For methods of applying a 2D image on a 3D surface, see pad printing.

For methods of printing 2D

parallax stereograms that seem 3D to the eye, see lenticular printing andholography.

An ORDbot Quantum 3D printer.

Timelapse video of a hyperboloid object (designed by George W. Hart) made of PLAusing a RepRap "Prusa Mendel" 3D
printer for molten polymer deposition.

Additive manufacturing or 3D printing[1] is a process of making a three-dimensional solid object of

virtually any shape from a digital model. 3D printing is achieved using an additive process, where
successive layers of material are laid down in different shapes.[2] 3D printing is also considered distinct
from traditional machining techniques, which mostly rely on the removal of material by methods such as
cutting or drilling (subtractive processes).

A materials printer usually performs 3D printing processes using digital technology. The first working 3D
printer was created in 1984 by Chuck Hull of 3D Systems Corp.[3] Since the start of the 21st century there
has been a large growth in the sales of these machines, and their price has dropped
substantially.[4] According to Wohlers Associates, a consultancy, the market for 3D printers and services
was worth $2.2 billion worldwide in 2012, up 29% from 2011.[5]

The 3D printing technology is used for both prototyping and distributed manufacturing with applications in
architecture, construction (AEC), industrial design, automotive, aerospace, military, engineering, civil
engineering, dental and medical industries, biotech (human tissue replacement), fashion, footwear,
jewelry, eyewear, education, geographic information systems, food, and many other fields. It has been
speculated[6] that 3D printing may become a mass market item because open source 3D printing can
easily offset their capital costs by enabling consumers to avoid costs associated with purchasing common
household objects.[7]
Terminology[edit source | editbeta]
Although scientists and technicians have long been fascinated with the idea of replicating technology, it
was not until the 1980s that the concept of 3D printing really began to be taken seriously. [8] In 1982 , the
first published account of a printed solid model was made by Hideo Kodama of Nagoya Municipal
Industrial Research Institute.[9] However, the man most often credited with inventing the language of
'modern' 3D printer is Charles W. Hull, who first patented the term 'stereolithography' (defined as "system
for generating three-dimensional objects by creating a cross-sectional pattern of the object to be formed")
in 1984.[10][11]

The term additive manufacturing refers to technologies that create objects through a sequential layering
process. Objects that are manufactured additively can be used anywhere throughout the product life
cycle, from pre-production (i.e. rapid prototyping) to full-scale production (i.e. rapid manufacturing), in
addition to tooling applications and post-production customization.

In manufacturing, and machining in particular, subtractive methods are typically coined as traditional
methods. The very termsubtractive manufacturing is a retronym developed in recent years to distinguish it
from newer additive manufacturing techniques. Although fabrication has included methods that are
essentially "additive" for centuries (such as joining plates, sheets, forgings, and rolled work via riveting,
screwing, forge welding, or newer kinds of welding), it did not include the information
technology component of model-based definition. Machining (generating exact shapes with high
precision) has typically been subtractive, from filing and turning to milling and grinding.

General principles[edit source | editbeta]

3D model slicing.

Modeling[edit source | editbeta]

Additive manufacturing takes virtual blueprints from computer aided design (CAD) or animation modeling
software and "slices" them into digital cross-sections for the machine to successively use as a guideline
for printing. Depending on the machine used, material or a binding material is deposited on the build bed
or platform until material/binder layering is complete and the final 3D model has been "printed."

A standard data interface between CAD software and the machines is the STL file format. An STL file
approximates the shape of a part or assembly using triangular facets. Smaller facets produce a higher
quality surface. PLY is a scanner generated input file format, andVRML (or WRL) files are often used as
input for 3D printing technologies that are able to print in full color.

Printing[edit source | editbeta]

To perform a print, the machine reads the design from an .stl file and lays down successive layers of
liquid, powder, paper or sheet material to build the model from a series of cross sections. These layers,
which correspond to the virtual cross sections from the CAD model, are joined or automatically fused to
create the final shape. The primary advantage of this technique is its ability to create almost any shape or
geometric feature.

Printer resolution describes layer thickness and X-Y resolution in dpi (dots per inch),[citation needed] or
micrometers. Typical layer thickness is around 100 micrometers (µm), although some machines such as
the Objet Connex series and 3D Systems' ProJet series can print layers as thin as 16 µm.[12] X-Y
resolution is comparable to that of laser printers. The particles (3D dots) are around 50 to 100 µm in
diameter.

Construction of a model with contemporary methods can take anywhere from several hours to several
days, depending on the method used and the size and complexity of the model. Additive systems can
typically reduce this time to a few hours, although it varies widely depending on the type of machine used
and the size and number of models being produced simultaneously.

Traditional techniques like injection molding can be less expensive for manufacturing polymer products in
high quantities, but additive manufacturing can be faster, more flexible and less expensive when
producing relatively small quantities of parts. 3D printers give designers and concept development teams
the ability to produce parts and concept models using a desktop size printer.

Finishing[edit source | editbeta]

Though the printer-produced resolution is sufficient for many applications, printing a slightly oversized
version of the desired object in standard resolution, and then removing material with a higher-resolution
subtractive process can achieve greater precision.

Some additive manufacturing techniques are capable of using multiple materials in the course of
constructing parts. Some are able to print in multiple colors and color combinations simultaneously. Some
also utilize supports when building. Supports are removable or dissolvable upon completion of the print,
and are used to support overhanging features during construction.

Additive processes[edit source | editbeta]

Rapid prototyping worldwide 2001[13]

The Audi RSQ was made with rapid prototyping industrial KUKA robots.

Several different 3D printing processes have been invented since the late 1970s. The printers were
originally large, expensive, and highly limited in what they could produce.[14]

A number of additive processes are now available. They differ in the way layers are deposited to create
parts and in the materials that can be used. Some methods melt or soften material to produce the layers,
e.g. selective laser melting (SLM) or direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), selective laser
sintering (SLS), fused deposition modeling (FDM), while others cure liquid materials using different
sophisticated technologies, e.g. stereolithography (SLA). With laminated object manufacturing (LOM), thin
layers are cut to shape and joined together (e.g. paper, polymer, metal). Each method has its own
advantages and drawbacks, and some companies consequently offer a choice between powder and
polymer for the material from which the object is built.[15] Some companies use standard, off-the-shelf
business paper as the build material to produce a durable prototype. The main considerations in choosing
a machine are generally speed, cost of the 3D printer, cost of the printed prototype, and cost and choice
of materials and color capabilities.[16]

Printers that work directly with metals are expensive. In some cases, however, less expensive printers
can be used to make a mould, which is then used to make metal parts.[17]

Type Technologies Materials

Fused deposition Thermoplastics (e.g. PLA, ABS), HDPE, eutectic metals,

Extrusion
modeling (FDM) edible materials

Electron Beam Freeform

Wire Almost any metal alloy
Fabrication(EBF3)

Direct metal laser

Granular Almost any metal alloy
sintering (DMLS)
 Electron beam
Titanium alloys
melting (EBM)

Selective laser Titanium alloys, Cobalt Chrome alloys, Stainless

melting (SLM) Steels,Aluminium

Selective heat
Thermoplastic powder
sintering(SHS)[citation needed]

Selective laser
Thermoplastics, metal powders, ceramic powders
sintering (SLS)

Powder bed and

Plaster-based 3D printing
inkjet head 3D Plaster
(PP)
printing

Laminated object
Laminated Paper, metal foil, plastic film
manufacturing(LOM)

Stereolithography (SLA) photopolymer

Light
polymerised
Digital Light
photopolymer
Processing (DLP)

Extrusion deposition[edit source | editbeta]

Fused deposition modeling: 1 – nozzle ejecting molten plastic, 2 – deposited material (modeled part), 3 – controlled movable
table.

Main article: Fused deposition modeling

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) was developed by S. Scott Crump in the late 1980s and was
commercialized in 1990 by Stratasys.[18]With the expiration of patent on this technology there is now a
large open-source development community this type of 3D printer (e.g.RepRaps) and many commercial
and DIY variants, which have dropped the cost by two orders of magnitude.

Fused deposition modeling uses a plastic filament or metal wire that is wound on a coil and unreeled to
supply material to an extrusionnozzle, which turns the flow on and off. The nozzle heats to melt the
material and can be moved in both horizontal and vertical directions by a numerically controlled
mechanism that is directly controlled by a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software package. The
model or part is produced by extruding small beads of thermoplastic material to form layers as the
material hardens immediately after extrusion from the nozzle. Stepper motors or servo motors are
typically employed to move the extrusion head.

Various polymers are used, including acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polycarbonate (PC), polylactic
acid (PLA), high density polyethylene (HDPE), PC/ABS, and polyphenylsulfone (PPSU). In general the
polymer is in the form of a filament, fabricated from virgin resins. Multiple projects in the open-source
community exist that are aimed at processing post-consumer plastic waste into filament. These involve
machines to shred and extrude the plastic material into filament.

FDM has some restrictions on the shapes that may be fabricated. For example, FDM usually cannot
produce stalactite-like structures, since they would be unsupported during the build. These have to be
avoided or a thin support may be designed into the structure which can be broken away during finishing
processes.

Granular materials binding[edit source | editbeta]

The CandyFab granular printing system uses heated air and granulated sugar to produce food-grade art objects.

Another 3D printing approach is the selective fusing of materials in a granular bed. The technique fuses
parts of the layer, and then moves the working area downwards, adding another layer of granules and
repeating the process until the piece has built up. This process uses the unfused media to support
overhangs and thin walls in the part being produced, which reduces the need for temporary auxiliary
supports for the piece. A laser is typically used to sinter the media into a solid. Examples include selective
laser sintering (SLS), with both metals and polymers (e.g. PA, PA-GF, Rigid GF, PEEK, PS, Alumide,
Carbonmide, elastomers), and direct metal laser sintering(DMLS).

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) was developed and patented by Dr. Carl Deckard and Dr. Joseph
Beaman at the University of Texas at Austin in the mid-1980s, under sponsorship of DARPA.[19] A similar
process was patented without being commercialized by R. F. Housholder in 1979. [20]

Selective Laser Melting (SLM) does not use sintering for the fusion of powder granules but will completely
melt the powder using a high-energy laser to create fully dense materials in a layerwise method with
similar mechanical properties to conventional manufactured metals.

Electron beam melting (EBM) is a similar type of additive manufacturing technology for metal parts
(e.g. titanium alloys). EBM manufactures parts by melting metal powder layer by layer with an electron
beam in a high vacuum. Unlike metal sintering techniques that operate below melting point, EBM parts
are fully dense, void-free, and very strong.[21][22]

Another method consists of an inkjet 3D printing system. The printer creates the model one layer at a
time by spreading a layer of powder (plaster, or resins) and printing a binder in the cross-section of the
part using an inkjet-like process. This is repeated until every layer has been printed. This technology
allows the printing of full color prototypes, overhangs, and elastomer parts. The strength of bonded
powder prints can be enhanced with wax or thermoset polymer impregnation.

Lamination[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: Laminated object manufacturing

In some printers, paper can be used as the build material, resulting in a lower cost to print. During the
1990s some companies marketed printers that cut cross sections out of special adhesive coated paper
using a carbon dioxide laser, and then laminated them together.

In 2005, Mcor Technologies Ltd developed a different process using ordinary sheets of office paper, a
Tungsten carbide blade to cut the shape, and selective deposition of adhesive and pressure to bond the
prototype.[23]

There are also a number of companies selling printers that print laminated objects using thin plastic and
metal sheets.

Photopolymerization[edit source | editbeta]

Stereolithography apparatus.
Main article: Stereolithography

Stereolithography was patented in 1987 by Chuck Hull. Photopolymerization is primarily used in

stereolithography (SLA) to produce a solid part from a liquid.This process dramatically redefined previous
efforts, from the Photosculpture method of François Willème (1830-1905) in 1860[24] through the
photopolymer process of Mitsubishi`s Matsubara in 1974.[9]

In digital light processing (DLP), a vat of liquid polymer is exposed to light from a DLP projector
under safelight conditions. The exposed liquid polymer hardens. The build plate then moves down in
small increments and the liquid polymer is again exposed to light. The process repeats until the model
has been built. The liquid polymer is then drained from the vat, leaving the solid model. The EnvisionTec
Ultra[25] is an example of a DLP rapid prototyping system.

Inkjet printer systems like the Objet PolyJet system spray photopolymer materials onto a build tray in
ultra-thin layers (between 16 and 30 µm) until the part is completed. Each photopolymer layer
is cured with UV light after it is jetted, producing fully cured models that can be handled and used
immediately, without post-curing. The gel-like support material, which is designed to support complicated
geometries, is removed by hand and water jetting. It is also suitable for elastomers.

Ultra-small features can be made with the 3D microfabrication technique used

in multiphoton photopolymerization. This approach traces the desired 3D object in a block of gel using a
focused laser. Due to the nonlinear nature of photoexcitation, the gel is cured to a solid only in the places
where the laser was focused and the remaining gel is then washed away. Feature sizes of under 100 nm
are easily produced, as well as complex structures with moving and interlocked parts. [26]

Yet another approach uses a synthetic resin that is solidified using LEDs.[27]

Printers[edit source | editbeta]

Printers for domestic use[edit source | editbeta]

RepRap version 2.0 (Mendel).

MakerBot Cupcake CNC.

Airwolf 3D AW3D v.4 (Prusa).

Several projects and companies are making efforts to develop affordable 3D printers for home desktop
use. Much of this work has been driven by and targeted at DIY/enthusiast/early adopter communities,
with additional ties to the academic and hacker communities.[28]

RepRap is one of the longest running projects in the desktop category. The RepRap project aims to
produce a free and open source software (FOSS) 3D printer, whose full specifications are released under
the GNU General Public License, and which is capable of replicating itself by printing many of its own
(plastic) parts to create more machines.[29] Research is under way to enable the device to print circuit
boards and metal parts.
Because of the FOSS aims of RepRap, many related projects have used their design for inspiration,
creating an ecosystem of related or derivative 3D printers, most of which are also open source designs.
The availability of these open source designs means that variants of 3D printers are easy to invent. The
quality and complexity of printer designs, however, as well as the quality of kit or finished products, varies
greatly from project to project. This rapid development of open source 3D printers is gaining interest in
many spheres as it enables hyper-customization and the use of public domain designs to fabricate open
source appropriate technology through conduits such as Thingiverse and Cubify. This technology can
also assist initiatives in sustainable development since technologies are easily and economically made
from resources available to local communities.[30]

The cost of 3D printers has decreased dramatically since about 2010, with machines that used to cost
$20,000 costing less than $1,000.[31] For instance, as of 2013, several companies and individuals are
selling parts to build various RepRap designs, with prices starting at about €400 / US$500.[32] The price of
printer kits vary from US$400 for the Printrbot Jr. (derived from the previous RepRap models), to US$599
for the RoBo 3D Printer to over US$2000 for the Fab@Home 2.0 two-syringe system.[32] The Shark 3D
printer comes fully assembled for less than US$2000. The open source Fab@Home project [33] has
developed printers for general use with anything that can be squirted through a nozzle, from chocolate to
silicone sealant and chemical reactants. Printers following the project's designs have been available from
suppliers in kits or in pre-assembled form since 2012 at prices in the US$2000 range.[32]

Printers for commercial and domestic use[edit source | editbeta]

The development and hyper-customization of the RepRap-based 3D printers has produced a new
category of printers suitable for both domestic and commercial use. The least expensive assembled
machine available is the Solidoodle 2, while the RepRapPro's Huxley DIY kit is reputedly[weasel words] one of
the more reliable of the lower-priced machines, at around US$680. There are other RepRap-based high-
end kits and fully assembled machines that have been enhanced to print at high speed and high
definition. Depending on the application, the print resolution and speed of manufacturing lies somewhere
between a personal printer and an industrial printer. A list of printers with pricing and other information is
maintained.[32] Most recently delta robots have been utilized for 3D printing to increase fabrication speed
further.[34]

Applications[edit source | editbeta]

Three-dimensional printing makes it as cheap to create single items as it is to produce thousands and thus

undermines economies of scale. It may have as profound an impact on the world as the coming of the factory

did....Just as nobody could have predicted the impact of the steam engine in 1750—or the printing press in 1450, or

thetransistor in 1950—it is impossible to foresee the long-term impact of 3D printing. But the technology is coming,

and it is likely to disrupt every field it touches.

— The Economist, in a February 10, 2011 leader[35]

A model (left) that was digitally acquired by using a 3D scanner, the scanned data processed using MeshLab, and the
resulting3D model used by a rapid prototypingmachine to create the resin replica (right).

An example of 3D printed limited editionjewellery. This necklace is made of glassfiber-filled dyed nylon. It has rotating
linkages that were produced in the same manufacturing step as the other parts.

Additive manufacturing's earliest applications have been on the toolroom end of the manufacturing
spectrum. For example, rapid prototyping was one of the earliest additive variants, and its mission was to
reduce the lead time and cost of developing prototypes of new parts and devices, which was earlier only
done with subtractive toolroom methods (typically slowly and expensively). [36] With technological
advances in additive manufacturing, however, and the dissemination of those advances into the business
world, additive methods are moving ever further into the production end of manufacturing in creative and
sometimes unexpected ways.[36] Parts that were formerly the sole province of subtractive methods can
now in some cases be made more profitably via additive ones.

Standard applications include design visualization, prototyping/CAD, metal casting, architecture,

education, geospatial, healthcare, and entertainment/retail.

Industrial uses[edit source | editbeta]

Rapid prototyping[edit source | editbeta]
Main article: rapid prototyping
Full color miniature face models produced on a 3D Printer.

Printing going on with a 3D printer at Makers Party Bangalore 2013, Bangalore

Industrial 3D printers have existed since the early 1980s and have been used extensively for rapid
prototyping and research purposes. These are generally larger machines that use proprietary powdered
metals, casting media (e.g. sand), plastics, paper or cartridges, and are used for rapid prototyping by
universities and commercial companies.

Rapid manufacturing[edit source | editbeta]

Advances in RP technology have introduced materials that are appropriate for final manufacture, which
has in turn introduced the possibility of directly manufacturing finished components. One advantage of 3D
printing for rapid manufacturing lies in the relatively inexpensive production of small numbers of parts.

Rapid manufacturing is a new method of manufacturing and many of its processes remain unproven. 3D
printing is now entering the field of rapid manufacturing and was identified as a "next level" technology by
many experts in a 2009 report.[37] One of the most promising processes looks to be the adaptation of laser
sintering (LS), one of the better-established rapid prototyping methods. As of 2006, however, these
techniques were still very much in their infancy, with many obstacles to be overcome before RM could be
considered a realistic manufacturing method.[38]

Mass customization[edit source | editbeta]

Companies have created services where consumers can customize objects using simplified web based
customization software, and order the resulting items as 3D printed unique objects. [39][40] This now allows
consumers to create custom cases for their mobile phones.[41] Nokia has released the 3D designs for its
case so that owners can customize their own case and have it 3D printed. [42]

Mass production[edit source | editbeta]

This section
requires expansion.(November
2012)

The current slow print speed of 3D printers limits their use for mass production. To reduce this overhead,
several fused filament machines now offer multiple extruder heads. These can be used to print in multiple
colors, with different polymers, or to make multiple prints simultaneously. This increases their overall print
speed during multiple instance production, while requiring less capital cost than duplicate machines since
they can share a single controller. Distinct from the use of multiple machines, multi-material machines are
restricted to making identical copies of the same part, but can offer multi-color and multi-material features
when needed. The print speed increases proportionately to the number of heads. Furthermore, the
energy cost is reduced due to the fact that they share the same heated print volume. Together, these two
features reduce overhead costs.

Many printers now offer twin print heads. However, these are used to manufacture single (sets of) parts in
multiple colors/materials.

Few studies have yet been done in this field to see if conventional subtractive methods are comparable to
additive methods.

Domestic and hobbyist uses[edit source | editbeta]

This section
requires expansion. (May 2012)

As of 2012, domestic 3D printing has mainly captivated hobbyists and enthusiasts and has not quite
gained recognition for practical household applications. A working clock has been
made[43] and gears have been printed for home woodworking machines[44] among other purposes.[45] 3D
printing is also used for ornamental objects. Web sites associated with home 3D printing tend to include
backscratchers, coathooks, etc. among their offered prints.

The open source Fab@Home project[33] has developed printers for general use. They have been used in
research environments to produce chemical compounds with 3D printing technology, including new ones,
initially without immediate application as proof of principle.[46] The printer can print with anything that can
be dispensed from a syringe as liquid or paste. The developers of the chemical application envisage that
this technology could be used for both industrial and domestic use. Including, for example, enabling users
in remote locations to be able to produce their own medicine or household chemicals. [47][48]

Clothing[edit source | editbeta]

3D printing has spread into the world of clothing with fashion designers experimenting with 3D-printed
bikinis, shoes, and dresses.[49] In commercial production Nike is using 3D printing to prototype and
manufacture the 2012 Vapor Laser Talon football shoe for players of American football, and New Balance
is 3D manufacturing custom-fit shoes for athletes.[50][51]
3D printing services[edit source | editbeta]
Some companies offer on-line 3D printing services open to both consumers and industries. [52] Such
services require people to upload their 3D designs to the company website. Designs are then 3D printed
using industrial 3D printers and either shipped to the customer or in some cases, the consumer can pick
the object up at the store.[53]

Research into new applications[edit source | editbeta]

Future applications for 3D printing might include creating open-source scientific equipment[54][55] or other
science-based applications like reconstructing fossils in paleontology, replicating ancient and priceless
artifacts in archaeology, reconstructing bones and body parts in forensic pathology, and reconstructing
heavily damaged evidence acquired from crime scene investigations. The technology is even being
explored for building construction.

In 2005, academic journals had begun to report on the possible artistic applications of 3D printing
technology.[56] By 2007 the mass media followed with an article in the Wall Street Journal [57] and Time
Magazine, listing a 3D printed design among their 100 most influential designs of the year.[58] During the
2011 London Design Festival, an installation, curated by Murray Moss and focused on 3D Printing, was
held in the Victoria and Albert Museum (the V&A). The installation was called Industrial Revolution 2.0:
How the Material World will Newly Materialize.[59]

As of 2012, 3D printing technology has been studied by biotechnology firms and academia for possible
use in tissue engineering applications in which organs and body parts are built using inkjet techniques. In
this process, layers of living cells are deposited onto a gel medium or sugar matrix and slowly built up to
form three-dimensional structures including vascular systems.[60] Several terms have been used to refer
to this field of research: organ printing, bio-printing, body part printing,[61] and computer-aided tissue
engineering, among others.[62]

A proof-of-principle project at the University of Glasgow, UK, in 2012 showed that it is possible to use 3D
printing techniques to create chemical compounds, including new ones. They first printed
chemical reaction vessels, then used the printer to squirt reactants into them as "chemical inks" which
would then react.[46] They have produced new compounds to verify the validity of the process, but have
not pursued anything with a particular application.[46] Cornell Creative Machines Lab has confirmed that it
is possible to produce customized food with 3D Hydrocolloid Printing.[63]

The use of 3D scanning technologies allows the replication of real objects without the use
of moulding techniques that in many cases can be more expensive, more difficult, or too invasive to be
performed, particularly for precious or delicate cultural heritage artifacts[64] where direct contact with the
molding substances could harm the original object's surface.

An additional use being developed is building printing, or using 3D printing to build buildings. This could
allow faster construction for lower costs, and has been investigated for construction of off-Earth
habitats.[65][66]

Employing additive layer technology offered by 3D printing, Terahertz devices which act as waveguides,
couplers and bends have been created. The complex shape of these devices could not be achieved using
conventional fabrication techniques. Commercially available professional grade printer EDEN 260V was
used to create structures with minimum feature size of 100 µm. The printed structures were later DC
sputter coated with gold (or any other metal) to create a Terahertz Plasmonic Device. [67]
In 2013, Chinese scientists began printing ears, livers and kidneys, with living tissue. Researchers in
China have been able to successfully print human organs using specialized 3D bio printers that use living
cells instead of plastic. Researchers at Hangzhou Dianzi University actually went as far as inventing their
own 3D printer for the complex task, dubbed the “Regenovo” which is a "3D bio printer." Xu Mingen,
Regenovo's developer, said that it takes the printer under an hour to produce either a mini liver sample or
a four to five inch ear cartilage sample. Xu also predicted that fully functional printed organs may be
possible within the next ten to twenty years.[68][69] In the same year, researchers at the University of
Hasselt, in Belgium had successfully printed a new jawbone for an 83-year-old Belgian woman. The
woman is now able to chew, speak and breathe normally again after a machine printed her a new
jawbone.[70]

In Bahrain, large-scale 3D printing using a sandstone-like material has been used to create unique coral-
shaped structures, which encourage coral polyps to colonize and regenerate damaged reefs. These
structures have a much more natural shape than other structures used to create artificial reefs, and have
a neutral pH which concrete does not.[71]

Intellectual property[edit source | editbeta]

3D printing has existed for decades within certain manufacturing industries and many legal regimes,
including patents, industrial design rights, copyright, and trademark can apply. However, there is not
much jurisprudence to say how these laws will apply if 3D printers become mainstream and individuals
and hobbyist communities begin manufacturing items for personal use, for non profit distribution, or for
sale.

Any of the mentioned legal regimes may prohibit the distribution of the designs used in 3d printing, or the
distribution or sale of the printed item. To be allowed to do these things, a person would have to contact
the owner and ask for a licence, which may come with conditions and a price.

Patents cover an idea, a technique, and generally last 20 years. So if a special type of wheel is patented,
then printing and selling such a wheel would be illegal. Two questions which are less clear are whether
printing for personal use would be restricted, and whether distributing designs would constitute
infringement or a relate offence such as incitement to infringe.

Copyright covers an expression[72] and often last for the life of the author plus 70 years thereafter.[73] If
someone makes a statue, they may have copyright on the look of that statue, so if someone sees that
statue, they cannot then distribute designs to print an identical or similar statue.

When a feature has both artistic (copyrightable) and functional (patentable) merits, when the question has
appeared in US court, the courts have often held the feature is not copyrightable unless it can be
separated from the functional aspects of the item.[73]

Effects of 3D printing[edit source | editbeta]

Additive manufacturing, starting with today's infancy period, requires manufacturing firms to be
flexible, ever-improving users of all available technologies in order to remain competitive. Advocates of
additive manufacturing also predict that this arc of technological development will counter globalisation,
as end users will do much of their own manufacturing rather than engage in trade to buy products from
other people and corporations.[14] The real integration of the newer additive technologies into commercial
production, however, is more a matter of complementing traditional subtractive methods rather than
displacing them entirely.[74]

Space exploration[edit source | editbeta]

As early as 2010, work began on applications of 3D printing in zero or low gravity environments.[75] The
primary concept involves creating basic items such as hand tools or other more complicated devices "on
demand" versus using valuable resources such as fuel or cargo space to carry the items into space.

Additionally, NASA is conducting tests to assess the potential of 3D printing to make space exploration
cheaper and more efficient.[76] Rocket parts built using this technology have passed NASA firing tests. In
July of 2013, two rocket engine injectors performed as well as traditionally constructed parts during hot-
fire tests which exposed them to temperatures approaching 6,000 degrees Fahrenheit (3,316 degrees
Celsius) and extreme pressures.

Firearms[edit source | editbeta]

In 2012, the U.S.-based group Defense Distributed disclosed plans to "[design] a working plastic gun that
could be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D printer."[77][78]Defense Distributed has also
designed a 3D printable AR-15 type rifle lower receiver (capable of lasting more than 650 rounds) and a
30 round M16 magazine.[79] Soon after Defense Distributed succeeded in designing the first working
blueprint to produce a plastic gun with a 3D printer in May 2013, the United States Department of
State demanded that they remove the instructions from their website. [80]

After Defense Distributed released their plans, questions were raised regarding the effects that 3D
printing and widespread consumer-level CNC machining[81][82] may have on gun
control effectiveness.[83] [84][85][86]

The U.S. Department of Homeland Security and the Joint Regional Intelligence Center released a memo
stating that "significant advances in three-dimensional (3D) printing capabilities, availability of free digital
3D printer files for firearms components, and difficulty regulating file sharing may present public safety
risks from unqualified gun seekers who obtain or manufacture 3D printed guns," and that "proposed
legislation to ban 3D printing of weapons may deter, but cannot completely prevent their production. Even
if the practice is prohibited by new legislation, online distribution of these digital files will be as difficult to
control as any other illegally traded music, movie or software files."[87]

Internationally, where gun controls are generally tighter than in the United States, some commentators
have said the impact may be more strongly felt, as alternative firearms are not as easily
obtainable.[88] European officials have noted that producing a 3D printed gun would be illegal under their
gun control laws,[89] and that criminals have access to other sources of weapons, but noted that as the
technology improved the risks of an effect would increase.[90][91] Downloads of the plans from the UK,
Germany, Spain, and Brazil were heavy. [92][93]

Attempting to restrict the distribution over the Internet of gun plans has been likened to the futility of
preventing the widespread distribution of DeCSS which enabled DVDripping.[94][95][96][97] After the US
government had Defense Distributed take down the plans, they were still widely available via The Pirate
Bay and other file sharing sites.[98] Some US legislators have proposed regulations on 3D printers, to
prevent them being used for printing guns.[99][100] 3D printing advocates have suggested that such
regulations would be futile, could cripple the 3D printing industry, and could infringe on free speech
rights.[101][102][103][104][105][106][107]