2.1138 2.1150
8.3 2.1163 2.1175 2.1187 2.1199 2.1211 2.1223 2.1235 2.1247 2.1258 2.1270

8.4 2.1282 2.1294 2.1306 2.1318 2.1330 2.1342 2.1353 2.1365 2.1377 2.1389
8.5 2.1401 2.1412 2.1424 2.1436 2.1448 2.1459 2.1471 2.1483 2.1494 2.1506
8.6 2.1518 2.1529 2.1541 2.1552 2.1564 2.1576 2.1587 2.1599 2.1610 2.1622

8.7 2.1633 2.1645 2.1656 2.1668 2.1679 2.1691 2.1702 2.1713 2.1725 2.1736
8.8 2.1748 2.1759 2.1770 2.1782 2.1793 2.1804 2.1815 2.1827 2.1838 2.1849
8.9 2.1861 2.1872 2.1883 2.1894 2.1905 2.1917 2.1928 2.1939 2.1950 2.1961

9.0 2.1972 2.1983 2.1994 2.2006 2.2017 2.2028 2.2039 2.2050 2.2061 2.2072

9.1 2.2083 2.2094 2.2105 2.2116 2.2127 2.2138 2.2148 2.2159 2.2170 2.2181
9.2 2.2192 2.2203 2.2214 2.2225 2.2235 2.2246 2.2257 2.2268 2.2279 2.2289
9.3 2.2300 2.2311 2.2322 2.2332 2.2343 2.2354 2.2364 2.2375 2.2386 2.2396

9.4 2.2407 2.2418 2.2428 2.2439 2.2450 2.2460 2.2471 2.2481 2.2492 2.2502
9.5 2.2513 2.2523 2.2534 2.2544 2.2555 2.2565 2.2576 2.2586 2.2597 2.2607
9.6 2.2618 2.2628 2.2638 2.2649 2.2659 2.2670 2.2680 2.2690 2.2701 2.2711

9.7 2.2721 2.2732 2.2742 2.2752 2.2762 2.2773 2.2783 2.2793 2.2803 2.2814
9.8 2.2824 2.2834 2.2844 2.2854 2.2865 2.2875 2.2885 2.2895 2.2905 2.2915
9.9 2.2925 2.2935 2.2946 2.2956 2.2966 2.2976 2.2986 2.2996 2.3006 2.3016
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Antilogarithm The number corresponding to a given log value. It

is often written as log-1.

Axis A graph has two axes, an x-axis and a y-axis. The

axes show the scale for measured data points.
(pl. axes)

Base The starting number for a system of numeration.

Characteristic The part of a log number before the decimal

place.

Common logarithm Logarithms to the base 10. It is often written as

log.

Cubed A number multiplied by itself three times.

Cycle Large section of a log scale graph covering one

power of 10.

Decimal Numerical system based on the number 10.

Denominator The number below the line of a fraction.

Digit A single number (e.g. the number 1234 contains

four digits).

e A number approximately equal to 2.718.

Equation A mathematical sentence that relates two or more

quantities.

Error Bar Lines plotted on a graph to show the possible

errors in a measured data point.

Exponent The exponent of a number is the number of times

it is multiplied by itself. (See index and power.)

Exponential function The exponential function ex is a useful

mathematical function for describing radioactive
decay.

Extrapolation A way of obtaining information for points on a

graph beyond the measured data points.

Frequency The number of times a particular event occurs.

Graph A way of using diagrams to show mathematical

relationships
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relationships.

Index The index of a number is the number of times it is

multiplied by itself. (See exponent and power.)
(pl. indices)

Integration A mathematical process used to find the area

under the line or curve on a graph.

Interpolation The information obtained from points on a graph

between measured data points.

Level of confidence The degree of certainty that a particular event will

occur. It is usually written as a percentage.

Line of best fit A line or curve on a graph that fits the measured
data points (including the error bars) in the best
possible way.

Linear scale A scale of a graph which is divided into equal

divisions corresponding to equal number ranges.

Logarithm The power to which a base must be raised to

produce the number.

Logarithmic scale A scale of a graph which is divided into equal

sections corresponding to 100, 101, 102 etc. Each
division covers a different number range.

Mantissa The part of a log number after the decimal place.

Mean The average of a group of numbers. This is

sometimes known as the arithmetic mean.

Natural logarithm Logarithm to the base e. This is often written as

ln.

Numerator The number above the line of a fraction.

Power The power of a number is the number of times it is

multiplied by itself. (See exponent and index.)

Probability A number between 0 and 1 which quantifies the

chance of an event occurring.

Reciprocal The reciprocal of the number x is one divided by x,

which is written as 1/x or x-1.

Rounding A way of restricting the number of digits included

in the recorded number.

Scientific notation A way of writing numbers, especially very large or

very small numbers using powers to the base 10
Radiation Protection Distance Learning Project Page 91
Module 1.2 – Basic Mathematics

very small numbers, using powers to the base 10.

Significant figures The number of important digits that should be

shown in a number.

Squared A number multiplied by itself.

Standard deviation A measure of the expected deviation from a

particular measurement.