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2.5 GLONASS

2.5.1 GLONASS System Overview

The GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS – ГЛОНАСС: ГЛОбальная

НАвигационная Спутниковая Система) is the Russian navigation satellite system and, like GPS, it
defines itself as a dual-use system. It is operated for the Russian Federation government by the
Russian Space Forces. The system is governed by the Coordination Scientific Information Centre of
the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation. Since some years the responsibility for
GLONASS has been nominally delegated to Roscosmos, with funding coming from both Ministry
of Defense and space agency budgets. When GLONASS was at peak efficiency it offered a standard
– Coarse-Acquisition or “C/A” – positioning and timing service for civil users and a more accurate
signal – Precision or “P Code” – available for Russian military use. The first three test satellites
were placed in orbit in October 1982 with the first operational satellite entering service in December
1983. First plans aimed at making the system operational in 1991 but it was not until September
24th, 1993 that the system was finally announced to enter operation.

The GLONASS ground segment is entirely located within the former Soviet Union territory, thus
regionally, unlike for GPS and Galileo where it is spread all over the world. As a consequence,
GLONASS presents an inferior performance in the stability and predictability of the satellite orbits.
The Ground Control Centre and Time Standards are located in Moscow and the telemetry and
tracking stations are in Saint Petersburg, Ternopol, Eniseisk and Komsomolsk-na-Amure.

The GLONASS nominal constellation is composed of 24 satellites in three orbital planes with
ascending nodes 120 degrees apart. Of the 24 satellites, 21 are active while the other three, one in
each plane, are spare satellites. In each plane, the eight satellites are equally spaced with argument
of latitude displacement of 45 degrees. Each of the satellites is identified by a slot number, which
defines the corresponding orbital plane and the location within the plane: 1-8 for the first plane, 9-16
for the second place and 17-24 for the third plane. The orbital planes have 15-degree argument of
latitude displacement relative to each other.

The satellites operate in circular orbits of 19,100 kilometres (25,440 km semi-major axis) at an
inclination of 64.8 degrees, and each satellite completes the orbit in approximately 11 hours 15
minutes. The satellite orbit repeats thus after approximately 8 days and since each plane contains 8
satellites there is a non-identical repeat after one sidereal day (not to confuse with the GPS sidereal
day, which is different). The spacing of the satellites allows for continuous and global coverage of
the terrestrial surface and the near-earth space, so that a minimum of 5 satellites are in view at any
given time.

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As shown in Figure 2.17, the current GLONASS status is far away from its nominal numbers and as
of May 9th, 2008, only 14 active GLONASS satellites are transmitting from space (these are green
in the figure). Two additional spacecraft are on orbit but have been temporarily switched off and are
currently in maintenance (in yellow in the figure). However, in September and November 2008,
Russia plans to conduct triple launches of modernized GLONASS satellites (GLONASS-M). If
successful, that could ensure the envisaged completion of an 18-spacecraft constellation comprising
all GLONASS-M satellites by the end of 2008.
Figure 2.17. Launch History of GLONASS
The initial GLONASS Program Budget of 2001 was arranged for reaching FOC in 2011. However
the GLONASS program is speeding up on its course in accordance with a presidential directive
issued January 18th, 2006. The new ambitious modernization plans of GLONASS envisioned the
achievement of minimal operational capability (18 satellites) again by end of 2007 and FOC by end
of 2009. While this ambitious schedule has failed as of May 2008, the program still pursues to reach
the objectives by the end of 2008 with the extra budget that has been set up for the years 2007 to
2011. See Figure 2.18 for more details. Besides reaching FOC, Russia also wants to achieve a
comparable performance of GLONASS to that of GPS and Galileo until 2010 [GW Hein et al.,
2007a].
Figure 2.18. Plans to re-establish Full Operation Capability of GLONASS
Global Navigation Satellite Systems 31
These plans to re-establish FOC for GLONASS are supported by cooperation works between the
governments of India and Russia. According to them, Russia will launch two GLONASS-M
satellites on Indian Geostationary Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) rockets. Additionally, during
the December 2005 summit between the Indian Prime Minister and the Russian President, it was
agreed that India would share the development costs of the GLONASS-K series and launch them
from India.
As mentioned above, as of May 9th, 2008, the real number of satellites in operation (14) is lower
than the planned 18, making the real fulfilment of the GLONASS program objectives very difficult.
Indeed, although Russia added six GLONASS-M satellites to the constellation during 2007 as
planned, it was forced to decommission other five satellites since the beginning of 2008 due to the
short design life of the first generation spacecraft. The next figure shows the availability of
GLONASS over the earth on May 9th, 2008 as provided by [GLONASS Centre].
Figure 2.19. Availability of GLONASS May 9th, 2008 (Minimum Elevation Angle 5°)
For more information on the current status of all the GLONASS satellites, we refer to [GLONASS
Centre] and [GLONASS Constellation Status]. Equally important as the number of satellites in sight
is the power level of the received RF signals from GLONASS satellites. When measured at the
output of a 3 dBi linearly polarized antenna the value is assured to be not lower than -161 dBW for
the L1 band at an elevation of 5° or more. For the modernized GLONASS-M satellites transmitting
also in the L2 band, the power level under the same conditions can not be lower than -167 dBW for
this band.
In the same manner as with the minimum received power, similar figures can be derived for the
maximum received power of GLONASS. According to this, the maximum received power level
will not be more than –155.2 dBW in the specific configuration, as described in [GLONASS ICD,
2002].
Global Navigation Satellite Systems 32

2.5.2 GLONASS Signal Plan

As it was mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, GLONASS, unlike the other GNSS systems,
makes use of a different DSSS technique [GW Hein et al., 2006c] based on Frequency Division
Multiple Access (FDMA) to transmit its ranging signals.
GLONASS uses FDMA in both the L1 and L2 sub-bands. According to this scheme, each satellite
transmits navigation signals on its own carrier frequency, so that two GLONASS satellites may
transmit navigation signals on the same carrier frequency if they are located in antipodal slots of a
single orbital plane [GLONASS ICD, 2002]. Indeed the actual constellation is taking advantage of
this property since 2005 when the higher frequency channels had to be turned off to fulfil the CCIR
Recommendation 769. We can clearly see this if we have a look at the satellites assigned to each of
the GLONASS planes as shown in the following figure with status as of May 2008. As is clear to
see, antipodal satellites are transmitting at the same frequency.
Figure 2.20. Antipodal Assignment of GLONASS Satellites. The parameter i(k) indicates that
the satellite in almanac slot i transmits on frequency number k
The red slots indicate that the satellite is in maintenance. Blue means correct operation. Moreover,
two different types of signals [GLONASS ICD, 2002] are transmitted by GLONASS satellites:
Standard Precision (SP) and High Precision (HP) in both the L1 and L2 bands. The GLONASS
standard accuracy signal, also known as C/A Code, has a clock rate of 0.511 MHz and is designed
for use by civil users worldwide while the high accuracy signal (P Code) has a clock rate of 5.11
MHz and is modulated by a special code which is only available to users authorized by the Ministry
of Defence. Since GLONASS-M, both L1 and L2 provide users with the standard accuracy code
C/A. Moreover, the modernized GLONASS will also transmit FDMA signals on the L3 band and
CDMA signals in L1 and L5 as we will see in chapter 2.5.3.
The nominal values of the FDMA L1, L2 and L3 carrier frequencies are defined as:
f
k
L
1

=
fkf 0 + Δ L 1 f
L1

k
L
2

=
fkf 0
L2+ Δ L 2 (2.3) f
k
L
3

=
fkf 0
L3+ Δ L3
Global Navigation Satellite Systems 33
Global Navigation Satellite Systems where:

• k represents the frequency channel,

• f 0L 1 = 1602 MHz for the GLONASS L1 band,
• fΔ 1L= 562.5 kHz frequency separation between GLONASS carriers in the L1 band,
• f 0L 2 = 1246 MHz for the GLONASS L2 band,
• fΔ 1L= 437.5 kHz frequency separation between GLONASS carriers in the L2 band,
• f 0L 3 = 1201 MHz for the GLONASS L3 band, and
• fΔ 3L= 437.5 kHz frequency separation between GLONASS carriers in the L3 band.

As we can see, the GLONASS L2 carrier reference signal is 7/9 of the L1 carrier reference and the
GLONASS L3 carrier reference is 3/4 of the L1 carrier reference. Moreover, it must be noted that
until 2005 the GLONASS satellites used the frequency channels k = 0,...,12 without any restrictions
and the channel numbers k = 0 and 13 for technical purposes.

Since then GLONASS is only using the frequency channels k = -7,...,+6 and all the satellites
launched beyond that year will use filters, limiting out-of-band emissions to the harmful interference
limit contained in CCIR-ITU Recommendation 769 for the 1610.6 – 1613.8 MHz and 1660 – 1670
MHz Radio-Astronomy bands. It is interesting to note that although the limitation to use the higher
frequency channels does only affect the L1 band, since the parameter k determines the channel in
both the L1 and L2 bands, the upper frequencies of L2 corresponding to channels +7 to +13 were
automatically sacrificed.

To have a clearer insight into how the spectra of the GLONASS signals look like, we study next all
the bands in detail.

GLONASS L1 Band

The transmitted navigation signal is in both services of L1 a bipolar phase-shift key (BPSK)
waveform with clock rates of 0.511 and 5.11 MHz for the standard and accuracy signals
respectively. The L1 signal is modulated by the Modulo-2 addition of the pseudo random (PR)
ranging code, the digital data of the navigation message and an auxiliary meander sequence. All
above-mentioned frequencies are generated coherently using a single onboard time/frequency
oscillator standard [GLONASS ICD, 2002]. For the case of the standard accuracy signals (C/A), the
PR ranging code is a sequence with length the maximum of a shift register (m-sequence) and a
period of 1 millisecond with bit rate of 511 kbps. The navigation message is sent at 50 bps and the
auxiliary meander sequence at 100 Hz.

Moreover, it is important to note that the GLONASS FDMA L1 band does not exactly coincide with
the GPS and Galileo L1 band. In fact, the GLONASS L1 band ranges from 1592.9525 MHz to
1610.485 MHz when only the 14 channels k = -7...+6 are employed. In the

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next figures, each of the channels was filtered to only transmit the main lobe of the BPSK signal
and the PSD was normalized to have unit power within the corresponding transmission bandwidth.
The PSDs of the GLONASS signals are shown in the following figure:
Figure 2.21. Spectra of GLONASS signals in L1
Once again, in order to have a clearer picture of how overcrowded the RNSS bands are becoming as
more and more countries claim their rights to have their own GNSS, Figure 2.22 shows all the
systems described so far in the E1/L1 band.
Figure 2.22. Spectra of GPS, Galileo and GLONASS Signals in E1/L1
It is important to note that the GPS L1C pilot and data signals are shown in quadrature in the figure
although according to [GPS ICD-800, 2006] the final phasing is still open. To finalize some details
on the technical characteristics of the GLONASS L1 signals are presented next:
Global Navigation Satellite Systems 35
Table 2.10. GLONASS L1 signal technical characteristics GNSS System GLONASS
GLONASS Service Name C/A Code P Code Centre Frequency (1598.0625-1605.375) MHz ±
0.511 MHz
Frequency Band L1 L1 Access Technique FDMA FDMA Spreading modulation BPSK(0.511)
BPSK(5.11) Sub-carrier frequency - -
Code frequency 0.511 MHz 5.11 MHz Signal Component Data Data Primary PRN Code length
511 N/A Code Family M-sequences N/A Meander sequence 100 Hz N/A Data rate 50 bps N/A
Minimum Received Power
-161 dBW N/A
[dBW] Elevation 5° N/A
It is important to note that unlike for the case of GPS and Galileo in the previous chapters, the
frequencies do not have to be multiplied by the factor 1.023.
2.5.2.1 GLONASS L2 Band
The transmitted navigation signal is, as also in L1, a bipolar phase-shift key (BPSK) waveform with
similar clock rates as in the L1 band. The L2 signal is modulated by the Modulo-2 addition of the
PR ranging code and the auxiliary meander sequence. For the case of the standard accuracy signals
(C/A), the PR ranging code is a sequence of the maximum length of a shift register (M-sequence)
with a period of 1 millisecond and a bit rate of 511 kbps. The navigation message is sent at 50 bps
and the auxiliary meander at 100 Hz.
Global Navigation Satellite Systems Figure 2.23. Spectra of GLONASS Signals in L2

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We show in the figure next all the signals of GPS and GLONASS in the L2 band together
Figure 2.24. Spectra of GPS and GLONASS Signals in L2 To finalize some details on the
technical characteristics of the GLONASS L2 signals are presented in the next table:
Table 2.11. GLONASS L2 signal technical characteristics GNSS System GLONASS
GLONASS Service Name C/A Code P Code Centre Frequency (1242.9375...1248.625) MHz ±
0.511 MHz
Frequency Band L2 L2 Access Technique FDMA FDMA Spreading modulation BPSK(0.511)
BPSK(5.11) Sub-carrier frequency - -
Code frequency 0.511 MHz 5.11 MHz Signal Component Data Data Primary PRN Code length
511 N/A Code Family M-sequences N/A. Meander sequence 100 Hz N/A Data rate 50 bps N/A
Minimum Received Power
-167 dBW N/A
[dBW] Elevation 5° N/A
It is important to note again that unlike for the case of GPS and Galileo in the previous chapters, the
frequencies do not have to be multiplied by the factor 1.023.
Global Navigation Satellite Systems 37
2.5.2.2 GLONASS L3 Band
As shown during the Munich Satellite Navigation Summit of 2008, GLONASS is planning to
transmit navigation signals also on the L3 band, although the definite signal plan has not been
decided yet. Indeed, four possible scenarios are being studied at the moment:
• Option 1: GLONASS K satellites would use a bandwidth of approximately 15 MHz with 16
channels. Both the in-phase and quadrature signals would be BPSK(4) with a chip rate of 4.092
MHz. It is interesting to note that as GPS and Galileo, the factor 4 must be understood as multiplied
by 1.023 although we talk about FDMA signals.
• Option 2: GLONASS-L3 would have a 24 MHz bandwidth and would transmit BPSK(8) for the
in-phase channel and BPSK(2) for the quadrature signals.
• Option 3: This option is identical to option 1 but shifted by 3 MHz to higher frequencies to
achieve better isolation with Galileo E6.
• Option 4: This option is identical to option 2 but shifted by 3 MHz to higher frequencies, also to
improve the spectral isolation with other signals in the band.
Figure 2.25. Spectra of GLONASS Signals in L3 (Option 1)
And now with GPS and Galileo together:
Figure 2.26. Spectra of GPS, Galileo and GLONASS Signals in L3 (Option 1)
Global Navigation Satellite Systems 38
We analyze now the second option for the GLONASS signals in L3. The following figure shows
the different spectra.
Figure 2.27. Spectra of GLONASS Signals in L3 (Option 2)
and again, with GPS and Galileo together:
Figure 2.28. Spectra of GPS, Galileo and GLONASS Signals in L3 (Option 2)
To finalize, the technical characteristics of the GLONASS L3 signals are summarized in the next
table:
Global Navigation Satellite Systems 39
Global Navigation Satellite Systems Table
2.12. GLONASS L3 signal technical characteristics
GNSS System GLONASS GLONASS Service Name L3 I L3 Q Centre Frequency 1201 MHz
Frequency Band L3 L3 Access Technique FDMA FDMA
Spreading modulation
40 Option 1 BPSK(4) Option 2 BPSK(8)
Option 1 BPSK(4) Option 2 BPSK(2) Sub-carrier frequency - -
Code frequency
Option 1 4.092 MHz Option 2 8.184 MHz
Option 1 4.092 MHz Option 2 2.046 MHz Data Rate 100 or 125 bps NA
2.5.3 GLONASS Modernization
Similar to GPS, GLONASS is on the way to modernizing its infrastructure. Apart from the signals
in the L1 band, the Russian system has already established a second civil signal at L2 upon launch
of the first GLONASS-M satellite in 2003. The new GLONASS-M satellites have better signal
characteristics as well as a longer design life (7-8 years instead of the current 3 years) and a third
civil signal at the L3 band is planned to start in 2010 aboard GLONASS-K satellites. The different
options have been discussed some lines above. In addition, GLONASS also intends to transmit
CDMA signals in L1 and L5.
This last generation of satellites is planned to be based on low mass satellites with a guaranteed
lifespan of 10 to 12 years. The new GLONASS satellites are planned to reduce their weight by 50
%. This will allow to significantly lower launch costs by using the Soyuz- U launch vehicles.
Regarding the number of satellites, it seems that GLONASS envisions updating its constellation up
to 36 satellites.
GLONASS is not yet fully compatible and interoperable with the rest of GNSS systems. Indeed,
major differences between GPS and Galileo using the Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) and
GLONASS using the Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) approach still exist. A deeper
insight into this topic will be provided in the next chapters. However, it is important to note at this
point that in spite of the fundamental differences that the FDMA and CDMA approaches represent,
solutions for common receivers can be found today. Nonetheless, common receiver architectures
are considerably more complex and expensive.
Global Navigation Satellite Systems The experience of Galileo has shown how important the roles of
interoperability and compatibility with GPS were from the very beginning. Fortunately, it seems that
GLONASS is taking important steps towards increasing compatibility and interoperability in the
future as the common GPS/GLONASS statements in the framework of Working Group 1 (WG 1)
seem to show. Indeed, during the GPS/GLONASS meeting in December 2006 in Yaroslavl (Russia),
both sides emphasized the benefit to the user community that a common approach concerning the
use of FDMA and CDMA would bring in terms of interoperability. The memorandum textually
states ”Both sides noted that concerning the question of the use of FDMA and CDMA, significant
progress was made in understanding the benefit to the user community of using a common
approach.” [US-Russia Statement, 2006].

Russia announced then that they would come to a decision on the change from FDMA to CDMA by
the end of 2007 [US-Russia Statement, 2006]. Finally, on February 15th, 2008, a government decree
on new GLONASS requirements announced that GLONASS will also transmit open CDMA
BOC(2,2) signals at 1575.42 MHz (GPS and Galileo E1/L1 band) and a BOC(4,4) signal centred at
1176.45 MHz (GPS L5 or Galileo E5a bands). It is however also possible that GLONASS could
offer MBOC in E1 and BPSK(10) in L5 instead in its final CDMA Signal baseline plan in order to
enhance interoperability with the rest of navigation systems in the band, namely with GPS and
Galileo. As we have seen, these frequencies essentially correspond to the centre points of GPS and
Galileo. According to this, GLONASS will be able to implement CDMA signals on L1 and L5
already in the GLONASS-K satellites planned for Phase 3 of the GLONASS modernization. This
will imply a tremendous effort in the design of the satellite's payload regarding the power
consumption, because if GLONASS moves to CDMA, this does not mean that FDMA will be
completely abandoned. Indeed, for legacy and security reasons, FDMA and CDMA payloads will
fly together increasing considerably their weight and required power. If all the modernization plans
are thus realized, GLONASS will transmit FDMA signals in the current L1 and L2 GLONASS
FDMA bands, together with the new FDMA signals in L3. In addition, CDMA open signals will
also be provided in E1/L1 and L5. It is important to note that as shown in Table 2.2, the current
GLONASS FDMA L1 band and the GPS and Galileo L1 band do not coincide. However, the new
GLONASS CDMA signals will be allocated in the same E1/L1 band and the same E5a/L5 band as
Galileo and GPS. This implies that GLONASS will transmit 5 bands in total, what is a considerable
effort.

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