SAMPLING & SAMPLING

DISTRIBUTION
-Dr Nivedita Roy
School of Management
NIT, ROURKELA
 SAMPLING
 When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely
possible to collect data from every person in that group. Instead,
you select a sample. The sample is the group of individuals who
will actually participate in the research.

 To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully

decide how you will select a sample that is representative of the
group as a whole. This is called a sampling method.

 There are two primary types of sampling methods that you can use
in your research:
 Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to
make strong statistical inferences about the whole group.
 Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based
on convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.
In statistics, quality assurance, and survey
methodology, sampling is the selection of a subset or
a statistical sample (termed sample for short) of
individuals from within a statistical population to
estimate characteristics of the whole population.

 Statisticians attempt to collect samples that are

representative of the population.

Sampling has lower costs and faster data collection

compared to recording data from the entire population,
and thus, it can provide insights in cases where it is
infeasible to measure an entire population.
 SAMPLING-KEY CONCEPTS
 A population is the aggregate of all the elements that
share some common set of characteristics and that
comprise the universe for the purposes of the research
problem. The population parameters are typically numbers,
such as the proportion of consumers who are loyal to a
particular brand of toothpaste. Information about population
parameters may be obtained by taking a census or a sample.

 Sampling frame: The elementary units or the group or

cluster of such units may form the basis of sampling
process in which case they are called as sampling units. A
list containing all such sampling units is known as sampling
frame. Thus sampling frame consists of a list of items
from which the sample is to be drawn.
 SAMPLING-KEY CONCEPTS
 Sampling design: A sample design is a definite plan
for obtaining a sample from the sampling frame. It
refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher
would adopt in selecting some sampling units from which
inferences about the population is drawn. Sampling
design is determined before any data are collected. It
is part of Research Design.

 Census: A complete enumeration of the elements of a

population or study objects.

 Sample: A subgroup of the elements of the population

selected for participation in the study.
 SAMPLING-KEY CONCEPTS
 Statisitc(s) and parameter(s): A statistic is a
characteristic of a sample, whereas a parameter is a
characteristic of a population. Thus, when we work out
certain measures such as mean, median, mode or the like ones
from samples, then they are called statistic(s) for they
describe the characteristics of a sample. But when such
measures describe the characteristics of a population, they are
known as parameter(s).

 A parameter denotes the true value that would be

obtained if a census rather than a sample were
undertaken. For instance, the population mean b g µ is a
parameter, whereas the sample mean ( X ) is a statistic. To
obtain the estimate of a parameter from a statistic constitutes
the prime objective of sampling analysis.
 SAMPLING-KEY CONCEPTS
Let the population size be N and if a part of size n
(which is < N) of this population is selected
according to some rule for studying some
characteristic of the population, the group
consisting of these n units is known as
‘sample’.

Researcher must prepare a sample design for his

study i.e., he must plan how a sample should be
selected and of what size such a sample would
be.
 SAMPLING-KEY CONCEPTS
A sample design is a definite plan for
obtaining a sample from a given population. It
refers to the technique or the procedure the
researcher would adopt in selecting items for the
sample.

Sample design is determined before data are

collected.

Researcher must select/prepare a sample design

which should be reliable and appropriate for his
research study.
 Steps in Sample Design
 While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay
attention to the following points:

 (i) Type of universe: The first step in developing any

sample design is to clearly define the set of objects,
technically called the Universe, to be studied.

The universe can be finite or infinite.

The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory

and the like are examples of finite universes, whereas the
number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific radio
programme, throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite
universes.
(ii) Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken
concerning a sampling unit before selecting
sample.

Sampling unit may be a geographical one such

as state, district, village, etc., or a construction
unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social
unit such as family, club, school, etc., or it may
be an individual.

The researcher will have to decide one or more of

such units that he has to select for his study.
(iii) Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling
frame’ from which sample is to be drawn.

It contains the names of all items of a universe (in case

of finite universe only).

If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare

it. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct,
reliable, updated and appropriate.

It is extremely important for the source list to be as

representative of the population as possible.
(iv) Size of sample: This refers to the number of
items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample.

The size of sample should neither be excessively

large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An
optimum sample is one which fulfills the
requirements of efficiency, representativeness,
reliability and flexibility.

While deciding the size of sample, researcher

must determine the desired precision as also an
(v) Parameters of interest: In determining the
sample design, one must consider the question
of the specific population parameters which
are of interest. For instance, we may be
interested in estimating the proportion of persons
with some specific characteristic in the
population.

There may also be important sub-groups in the

population about whom we would like to make
estimates. All this has a strong impact upon the
sample design we would accept.
(vi) Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from
practical point of view, have a major impact upon
decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but
also to the type of sample.

(vii) Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must

decide the type of sample he will use i.e., he must
decide about the technique to be used in selecting
the items for the sample. In fact, this technique or
procedure stands for the sample design itself.
Obviously, he must select that design which, for a
given sample size and for a given cost, has a
smaller sampling error.
 Characteristics of a
Good Sample Design
 (a) Sample design must result in a truly representative
sample.
 (b) Sample design must be such which results in a small
sampling error.
 (c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds
available for the research study.
 (d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias
can be controlled in a better way.
 (e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample
study can be applied, in general, for the universe with a
reasonable level of confidence.
 The Sampling Design Process
1-Define the Target Population: Sampling design begins by
specifying the target population. The target population is
the collection of elements or objects that possess the
information sought by the researcher and about which
inferences are to be made. Defining the target population
involves translating the problem definition into a precise
statement of who should and should not be included in the
sample. The target population should be defined in terms of
elements, sampling units, extent, and time.

 An element is the object about which or from which the

information is desired. In survey research, the
element is usually the respondent.
 The Sampling Design Process
 A sampling unit is an element, or a unit containing the
element, that is available for selection at some stage of the sampling
process.

Suppose that Revlon wanted to assess consumer response to a new

line of lipsticks and wanted to sample females over 18 years of age. It
may be possible to sample females over 18 directly, in which case a
sampling unit would be the same as an element.
Alternatively, the sampling unit might be households. In the latter
case, households would be sampled and all females over 18 in each
selected household would be interviewed as element. Here, the
sampling unit and the population element are different.

 Extent refers to the geographical boundaries.

 Time factor is the time period under consideration.

 The Sampling Design Process
2-Determine the Sampling Frame: A sampling frame is a
representation of the elements of the target population. It
consists of a list or set of directions for identifying the target
population.
 Examples of a sampling frame include the telephone
book, an association directory listing the firms in an
industry, a mailing list purchased from a commercial
organization, a city directory, or a map.

3- Select a Sampling Technique: Selecting a sampling

technique involves several decisions of a broader nature. The
researcher must decide whether to use nonprobability or
probability sampling.
 The Sampling Design Process
4-Determine the Sample Size: Sample size refers to the
number of elements to be included in the study. Determining
the sample size is complex and involves several qualitative
and quantitative considerations.

 Important qualitative factors that should be considered in

determining the sample size include :
(1) the importance of the decision,
(2) the nature of the research,
(3) the number of variables,
(4) the nature of the analysis,
(5) sample sizes used in similar studies,
(6) resource constraints.
 The Sampling Design Process
4a- Importance of the Decision: In general, for more
important decisions, more information is necessary and
the information should be obtained more precisely. This calls
for larger samples. However, as the sample size
increases, each unit of information is obtained at
greater cost.

 The degree of precision may be measured in terms of the

standard deviation of the mean. The standard deviation
of the mean is inversely proportional to the square
root of the sample size. The larger the sample, the
smaller the gain in precision by increasing the sample
size by one unit.
 The Sampling Design Process
4b- Nature of the Research: The nature of the research
also has an impact on the sample size. For exploratory
research designs, such as those using qualitative research,
the sample size is typically small. For conclusive research,
such as descriptive surveys, larger samples are required.
 The Sampling Design Process
4c- Number of Variables: Likewise, if data are being
collected on a large number of variables, larger samples are
required. The cumulative effects of sampling error across
variables are reduced in a large sample.

4d- Nature of Analysis: If sophisticated analysis of the data

using multivariate techniques is required, the sample size
should be large. The same applies if the data are to be
analyzed in great detail. Thus, a larger sample would be
required if the data are being analyzed at the subgroup or
segment level than if the analysis is limited to the aggregate
or total sample.
 The Sampling Design Process
4e- Sample Size used in Similar Studies: Sample size is
influenced by the average size of samples in similar studies.
These sample sizes have been determined based on
experience and can serve as rough guidelines, particularly
when nonprobability sampling techniques are used.

4f- Resource Constraints: Finally, the sample size decision

should be guided by a consideration of the resource
constraints. In any marketing research project, money and
time are limited. Other constraints include the availability of
qualified personnel for data collection.
 The Sampling Design Process
5-Execute the Sampling Process: Execution of the
sampling process requires a detailed specification of how the
sampling design decisions with respect to the population,
sampling frame, sampling unit, sampling technique, and
sample size are to be implemented.

If households are the sampling unit, an operational definition

of a household is needed. Procedures should be specified for
vacant housing units and for callbacks in case no one is at
home. Detailed information must be provided for all sampling
design decisions.
 Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a
sample of convenient elements. Often,
respondents are selected because they happen to
be in the right place at the right time.

use of students, and members of social

organizations
mall intercept interviews without qualifying the
respondents
department stores using charge account lists
“people on the street” interviews
 Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience
sampling in which the population elements are
selected based on the judgment of the researcher.

test markets
purchase engineers selected in industrial
marketing research
bellweather precincts selected in voting
behavior research
expert witnesses used in court
 Quota Sampling
Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted
judgmental sampling.
 The first stage consists of developing control categories,
or quotas, of population elements.
 In the second stage, sample elements are selected based
on convenience or judgment.

Population Sample
composition composition
Control
Characteristic Percentage Percentage Number
Sex
Male 48 48 480
Female 52 52 520
____ ____ ____
100 100 1000
 Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, an initial group of
respondents is selected, usually at random.

After being interviewed, these respondents are

asked to identify others who belong to the
target population of interest.
Subsequent respondents are selected based on
the referrals.
 Simple Random Sampling
Each element in the population has a known and
equal probability of selection.
Each possible sample of a given size (n) has a
known and equal probability of being the sample
actually selected.
This implies that every element is selected
independently of every other element.
 Systematic Sampling
The sample is chosen by selecting a random
starting point and then picking every ith element
in succession from the sampling frame.

The sampling interval, i, is determined by

dividing the population size N by the sample size
n and rounding to the nearest integer.

When the ordering of the elements is related to

the characteristic of interest, systematic
sampling increases the representativeness of the
sample.
 Systematic Sampling
If the ordering of the elements produces a
cyclical pattern, systematic sampling may
decrease the representativeness of the sample.

For example, there are 100,000 elements in the

population and a sample of 1,000 is desired. In
this case the sampling interval, i, is 100. A
random number between 1 and 100 is selected.
If, for example, this number is 23, the sample
consists of elements 23, 123, 223, 323, 423, 523,
and so on.
 Stratified Sampling
A two-step process in which the population is
partitioned into subpopulations, or strata.
The strata should be mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive in that every population
element should be assigned to one and only one
stratum and no population elements should be
omitted.
Next, elements are selected from each stratum by
a random procedure.
A major objective of stratified sampling is to
increase precision without increasing cost.
 Stratified Sampling
The elements within a stratum should be as
homogeneous as possible, but the elements in
different strata should be as heterogeneous as
possible.

The stratification variables should also be closely

related to the characteristic of interest.

Finally, the variables should decrease the cost of

the stratification process by being easy to
measure and apply.
 Stratified Sampling
In proportionate stratified sampling, the size of
the sample drawn from each stratum is
proportionate to the relative size of that stratum
in the total population.

In disproportionate stratified sampling, the size

of the sample from each stratum is proportionate
to the relative size of that stratum and to the
standard deviation of the distribution of the
characteristic of interest among all the elements
in that stratum.
 Cluster Sampling
The target population is first divided into mutually
exclusive and collectively exhaustive
subpopulations, or clusters.

Then a random sample of clusters is selected,

based on a probability sampling technique such as
SRS.

For each selected cluster, either all the elements

are included in the sample (one-stage) or a sample
of elements is drawn probabilistically (two-stage).
 Cluster Sampling
Elements within a cluster should be as
heterogeneous as possible, but clusters themselves
should be as homogeneous as possible. Ideally,
each cluster should be a small-scale representation
of the population.

In probability proportionate to size sampling,

the clusters are sampled with probability
proportional to size. In the second stage, the
probability of selecting a sampling unit in a
selected cluster varies inversely with the size of
the cluster.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Basic Sampling Techniques
Technique Strengths Weaknesses
Nonprobability Sampling
Convenience sampling Least expensive, least Selection bias, sample not
time-consuming, most representative, not recommended for
convenient descriptive or causal research
Judgmental sampling Low cost, convenient, Does not allow generalization,
not time-consuming subjective
Quota sampling Sample can be controlled Selection bias, no assurance of
for certain characteristics representativeness
Snowball sampling Can estimate rare Time-consuming
characteristics
Probability sampling
Difficult to construct sampling
Simple random sampling Easily understood, results frame, expensive, lower precision,
(SRS) projectable
Systematic sampling Can increase representativeness, no assurance of representativeness.
easier to implement than
SRS, sampling frame not
necessary
Stratified sampling Difficult to select relevant
Include all important stratification variables, not feasible to
subpopulations,
precision stratify on many variables, expensive
Cluster sampling Easy to implement, cost Imprecise, difficult to compute and
effective interpret results
Example-Non Probability Sampling

Source: (Malhotra & Dash, 2014)

Example-Non Probability Sampling

Source: (Malhotra & Dash, 2014)

Examples-Probability Sampling

Source: (Malhotra & Dash, 2014)

Examples-Probability Sampling

Source: (Malhotra & Dash, 2014)

Choosing Nonprobability vs. Probability Sampling
 Systematic Bias
A systematic bias results from errors in the
sampling procedures, and it cannot be
reduced or eliminated by increasing the
sample size. At best the causes responsible
for these errors can be detected and
corrected.
Reasons for Systematic bias :
(i) Inappropriate sampling frame: If the
sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased
representation of the universe, it will result in
a systematic bias.
 Systematic Bias
(ii) Defective measuring device: If the measuring
device is constantly in error, it will result in
systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias
can result if the questionnaire or the interviewer
is biased.

(iii) Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample

all the individuals initially included in the sample,
there may arise a systematic bias.
 Systematic Bias
(iv) Indeterminancy principle: Sometimes we find that
individuals act differently when kept under observation
than what they do when kept in non-observed situations.
Thus, the indeterminancy principle may also be a cause of a
systematic bias.
 Systematic Bias

(v) Natural bias in the reporting of data: Natural bias of

respondents in the reporting of data (response) is often the
cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries.
Eg. There is usually a downward bias in the income data
collected by government taxation department, whereas we
find an upward bias in the income data collected by some
social organisation.
People in general understate their incomes if asked about it
for tax purposes, but they overstate the same if asked for
social status or their affluence.

Generally in psychological surveys, people tend to give

what they think should be the ‘correct’ answer rather than
 Sampling Error
 Sampling error: Sample surveys do imply the study of a
small portion of the population and as such there would
naturally be a certain amount of inaccuracy in the
information collected, because you are taking only a
sample. This inaccuracy may be termed as sampling
error or error variance.

 In other words, sampling errors are those errors which

arise on account of sampling and they generally happen to
be random variations (in case of random sampling) in the
sample estimates around the true population values or
parameters. The meaning of sampling error can be easily
understood from the following diagram:
Sampling Error
 Sampling Error
Sampling errors are the random variations in the
sample around the true population parameters.

Sampling error decreases with the increase in the size

of the sample.

It happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of

homogeneous population.

But increasing the size of the sample has its own

limitations viz., a large sized sample increases the cost
of collecting data and also enhances the systematic
bias.
 Sampling Error
Thus the effective way to increase precision is
usually to select a better sampling design which
has a smaller sampling error for a given sample
size at a given cost.

Sampling error can be measured for a given

sample design and size. The measurement of
sampling error is usually called the ‘precision of
the sampling plan’.
 Non-Sampling Error
 Non-sampling errors can be attributed to sources
other than sampling, and they may be random or non-
random. They result from a variety of reasons, including
errors in problem definition, approach,
measurement/scales, questionnaire design, interviewing
methods, and data preparation and analysis.

 For example, the researcher designs a poor

questionnaire, which contains several questions that
lead the respondents to give biased answers.

 Non-sampling errors consist of nonresponse errors and

response errors.
 Confidence Level
 Confidence level and significance level: The confidence
level or reliability is the expected percentage of times
that the actual value will fall within the precision
limits.

 Thus, if we take a confidence level of 95%, then we mean

that there are 95 chances in 100 (or .95 in 1) that the
sample results represent the true condition of the
population, within a specified precision range, against 5
chances in 100 (or .05 in 1) that it does not.
 Precision Level
 Precision level: When estimating a population parameter by using
a sample statistic, the precision level is the desired size of the
estimating interval. This is the maximum permissible difference
between the sample statistic and the population parameter.

 Precision is the range within which the answer may vary and still be
acceptable;

 Confidence level indicates the likelihood that the answer will fall
within that range, and the significance level indicates the likelihood
that the answer will fall outside that range. We can always
remember that if the confidence level is 95%, then the significance
level will be (100 – 95) i.e., 5%; if the confidence level is 99%, the
significance level is (100 – 99) i.e., 1%, and so on.
While selecting a sampling procedure,
researcher must ensure that the procedure
causes a relatively small sampling error
and helps to control the systematic bias in
a better way, at the same time, the
Confidence level and Precision is high.
Sample Size used in Marketing Research Studies

Source: (Malhotra & Dash, 2014)

The Sampling Design Process-Example

Source: (Malhotra & Dash, 2014)

The Sampling Design Process-Example

Source: (Malhotra & Dash, 2014)

Thank You