Experiment no.

10:-
Objective:-
Study of automotive system:- Elements of transmission systems- Differential, Gear box, Clutch
and Braking systems

Apparatus Required:- Model or Real part of Differential, Gear Box, Clutch and Hydraulic
brakes

Theory:-
The mechanism that transmits the power developed by the engine of automobile to the engine to
the driving wheels is called the transmission system (or power train).It is composed of –

 Clutch
 The gear box
 Propeller shaft
 Universal joints
 Rear axle
 Wheel
 Tyres

Requirements Of Transmission System :-

 Provide means of connection and disconnection of engine with rest of power train without
shock and smoothly.
 Provide a varied leverage between the engine and the drive wheels
 Provide means to transfer power in opposite direction.
 Enable power transmission at varied angles and varied lengths.
 Enable speed reduction between engine and the drive wheels in the ratio of 5:1.
 Enable diversion of power flow at right angles.
 Provide means to drive the driving wheels at different speeds when required.
 Bear the effect of torque reaction, driving thrust and braking effort effectively.

Diffential:-
Differential, in automotive
mechanics, gear arrangement
that permits power from the
engine to be transmitted to a
pair of driving wheels, dividing
the force equally between them
but permitting them to follow
paths paths of different lengths,
as when turning a corner or
traversing an uneven road. On a
straight road the wheels rotate
at the same speed; when turning a corner the outside wheel has farther to go and will turn faster
than the inner wheel if unrestrained.
The power from the transmission is delivered to the bevel ring gear by the drive-shaft pinion, both
of which are held in bearings (not shown) in the rear-axle housing. The case is an open boxlike
structure that is bolted to the ring gear and contains bearings to support one or two pairs of
diametrically opposite differential bevel pinions. Each wheel axle is attached to a differential side
gear, which meshes with the differential pinions. On a straight road the wheels and the side gears
rotate at the same speed, there is no relative motion between the differential side gears and pinions,
and they all rotate as a unit with the case and ring gear. If the vehicle turns to the left, the right-
hand wheel will be forced to rotate faster than the left-hand wheel, and the side gears and the
pinions will rotate relative to one another. The ring gear rotates at a speed that is equal to the mean
speed of the left and right wheels. If the wheels are jacked up with the transmission in neutral and
one of the wheels is turned, the opposite wheel will turn in the opposite direction at the same
speed.

The torque (turning moment) transmitted to the two wheels with the differential is the same.
Consequently, if one wheel slips, as in ice or mud, the torque to the other wheel is reduced. This
disadvantage can be overcome somewhat by the use of a limited-slip differential. In one version a
clutch connects one of the axles and the ring gear. When one wheel encounters low traction, its
tendency to spin is resisted by the clutch, thus providing greater torque for the other wheel.

Gear:-
Gear is one of the important machine tool elements which is an integral and inevitable part of
power transmission system. A gear is a round blank having teeth along its periphery. Gears are
used to transfer power or torque from prime mover to the place where it is to be used. Along with
the transmission of power gears also transfer the accurate velocity ratio between two shafts.
Velocity ratio is defined as the ratio of rpm (revolution per minute) of driven shaft to the rpm of
driver shaft. Power is normally transferred with the help of pair of gears in mesh together, each of
these two are mount on driven shaft and driver shaft.
RPM v a v a
Velocity Ratio =
RPM a v a v

The gear mounted on the driver shaft is called driver gear and an other gear mounted on the driven
shaft is called driven gear. Driver gear and driven gear both constitute a pair of mating gears, these
gears are identical with reference to all parameters except their diameters and number of teeth.
Two gears mating and transferring power and exact velocity ratio are shown in Figure. For any pair
of malting gears the mandatory condition is their peripheral speed should be exactly same.

If diameters of driven gear and driver gear are respectively ‘Dd’ and ‘Dr’ and these are revolving at
Nd and Nr rpm respectively.

Then peripheral speed of driver gear = peripheral speed of driven gear.

or  Dr Nr =  Dd Nd
Gears are vastly used to form mechanism for transferring power from place of its generation to
other parts in the machine this is to effect change in speed, torque or both. speeds of two different
parts in a machine can also be maintained relatively and precisely. Different types of gears are used
for this purpose. Selection of a particular type of gear depends on so many factors such as relative
position of two shafts, power and velocity ratio (VR) to be transferred, space limitation, percentage
reduction of velocity, running conditions, accuracy of transmission. To understand the gear
manufacturing or gear cutting process it is necessary to understand gear terminology first, which is
discussed later.

Gear box:-
The gearbox provides a
selection of gears for different
driving conditions: standing
start, climbing a hill, or cruising
on level surfaces. The lower the
gear, the slower the road wheels
turn in relation to the engine
speed.

The constant-mesh gearbox:-

The gearbox is the second stage

in the transmission system, after the clutch. It is usually bolted to the rear of the engine, with the
clutch between them. Modern cars with manual transmissions have four or five forward speeds and
one reverse, as well as a neutral position.

Syncromesh disengaged:-

The gear turns freely on a bush, rotated by a meshing gear on the layshaft. The synchromesh unit,
splined the the mainshaft, rests near by.

Synchromesh engaged:- The fork moves the synchromesh towards the selected gear. Friction
surfaces synchronise the shaft speeds, and synchromesh and gear lock together. The gear lever,
operated by the driver, is connected to a series of selector rods in the top or side of the gearbox.
The selector rods lie parallel with shafts carrying the gears. The most popular design is the
constant-mesh gearbox. It has three shafts: the input shaft, the layshaft and the mainshaft, which
run in bearings in the gearbox casing. There is also a shaft on which the reverse-gear idler pinion
rotates. The engine drives the input shaft, which drives the layshaft. The layshaft rotates the gears
on the mainshaft, but these rotate freely until they are locked by means of the synchromesh device,
which is splined to the shaft. It is the synchromesh device which is actually operated by the driver,
through a selector rod with a fork on it which moves the synchromesh to engage the gear. The
baulk ring, a delaying device in the synchromesh, is the final refinement in the modern gearbox. It
prevents engagement of a gear until the shaft speeds are synchronised. On some cars an additional
gear, called overdrive, is fitted. It is higher than top gear and so gives economic driving at cruising
speeds.
Function of transmission box (gear box) in automobile:-

The transmission box which is also known as the gear box is the second element of the power train
in an automobile. It is used to change the speed and torque of vehicle according to variety of road
and load conditions. Transmission box change the engine speed into torque when climbing hills
and when the vehicle required. Sometimes it is known as torque converter. Main functions of a
gear box is as follow:

1. Provide the torque needed to move the vehicle under a variety of road and load conditions. It
does this by changing the gear ratio between the engine crankshaft and vehicle drive wheels.
2. Be shifted into reverse so the vehicle can move backward.
3. Be shifted into neutral for starting the engine.

Main components of a gear box:-

In any device two or more component works together and fulfills the required function. In a
transmission box four components are required to fulfill its function. These components are-

1. Counter shaft:
Counter shaft is a shaft which connects with the clutch shaft directly. It contains the gear which
connects it to the clutch shaft as well as the main shaft. It may be run at the engine speed or at
lower than engine speed according to gear ratio.

2. Main shaft:
It is the shaft which runs at the vehicle speed. It carries power from the counter shaft by use of
gears and according to the gear ratio, it runs at different speed and torque compares to counter
shaft. One end of this shaft is connects with the universal shaft.

3. Gears:
Gears are used to transmit the power from one shaft to another. They are most useful component of
gear box because the variation is torque of counter shaft and main shaft is depends on the gear
ratio. The gear ratio is the ratio of the driven gear teeth to the driving gear teeth. If gear ratio is
large than one, the main shaft revolves at lower speed than the counter shaft and the torque of the
main shaft is higher than the counter shaft. On other hand if the gear ratio is less than one, than the
main shaft revolves at higher speed than the counter shaft and the torque of the main shaft is lower
than the counter shaft. A small car gear box contains four speed gear ratio and one reverse gear .

4. Bearings:
Whenever the rotary motion encounters, bearings are required to support the revolving part and
reduce the friction. In the gear box both counter and main shaft are supported by the bearing.
Working of a principle gear box:-
In a gear box, the counter shaft is mashed to the clutch with a use of a couple of gears. So the
counter shaft is always in running condition. When the counter shaft is bring in contact with the
main shaft by use of meshing gears, the main shaft start to rotate according to the gear ratio. When
driver want to change the gear ratio, simply press the clutch pedal which disconnect the counter
shaft with engine and connect the main shaft with counter shaft by another gear ratio by use of
gearshift lever. In an gear box, the gear teeth and other moving metal must not touch. They must be
continuously separated by a thin film of lubricant. This prevents excessive wear and early failure.
Therefor a gearbox runs partially filled with lubricant oil.
This is all about what is gearbox and types of gearbox. If you have any query regarding this article,
ask by commenting. If you like this article, don’t forget to share it on social networks. Subscribe
our website for more informative article.

Clutch:-
A clutch is a mechanism which enables the rotary motion of one shaft to be transmitted at will to

second shaft ,whose axis is coincident with that of first. Clutch is located between engine and gear
box. When the clutch is engaged, the power flows from the engine to the rear wheels through the
transmission system and the vehicle moves .when the clutch is disengaged, the power is not
transmitted to the rear wheels and the vehicle stops, while the engine is still running. Clutch is
disengaged Starting the engine, Shifting the gears, Idling the engine clutch is engaged only when
the vehicle is to move and is kept engaged when the vehicle is moving.

Function Of a Clutch :-

 To permit engagement or disengagement of a gear when the vehicle is stationary and the
engine is running
 To transmit the engine power to the road wheels smoothly without shock to the
transmission system while setting the wheel in motion.
 To permit the engaging of gears when the vehicle is in motion without damaging the gear
wheels.
Principle Of Operation Of a Clutch :-

The clutch principle is based on friction. when two friction surface are brought in contact with each
other and pressed they are united due to friction between them. If one is revolved the other will
also revolve. The friction between the two surfaces depends upon Area of the surface, Pressure
applied upon them, Coefficient of friction of the surface materials. Here, One surface is considered
as driving member and the other as driven member.

Braking system:-
Engine braking occurs when the
retarding forces within an engine
are used to slow a vehicle down, as
opposed to using additional
external braking mechanisms such
as friction brakes or magnetic
brakes. The term is often confused
with several other types of braking,
most notably compression-release
braking or "jake braking" which
uses a different mechanism.

A hydraulic brake is an
arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake fluid, typically containing glycol ethers or
diethylene glycol, to transfer pressure from the controlling mechanism to the braking mechanism

Working:-

In a hydraulic brake system, when the brake pedal is pressed, a pushrod exerts force on the
piston(s) in the master cylinder, causing fluid from the brake fluid reservoir to flow into a pressure
chamber through a compensating port. This results in an increase in the pressure of the entire
hydraulic system, forcing fluid through the hydraulic lines toward one or more calipers where it
acts upon one or more caliper pistons sealed by one or more seated O-rings (which prevent leakage
of the fluid). The brake caliper pistons then apply force to the brake pads, pushing them against the
spinning rotor, and the friction between the pads and the rotor causes a braking torque to be
generated, slowing the vehicle. Heat generated by this friction is either dissipated through vents
and channels in the rotor or is conducted through the pads, which are made of specialized heat-
tolerant materials such as kevlar or sintered glass.

Alternatively, in a drum brake, the fluid enters a wheel cylinder and presses one or two brake shoes
against the inside of the spinning drum. The brake shoes use a similar heat-tolerant friction
material to the pads used in disc brakes. Subsequent release of the brake pedal/lever allows the
spring(s) in the master cylinder assembly to return the master piston(s) back into position. This
action first relieves the hydraulic pressure on the caliper, then applies suction to the brake piston in
the caliper assembly, moving it back into its housing and allowing the brake pads to release the
rotor. The hydraulic braking system is designed as a closed system: unless there is a leak in the
system, none of the brake fluid enters or leaves it, nor does the fluid get consumed through use.
Leakage may happen, however, from cracks in the O-rings or from a puncture in the brake line.
Experiment No. 9:-
Objective:-
Study of following automotive parts, front axle and real axle.

Apparatus Required:- Model or Real part of Front axle and Real axle.

Theory:-
An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be
fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with the wheels rotating
around the axle. In the former case, bearings or bushings are provided at the mounting points
where the axle is supported. In the latter case, a bearing or bushing sits inside a central hole in
the wheel to allow the wheel or gear to rotate around the axle. Sometimes, especially on
bicycles, the latter type axle is referred to as a spindle.

Front axle carries the weight of the front part of the automobile as well as facilitates steering
and absorbs shocks due to road surface variations. The front axles are generally dead axles,
but are live axles in small cars of compact designs and also in case of four-wheel drive. The
steering system converts the rotary motion of the driver’s steering wheel into the angular
turning of the front wheels as well as to multiply the driver’s effort with leverage or
mechanical advantage for turning the wheels. The steering system, in addition to directing the
vehicle in a particular direction must be arranged geometrically in such a way so that the
wheels undergo true rolling motion without slipping or scuffing. Moreover, the steering must
be light and stable with a certain degree of self-adjusting ability. Steering systems may also
be power assisted. The chapter discusses the front axle construction and its align-ment, and
steering geometry and steering systems.

Front Axle:-

The front axle is designed to transmit the weight of the automobile from the springs to the
front wheels, turning right or left as required. To prevent interference due to front engine
location, and for providing greater stability and safety at high speeds by lowering the centre
of gravity of the road vehicles, the entire centre portion of the axle is dropped. A front axle
includes the axle-beam, stub-axles with brake assemblies, u rack-rod and stub-axle arm.

Front axles can be live axles and dead axles. A live front axle contains the differential
mechanism through which the engine power flows towards the front wheels. For steering the
front wheels, constant velocity joints are contained in the axle half shafts. Without affecting
the power flow through the half shafts, these joints help in turning the stub axles around the
king-pin. The front axles are generally dead axles, which does not transmit power.
The front wheel hubs rotate on antifriction bearings of tapered-roller type on the steering
spindles, which are an integral part of steering knuckles. To permit the wheels to be turned by
the steering gear, the steering spindle and steering knuckle assemblies are hinged on the end
of axle. The pin that forms the pivot of this hinge is known as king pin or steering knuckle
pin. Generally dead front axles are three types. In the Elliot type front axles the yoke for king
spindle is located on the ends of I-beam. The axle ends are forked to hold the steering
knuckle extension between them. The reverse Elliot front axles have hinged spindle yoke on
spindle itself instead of on the axle. The forked portion is integral with the steering knuckle.
This type is commonly used as this facilitates the mounting of brake backing plate on the
forged legs of the steering knuckle. In the Lemoine type front axle, instead of a yoke type
hinge, an L-shaped spindle is used which is attached to the end of the axle by means of a
pivot. It is normally used in tractors.

The axle beam in use is of I or H-section and is manufactured from alloy forged steel for
rigidity and strength. As compared to dead front axles, a totally different type of swivelling
mechanism is used on the live front axle. To connect the wheel hub axles with driving axle
shafts, constant velocity joints are used for the vehicles fitted with the front live axles. Tracta,
Rzeppa (or Sheppa) on Bendix constant velocity or universal joints are normally used.

Front axles are subjected to both bending and shear stresses. In the static condition, the axle
may be considered as a beam supported vertically upward at the ends i.e. at the centre of the
wheels and loaded vertically downward at the centres of the spring pads. The vertical bending
moment thus caused is zero at the point of support and rises linearly to a maximum at the
point of loading and then remains constant.

Thus the maximum bending moment = Wl, N-m

where, W = The load on one wheel, N

I = The distance between the centre of wheel and the spring pad, m

Under dynamic conditions, the vertical bending moment is increased due to road roughness.

But its estimate is difficult and hence is general-ly accounted for through a factor of safety.
The front axle also experiences a horizontal bending moment because of resistance to motion
and this is of a nature similar to the vertical one but of very small magnitude and hence can
be neglected except in those situations when it is comparatively large. The resistance to
motion also causes a torque in the case of drop type front axle, Thus the portions projected
after the spring pads are subjected to combined bending and torsion.
Rear Axle:-

Rear axle is the last member of power train. In most of automobiles, real axle is the driving
axle. It lies between the driving wheels and the differential gear and transmit power from the
differential to the driving wheels. It consists of two half shaft connected to the differential
gear, one for one wheel. The inner end of the each half shaft connected to the sun gear of the
differential and the outer end to the wheel. The rear axle and differential gear are completely
encloses in a housing which protecting them from water, dust and injury.
Function of rear axle:
The rear axle mainly performs following two functions.
1. It carries the weight of the vehicle.
2. It rotates and transmits the power from the engine to the wheels

This is a list of automotive parts mostly for vehicles using internal combustion engines which
are manufactured components of automobiles:

 Car Body and main part:-Doors ,Windows

 Electrical and electronics:- Audio/video devices, Cameras ,Electrical supply
system,Gauges and meters, Ignition electronic system, Lighting and signaling
system,Sensors,Starting system, Electrical Switches, Wiring harnesses,
Miscellaneous
 Interior:-Floor components and parts, Other components, Car seat
 Power-train and chassis:-Braking system, Engine components and parts, Engine
cooling system, Engine oil system, Exhaust system, Fuel supply system, Suspension
and steering systems, Transmission system
 Miscellaneous auto parts:- Air conditioning system (A/C), Bearings ,Hose, Other
miscellaneous parts
Experiment no. 8:-
Objective:-
Study the construction and working of a reciprocating air compressor.

Theory:-
An air compressor is a device that converts power (using an electric motor, diesel or gasoline engine, etc.)
into potential energy stored in pressurized air (i.e., compressed air). By one of several methods, an air
compressor forces more and more air into a storage tank, increasing the pressure. When tank pressure
reaches its engineered upper limit the air compressor shuts off. The compressed air, then, is held in the
tank until called into use.The energy contained in the compressed air can be used for a variety of
applications, utilizing the kinetic energy of the air as it is released and the tank depressurizes. When tank
pressure reaches its lower limit, the air compressor turns on again and re-pressurizes the tank

The reciprocating type compressor consists of a piston which is enclosed within the cylinder & equipped
with suction & discharge valves. The piston receives power from the main shaft through the crankshaft
and connecting rod. A flywheel/belt wheel is fitted on the crankshaft which is driven by electric motor or
diesel engine. It supplies uniform motion throughout the cycle of operations.The compression of air is
done by first drawing a volume of air into its cylinder through suction valves during suction stroke by the
piston & then compressing & discharging it on the return stroke of the piston through delivery valves.This
simple working is used in every Reciprocating Air Compressor. You will easily understand compressor
engineering from below description.

Types of air compressor:

Reciprocating In-line Compressors:

These are most commonly used compressors with varying pressure ranges. These are simple in design
with almost very little automation. The cylinders of various stages are found in a straight line when seen
from top. These compressors are commonly direct driven by electric motors or diesel engines. Refer the
attached diagram of the reciprocating in-line compressors.

V"-Shaped Compressors:

These are usually air cooled compressors with concentric valves mounted on each cylinder head unit. The
compressor has different units displaced usually by 90 degrees, may or may not be connected to same
crank pin on the crank shaft. Higher capacity compressors are water cooled. Better torque and balancing is
achieved by displacing the units by certain angle.

Single-Acting Compressors:

These are usually reciprocating compressors, which has piston working on air only in one direction. The
other end of the piston is often free or open which does not perform any work. The air is compressed only
on the top part of the piston. The bottom of the piston is open to crankcase and not utilized for the
compression of air.
Double-Acting Compressors:

These compressors are having two sets of suction/intake and delivery valves on both sides of the piston.
As the piston moves up and down, both sides of the piston is utilized in compressing the air. The intake
and delivery valves operate corresponding to the stroke of the compressor. The compressed air delivery is
comparatively continuous when compared to a single-acting air compressor. Thus both sides of the pistons
are effectively used in compressing the air

Rotary Compressors:
These compressors are not of reciprocating nature, therefore does not have any pistons and crankshaft.
Instead, these compressors have screws, vanes, scrolls, and other devices which rotate and thus compress
air. The rotary compressors are classified into screw type, vane type-lobe type, scroll type and other types

CONSTRUCTION:

A reciprocating air compressor is one which reciprocates inside a cylinder (liner) unit. The piston moves
up and down continuously to pump the air after compression into the air receiver. Important parts of a
reciprocating air compressor are as follows:
 Cylinder Head,
 Suction/ Intake valve,
 Delivery valve,
 Cylinder liner/ Wall/ cooling water jacket,
 Compressor casing,
 Crank case,
  Piston,
 Connecting rod,
 Crank shaft,
 Main Bearings,
 Bed plate or Bottom structure,
 Foundation,
 Lubricating Oil strainer,
 Stage relief valves,
 Intercoolers,
 After-coolers,
 Suction filter, and other minor components.

WORKING:
In single stage reciprocating air compressor, the entire compression is carried out in a single cylinder.If
the compression is affected in one end of the piston & cylinder then it is known as single acting & if the
compression is affected in both ends of piston & cylinder then it is known as a double acting reciprocating
air compressor.The opening & closing of a simple check valve (plate or spring valve) depends upon the
difference in pressure, if mechanically operated valves are used for suction & discharge then their
functioning is controlled by cams.The weight of air in the cylinder will be zero when the piston is at top
dead center. At this position, you have to neglect clearance volume.When piston starts moving
downwards, the pressure inside the cylinder falls below atmospheric pressure& suction valve/inlet valve
opens.The air is drawn into the cylinder through a suction filter element. This operation is known as
suction stroke.When the piston moves upwards, compresses the air in cylinder & inlet valve closes when
the pressure reaches to atmospheric pressure.Further compression follows as the piston moves towards the
top of its stroke. Until when the pressure in the cylinder exceeds that in the receiver.This is compression
stroke of a compressor. At the end of this stroke discharge/delivery valve opens & air is delivered to a
receiver.When it is a double acting reciprocating air compressor, suction stroke is in process at one end of
the piston. While at same time discharge stroke is in process at another end of the piston.
In simple word, we can say that suction & compression took place on both ends of piston & cylinder in
double acting reciprocating air compressor.
Double stage or two stage reciprocating air compressors consists of two cylinders. One is called low-
pressure cylinder and another is called high-pressure cylinder.When piston in a low-pressure cylinder is at
its outer dead center (ODC) the weight of air inside a cylinder is zero (neglecting clearance volume), as
piston moves towards inner dead center (IDC) pressure falls below atmospheric pressure & suction valves
open due to a pressure difference.The fresh air is drawn into the low-pressure cylinder through air suction
filter. This air is further compressed by piston and pressure inside & outside the cylinder is equal, at this
point suction valves closed.As the piston moves towards ODC compression of air took place and when the
pressure of air is in a range of 1.5 kg/cm² to 2.5 kg/cm² delivery valves opens & this compressed air is
then entered into a high-pressure cylinder through the intercooler.
This called as low-pressure compression.If suction & discharge stroke took place on both sides of the
piston then it is called Double Acting Low-pressure compression.Suction valves of a high-pressure
cylinder open when the air pressure in a high-pressure side is below to the receiver pressure & air from
low-pressure cylinder drawn into the high-pressure cylinder.As piston moves towards the ODC, first stage
air is further compressed. When air pressure from the low-pressure cylinder and inside the high-pressure
cylinder is equal, suction valves closed.Now the air is further compressed by piston until the pressure in
the High-Pressure Cylinder exceeds that in the receiver & discharge valves open. This desired high-
pressure air is then delivered to a receiver.The Same procedure is repeated in every cycle of operation. If
suction & discharge stroke took place on both sides of the piston then it is called double-acting high-
pressure compression. In double stage, reciprocating air compressor air pressure can be developed in a
range of 5.5 kg/cm² to 35 kg/cm².Normally where we required air pressure above 7.0 kg/cm² & delivery of
air above 100 cubic feet/min. this double stage reciprocating air compressor is used. This is the most
common model used in various engineering plants. If we required air pressure above 35 kg/cm², this
double stage reciprocating air compressor is not useful.

Working Principle of Multi-Stage Air Compressor

Some industries required air pressure more than 35 kg/cm² to produce their product. For example, mineral
water bottle (pet blowing) requires air pressure more than 40 kg/cm². To produce the desired shape of a
bottle at the bottom side. Here Two Stage Reciprocating Air Compressor is not useful; we required the air
compressor, who generates air pressure above 35 kg/cm².This discharge air pressure is achieved by a
multi-stage air compressor. We normally use three stage reciprocating air compressors as a multi-stage air
compressor. If we required discharge air pressure above 85 kg/cm² then four-stage air compressors are
useful. The working principle of multistage air compressor is same as double stage air compressor. In
three stage air compressor, fresh air from the atmosphere enters in a first stage (low pressure) cylinder. Air
enters through a suction filter. This air is compressed by piston up to 4 kg/cm² & then delivered to the
second stage (middle pressure) cylinder through intercooler for further compression. In this stage suction
and compression took place on both sides of the piston.

In the second stage cylinder low-pressure air is compressed up to 14 kg/cm² & discharge to the third stage
(high pressure) cylinder through the second intercooler to achieve air pressure up to desired delivery
pressure. During this stage suction and compression took place on one side of the piston. At high-pressure
cylinder, the 14 kg/cm² air pressure is increased up to desired discharge range. It is from 35 kg/cm² to 85
kg/cm² by the piston reciprocating inside the high-pressure cylinder. In this stage suction and compression
took place on both sides of the piston. Multistage reciprocating air compressor are used in few industries
like Pet Blowing, CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) Center etc.
Experiment no. 7:-
Objective:-
To find out IHP,BHP and specific fuel consumption and mechanical efficiency.

Theory:-
Engine performance is an indication of the degree of success of the engine performs its assigned task,
i.e. the conversion of the chemical energy contained in the fuel into the useful mechanical work. The
performance of an engine is evaluated on the basis of the following :

(a) Specific Fuel Consumption.

(b) Brake Mean Effective Pressure.

(c) Specific Power Output.

(d) Specific Weight.

(e) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions

The main purpose of running an engine is to obtain mechanical power.

• Power is defined as the rate of doing work and is equal to the product of force and linear velocity or
the product of torque and angular velocity.

• Thus, the measurement of power involves the measurement of force (or torque) as well as speed. The
force or torque is measured with the help of a dynamometer and the speed by a tachometer.

Brake power:-
The power developed by an engine and measured at the output shaft is called the brake power (bp) and
The brake power (briefly written as b.p.) is the power available at the crank shaft. The brake power of an
I.c. engine is, usually, measured by means of brake mechanism (prony brake or rope brake) is given by,

In case of prony brake ,

w=brake load in newtons,

L=length of arm in meters,

N=speed of the engine in R.P.M

T=torque in n-m

Brake power of the engine,

B.P=2TπN÷60 watts
Indicated Power:-
The total power developed by combustion of fuel in the combustion chamber is, however, more than the
bp and is called indicated power (ip). Of the power developed by the engine, i.e. ip, some power is
consumed in overcoming the friction between moving parts, some in the process of inducting the air and
removing the products of combustion from the engine combustion chamber.

It is the power developed in the cylinder and thus, forms the basis of evaluation of combustion
efficiency or the heat release in the cylinder.

IP=PimLANK÷60 Kw

Where, Pim= Mean effective pressure, N/m2,

L = Length of the stroke, m,

A = Area of the piston, m2,

N = Rotational speed of the engine, rpm (It is N/2 for four stroke engine), and

K = Number of cylinders.

Efficiency Of I.C. Engine:-

Engine efficiency refers to an engine's ability to transform the available energy from its fuel into useful
work power. The modern gasoline combustion engine operates at an average of roughly 20 to 30 percent
engine efficiency

The efficiency of an IC engine (Internal Combustion Engine) is defined as the ratio of workdone to the
energy supplied to an engine. The following efficiencies of an I.C. engine are important:

(a) Mechanical efficiency:-

It is the ratio of brake power (B.P.) to the indicated power (I.P.). It may be observed that the mechanical
efficiency is always less than unity (i.e., 100%) because some power is lost in overcoming the engine
friction. In other word, the indicated power is always greater than brake power. The power, which is lost
in overcoming the engine friction, is known as frictional power.

Mathematically, mechanical efficiency,

Ƞm =B.P/I.P

F.P=I.P-B.P

(b) Overall efficiency:-

It is the ratio of the work obtained at the crankshaft in a given time to the energy supplied by the fuel
during the same time.
Mathematically,

ȠO =(B.P×60×60)÷(mf×C)

(c) Indicated thermal efficiency:-

It is the ratio of the heat equivalent to one kW hour to the heat in the fuel per I.P. hour.

Mathematically, indicated thermal efficiency, Ƞt =(I.P×3600)÷(mf×C)

The following ratio is Known as specific fuel consumption per I.P. hour.(mf/I.P)

(d) Brake thermal efficiency:-

It is the ratio of the heat equivalent to one kW hour to the heat in the fuel per B.P. hour.

Mathematically, brake thermal efficiency, Ƞb =(B.P×3600)÷(mf×C)

The following ratio is known as specific fuel consumption per B. P. hour:

(e) Air standard efficiency:-

The general expression for the air standard efficiency is given as

1
(For petrol engines) Ƞair =1- 𝛾−1

1
(For diesel engines) Ƞair =1- 𝛾−1
× 𝜌𝛾 − 1 /𝛾 𝜌 − 1

(f) Relative efficiency:-

It is also known as efficiency ratio. The relative efficiency of an I. C. engine is the ratio of the indicated
thermal efficiency to the air standard efficiency.

Mathematically,
𝐼 𝑖 𝑎 ℎ 𝑎 𝑖 𝑖 𝑦
ȠR = 𝐴𝑖 𝑎 𝑎 𝑖 𝑖 𝑦

(g) Volumetric efficiency:-

It is the ratio of the actual volume of charge admitted during the suction stroke at N.T.P to the swept
volume of the piston.

Mathematically,
𝑉 ℎ𝑎 𝑎 𝑖 𝑎 𝑁. .𝑃
ȠV =
ℎ 𝑖
Experiment no. 6:-
Objective:-
Locate and draw the cooling circuit of multi-cylinder engine and study the construction of the
radiator and locate and draw the lubricating circuit of a single cylinder diesel engine

Theory:-
A cooling circuit arrangement for a multi-cylinder internal combustion engine with V-shaped
cylinder banks and cooling jackets which surround the cylinder banks and which are provided with
cooling liquid by a pump arranged between the two cylinder banks on one of their face sides is
disclosed. The pressure-sided connection of the coolant pump, arranged on the one face side of the
two cylinder banks, is connected by a coolant pipe to a distributor pipe, arranged on the other face
side of the cylinder banks, for the purpose of feeding cooling liquid. A return flow chamber for the
coolant from the cooling jackets is arranged between the two cylinder banks adjacent to the pump
housing. In this manner the space, existing between the two cylinder banks, is utilized for a part of
the coolant arrangement so that the internal combustion engine exhibits a compact design.

A system, which controls the engine temperature, is known as a cooling system.

Necessity Of Cooling System:-

The cooling system is provided in the IC engine for the following reasons:

• The temperature of the burning gases in the engine cylinder reaches up to 1500 to 2000°C, which is
above the melting point of the material of the cylinder body and head of the engine. (Platinum, a
metal which has one of the highest melting points, melts at 1750 °C, iron at 1530°C and aluminium
at 657°C.) Therefore, if the heat is not dissipated, it would result in the failure of the cylinder
material.

• Due to very high temperatures, the film of the lubricating oil will get oxidized, thus producing
carbon deposits on the surface. This will result in piston seizure.

• Due to overheating, large temperature differences may lead to a distortion of the engine
components due to the thermal stresses set up. This makes it necessary for, the temperature variation
to be kept to a minimum. Higher temperatures also lower the volumetric efficiency of the engine.

Requirements Of Efficient Cooling System:-

The two main requirements of an efficient cooling system are:

1. It must be capable of removing only about 30% of the heat generated in the combustion chamber.
Too much removal of heat lowers the thermal efficiency of the engine.

2. It should remove heat at a fast rate when the engine is hot. During the starting of the engine, the
cooling should be very slow so that the different working parts reach their operating temperatures in
a short time.
Types Of Cooling System:-

There are two types of cooling systems:

(i) Air cooling system and

(ii) Water-cooling system.

Air Cooling System:-

In this type of cooling system, the heat, which is conducted to the outer parts of the engine, is
radiated and conducted away by the stream of air, which is obtained from the atmosphere. In order to
have efficient cooling by means of air, providing fins around the cylinder and cylinder head
increases the contact area.

The fins are metallic ridges, which are formed during the casting of the cylinder and cylinder head
The amount of heat carried off by the air-cooling depends upon the following factors:

(i) The total area of the fin surfaces,

(ii) The velocity and amount of the cooling air and

(iii) The temperature of the fins and of the cooling air.

Air-cooling is mostly tractors of less horsepower, motorcycles, scooters, small cars and small aircraft
engines where the forward motion of the machine gives good velocity to cool the engine. Air-
cooling is also provided in some small industrial engines. In this system, individual cylinders are
generally employed to provide ample cooling area by providing fins. A blower is used to provide air.
Advantages of Air Cooled Engines:-

Air cooled engines have the following advantages:

 Its design of air-cooled engine is simple.

 It is lighter in weight than water-cooled engines due to the absence of water jackets, radiator,
circulating pump and the weight of the cooling water.
 It is cheaper to manufacture.
 It needs less care and maintenance.
 This system of cooling is particularly advantageous where there are extreme climatic
conditions in the arctic or where there is scarcity of water as in deserts.
 No risk of damage from frost, such as cracking of cylinder jackets or radiator water tubes.

Water Cooling System:-

It serves two purposes in the working of an engine:

a) It takes away the excessive heat generated in the engine and saves it from over heating.

b) It keeps the engine at working temperature for efficient and economical working.

This cooling system has four types of systems:

(i) Direct or non-return system,

(ii) Thermo-Syphone system,

(iii) Hopper system and

(iv) Pump/forced circulation system.

Non-Return Water Cooling System:-

This is suitable for large installations and where plenty of water is available. The water from a
storage tank is directly supplied to the engine cylinder. The hot water is not cooled for reuse but
simply discharges. The low H.P. engine, coupled with the irrigation pump is an example.

Thermo-Syphone Water Cooling System:-

This system works on the principle that hot water being lighter rises up and the cold water being
heavier goes down. In this system the radiator is placed at a higher level than the engine for the easy
flow of water towards the engine. Heat is conducted to the water jackets from where it is taken away
due to convection by the circulating water. As the water jacket becomes hot, it rises to the top of the
radiator. Cold water from the radiator takes the place of the rising hot water and in this way a
circulation of water is set up m the system. This helps in keeping the engine at working temperature.

Disadvantages of Thermo-Syphone System:-

1 Rate of circulation is too slow.

2. Circulation commences only when there is a marked difference in temperature.

3. Circulation stops as the level of water falls below the top of the delivery pipe of the radiator. For
these reasons this system has become obsolete and is no more in use.

Hopper Water Cooling System:-

This also works on the same principle as the thermo-syphone system. In this there is a hopper on a
jacket containing water, which surrounds the engine cylinder. In this system, as soon as water starts
boiling, it is replaced by cold water. An engine fitted with this system cannot run for several hours
without it being refilled with water.

Force Circulation Water Cooling System:-

This system is similar in construction to the thermo-syphone system except that it makes use of a
centrifugal pump to circulate the water throughout the water jackets and radiator The water flows
from the lower portion of the radiator to the water jacket of the engine through the centrifugal pump.
After the circulation water comes back to the radiator, it loses its heat by the process of radiation.
This system is employed in cars, trucks, tractors, etc.

Parts of Liquid Cooling System:-

The main parts in the water-cooling system are:

(i) water pump, (ii) fan, (iii) radiator and pressure cap, (iv) fan belt (v) water jacket, (vi) thermostat
valve, (vii) temperature gauge and (viii) hose pipes.
Water Pump:-
This is a centrifugal type pump. It is centrally mounted at the front of the cylinder block and is
usually driven by means of a belt. This type of pump consists of the following parts: (i) body or
casing, (ii) impeller (rotor), (iii) shaft, (iv) bearings, or bush, (v) water pump seal and (vi) pulley.

The bottom of the radiator is connected to the suction side of the pump. The power is transmitted to
the pump spindle from a pulley mounted at the end of the crankshaft. Seals of various designs are
incorporated in the pump to prevent loss of coolant from the system.

Fan:-

The fan is generally mounted on the water pump pulley, although on some engines it is attached
directly to the crankshaft. It serves two purposes in the cooling system of a engine. It draws
atmospheric air through the radiator and thus increases the efficiency of the radiator in cooling hot
water. It throws fresh air over the outer surface of the engine, which takes away the heat conducted
by the engine parts and thus increases the efficiency of the entire cooling system.

Radiator:-

The purpose of the radiator is to cool down the water received from the engine. The radiator consists
of three main parts: (i) upper tank, (ii) lower tank and (iii) tubes.

Hot water from the upper tank, which comes from the engine, flows downwards through the tubes.
The heat contained in the hot water is conducted to the copper fins provided around the tubes.

An overflow pipe, connected to the upper1 tank, permits excess water or steam to escape. There are
three

Types of radiators:-
(i) Gilled tube radiator, (ii) Tubular radiator and (iii) Honey comb or Cellular radiator

Thermostat Valve:-

It is a kind of check valve which opens and closes with the effect of temperature. It is fitted in the
water outlet of the engine. During the warm-up period, the thermostat is closed and the water pump
circulates the water only throughout the cylinder block and cylinder head. When the normal
operating temperature is reached, the thermostat valve opens and allows hot water to flow towards
the radiator.

Standard thermostats are designed to start opening at 70 to 75°C and they fully open at 82°C. High
temperature thermostats, with permanent anti-freeze solutions (Prestine, Zerex, etc.), start opening at
80 to 90°C and fully open at 92°C.
Types of thermostat:-

There are three types of thermostats: (i) bellow type, (ii) bimetallic type and (iii) pellet type.

Pressure cooling system:-

In the case of the ordinary water-cooling system where the cooling water is subjected to atmospheric
pressure, the water boils at 212°F. But when water is boiled in a closed radiator under high pressure,
the boiling temperature of water increases. The higher water temperature gives more efficient engine
performance and affords additional protection under high altitude and tropical conditions for long
hard driving periods. Therefore, a pressure-type radiator cap is used with the forced circulation
cooling system. The cap is fitted on the radiator neck with an air tight seal. The pressure-release
valve is set to open at a pressure between 4 and 13 psi. With this increase in pressure, the boiling
temperature of water increases to 243°F (at 4 psi boiling tap 225°F and 13 psi boiling temperature
243°F). Any increase in pressure is released by the pressure release valve to the atmosphere. On
cooling, the vapours will condense and a partial vacuum will be created which will result in the
collapse of the hoses and tubes. To overcome this problem the pressure release valve is associated
with a vacuum valve which opens the radiator to the atmosphere.

Anti-Freeze Solutions:-

In order to prevent the water in the cooling system from freezing, some chemical solutions which are
known as anti-freeze solutions are mixed with water. In cold areas, if the engine is kept without this
solution for some time, the water may freeze and expand leading to fractures in the cylinder block,
cylinder head, pipes and/or radiators. The boiling point of the anti-freeze solution should be as high
as that of water. An ideal mixture should easily dissolve in water, be reasonably cheap and should
not deposit any foreign matter in the jacket pipes and radiator. No single anti-freeze solution satisfies
all these requirements. The materials commonly used are alcohol, denatured alcohol, glycerine,
ethylene, glycol, propylene glycol, mixtures of alcohol and glycerine and various mixtures of other
chemicals.

Servicing & Cleaning Of Cooling System:-

For smooth and trouble-free service, the cooling system should be cleaned at periodic intervals to
prevent the accumulation of excessive rust and scale. The commercial cleaning compounds available
must be carefully used in accordance with the manufacturers' instructions. A general cleaning
procedure is outlined below. If a considerable amount of scale and rust has accumulated, it may not
be possible that cleaning alone will remove it. In that case, the radiator and engine water jackets
must be flushed out with special air pressure guns.

Lubricating system:-
I.C. engine is made of many moving parts. Due to continuous movement of two metallic surfaces
over each other, there is wearing moving parts, generation of heat and loss of power in the engine
lubrication of moving parts is essential to prevent all these harmful effects.
Purpose of lubrication:-

Lubrication produces the following effects: (a) Reducing friction effect (b) Cooling effect (c)
Sealing effect and (d) Cleaning effect.

A good lubricant should have the following qualities:

1. It should have sufficient viscosity to keep the rubbing surfaces apart

2. It should remain stable under changing temperatures.

3. It should keep lubricated pans clean.

4. It should not corrode metallic surfaces.

Types of lubricating system:-

Splash System:-
In this system, there is an oil trough, provided
below the connecting rod. Oil is maintained at a
uniform level in the oil trough. This is obtained
by maintaining a continuous flow of oil from the
oil sump or reservoir into a splash pan, which has
a depression or a trough like arrangement under
each connecting rod. This pan receives its oil
supply from the oil sump either by means of a
Figure 3 gear pump or by gravity. A dipper is provided at
the lower end of the connecting rod. This dipper
dips into to oil trough and splashes oil out of the
pan. The splashing action of oil maintains a fog
or mist of oil that drenches the inner parts of the engine such as bearings, cylinder walls, pistons,
piston pins, timing gears etc.

This system is usually used on single cylinder engine with closes crankcase. For effective
functioning of the engine, proper level of oil maintained in the oil pan. Lubrication depends largely
upon the size of oil holes and clearances. This system is very effective if the oil is clean and
undiluted. Its disadvantages are that lubrication is not very uniform and when the rings are worn, the
oil passes the piston into combustion chamber, causing carbon deposition, blue smoke and spoiling
the plugs. There is every possibility that oil may become very thin through crankcase dilution. The
worn metal, dust and carbon may be collected in the oil chamber and be carried to different parts of
the engine, causing wear and tear.
 Forced Feed System:-
In this system, the oil is pumped directly
lo the crankshaft, connecting rod, piston
pin, timing gears and camshaft of the
engine through suitable paths of oil.
Usually the oil first enters the main
gallery, which may be a pipe or a
channel in the crankcase casting. From
this pipe, it goes to each of the main
bearings through holes. From main
bearings, it goes to big end bearings of
connecting rod through drilled holes in
the crankshaft. From there, it goes to
lubricate the walls, pistons and rings.
There is separate oil gallery to lubricate
timing gears. Lubricating oil pump is a
positive displacement pump, usually gear type or vane' type. The oil also goes to valve stem and
rocker arm shaft under pressure through an oil gallery. The excess oil comes back from the cylinder
head to the crankcase. The pump discharges oil into oil pipes, oil galleries or ducts, leading different
parts of the engine. This system is commonly used on high speed multi-cylinder engine in tractors,
trucks and automobiles.

Pressure feed system:-

In this system, the engine
component, which are subjected
to very heavy load are lubricated
under forced pressure, such as
main bearing connecting rod
bearing and camshaft bearing.
The rest of the parts like cylinder
liners, cams, tappets etc are
lubricated by splashed oil. Oil
pump: Oil pump is usually a gear
type pump, used to force oil into
the oil pipe. The pump is driven
by the camshaft of t engine. The
down into the crankcase which is
covered with a screen to check
Figure 2 foreign particles.
 A portion of the oil forced to the oil filter and the remaining oil goes to lubricate various part of the
engine. An oil pressure gauge fitted in the line, indicates the oil pressure in the lubricating system.
About 3 kg/sq cm (45 psi) pressure is developed in the lubrication system of a tractor engine,

if the oil pressure gauge indicates no pressure in the line, there is some defect in the system which
must be checked immediately. Lubricating oil pump is a positive displacement pump.

Troubles In Lubrication System:-

There are a few common troubles in lubrication system such as: (1) Excessive oil consumption (2)
Low oil pressure and (3) Excessive oil pressure-

Excessive oil consumption:-

When there is excessive oil consumption in the engine, the reasons arc : (a) more oil goes to
combustion chamber and gets burnt (b) some leakage occurs in some part of - the line and (c) loss of
oil in form of vapour through ventilating system. Oil can enter the combustion chamber through
rings and cylinder walls, worn piston rings and worn bearings.

Low oil pressure:-

Low oil pressure can result due to: (i) weak relief valve spring (ii) worn oil pump (iii) cracked oil
line (iv) obstruction in the oil lines (v) very thin oil and (vi) worn out bearings. Care should be taken
to remove these defects as far as possible to increase the oil pressure in the lubricating system.
Sometimes defective oil pressure indicator shows low oil pressure. This should be checked.

Excessive oil pressure:-

Excessive oil pressure may result due to : (i) stuck relief valve (ii) strong valve spring (iii) clogged
oil line and (iv) very heavy oil. These defects should be removed to reduce the excessive oil pressure
in the lubricating system. Sometimes defective oil pressure indicator records high oil pressure. Care
should be taken to check this defect.