FEDERATED FACULTY FOR RESEARCH IN RELIGION AND CULTURE

Topic: Sampling and Sampling Designs

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Rev. Dr. Jacob Cherian Rev. Aju Philip Varghese

FFRRC, Kottayam I M. Th Christian Ministry

The primary purpose of research is to discover principles that have universal application. In
any statistical investigation, researchers are interested in studying the various characteristics of
individuals (or items) of a particular group. This group of individuals under study is known as
the population or the universe.to generalize about a population, one often studies a sample that
is meant to be a representative of the population. Sampling is the process of selecting elements
(subjects or other units of analysis) from a population in such a way that they are representative
of population.1 This is done to increase the likelihood of being able to generalize accurately
about the population. Sample is a portion of people drawn from a larger population. It will be
representation of the population only if it has some characteristics of the population from which
it is drawn. Sampling is the process of selecting a few (a sample) from a bigger group (the

1
Jacob Cherian, “Empirical Research Methods,” in Methodological Issues in Theological
Disciplines, edited by Samson Prabhakar ( Bangalore: South Asia Theological Research
Institute,2002), 131.
sampling population) to become the basis for estimating or predicting the prevalence of an
unknown piece of information, situation or outcome regarding the bigger group.2

1. Principles of Sampling

The main principle behind sampling is that the researcher seek knowledge about the total units
(population) by observing a few units (sample) and extend our interference about the sample
to the entire population. The study of sample becomes necessary because study of a very large
population would require a long period of time, a large number of interviewers, a large amount
of money, and doubtful accuracy of data collected by numerous investigators. The planning of
a study with a sample is more manageable

The important Principles of Sampling are:

 Sample units must be chosen in a systematic and objective manner.

 Sample units must be clearly defined and easily identifiable.

 Sample units must be independent of each other.

 Same units of samples must be used throughout the study.

 The selection process should be based on the sound criteria and should avoid errors,
bias and distortions.3

2. Sample Design

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population.4 It refers to
the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample.
Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample i.e., the
size of the sample. Sample design is determined before data are collected. There are many
sample designs from which a researcher can choose. Some designs are relatively more precise

2
Ranjit Kumar, Research Methodology- a step-by-step guide for beginners. 3rded (Los Angeles:
Sage Publications, 2011), 176.
3
Ram Ahuja, Research Methods (New Delhi: Rawat Publications, 2002), 159.
4
C. R.Kothari, Research Methodology (New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited,
Publishers, 2004), 55.
and easier to apply than others. Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should
be reliable and appropriate for his research study.

2.1. Steps in Sample Design

While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points:

 Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define
the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe can be
finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an
infinite universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the
total number of items. The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and
the like are examples of finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky,
listeners of a specific radio programme, throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite
universes.

 Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting
sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or
a construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family,
club, school, etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have to decide one or
more of such units that he has to select for his study.

 Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It
contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source
list is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive,
correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as
representative of the population as possible.

 Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample. This a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample
should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. The size of
population variance needs to be considered as in case of larger variance usually a bigger
sample is needed. The size of population must be kept in view for this also limits the
sample size. The parameters of interest in a research study must be kept in view, while
deciding the size of the sample.

 Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the
question of the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance, we
 may be interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in
the population, or we may be interested in knowing some average or the other measure
concerning the population.

 Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major
impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of
sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.

 Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will
use i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the
sample.5

3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The researcher has to decide the criteria for inclusion and exclusion of subjects in the study.
Using the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the researcher selects the sample from the sampling
frame. A sampling frame is the list or record of the population from which the sampling units
are drawn. Sampling units are items from a population selected for inclusion in a sample.6

4. Sampling Techniques

Sampling begins with a decision about the size of the sample desired and the method for
selecting the sample. Two types of techniques may be used.

 Probability Sampling Techniques

 Nonprobability Sampling Techniques

Probability sampling is one in which every unit of the population has an equal probability of
being selected for the sample. It offers a high degree of representativeness. Probability
sampling techniques are less prone to sampling error and thus are more representative of the
population of interest. Nonprobability sampling techniques may be used if generalizing of the
population is not a critical issue. Nonprobability sampling make no claim for

5
Kothari, Research Methodology…, 55-56.
6
Cherian, “Empirical Research Methods,” in Methodological Issues in Theological
Disciplines…, 132.
representativeness, as every unit does not get the chance of being selected. It is researcher who
decides which sample units should be chosen.

4.1. Probability Sampling Techniques

Probability sampling techniques yield participants from the population of interest, yield
participants from the population of interest, each of whom has a known chance of being
selected for sample.7 Therefore, probability sample is a sample in which subject has a known
probability of being sampled. The following are the probability sampling techniques.

4.1.1. Simple Random Sampling

A simple random sample is a sample selected from a population in such a way that every
member of the population has an equal chance of being selected and the selection of any
individual does not influence the selection of any other.8 The selection purely depend upon
chance. The sample units are drawn at random without showing any regard to the
characteristics of the population units and each such units has an chance of being selected din
the sample and therefore this sampling is sometimes also known as ‘equal probability
sampling’. Random sampling reduces the chance of bias. All the items of the sample are
selected independently of one another and all the items in population have the equal chance of
being included in the sample. Random sample may be selected by a) Lottery method and b)
from table of random numbers.

4.1.1.1. Lottery Method

Under this method, all items of the universe are numbered or named on separate slips of
identical size e and shape. The slips are then folded and mixed up in a container. A blind-fold
selection is then made of the number of slips required to constitute desired size of sample. This
method involves three steps. First step is constructing the sample frame. Second step is writing
numbers listed in the sampling frame on small piece of paper and placing these papers in some

7
Cherian, “Empirical Research Methods,” in Methodological Issues in Theological
Disciplines…, 132.
8
Cherian, “Empirical Research Methods,” in Methodological Issues in Theological
Disciplines…, 133.
vessel/drum/jar, etc. Third step is mixing all papers well and taking out one piece of paper from
the jar. This process is continued until the required number of respondents is reached.9

4.1.1.2. Random Numbers

Another method of selecting a random sample is from the table of random numbers. The
researcher can choose a simple random sample by assigning a number to every subject of the
population and can select through a row or column in that table, and taking all the numbers that
correspond to the sampling units in that row or columns.

4.1.2. Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling involves determining the proportion of the population needed in the
sample and choosing every nth subject from the sampling frame.10 The size of the n is calculated
by dividing the desired sample in to the population size. This sampling is obtaining a collection
of elements by drawing every nth person from a pre-determined list of persons. This method
randomly select the first respondent and then every nth person after that. The ‘n’ is a number
termed as sampling interval.

4.1.3. Stratified Random Sampling

This is a form of sampling in which the population is divided in to a number of strata or sub-
groups and a sample is drawn from each stratum.11 Stratified sampling involves random
selection of subjects from essential subgroups of a population. This ensured adequate
representation from each group for description or comparison. This type of sampling is used
when there are subgroups or stratum of different sizes that we wish to investigate. In this
method, the researcher first divide the population in to different sub populations (gender,
income, education, religion etc.) known as strata, such that each items in each stratum are
homogeneous. From each stratum, items are selected by simple random method. The sample
from each stratum may be proportional or disproportional. Proportional stratified sampling
means that the sampling fraction is the same for each stratum. Disproportional stratified

9
Ahuja, Research Methods…, 167.
10
Cherian, “Empirical Research Methods,” in Methodological Issues in Theological
Disciplines…, 133.
11
Ahuja, Research Methods…, 169.
sampling is used when there are differences in the size of the subgroups. If the number of cases
is too small for some groups, disproportionate numbers can be chosen from each group.12

4.1.4. Cluster Sampling

This sampling implies dividing population in to clusters and drawing random sample either
from all clusters or selected clusters. Cluster sampling refers to the selection of cluster or groups
instead of individual units as the sample elements. Instead of selecting sampling units at
random, bulk selection of cluster of units is more pragmatic in some cases. Cluster is a natural
occurrence of groups of individuals. This method is useful when a full listings of individuals
in the population is not available.

4.1.5. Multistage Radom Sampling

This sampling procedure consists of combination of sampling strategies. In this, method,

participants are selected in several stages, beginning by randomly choosing sections of the
population and then randomly choosing subjects from these sections. In this method, sampling
is selected in various stages but only the last sample of subjects is studied.

4.2. Nonprobability Sampling Techniques

In many research situations, particularly those where there is no list of persons to be studied,
probability sampling is difficult and appropriate to use.in such researches, nonprobability
sampling is most appropriate one. Nonprobability sampling techniques may be used when
representativeness of a population is not as important as the information itself or when
probability sampling is not feasible. Nonprobability sampling significally increase sampling
error and introduces bias in to the sample.

4.2.1. Purposive or Judgment Sampling

In this sampling, the researcher purposely chooses person who, in his judgment about some
appropriate characteristic required of the sample members, are thought to be relevant to the
research topic and are easily available to him. The investigator selects a few units from the
population based on his judgment and previous experience. Hence, a purposive sample is a
sample composed of subjects selected deliberately by the researchers, usually when they
presume that certain characteristics are typical or representative of the population. This method

12
Cherian, “Empirical Research Methods,” in Methodological Issues in Theological
Disciplines…, 133-134.
will succeed only if the investigation has a true sense of purpose and the population is more or
less uniform.

4.2.2. Quota Sampling

This is a version of stratified sampling with the difference that instead of dividing the
population in to strata and randomly choosing the respondents, it works on the ‘quotas’ fixed
by the researcher. Quota sampling involves determining how many subjects from particular
groups or subgroups are needed and then selecting participants non-randomly until the
determined number of each group is reached.13 Therefore, quota sample is a stratified non-
random sample.

4.2.3. Snowball Sampling

In this technique, the researcher begins the research with the few respondents who are known
and available to him. In this method one subject gives the name of another subjects, who in
turn provides the name of a third, and so on. In other words, in this strategy, participants are
solicited who then suggest other potential participants. This technique is useful to conduct a
study among people with unusual experiences or characteristics who are likely to know one
another.

4.2.4. Convenient Sampling

Convenient sampling means that the persons participating in the study were chosen because
they are readily available. A sample of subjects selected for a study not because they are
representatives but because they are convenient. This type of sampling is also known as
accidental sampling. The main disadvantages of this type of sampling is that the researcher has
no way of knowing what the ‘population’ might be or turn out to be. In this process of selection
all samples are in the end volunteers, who are readily available and willing to provide
information for the proposed study.14

13
Cherian, “Empirical Research Methods,” in Methodological Issues in Theological
Disciplines…, 135.
14
Cherian, “Empirical Research Methods,” in Methodological Issues in Theological
Disciplines…, 135-136.
Conclusion

In this paper, the different types of sampling methods/techniques were described. As

mentioned, there are two types of sampling methods namely; probability sampling and non-
probability sampling. Each of these methods includes different types of techniques of sampling.
Probability Sampling includes Simple random, Stratified random, Cluster sampling,
Systematic sampling and Multi stage sampling. Non-probability Sampling includes Quota
sampling, Snowball sampling, Judgment sampling, and Convenience sampling.

Bibliography

Ahuja, Ram. Research Methods. New Delhi: Rawat Publications, 2002.

Bryman, Allan. Social Research Methods. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.

Cherian, Jacob. “Empirical Research Methods.” in Methodological Issues in Theological

Disciplines. Edited by Samson Prabhakar. Bangalore: South Asia Theological Research

Institute, 2002.

Kothari, C. R. Research Methodology. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited

Publishers, 2004.

Kumar, Ranjit. Research Methodology- a step-by-step guide for beginners. 3rd ed. Los Angeles:

Sage Publications, 2011.