J. Anat. (1998) 193, pp.

105–119, with 13 figures Printed in the United Kingdom 105

Anatomy of the pig heart : comparisons with normal human

cardiac structure

S I M O N J. C R I C K1, M A R Y N. S H E P P A RD2, S I E W Y E N H O1, L I O R G E B S T E IN3

A N D R O B E R T H. A N D E R S ON1

Departments of " Paediatrics and # Pathology, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College School of Medicine,
London, UK, and $ Cardiovascular System Laboratory, The Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion – Israel
Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel

(Accepted 14 April 1998)


Transgenic technology has potentially solved many of the immunological difficulties of using pig organs to
support life in the human recipient. Nevertheless, other problems still remain. Knowledge of cardiac
anatomy of the pig (Sus scrofa) is limited despite the general acceptance in the literature that it is similar to
that of man. A qualitative analysis of porcine and human cardiac anatomy was achieved by gross
examination and dissection of hearts with macrophotography. The porcine organ had a classic ‘ Valentine
heart ’ shape, reflecting its location within the thorax and to the orientation of the pig’s body (unguligrade
stance). The human heart, in contrast, was trapezoidal in silhouette, reflecting man’s orthograde posture.
The morphologically right atrium of the pig was characterised by the tubular shape of its appendage (a
feature observed on the left in the human heart). The porcine superior and inferior caval veins opened into
the atrium at right angles to one another, whereas in man the orifices were directly in line. A prominent left
azygous vein (comparable to the much reduced left superior caval or oblique vein in man) entered on the
left side of the pig heart and drained via the coronary sinus. The porcine left atrium received only 2
pulmonary veins, whereas 4 orifices were generally observed in man. The sweep between the inlet and outlet
components of the porcine right ventricle was less marked than in man, and a prominent muscular
moderator band was situated in a much higher position within the porcine right ventricle compared with
that of man. The apical components of both porcine ventricles possessed very coarse trabeculations, much
broader than those observed in the human ventricles. In general, aortic-mitral fibrous continuity was
reduced in the outlet component of the porcine left ventricle, with approximately two-thirds of the aortic
valve being supported by left ventricular musculature. Several potentially significant differences exist between
porcine and human hearts. It is important that these differences are considered as the arguments continue
concerning the use of transgenic pig hearts for xenotransplantation.

Key words : Cardiac anatomy ; xenotransplantation.

McClellan, 1966 ; Douglas, 1972 ; Hughes, 1986).


Currently, it may even rival the dog as the most
The prospect of transgenic pigs providing compatible frequently used animal model in experimental car-
organs for human xenotransplantation is becoming diology. One of the reasons for this was the
increasingly likely (Cooper et al. 1991 ; Chen & recognition that dogs have some basic differences in
Michler, 1993 ; James, 1993 ; White & Wallwork, cardiac anatomy, especially in their coronary arterial
1993 ; Cozzi & White, 1995), although arguments distribution. These differences, together with certain
continue concerning the advisability of this procedure. physiological characteristics, made difficult direct
The pig has nonetheless been widely used as a model extrapolation to man (Hughes, 1986). In this context,
in cardiovascular research (Guiney, 1965 ; Bustad & it seems to be accepted in the literature that the

Correspondence to Dr S. J. Crick, Department of Paediatrics (Cardiac Morphology), National Heart & Lung Institute, Imperial College
School of Medicine, Dovehouse Street, London SW3 6LY. Tel : (­44) 171 351 8751 ; fax : (­44) 171 351 8230 ; e-mail : s.crick!ic.ac.uk
106 S. J. Crick and others

Fig. 1. Radiographs of the porcine thoracic cavity (A, B) together with comparative diagrammatic representations describing the different
relationship of the cardiac silhouette to the surrounding rib cage in man (C) and in the pig (D). The pig has been -rayed in the orthograde
rather than unguligrade posture (A, B). R, right.

anatomy of the pig heart is almost identical to that of various ages with our extensive collection of normal
man (Lumb, 1966 ; Douglas, 1972 ; Hughes, 1986 ; adult and neonatal human hearts.
Cooper et al. 1991 ; White & Wallwork, 1993). We
were intrigued by this acceptance, the more so since
  
knowledge of comparative porcine cardiac anatomy is
limited. Previous studies have concerned themselves A total of 27 pig hearts (Sus scrofa) were examined, 14
largely with comparisons of coronary vascular anat- from neonates (age range newborn – 25 d ; weight
omy (Weaver et al. 1986 ; Bloor et al. 1992), postnatal 1–5 kg) and 13 hearts from young adult animals (age
development (Guerreiro et al. 1980 ; Gwathmey et al. range 3–6 mo ; weight 20–50 kg). All hearts were
1989 ; Alvarez et al. 1993), or functional morphology normal (no congenital heart defects), and were
(Hamlin, 1960 ; Bowman & Hughes, 1984 a, b ; Opthof obtained from healthy animals that had no rec-
et al. 1987). If transgenic pig hearts are to be used in ognisable cardiovascular disease, in accordance with
cardiac transplantation, a detailed study of com- the Home Office Guidance on the operation of the
parative cardiac anatomy between pig and man could Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986, published
hardly be less than relevant. In this study, therefore, by HMSO, London (or the comparable guidelines for
we have compared hearts from domestic pigs of the state of Israel). After removal from the thoracic
 Comparative cardiac anatomy of pig and man 107

Fig. 2. External aspects of the porcine heart (A, B) showing both anterior (A) and posterior (B) surfaces (compare with Fig. 3). The heart
has a characteristic Valentine shape. The anterior-posterior orientation of the porcine heart is reflected by the orientation of the atrial
appendages (A). The anterior interventricular groove (closed arrowheads) is situated towards the sloping leftward margin of the ventricular
mass (A). The posterior interventricular groove (broken line) runs along the mid-point of the posterior surface and bisects the atrioventricular
groove (*) at the crux. Casts of both the left and right sides of a pig heart (C) illustrates that the apex is formed entirely of left ventricular
musculature. Ao, aorta ; SCV, superior caval vein ; ICV, inferior caval vein ; RAA, right atrial appendage ; LAA, left atrial appendage ; PT,
pulmonary trunk ; RV, right ventricle ; LV, left ventricle.

cavity, the lungs were separated from the heart and tract. An incision was then made along the acute
the ascending components of the aorta and pulmonary (right) margin of the heart and was extended from the
trunk were cut well above the arterial valves. The initial cut to the right ventricular apex. Another
atriums were opened from their posterior aspect. incision was made from the apex to the anterior
Blood clots, if present, were washed out from both the papillary muscle creating a triangular flap, which
atrial and ventricular chambers. The hearts were then remained attached to the septum by the moderator
fixed by immersion in 10 % formol saline (approxi- band. The left atrium was opened by an incision
mately 96 h). After fixation, the hearts were examined across its roof between the left and right pulmonary
and dissected. The hearts were stripped of all external veins. The left ventricle was then opened laterally
fat by sharp dissection, leaving the myocardium between the anterior and posterior papillary muscles,
exposed in order to assess the arrangement of along the obtuse margin, to the apex. Another incision
coronary blood vessels. During examination and was then made along the anterior wall adjacent to the
dissection, comparisons were made with our extensive ventricular septum through the aortic outflow tract.
museum collection of normal neonatal and adult The remaining hearts were prepared to demonstrate
human hearts. specific features, such as the interrelations of the
cardiac valves in the short axis and the structure of
individual chambers. For purposes of comparison
Method of dissection with the human heart, all terms follow those used by
Prior to dissection, we examined the overall mor- Anderson & Becker (1992).
phology of each heart. Most hearts were dissected
using the classical approach of opening each of the 4
chambers according to the flow of blood. In this 
dissection, the right atrium was opened from the
Gross morphology of the heart
inferior caval vein to the tip of the right atrial
appendage. The right ventricle was opened along its Due to its location in the thorax, and the orientation
attachment to the ventricular septum from the of the body, the pig heart had a classic ‘ Valentine
tricuspid orifice through to the pulmonary outflow heart ’ shape (Fig. 1). This was quite unlike the human
108 S. J. Crick and others

Fig. 3. External aspects of the human heart (A, B) showing both anterior (A) and posterior (B) surfaces. The human heart is trapezoidal
in shape when observed in frontal projection. As in the porcine heart, the anterior interventricular groove (broken line) is situated towards
the sloping leftward border, that is close to the obtuse margin (A). From the posterior viewpoint (B) the region between the acute and obtuse
margins is the diaphragmatic surface, which is divided at its midpoint by the posterior interventricular groove (broken line). This also bisects
the atrioventricular groove (*) at the crux. Ao, aorta ; SCV, superior caval vein ; ICV, inferior caval vein.

heart, which had a distinctly trapezoidal silhouette anterior interventricular groove was situated towards
when seen in frontal projection (Fig. 1). The pig heart, the sloping leftward margin of the ventricular mass,
nonetheless, retains an apex and a base, with upper whereas the posterior interventricular groove was
and lower borders of dissimilar size, features com- located along the midpoint of the diaphragmatic
parable with those of the human heart. The ventricular surface, and bisected the atrioventricular groove at
mass of the pig was of basic conical morphology (Fig. the so-called crux (Figs 2, 3). The basal surface of the
2), with the posterior (or caudal) surface adjacent to porcine heart revealed that the left and right atrial
the diaphragm, and the anterior (or sternoventral) appendages were of approximately comparable size,
surface resting against the sternum. The locations of whereas the extent of the human right atrial ap-
these external surfaces in the human heart were pendage was appreciably greater than the left (Fig. 4).
different (Fig. 3), this again being related to the
difference in basic body orientation, with the pig
Atriums
having a unguligrade stance compared with the
orthograde (upright) posture of man (Fig. 1). The As in man, each atrium had a venous component, an
basic anterior–posterior orientation of the pig heart appendage and the vestibule of an atrioventricular
was also clearly reflected by the anterior direction in valve, together with the septum separating the 2
which the atrial appendages face (Fig. 2). The apex of atriums. The atrial appendages of the pig faced
the pig heart was formed entirely by the left ventricle directly anteriorly towards the back, or posterior, of
(Fig. 2). In keeping with the human arrangement, the the anterior thoracic wall (sternum) (Figs 2, 4).
 Comparative cardiac anatomy of pig and man 109

Fig. 4. External view of the basal surface of the porcine (A) and human heart (B). The contrasting size and morphology of the atrial
appendages is apparent. The porcine left atrial appendage is of comparable size to its right counterpart whereas in the human heart the left
atrial appendage is appreciably smaller than the right atrial appendage. The relative positions of the pulmonary trunk and the aorta are
similar in both hearts, that is the pulmonary trunk is to the left of the aorta, and the aortic valve is very much the centre point of the heart
in both species. RAA, right atrial appendage ; LAA, left atrial appendage ; SCV, superior caval vein ; PT, pulmonary trunk.

In the morphologically right atrium of the pig (Fig. had a narrow, tubular appearance (Fig. 5). This
5), the smooth-walled venous sinus received the tubular morphology was more pronounced in the
superior and inferior caval veins and the orifice of the right atrial appendages of the juvenile pig hearts
coronary sinus. The superior and inferior caval veins examined. In man, this structure had a characteristic
opened into the porcine atrium at right angles to one triangular shape and joined the venous component
another (Fig. 5), whereas in man the orifices of the 2 over a broad area (Fig. 5). Nevertheless, as in man, the
caval veins were directly in line. A prominent left porcine right atrial appendage was lined internally by
azygous vein then entered on the left side of the pig pectinate muscles that originated from the prominent
heart and drained into the coronary sinus, forming a muscle band, the terminal crest (Fig. 6). This structure
third right angle relative to the other caval veins (Fig. separated the pectinate lining of the appendage from
5). This vessel has been termed the left azygous vein in the smooth walls of the venous sinus. In both man and
the pig, although we find this confusing since, in pig, these pectinate muscles then extended to surround
human anatomy, the azygous system drains the entirely the parietal margins of the vestibule of the
parietal structures. The comparable vessel was much tricuspid valve. The vestibule itself was a smooth
reduced in the normal human heart, persisting only as muscular structure that supported the leaflets of the
the left atrial oblique vein (or left superior caval vein) tricuspid valve. The location of the true atrial septum
so that, in the normal situation, it drains only venous in the pig was also different to that seen in man,
return from a small part of the left atrial musculature. although being marked by the characteristic land-
The morphologically right atrial appendage in the pig marks of the oval fossa. In the pig, the fossa was
110 S. J. Crick and others

Fig. 5. External aspects of the porcine morphologically right atrium (A) in comparison with that of the human heart (B). The superior and
inferior caval veins of the porcine right atrium are clearly observed to enter the chamber at right angles to one another. In the human right
atrium the caval veins are almost perpendicular to one another (B). The external features of other venous components of the porcine heart
are also shown (C). A prominent left azygous vein (LAZV) enters the left side of the porcine heart and drains via the coronary sinus. The
terminal groove (broken line) marks the junction between the appendage and the venous sinus (B, C). The human appendage joins the venous
component over a broader area than in the pig right atrium (B, C). RAA, right atrial appendage ; SCV, superior caval vein ; ICV, inferior
caval vein ; PT, pulmonary trunk.

found in a more deep-set and superior position, close whereas in the human heart, the right atrium,
to the orifice of the superior caval vein (Fig. 6). As in particularly its appendage, was appreciably larger
man, the inferior rim of the fossa was continous with than the left. The left appendage was a triangular
the sinus septum, this being the structure that structure, unlike the tubular appendage observed in
separated the orifices of the coronary sinus and man (Fig. 7). The pectinate muscles, nonetheless, were
inferior caval vein. The tendon of Todaro coursed restricted to its internal walls, as in man (Fig. 8). The
through this muscular region, forming the upper smooth-walled left atrial vestibule supported the
border of the triangle of Koch, which was similarly leaflets of the mitral valve (Fig. 8). The atrial septal
located as in the human heart, carrying the atrial region of the pig appeared to be longer than in man
surface of the atrioventricular muscular septum. when observed following removal of the atrial
In the porcine morphologically left atrium (Fig. 7), musculature to the level of the arterial valves (Fig. 8).
the venous component received only 2 pulmonary This was a result of the different atrial morphology
veins. In the human left atrium, there were generally and also the apparent anterior displacement of the
4 orifices for the pulmonary veins. The left atrium of porcine aortic trunk compared to that of man (Fig. 8).
the pig was of a similar size to the right atrium, This anterior aortic displacement was generally found
 Comparative cardiac anatomy of pig and man 111

Fig. 6. Internal aspects of the porcine (A, B) and human (C) right atrium displayed through an incision made in the appendage. In both
species the pectinate muscles (A, C), which are transected as a result of the incision, extend to surround the parietal margins of the vestibule
of the tricuspid valve (TV). The borders of the oval fossa (broken line) are indicated (A, C). The rim of the oval fossa is formed by the infolded
atrial walls (open arrows, B). In the porcine right atrium the fossa appears to be closer to the orifice of the superior caval vein than it does
in the human right atrium. A prominent terminal crest is apparent in both species (B, C), and passes in front, and to the right, of the orifice
of the superior caval vein. SCV, opening of superior caval vein ; ICV, opening of inferior caval vein ; CS, opening of coronary sinus.

Fig. 7. External aspects of the porcine (A) and human (B) left atrium demonstrating their different appendage morphology. The porcine
appendage is a triangular structure whereas in man it has a narrow tubular appearance. The porcine left atrial appendage has a broader
junction (between arrows) to the pulmonary venous component than the left atrial appendage of man, which has a narrow appendage-venous
junction (between arrows). The porcine venous component (A) receives only 2 pulmonary veins (left and right pulm. veins) whereas in man
there are generally 4 orifices for the pulmonary veins (only 2 left veins are shown). Unlike man, the left atrium of the pig is of a similar size
to its right-sided counterpart. A prominent left azygous vein (LAZV) enters on the left side of the pig heart (A) but is absent in the adult
human heart. PT, pulmonary trunk ; Ao, aorta.

to be a feature of adult porcine hearts, and was not

Ventricles
observed in the neonatal hearts examined. As stated
previously, the location of the true atrial septum was Both ventricles were well described in terms of inlet,
the floor of the oval fossa since the majority of the apical trabecular and outlet components. The relative
atrial septal region was composed of the infolded proportion of ventricular dimensions to the overall
groove between the superior caval and right pul- size of the heart was observed to be much smaller in
monary veins in both species. neonatal porcine hearts compared with the adult. The
112 S. J. Crick and others

Fig. 8. Basal view of short axis sections through the atrioventricular junctions of the porcine (A) and human (B) heart following removal
of the atrial musculature to the level of the arterial valves. This demonstrates that in both species the pectinate muscles of the left atrium
are confined to the appendage, and the smooth-walled vestibule supports the leaflets of the mitral valve. In the right atrium of both species
the pectinate muscles are found both in the appendage and surrounding the vestibule of the tricuspid valve. The length of the atrial septum
(between closed arrows) appears to be longer in the pig than in man. LAA, left atrial appendage ; RAA, right atrial appendage ; PT, pulmonary
trunk.

basic components of the morphologically right ven- to the parietal wall. In man, the moderator band was
tricle of the pig (Fig. 9) were structurally very similar a much reduced structure, and was a continuation
to man. The inlet of the right ventricle extended from from the anterior papillary muscle, straddling the
the atrioventricular junction to the distal attachments ventricular cavity at a much lower level than in man.
of the tension apparatus of the tricuspid valve. The 3 The apical component of the pig right ventricle
leaflets of the tricuspid valve were located septally, possessed very coarse trabeculations, much broader
anterosuperiorly and inferiorly or murally, and their than those observed in the human right ventricle (Fig.
attachments were as found in the human right 9). The most prominent of these muscular straps was
ventricle, including the characteristic feature of mul- the septomarginal trabeculation, which divided in the
tiple cords running from the septal leaflet to the roof of the ventricle into 2 limbs which, in turn,
ventricular septum. As in man, the anterior papillary clasped the infolding of the inner heart wall superiorly,
muscle, that supported the zone of apposition between this fold being the supraventricular crest or infun-
the anterosuperior and inferior leaflets, was the largest dibulum (Fig. 9). The apical and septoparietal
of the muscular valvar attachments. A notable trabeculations were also much coarser in the right
difference was seen, however, in the prominence of the ventricle of the pig compared with man. As in man,
muscular moderator band (Fig. 9). This was situated the outlet of the right ventricle was a complete, free-
in a much higher position within the ventricle standing muscular structure, the infundibulum, which
compared with man. In the pig, the band formed the supported the 3 leaflets of the pulmonary valve in
direct continuation of the septomarginal trabeculation semilunar fashion. Again as in man, the semilunar
 Comparative cardiac anatomy of pig and man 113

Fig. 9. Internal aspects of the morphologically right ventricle of pig (A) and man (B). A window has been made in the parietal wall to show
the structure of the tricuspid valve and its attachments. The septomarginal, septoparietal and apical trabeculations are clearly much coarser
in the pig than in man. The porcine right ventricle has a prominent muscular moderator band (closed arrow) which forms the direct
continuation of the septomarginal trabeculation to the parietal wall. Compare this to the less prominent moderator band (closed arrow) in
the human right ventricle. The orientation of the pulmonary valve and outlet component is indicated by open arrows. The porcine pulmonary
valve is in parallel with the tricuspid valve. The human pulmonary valve is almost at right angles with the tricuspid valve. This anatomical
adaptation is as a result of the contrasting postures between pig and man. RCA, right coronary artery.

hingepoints crossed the circular anatomical these muscles are coarser in the pig. The apical
ventriculo-arterial junction. This arrangement incor- trabeculations of the left ventricle were coarse, and
porated crescents of infundibular musculature into were not obviously finer than their counterparts in the
the arterial sinuses, and triangles of arterial wall into right ventricle. The fine criss-crossing left ventricular
the ventricular outflow tract (Fig. 8). In the pig, the trabeculations were the characteristic feature in
outlet component was in direct alignment with the differentiating the human ventricles. The left ven-
inlet component whereas in man these structures were tricular wall of the adult pig was much thicker than
almost at right angles with one another (Fig. 9). This that of a size-matched human heart (Fig. 10), however,
may also be an adaptation to the different postures this difference was more subtle in the neonatal pig
between pig and man. hearts examined. A subtle difference was also observed
The morphologically left ventricle of the pig (Fig. in the outlet component with regard both to its
10) had features in common with man, but also relationship to the mitral valve and to the muscle mass
possessed some notable differences. The inlet com- supporting it. The aortic leaflet of the mitral valve was
ponent supported the mitral valve and its tension in fibrous continuity with the leaflets of the aortic
apparatus, the latter formed of paired papillary valve (Fig. 11), but the extent of this continuity was
muscles located obliquely within the ventricular reduced in the pig compared with man. In the pig,
cavity. As in man, the mitral valve had 2 leaflets, approximately two-thirds of the circumference of the
mural and aortic, with the mural (posterior) leaflet aortic valve (or the hingepoints of one and a half
guarding two-thirds of the circumference of the valve, aortic leaflets) was supported by left ventricular
and with the aortic (anterior) leaflet in fibrous musculature (Fig. 11). This influenced the location of
continuity with the leaflets of the aortic valve (see the membranous septum within the subaortic outflow
below). Both in pig and man, the paired papillary tract (Fig. 11). The pig possessed a separate and
muscles attached to the mitral leaflets were located discrete right fibrous trigone which, together with the
anterolaterally and posteromedially within the ven- membranous septum, formed the posterior extension
tricular mass. As in the right ventricle, nonetheless, of the subaortic outflow tract, supporting one end of
114 S. J. Crick and others

Fig. 10. Internal view of the porcine (A) and human (B) left ventricle, showing its inlet, outlet and apical trabecular component parts. The
fine criss-crossing left ventricular trabeculations of the human heart are replaced by much coarser muscles in the pig. The greater thickness
of the porcine left ventricular free wall compared with that of man is indicated (between closed arrows). The mitral valve and its paired
papillary muscle attachments are structurally very similar in man and pig.

the area of aortic-mitral continuity. The other end was

Coronary circulation
the prominent left fibrous trigone. A region of pale
tissue, representing the left bundle of the atrio- Even though the study by Weaver et al. (1986)
ventricular conduction axis, fanned out beneath the provided a detailed quantitative description of cor-
aortic valve, but originated within the muscular onary arterial anatomy and distribution, a brief
septum (Fig. 11). overview is justified in a report of this nature. As in
An overall view of comparative morphology of the human heart, the coronary arteries arose from
both left and right chambers was achieved by the their respective aortic sinuses. The right coronary
examination of a 4-chamber section (Fig. 12). This artery, therefore, emerged from the right facing (or
section in the porcine heart demonstrated that the left adjacent) sinus while the left coronary artery arose
chambers represented approximately two-thirds of from the left facing (or adjacent) sinus. The right
the section, with the interventricular septum displaced coronary artery passed directly into the right coronary
towards the right. As mentioned previously, this groove (Fig. 13). As in man, the left coronary artery
dominance was also reflected in the fact that the apex coursed only a short distance before dividing into the
was composed entirely of left ventricular musculature. anterior interventricular and the circumflex branches
An equivalent section of the human heart (Fig. 12) (Fig. 13). Like man, these 3 coronary arterial branches
showed that both left and right chambers represented formed 2 circuits, one in the atrioventricular and the
approximately equal proportions of the section, with other in the interventricular grooves. In most of the
the interventricular septum occupying an almost pig hearts examined (80 %), the right coronary artery
central position. was dominant, encircling the tricuspid valvar orifice
 Comparative cardiac anatomy of pig and man 115

circumflex arterial branch encircling the entirety of

the mural leaflet of the mitral valve and giving rise to
the posterior interventricular branch at the crux.
Three hearts, however, possessed a balanced ar-
rangement, where both the right coronary artery and
circumflex arterial branch supplied the area of the
crux, giving rise to paired posterior descending arterial
branches. Such an arrangement was rare in human
hearts. The coronary venous system was dominated
by the coronary sinus situated within the left atrio-
ventricular groove. The great cardiac vein ascended in
the anterior interventricular groove and turned into
the groove to join with the descending left azygous
vein, at this point becoming the coronary sinus. In the
pig, it is the left azygous vein and coronary sinus that
were the dominant vessels, whereas in man the left
superior caval vein (oblique vein) was much reduced
or even absent, as previously mentioned. As the
coronary sinus passed round the mural leaflet of the
mitral valve, it received the marginal veins, and then
received the middle cardiac vein at the crux, together
with the small cardiac vein (drains blood from the
posterior surface of the right ventricle). This ar-
rangement was similar to coronary venous drainage in
the human heart, with the anterior (minor) veins from
the right ventricle draining directly into the right
atrium. As in man, there were also a series of
Fig. 11. Internal view (A) and transverse section (B) of the porcine thebesian veins draining the atrial musculature
subaortic outflow tract. A pin marks the position of the mem- directly to the atrial cavities.
branous septum (A) which is also shown in transverse section,
indicated between the open arrows (B). Diagrammatic repre-
sentations of the porcine (C) and human (D) subaortic outflow 
tracts showing the extent of fibrous continuity between the aortic
and mitral valves, and the extent to which the aortic valve is The purpose of our study was to compare the anatomy
supported by ventricular musculature. In the pig, three-quarters of
the circumference of the aortic valve is supported by the muscular
of the porcine heart to that of man, identifying any
ventricular septum. RAA, right atrial appendage ; RV, right differences that might prove of significance during
ventricle ; LCL, left coronary leaflet ; NCL, noncoronary leaflet ; xenotransplantation. With this in mind, we observed
RCL, right coronary leaflet.
several important and notable anatomical differences
between the hearts of pig and man, and were indeed
and continuing beyond the crux having given rise to surprised at the accepted convention that the pig heart
the posterior interventricular branch. The extension is virtually identical, anatomically, to the human
of the right coronary artery into the left atrio- heart. Many of the gross morphological differences
ventricular groove supplied the majority of the between the porcine and human hearts, nonetheless,
posterior (diaphragmatic) wall of the heart. Most can simply be explained by the contrasting stances of
human hearts (approximately 90 %) also displayed the 2 species, unguligrade versus orthograde, or
right coronary arterial dominance (Anderson & alternatively, quadrupedal versus bipedal, with grav-
Becker, 1992). In the pig, the sinus and atrio- ity surely being an important factor in the evolution of
ventricular node were supplied by branches of the their respective cardiovascular systems. It can also be
right coronary artery. In man, the sinus node was considered that some of the differences between
supplied in only 55–66 % of cases by an atrial branch porcine and human hearts could have resulted from
of the right coronary artery. Two other coronary the more laterally compressed form of the thorax of
arterial arrangements were observed, left dominance pigs compared with the unusually dorsoventrally
and a balanced supply. Only one of the pig hearts we flattened human chest.
examined had a left dominant supply, with the The more classic Valentine shape of the porcine
116 S. J. Crick and others

Fig. 12. Four chamber sections of the porcine (A) and human (B) heart illustrating the differences in the morphological proportions of atrial
and ventricular chambers. In the porcine heart the greater proportion of the section is taken up by the left chambers, especially the left
ventricle, which means that the interventricular septum is situated more to the right of the heart. This also means the apex is composed
entirely of left ventricular musculature, unlike the apex of the human heart. In the human heart the left chambers are less dominant and
as a result, the interventricular septum occupies a more central position within the section. TV, leaflets of tricuspid valve ; MV, leaflets of
mitral valve ; IVS, interventricular septum.

heart reflects this markedly different location within orifices of the human caval veins, in contrast, are
the thoracic cavity compared with the human heart. vertically in line with one another, reflecting the
The porcine heart is essentially suspended in the upright stance of the human body. The only other
thoracic cavity by its major blood vessels, with its species to have adapted completely to an upright
anterior surface resting near to the sternum, and the (orthograde) posture are other ‘ bipedal ’ animals such
majority of the posterior surface adjacent to the as kangaroos and primates (Hammer, 1991). The
diaphragm. The human heart, in contrast, has a problem of adaptation of the transplanted pig cardiac
trapezoidal silhouette, with a markedly eccentric apex. xenograft to differing venous and arterial pressures
The porcine heart ‘ rests ’ on its apex, which is formed within the human body is unknown, and is not likely
by only the left ventricular mass. These facts may have to become known until clinical trials are performed.
implications for the positioning of the cardiac xeno- Some physiological data on blood pressures in the pig
graft within the thoracic cavity during transplantation have been collected (Stone & Sawyer, 1966 ; Swan &
(Cabrol et al. 1989). They may also affect the Meagler, 1971 ; Lucke, 1976 ; Tranquilli et al. 1982),
postoperative performance of the transplanted heart, and differences in central venous, pulmonary arterial
in that it would need to adapt rapidly to the influence and pulmonary wedge pressures are apparent. These
of gravitational changes on blood pressures required need to be taken into account when planning clinical
by the human body. trials, should they become acceptable.
As might be expected the shape of the pig heart, and The morphologically right atrium of the pig differs
its position within the thoracic cavity, have important markedly from that of the human heart, notably
implications for internal anatomy (Anderson & having an obviously tubular atrial appendage. A
Becker, 1992). It is this fact, along with the postural functional reason for this is unclear, but it may help to
effect, which accounts for the right angles between the explain the different electrophysiological charac-
orifices of the superior and inferior caval veins as they teristics of the porcine atrial appendage P wave
enter the right atrium. In physiological terms, this (6.1–25.3 ms) (Bowman & Hughes, 1984 a), compared
adaptation allows for an adequate venous return in with that of man (60–100 ms). The different mor-
the pig and in other quadrupedal mammals. The phology of the porcine right atrial appendage (and
 Comparative cardiac anatomy of pig and man 117

Fig. 13. External aspect of the porcine heart showing the course of the left (A) and right (B) coronary arterial system. As in man, the left
coronary artery runs only a short course before dividing into the anterior interventricular and circumflex (hidden by left atrial appendage)
arteries. RAA, right atrial appendage ; LAA, left atrial appendage.

right atrium) must also affect the architecture of inlet component and this, once more, is an adaptation
muscle bundles within the atrial wall, but does not to the unguligrade stance of the pig. In man, the
change the overall arrangement of a ‘ bag full of pulmonary trunk is more at right angles with the inlet
holes ’. As reported for the human atriums, this component of the right ventricle, reflecting the upright
arrangement has important implications for overall stance of man. The difference in orientation of the
atrial contraction, providing a suitable medium for pulmonary outflow tract may create surgical problems
preferential conduction (Wang et al. 1995). The more for xenotransplantation. Another characteristic
superior location of the oval fossa within the porcine difference, however, is the prominence of the muscular
right atrium, together with the tubular appendage, moderator band and its higher position within the
and the different location of the caval venous orifices, porcine right ventricle. The moderator band, as in the
almost certainly account for the different morphology human heart (Anderson & Becker, 1992), carries a
of the porcine atrial electrocardiogram when com- division of the right bundle branch and is, therefore,
pared with man (Bowman & Hughes, 1984 a, b ; responsible for the conduction of the impulse to the
Hughes, 1986). parietal wall through the Purkinje fibre network. The
The right ventricle of the pig possesses structural high position of the moderator band might explain the
similarities to that of the human heart such as similar faster activation of the right ventricle in the pig heart.
tricuspid and pulmonary valvar arrangements. Never- This is reflected in the considerably shorter PR-
theless, there are some important differences, the most interval of the pig, 70–113 ms (Larks et al. 1971),
notable being the orientation of the pulmonary valve compared with 120–200 ms in man (Timmis, 1988). It
and hence the entire outlet component. This structure is also known that the pig has a different activation
is more directly aligned with the orientation of the sequence of its ventricles (Hughes, 1986). Further-
118 S. J. Crick and others

more, as the pig ages, other changes in the form and similar to man. The anatomy of coronary venous
electrical force of the QRS complex occur, these being return, however, is very different from that of the
indicative of work overload (Hamlin, 1960). Swine, in human heart, but mainly because of the presence of a
particular, are known to be easily excitable, with prominent left azygous vein. Recognition of this
marked and rapid increases of systemic and especially anatomical difference is important for the surgeon.
pulmonary arterial pressures (Engelhardt, 1966). They The pig does not possess a (right) azygous vein, unlike
are also markedly susceptible to ventricular fibrillation carnivores, ruminants, horses, and indeed man, where
(Verdouw et al. 1983). All these features have this vessel drains into the (right) superior (or cranial)
important implications for xenotransplantation, since caval vein. The left azygous vein is also found in
a high proportion of early mortality in heterogenic ruminants which possess paired azygous veins. During
cardiac transplant patients are a result of right-sided the (xeno)transplantation procedure the left azygous
cardiac failure (Pennington, 1989 ; Mann, 1992). vein of the donor pig heart would have to be tied
The left ventricle of the pig also possesses some presumably at a point above its insertion into the
notable structural differences compared with that of coronary sinus. Also, the azygous vein of the human
the human heart. The most striking of these is the recipient would be anastomosed to the (right) superior
much thicker porcine left ventricular wall of the pig. caval vein of the donor pig heart. In studies using the
Two-thirds of the hinge-points of the aortic valve of pig as an experimental model, the presence of this vein
the pig are supported by left ventricular musculature. also creates a problem for the collection of uncon-
This means that there is a lesser degree of aortic to taminated samples of cardiac venous blood from the
mitral fibrous continuity, which has important conse- whole heart for metabolic analysis (Liedtke et al.
quences for the location of the membranous septum 1975).
and also for the atrioventricular conduction system. The rapid advances in transgenic technology have
In man, the axis of the compact atrioventricular node potentially solved many of the immunological diffi-
gathers at the apex of the triangle of Koch and then culties of using pig organs to support life in a human
courses into the central fibrous body to become the being. Nevertheless, other difficulties still remain. Of
penetrating atrioventricular bundle. After penetration great significance, are the reservations concerning the
of the fibrous body, the axis of conduction tissue possibility of transfer of porcine viral pathogens to the
reaches the crest of the muscular ventricular septum immunosuppressed human recipient (Cozzi & White,
beneath the membranous septum, and begins to 1995). This is particularly important in view of the
branch. In the pig, the penetrating atrioventricular reputed link between the human equivalent of bovine
bundle reaches the crest of the ventricular septum in a spongiform encephalopathy, and the consumption of
more proximal position. The anterior displacement of beef infected with the pathogen responsible for this
the porcine aortic trunk compared with that of man is disease. This problem has resulted in the prohibition
significant, although its general orientation appears to of clinical trials of transplantation using transgenic
be compatible with that of man. porcine organs until this matter is researched further,
In the human heart, the fine criss-crossing left and ultimately resolved. Also, the shorter pig life span
ventricular trabeculations are the characteristic fea- of 2 decades has implications for the effect of ageing
ture for differentiating the left and right ventricles changes on the survival of the xenograft, such as
(Anderson & Becker, 1992). The trabeculations of ischaemia and fibrosis. Our observations, nonetheless,
both porcine ventricles are extremely coarse, and do have demonstrated several potentially significant
not permit us, using this feature alone, to differentiate anatomical differences between porcine and human
between the 2 chambers. A functional role for the hearts that might affect the success of the cardiac
thickness of the papillary muscles and the trabecu- xenograft within the human recipient. It is important
lations is speculative, but could be associated with that we are aware of them as arguments continue
either mitral or tricuspid valvar function, and could concerning the advisability of using the porcine organ
influence ventricular contractility (Sarris & Miller, for human xenotransplantation.
1988 ; Uemura et al. 1995). The thick trabeculations
may also have an effect on blood flow within the               
ventricular chamber. The thickness of the trabecu- This work was funded by a grant from the British
lations could also explain further the efficiency of Heart Foundation. We thank Dr Alison Hislop, Dr
ventricular activation in the pig heart. Joan Deutsch and Professor S. G. Haworth (Institute
As already emphasised by Weaver et al. (1986), the of Child Health, London, UK) for providing us with
coronary arterial circulation of the pig is remarkably neonatal pig hearts. The authors are also grateful to
 Comparative cardiac anatomy of pig and man 119

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