A Laboratory Guide to Clinical

Hematology
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical
Hematology
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical
Hematology

VALENTIN VILLATORO AND MICHELLE TO

EDMONTON
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology by Michelle To is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0
International License, except where otherwise noted.

Please be aware that the content for the entirety of this eBook is subject to a creative common
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changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the
licensor endorses you or your use.
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Contents

Authors & Editors ................................................................................................................................... xii

Creative Commons License and Citation ............................................................................................... xiii
Contact Information and Feedback ......................................................................................................... xv
Acknowledgements and Funding ........................................................................................................... xvi
ERA: Education and Research Archive ................................................................................................. xvii
How To Use This eBook ....................................................................................................................... xviii
Common Abbreviations Used .................................................................................................................. xx
Red Blood Cells: Normal Morphology .................................................................................................... 21
Red Blood Cell Maturation .............................................................................................................. 22
Red Blood Cell Indices, Colour, and Size ......................................................................................... 32
Red Blood Cells: Abnormal RBC Morphology ......................................................................................... 44
Poikilocytosis ................................................................................................................................... 45
Acanthocytes (Spur Cells) ................................................................................................................ 47
Agglutination ................................................................................................................................... 49
Bite (Keratocyte) & Blister (Helmet) Cells ...................................................................................... 52
Dimorphic Population ...................................................................................................................... 55
Echinocytes (Burr Cells) .................................................................................................................. 57
Elliptocytes & Ovalocytes ................................................................................................................ 59
Pyknocytes ....................................................................................................................................... 62
Rouleaux .......................................................................................................................................... 64
Schistocytes ..................................................................................................................................... 66
Sickle Cells (Drepanocytes) ............................................................................................................. 68
Spherocytes ..................................................................................................................................... 70
Stomatocytes ................................................................................................................................... 73
Target Cells (Codocytes) .................................................................................................................. 75
Tear Cells (Dacrocytes, Teardrops) ................................................................................................. 77
Red Blood Cells: Abnormal RBC Inclusions ............................................................................................ 79
Basophilic Stippling ......................................................................................................................... 80
Cabot Rings ...................................................................................................................................... 82
Heinz Bodies .................................................................................................................................... 84
Hemoglobin H (Hb H) ...................................................................................................................... 86
Hemoglobin C Crystals .................................................................................................................... 88
Hemoglobin SC Crystals .................................................................................................................. 89
Howell-Jolly Bodies .......................................................................................................................... 90
Pappenheimer Bodies (Siderotic Granules) ..................................................................................... 92
Bacteria & Fungi ............................................................................................................................. 95
Malaria ............................................................................................................................................. 97
Babesia .......................................................................................................................................... 100
 Trypanosomes ................................................................................................................................ 101
Red Blood Cells: Hypochromic, Microcytic Anemias ............................................................................ 103
Iron Deficiency Anemia (IDA) ........................................................................................................ 104
Anemia of Chronic Inflammation/Disease (ACI/ACD) .................................................................... 106
Sideroblastic Anemia ..................................................................................................................... 108
Thalassemia ................................................................................................................................... 110
Iron Studies ................................................................................................................................... 117
Red Blood Cells: DNA Metabolism Abnormalities & Bone Marrow Failure ......................................... 119
Megaloblastic Anemia .................................................................................................................... 120
Non-Megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia ......................................................................................... 125
Aplastic Anemia ............................................................................................................................. 128
Red Blood Cells: Introduction to Hemolytic Anemias ........................................................................... 130
Introduction to Hemolytic Anemias ............................................................................................... 131
Red Blood Cells: Hemoglobinopathies .................................................................................................. 135
Normal Hemoglobin Structure ...................................................................................................... 136
Sickle Cell (Hemoglobin SS) Disease ............................................................................................ 137
Sickle Cell Trait (Hemoglobin AS) ................................................................................................. 140
Hemoglobin C (Hb CC) Disease ..................................................................................................... 142
Hemoglobin SC Disease ................................................................................................................. 144
Red Blood Cells: Extrinsic Defects Causing Hemolytic Anemias ......................................................... 146
Microangiopathic Hemolytic Anemias (MAHAs) ........................................................................... 147
Macroangiopathic Hemolytic Anemias .......................................................................................... 149
Immune-Mediated Hemolytic Anemias .......................................................................................... 152
Infectious Agents ........................................................................................................................... 161
Red Blood Cells: Intrinsic Defects of the RBC Membrane Causing Hemolytic Anemia ....................... 166
Hereditary Spherocytosis .............................................................................................................. 167
Hereditary Elliptocytosis & Related Variants ................................................................................ 170
Hereditary Stomatocytosis Syndromes .......................................................................................... 174
Hereditary Acanthocytosis (Abetalipoproteinemia) ....................................................................... 177
Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria (PNH) .............................................................................. 179
Glucose-6-phosphate Dehydrogenase (G6PD) Deficiency ............................................................. 181
Pyruvate Kinase (PK) Deficiency ................................................................................................... 184
White Blood Cells and Platelets: Normal Morphology ......................................................................... 187
Granulocytes and Granulocyte Maturation .................................................................................... 188
Lymphocytes .................................................................................................................................. 199
Plasma Cells ................................................................................................................................... 203
Monocytes ...................................................................................................................................... 205
Macrophages ................................................................................................................................. 207
Megakaryocytes ............................................................................................................................. 209
Platelets ......................................................................................................................................... 211
White Blood Cells: Non-Malignant Leukocyte Disorders ...................................................................... 214
 Neutrophil Hyposegmentation ....................................................................................................... 215
Neutrophil Hypersegmentation ..................................................................................................... 217
Toxic Changes ................................................................................................................................ 219
Pelger-Huet Anomaly ..................................................................................................................... 222
Chediak-Higashi Syndrome ........................................................................................................... 225
Alder-Reilly Anomaly ..................................................................................................................... 228
May-Hegglin Anomaly .................................................................................................................... 230
Chronic Granulomatous Disease .................................................................................................... 232
Infectious Mononucleosis/Reactive Lymphocytes ......................................................................... 234
White Blood Cells: Acute Leukemia ...................................................................................................... 237
Introduction to Leukemias ............................................................................................................. 238
Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) ........................................................................................... 241
Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (AML) ............................................................................................ 244
Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia (APL) ............................................................................................ 247
Cytochemical Testing ..................................................................................................................... 249
Flow Cytometry, Cytogenetics & Molecular Genetics ................................................................... 254
White Blood Cells: Mature Lymphoid Neoplasms ................................................................................ 257
Introduction to Mature Lymphoid Neoplasms ............................................................................... 258
Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) .......................................................................................... 260
Hairy Cell Leukemia (HCL) ............................................................................................................ 262
Waldenstrom Macroglobulinemia .................................................................................................. 265
Monoclonal Gammopathy of Undetermined Significance (MGUS) ............................................... 267
Plasma Cell Myeloma (Multiple Myeloma) .................................................................................... 269
White Blood Cells: Myeloproliferative Neoplasms (MPN) .................................................................... 274
Introduction to Myeloproliferative Neoplasms (MPNs) ................................................................. 275
Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML) ........................................................................................ 277
Polycythemia Vera (PV) ................................................................................................................. 281
Essential Thrombocythemia (ET) ................................................................................................... 287
Primary Myelofibrosis (PMF) ......................................................................................................... 290
White Blood Cells: Myelodysplastic Syndromes (MDS) ........................................................................ 293
Introduction to Myelodysplastic Syndromes (MDS) ...................................................................... 294
MDS: Dyserythropoiesis, Dysmyelopoiesis & Dysmegakaryopoiesis ............................................ 296
Thank You ............................................................................................................................................. 302
Authors & Editors
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Author

Michelle To

Student
Division of Medical Laboratory Science
Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology
Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta

Author & Editor

Valentin (Tino) Villatoro, MEd (HSE), BSc (MLS), MLT

Assistant Professor & Clinical Coordinator

Division of Medical Laboratory Science
Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology
Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta

xii
Creative Commons License and
Citation
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Please be aware that the content for the entirety of this eBook is subject to a creative common
license: Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0)

You are free to:

Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format

Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material
The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as you follow the license terms.

Under the following terms:

Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if
changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the
licensor endorses you or your use.
NonCommercial — You may not use the material for commercial purposes.

No additional restrictions — You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that
legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.

Citation for this eBook:

To M, Villatoro V. Clinical Hematology eBook [e-book]. Edmonton (AB): University of Alberta; 2018

xiii
[cited yyyy/MON/dd]. Available from: https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/

xiv
Contact Information and Feedback
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

This is eBook will be constantly updated, edited, and reviewed as new emerging information arises.
Should you have any suggestions, feedback, questions, or corrections regarding the content of this
eBook, please contact Valentin (Tino) Villatoro. His contact information is listed below:

Email: valentin@ualberta.ca

Notice an issue or error? Use our Troubleshooting form to notify us:

https://docs.google.com/a/ualberta.ca/forms/d/1hT9uI8glWpQ8ljnrMeFMAkUJgl3qsEu4_HpIpjlnekY/edit
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xv
Acknowledgements and Funding
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

To Gloria Kwon, for being the foundation for the Medical Laboratory Science image collection and for
your unwavering support throughout the creation of this eBook.

The initial creation of this eBook was funded and supported by an Open Education Resources Award
granted by the Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL) at the University of Alberta. Special thanks
to Michelle Brailey and Krysta McNutt for your assistance throughout this process.

The Authors would also like to thank the Division of Medical Laboratory Science at the University of
Alberta for providing the space and support for the creation of this eBook, and Alberta Health Services
and Covenant Health Medical Laboratories in the Edmonton Zone for providing microscope slides for
our teaching sets.

xvi
ERA: Education and Research Archive
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

ERA is an open-access digital library at the University of Alberta, containing different collections of
educational materials. A collection has been curated by the Medical Laboratory Science (MLS) program,
which currently contains over 300 hematology images. Images used in this eBook were obtained from
this collection and can be freely accessed via the DOI links provided in the image descriptions. Other
hematology images not in this eBook are also available in ERA as an additional resource. The image
collection can be accessed here: Medical Laboratory Science Collection

Please be aware that all images found in the ERA MLS collection are subject to a creative
commons license: Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0)

You are free to:

Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format

Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material
The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as you follow the license terms.

Under the following terms:

Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if
changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the
licensor endorses you or your use.
NonCommercial — You may not use the material for commercial purposes.

No additional restrictions — You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that
legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.

xvii
How To Use This eBook
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=44

1. Proceed to the previous chapter

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xix
Common Abbreviations Used
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Below is a list of abbreviations commonly used in this eBook:

RBC Red Blood Cell

WBC White Blood Cell
PLT Platelet
BM Bone Marrow
PBS Peripheral Blood Smear
CBC Complete Blood Count
MCV Mean Cell Volume
MCH Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin
MCHC Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration
RDW Red Cell Distribution Width
Hb Hemoglobin
Hct Hematocit
RETIC Reticulocyte
nRBC Nucleated Red Blood Cell
TIBC Total Iron Binding Capacity
M:E Myeloid to Erythroid Ratio
N:C Nuclear to Cytoplasmic Ratio
LD Lactate Dehydrogenase
EVH Extravascular Hemolysis
IVH Intravascular Hemolysis
HPLC High Performance Liquid Chromatography
DAT Direct Antiglobulin Test
IAT Indirect Antiglobulin Test
CD Cluster of Differentiation/Designation
WHO World Health Organization

xx
 I
RED BLOOD CELLS: NORMAL
MORPHOLOGY
 1
Red Blood Cell Maturation
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Pronormoblast (Rubriblast, Proerythroblast)

Image shows a pronormoblast in a bone marrow

smear. 100x oil immersion. From MLS Collection, Image taken from a bone marrow smear shows a
University of Alberta, pronoroblast in the center. 100x oil immersion.
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3S46HN49 From MLS Collection, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3KW5803R

Notes: Largest of the RBC maturation series 1

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: 8:1 (High) 1,2

Nucleoli: 0-2 2,3

22
 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Nucleus:1-3

Round to oval, central

Fine, homogeneous chromatin

Reddish-blue colour under Wright stain

Cytoplasm:1-3

Small to moderate amount of cytoplasm

Dark blue cytoplasm (due to large RNA content)

Golgi may be seen (pale area next to the nucleus)

1-3
% in Bone Marrow: 1%

Basophilic Normoblast (Prorubricyte, Basophilic

Erythroblast)

Image taken from a bone

marrow smear shows a Image taken from a bone
marrow smear shows a Image taken from a bone
basophilic normoblast (center marrow smear shows a
top). A metameylocyte is basophilic normoblast in the

23
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

present on the right of the cell. center. 100x oil immersion. basophilic normoblast in the
From MLS Collection, From MLS Collection, center. 100x oil immersion.
University of Alberta, University of Alberta, From MLS Collection,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3PC2T https://doi.org/10.7939/R38C9R University of Alberta,
Q99 K46 https://doi.org/10.7939/R3HX16
62B

Notes: Smaller than Pronormoblasts 3

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: 6:1 1

Nucleoli: 0-1 2

1-3
Nucleus:

Round to slightly oval, central

Chromatin is coarser and slightly clumped

Dark violet in colour

Indistinct nuclei or not visible

1,2
Cytoplasm:

Dark blue (due to large RNA content)

May see a perinuclear halo (unstained mitocondria)

May have a slight pink tinge due to the production of hemoglobin

% in Bone Marrow: 1-5% 3

24
 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Polychromatic Normoblast (Rubricyte,

Polychromatic Erythroblast)

Image taken from a bone

marrow smear demonstrating An image taken from a bone
marrow smear showing two Image taken from a bone
two polychromatic normoblasts marrow smear showing
in the center. 100x oil polychromatic normoblasts
(left) beside a neutrophil multiple polychromatic
immersion. From MLS normoblasts. 100x oil
Collection, University of (right). 100x oil immersion.
From MLS Collection, immersion. From MLS
Alberta, Collection, University of
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3C53F University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3MP4 Alberta,
G8N https://doi.org/10.7939/R31J97
W36V
Q0D

Notes: Last RBC maturation stage capable of mitosis 1

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: 4:1 1-3

Nucleoli: None 2

1-3
Nucleus:

25
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Round, eccentric

Chromatin is coarse, irregularly clumped

1,2
Cytoplasm:

Abundant

Gray-blue to pink (due to hemoglobin production and RNA content)

% in Bone Marrow: 5-30% 3

% in Peripheral Blood: Normally NOT present in the peripheral blood but some may be seen in the

peripheral blood smears of newborns.3

Orthochromic Normoblast (Metarubricyte,

Orthochromatic Erythroblast)

Image taken from a bone

marrow smear showing two Image taken from a bone
marrow smear showing an An image from a bone marrow
orthochromic normoblasts in smear showing an
the center right. Note the dark orthochromic normoblast in the
center bottom. Note the dark orthochromic normoblast
staining nucleus and condensed (center) ejecting its condensed
chromatin. 100x oil immersion. staining nucleus and condensed
chromatin. 100x oil immersion. nucleus. 50x oil immersion.
From MLS Collection, From MLS Collection,

26
 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

University of Alberta, From MLS Collection, University of Alberta,

https://doi.org/10.7939/R30Z71 University of Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3599Z
C0H https://doi.org/10.7939/R3W669 H3P
Q5T

Notes: The smallest RBC precursor and incapable of further DNA synthesis at this stage.3

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: 1:1 (Low) 3

Nucleoli: None 2-3

Nucleus: 1,2

Round, eccentric

Fully condensed chromatin with pyknotic features

Cytoplasm: 1,2

Pink or salmon; May appear slightly blue due to residual RNA

% in Bone Marrow: 5-10% 2

% in Peripheral Blood: Normally NOT present in the peripheral blood but some may be seen in the

peripheral blood smears of newborns. 3

27
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Reticulocyte (Polychromatic Erythrocyte, Diffusely

Basophilic Erythrocyte)

A peripheral blood smear image representing

hereditary spherocytosis. Marked polychromasia is A image of a CLL peripheral blood smear showing
present representing increased amounts of polychromasia in numerous red blood cells. The
reticulocytes. 50x oil immersion. From MLS polychromasia represents reticulocytes. 50x oil
Collection, University of Alberta, immersion. From MLS Collection, University of
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3N873F1Q Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3513VB2P

A supravital stained peripheral blood smear

showing multiple reticulocytes (indicated by An image from a peripheral blood smear stained
arrows). Note the blue stained reticulum with a supravital stain showing Heinz Body
resembling “beads on a string”. 100x oil immersion. inclusions (large single blue inclusions) and
From MLS Collection, University of Alberta, reticulocytes containing dark-blue linear chains of
https://doi.org/10.7939/R31G0J94K granulation. New methylene blue. 50x oil
immersion. From MLS Collection, University of
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3WP9TN91

28
 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Notes: the nucleus has now been expelled from the cell, residual RNA gives the cell a polychromatic
appearance. The use of supravital stains can help to identify and enumerate Reticulocytes by visualizing
reticular inclusions (linear granulation, with a “beads on a string” appearance, see figure below). (Har
ch 1 pg 13)

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: N/A 2

Nucleoli: N/A 2

2
Nucleus: N/A

2,3
Cytoplasm:

Light blue-purple to pink (due to residual RNA content and high hemoglobin content)

2
% in Bone Marrow: 1%

2
% in Peripheral Blood: 0.5-2%

Erythrocyte (Discocyte)

29
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

An image from a peripheral blood smear showing An image from a peripheral blood smear showing
normochromic, normocytic red blood cells. A small normal mature erythrocytes. A neutrophil is
lymphocyte is present from comparison. 100x oil present for size comparison. 50x oil immersion.
immersion. From MLS Collection, University of From MLS Collection, University of Alberta,
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3W669Q69 https://doi.org/10.7939/R32J68K44

Notes: The mature red blood cell is biconcave in shape and lacks ribosomes and mitochondria;

therefore, it lacks the ability to synthesize proteins such as hemoglobin and enzymes such as G6PD.1

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: N/A 2

2
Nucleoli: N/A

2
Nucleus: N/A

2-3
Cytoplasm:

Pink-salmon colour with an area of central spanning one-third of the diameter. Cell should contain no
inclusions.

30
 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

2
% in Bone Marrow: N/A

% in Peripheral Blood: Predominant 2

References:

1. Robinson S, Hubbard J. The erythrocyte. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey:
Pearson; 2015. p. 59-76.

2. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Erythrocyte maturation. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri:
Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 17-30

3. Bell A, Harmening DM, Hughes VC. Morphology of human blood and marrow cells. In: Clinical
hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 1-41.

31
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

2
Red Blood Cell Indices, Colour, and
Size
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

RBC Indices

Red blood cell indices are useful parameters when investigating suspected anemia. They help provide a
general idea of the clinical picture, predict the red blood cell appearance, and aid in the classification of
anemia. These indices may be calculated using the red blood cell count, hematocrit, and hemoglobin values
generated by automated hematology analyzers, or directly measured in the case of MCV, depending on the

model of instrument being used.1,2

1. Mean Cell Volume (MCV)

MCV (fL, 10x-15L) = Hct (L/L) x 1000

RBC Count (x10-12/L)

*Reference range: 80-100 fL

MCV is the measurement of the average red blood cell volume and is used to classify red blood cells based on size 3,4

<80 fL Microcytic
80-100 fL Normocytic

>100 fL Macrocytic

Note: If the MCV is measured directly, it may be increased if there are many reticulocytes present.3

32
 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

2. Mean Cell Hemoglobin (MCH)

MCH (pg, 10x-12g) = Hb(g/L)

RBC Count (x10-12/L)

*Reference range: 28-36 pg

MCH is the measurement of the average hemoglobin weight in a red blood cell.3

3. Mean Cell Hemoglobin Concentration (MCHC)

MCHC (g/L) = Hb(g/L)

Hct (L/L)

*Reference range: 310-360 g/L

MCHC is the measurement of the hemoglobin concentration in a population of red blood cells. This is used to

denote the colour of the red blood cell population.3,5

<310 g/L Hypochromic

310-360 g/L Normochromic

>360 g/L Check for spherocytes or errors in Hb/Hct measurement (interferences)

4. Red Blood Cell Distribution Width (RDW)

RDW is the coefficient of variation or standard deviation of the MCV. Similar to the RBC indices, it is
determined by automated cell counting instruments and is used to predict the degree of red blood cell size

variation, known as anisocytosis.2-4

An increase in the RDW would indicate a higher presence of anisocytosis on the peripheral blood smear.2-4

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

A decrease in the RDW is not associated with any known abnormalities.2-4

*Reference range: 11.5-14.5%

*Please be aware that the reference ranges provided in this book were obtained from multiple sources and
may not accurately reflect the values used in your laboratory. References ranges vary depending on
institution, patient population, methodology and instrumentation. Laboratories should establish their own
ranges based on these factors for their own use.

Size

As previously described, MCV is used to classify red blood cells based on their size.

1. Normocytic RBCs

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=88

Peripheral blood smears showing normochromic, normocytic red blood cells. From MLS Collection,
University of Alberta.

Image 1: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3RJ4995W

Image 2: 60x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R35M62P2N

The MCV of normocytic RBCs fall within the normal reference ranges of 80-100 fL and the size should

34
 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

be around 7-8µm.6,7

Size comparison:Mature red blood cells are about the size of the nucleus of a small lymphocyte. It i

also approximately three normal red blood cells should fit within a normal neutrophil. 6

2. Microcytic RBCs

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=88

Peripheral blood smear images show numerous microcytic red blood cells. A small lymphocyte is
present and can be used for a size comparison. From MLS Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3599ZH07

Image 2: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3WS8J199

A microcytic red blood cell measures less than 7-8µm, and has an MCV that is <80 fL. The hemoglobin
concentration (MCHC) can be normal or decreased, and can help differentiate different clinical conditions or
severities of anemia.

Microcytes are commonly seen with any abnormalities involving hemoglobin synthesis and thus cells often

also appear hypochromic. 3,6,7

Size comparison: Microcytes are smaller than the size of the nucleus of a normal small lymphocyte. If a
normal neutrophil is being used for comparison, more than three microcytes can easily fit in a normal
neutrophil.

Associated Disease/Clinical States 7,8:

TAILS:

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Thalassemias

Anemia of chronic inflammation

Iron Deficiency Anemia

Lead poisoning

Sideroblastic Anemia

3. Macrocytic RBCs (Round/Oval)

Image shows the presence of oval macroctyes. A

small lymphocyte is present for a size comparison. A peripheral blood smear containing multiple oval
From MLS Collection, University of Alberta, macrocytes. A neutrophil and small lymphocyte are
https://doi.org/10.7939/R32J68K7K present for size comparison. 100x oil immersion.
From MLS Collection, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3T14V49N

36
 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

An image taken from a peripheral blood smear with An image from a peripheral blood smear containing
round macrocytes present. A neutrophil is present macrocytes and poikilocytosis. 100x oil immersion.
for a size comparison. 50x oil immersion. From From MLS Collection, University of Alberta,
MLS Collection, University of Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R33R0Q86J
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3W08WX8P

Red blood cells that are ⪰9µm in diameter and have an MCV that is >100 fL are considered macrocytic.
Macrocytes can appear as either round or oval, which can help differentiate the underlying abnormality

or disease that may be present.3,6,7

Shape MCV Associated Disease/Clinical State(s)

7

Oval Macrocytes Usually >110 fL Megaloblastic Anemia (Impaired DNA Synthesis)

Non-megaloblastic Anemias (stimulated erythropoiesis)

Round Macrocytes 100-110 fL Liver Disease
Myelodysplastic Syndromes (MDS)

Size comparison: Macrocytes are larger than normal small lymphocytes. The RBCs are large, therefore you
cannot fit three within a single normal neutrophil.

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

4. Anisocytosis

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=88

Images of peripheral blood smears showing anisocytosis (microcytes and normocytes are present).
From MLS Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3Q81574N

Image 2: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3ZS2KV2F

Anisocytosis is a term used to describe variation in red blood cell size in a peripheral blood smear. The degree

of anisocytosis should correlate with the Red Blood Cell Distribution Width (RDW).7

Note: If there is a wide variation of cell sizes present (microcytes and macrocytes), the MCV may appear

normal as it represents the average cell volume.3

Colour

As previously discussed, MCHC can be used to determine the “colour” of the red blood cell population

based on the average hemoglobin concentration.3

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

1. Normal (Normochromic) Red Blood Cells

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=88

An image from a peripheral blood smear showing normochromic, normocytic red blood cells. 50x oil
immersion. From MLS Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: https://doi.org/10.7939/R3H12VP79

Image 2: https://doi.org/10.7939/R3MS3KH27

Red blood cells appear normal with an area of central pallor spanning approximately one-third of the
diameter of the cell. MCHC and MCH are within normal ranges and cells are referred to as being

“Normochromic”.7

MCHC: 310-360 g/L

2. Hypochromic Cells

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=88

A peripheral blood smear demonstrating hypochromic red blood cells. From MLS Collection, University
of Alberta.

Image 1: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3XS5JX94

Image 2: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3930P92Z

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Image 3: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3JH3DH6Q

Red blood cells have an area of central pallor that is greater than one-third of the diameter of the cell.6 The
enlarged area of central pallor is due to a lack of hemoglobin content as a result of decreased hemoglobin

synthesis.3,4

The MCHC is the most appropriate RBC index to use when determining hypochromia, as the MCH is not as

specific.3,4

Hypochromia is often seen with microcytosis and thus have similar associated clinical and disease states.6

MCHC: <310 g/L.

Associated Disease/Clinical States 6:

TAILS:

Thalassemias

Anemia of chronic inflammation

Iron Deficiency Anemia

Lead poisoning

Sideroblastic Anemia

3. Polychromasia

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

A image of a CLL peripheral blood smear showing A peripheral blood smear image representing
polychromasia in numerous red blood cells. The hereditary spherocytosis. Marked polychromasia is
polychromasia represents reticulocytes. 50x oil present representing increased amounts of
immersion. From MLS Collection, University of reticulocytes. 50x oil immersion. From MLS
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3513VB2P Collection, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3N873F1Q

A peripheral blood smear demonstrating increased

polychromasisa (Stained pale blue-purple). From A peripheral blood smear showing a some
MLS Collection, University of Alberta, polychromasia. 50x oil immersion. From MLS
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3DZ03H3N Collection, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3CN6ZF3Z

The appearance of increased polychromasia on a peripheral blood smear is associated with increased red
blood cell production and an increased reticulocyte count. Polychromatic cells are larger than mature red

blood cells and have a blue-gray color due to the presence of residual RNA in immature red blood cells.3,9

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Polychromatic cells are referred to as a “reticulocyte” when the cells are stained with a supravital stain such as
New Methylene Blue. The supravital stain precipitates residual RNA, causing reticulocytes to have inclusions

of linear chains of granulation (reticulum).7,9

Associated Disease/Clinical States:6

Hemorrhage

Hemolysis

Neonates

References:

1. Glassman AB. Anemia, diagnosis and clinical considerations. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of
hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 82-92.

2. Hughes VC. Hematology methods. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 759-792.

3. Landis-Piwowar K, Landis J, Keila P. The complete blood count and peripheral blood smear evaluation. In:
Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 154-77.

4. Maedel LB, Doig K. Examination of the peripheral blood film and correlation with the complete blood count.
In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri; 2015. p. 235-52.

5. Clark KS, Hippel TC. Manual, semiautomated, and point-of-care testing in hematology. In: Rodak’s
hematology clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 187-234).

6. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Variations in size and colour of erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed. St.
Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 89-92.

7. Jones KW. Evaluation of cell morphology and introduction to platelet and white blood cell morphology. In:
Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p.
93-116.

8. Ford J. Red blood cell morphology. Int J Lab Hematol [Internet]. 2013 Mar 9 [cited 2018 Jul 12];35(3):351–7.
Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijlh.12082

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

9. Turgeon ML. Erythrocyte morphology and inclusions. In: Clinical hematology: theory and procedures. 4th
ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 99-111.

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

II
RED BLOOD CELLS: ABNORMAL RBC
MORPHOLOGY
 3
Poikilocytosis
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=131

Peripheral blood smears demonstrating marked poikilocytosis. From MLS Collection, University of
Alberta.

Image 1: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3KD1R163

Image 2: https://doi.org/10.7939/R3RV0DG2H

General Peripheral Blood Smear Description:

Poikilocytosis is a general term used to describe the collective presence of various abnormal red blood cell
shapes on a peripheral blood smear. Normal red blood cell morphology is described in the previous two
chapters but under certain clinical conditions, they can take on various shapes or morphologies. When certain

red blood cell shapes are predominant, this may be associated with specific disease states.1-3

Associated Disease/Clinical States:3-4

Hemolytic anemias

Thalassemia

Myelofibrosis

Hereditary pyropoikilocytosis

Note: See the rest of the chapter for other disease states related to a specific predominant abnormal

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

morphology.

References:

1. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Variations in shape and distribution of erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology atlas.
5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 93-106.

2. Jones KW. Evaluation of cell morphology and introduction to platelet and white blood cell
morphology. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 93-116.

3. Turgeon ML. Erythrocyte morphology and inclusions. In: Clinical hematology: theory and procedures.
4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 99-111.

4. Coetzer TL, Zail S. Introduction to hemolytic anemias: intracorpusculardefects: I. hereditary defects

of the red cell membrane. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 176-95.

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

4
Acanthocytes (Spur Cells)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image of a peripheral blood smear containing

some acanthocytes. 50x oil immersion. From MLS An image of a peripheral blood smear containing
Collection, University of Alberta, some acanthocytes (examples shown with arrows).
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3MP4W32X 50x oil immersion. From MLS Collection, University
of Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3MP4W32X

Cell Description:

Red blood cells appear small and dense, lacking an area of central pallor with multiple spiky projections
(spicules) of varying lengths protruding from the membrane. Projections are irregularly distributed around

the cell membrane.1-3

Cell Formation:

Acanthocyte formation occurs as a result of either hereditary or acquired membrane defects. Defects that
cause an imbalance between the membrane cholesterol and lipid content affect the RBC’s ability to deform
resulting in more rigid plasma membrane. Red blood cells are then remodelled in circulation, resulting in an

acanthocyte.1,3,4

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Associated Disease/Clinical States:1-5

Abetalipoproteinemia (Inherited)

Lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) Deficiency

Liver Disease

Post-splenectomy

Pyruvate Kinase (PK) Deficiency

References:

1. Cochran-Black D. Hemolytic anemia: membrane defects. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed.
New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 317-33.

2. Manchanda N. Anemias: red blood morphology and approach to diagnosis. In: Rodak’s hematology
clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 284-96.

3. Turgeon ML. Normal erythrocyte lifecycle and physiology. In: Clinical hematology: theory and
procedures. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 71-98

4. Harmening D. The red blood cell: structure and function. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of
hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 759-792.

5. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Variations in shape and distribution of erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology
atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 93-106.

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

5
Agglutination
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

A peripheral blood smear demonstrating

agglutination of red blood cells. 10x magnification. A peripheral blood smear demonstrating severe
From MLS Collection, University of Alberta, agglutination of red blood cells. 10x magnification.
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3C824V90 From MLS Collection, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R34J0BC72

A peripheral blood smear demonstrating

autoagglutination of red blood cells. 50x oil An image from a peripheral blood smear showing
immersion. From MLS Collection, University of agglutination of red blood cells. The arrow points to
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3599ZH26 a cluster of red blood cells. 50x magnification.
From MLS Collection, University of Alberta,

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

https://doi.org/10.7939/R3SB3XD80

Cell Description:

This alteration of RBC distribution presents as irregular and random grape-like clusters or clumps.

Agglutination is differentiated from Rouleaux by the lack of linear chains or “coin staking”. 1-4

The outlines of individual cells may not be evident.

Cell Formation:

Agglutination is caused by the formation of antibody-antigen complexes and occurs at room temperatures.
Auto-agglutination is produced as a result of a complex formed between the patient’s own RBC antigens and
antibodies, mediated by cold-reacting antibodies. Agglutination can be reversed when the blood sample is

warmed to 37°C.1,2,5

Associated Disease/Clinical States: 2-4

Cold Hemagglutinin Disease

Paroxysmal Cold Hemoglobinuria

Cold Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia

Note: Formation is NOT reversed with the addition of saline.5

References:

1. Hemolytic anemia: membrane defects. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey:
Pearson; 2015. p. 317-33.

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

2. Jones KW. Evaluation of cell morphology and introduction to platelet and white blood cell
morphology. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 93-116.

3. Ford J. Red blood cell morphology. Int J Lab Hematol [Internet]. 2013 Mar 9 [cited 2018 Jul
12];35(3):351–7. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijlh.12082

4. Turgeon ML. Normal erythrocyte lifecycle and physiology. In: Clinical hematology: theory and
procedures. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 71-98.

5. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Variations in shape and distribution of erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology
atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 93-106.

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

6
Bite (Keratocyte) & Blister (Helmet)
Cells
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image of a peripheral blood smear with bite

cells present (indicated with arrows). 100x oil An image of a peripheral blood smear with bite
immersion. From MLS Collection, University of cells present (indicated with arrows). 100x oil
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3CC0V83F immersion. From MLS Collection, University of
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3V698T3M

A peripheral blood smear demonstrating a blister

A peripheral blood smear with a blister cell present

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

cell (shown with an arrow). 100x oil immersion. (shown with an arrow). From MLS Collection,
From MLS Collection, University of Alberta, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3H12VP5B https://doi.org/10.7939/R3HQ3SD75

Cell Description:

Bite cells are red blood cells that contain a semi-circular indent on the edge of their membrane, giving the

appearance of a bite being taken out of the cell.1 Blister cells on the other hand, have cytoplasmic projections

that fuse together, creating a vacuole on the edge of the membrane, giving the appearance of a blister.2

Cell Formation:

Bite and Blister cells are often seen together, and may form through various mechanisms. Red blood cells
originally containing inclusions are “pitted” or removed by macrophages in the spleen, resulting in bite or

blister cells.3 When the red blood cell is impaled by fibrin strands, the membrane can reform and produce a

vacuole which results in a blister cell.2,3

Bite cells can also form when a blister cell ruptures.4

Associated Disease/Clinical States:2,4,5

Microangiopathic Hemolytic Anemias (MAHAs)

Mechanical Hemolysis (i.e. mechanical heart-valves)

Heinz body hemolytic anemias (G6PD Deficiency, Thalassemia)

Note: Bite and blister cells are mainly seen in clinical states where Heinz bodies are formed.2

References:

1. Ford J. Red blood cell morphology. Int J Lab Hematol [Internet]. 2013 Mar 9 [cited 2018 Jul

53
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

12];35(3):351–7. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijlh.12082

2. Landis-Piwowar K, Landis J, Keila P. The complete blood count and peripheral blood smear
evaluation. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 154-77.

3. Jones KW. Evaluation of cell morphology and introduction to platelet and white blood cell
morphology. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 93-116.

4. Turgeon ML. Erythrocyte morphology and inclusions. In: Clinical hematology: theory and
procedures. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 99-111.

5. Julius CJ, Schaub CR. Hypoproliferative anemia: anemia associated with systemic diseases. In:
Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p.
280-304

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

7
Dimorphic Population
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=237

Images show peripheral blood smears containing a dimorphic population (hypochromic-microcytic, and
normochromic-normocytic red blood cells). From MLS Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3T14V447

Image 2: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3V11W18D

Cell Description:

The peripheral blood smear shows that there are two distinct red blood cell populations present. The different
red blood cell populations that may be seen are normocytic/normochromic, microcytic/hypochromic,

macrocytic/normochromic.1,2

Cell Formation:

The cause for the formation of a dimorphic red blood cell population varies depending on the clinical
condition.

Associated Disease/Clinical States:1-2

Sideroblastic Anemia

Myelodysplastic Syndrome (MDS)

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Iron, Vitamin B12, Folate deficiency (and during the early treatment stage)

Post-transfusion

Erythropoietin Therapy

Note: RDW > 14.5%3

References:

1. Ford J. Red blood cell morphology. Int J Lab Hematol [Internet]. 2013 Mar 9 [cited 2018 Jul
12];35(3):351–7. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijlh.12082

2. Constantino BT. The red cell histogram and the dimorphic red cell population. Lab Med [Internet].
2011 May 1 [cited 2018 Jul 23];42(5):300–8. Available from:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1309/LMF1UY85HEKBMIWO

3. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Variations in size and color of erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed.
St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 89-92.

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

8
Echinocytes (Burr Cells)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Cell Description:

The red blood cell has multiple evenly distributed projections that are of equal length that cover the

entire surface of the cell.1 Cells usually have an area of central pallor.2

Cell Formation:

Commonly form due to a “glass effect” during peripheral blood smear preparation with glass slides.

Glass slides can release basic substances that can induce echinocyte formation.3

Another cause of echinocyte formation is due to storage conditions. Echinocytes can naturally form in

whole blood that has been stored at 4℃ after a few days (i.e. Blood to be transfused).3

The formation of echinocytes is a reversible process and can reform a natural discoid shape.3

Echinocytes are often considered artifact from the smear making process (drying or staining) and may
not be reported, depending on individual laboratory protocol.

Associated Disease/Clinical States:1-3

Artifact

Post-transfusion

Burns

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Liver Disease

Pyruvate Kinase (PK) Deficiency

Uremia

Microangiopathic Hemolytic Anemias (MAHAs)

References:

1. Ford J. Red blood cell morphology. Int J Lab Hematol [Internet]. 2013 Mar 9 [cited 2018 Jul
12];35(3):351–7. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijlh.12082

2. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Variations in shape and distribution of erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology
atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 93-106.

3. Landis-Piwowar K, Landis J, Keila P. The complete blood count and peripheral blood smear
evaluation. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 154-77.

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

9
Elliptocytes & Ovalocytes
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

A peripheral blood smear with numerous

elliptocytes present. 100x magnification. From MLS A peripheral blood smear showing elliptocytes
Collection, University of Alberta, along with various other poikilocytosis. 50x oil
https://doi.org/10.7939/R35H7C887 immersion. From MLS Collection, University of
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3H98ZV4C

Cell Description:

Elliptocytes: Red blood cells are cigar or pencil shaped with parallel sides and an area of pallor.1,2

Ovalocytes: Are red blood cells that are oval or egg shaped.1,2

Macro-ovalocytes: Ovalocytes that are larger than a normal red blood cells.3

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Southeast Asian Ovaloctyes: Ovalocytes show two transverse zones of pallor separated by a transverse

zone of cytoplasm.4

Cell Formation:

Elliptocytes and ovalocytes are formed only after the red blood cell has reached its normal and mature

morphology. Elliptical features develop over time as the cell undergoes stress in the circulation.1,2

Formation occurs due to erythrocyte membrane protein defects resulting in an increase in mechanical

weakness and membrane fragility.1,3,5

Hereditary elliptocytosis occurs due to defects in the horizontal protein linkages between the

membrane and cytoskeleton. (α-spectrin, -spectrin, protein 4.1, glycophorin C).5,6

Associated Disease/Clinical States:1,4,7

Elliptocytes: Ovalocytes:
Hereditary elliptocytosis Hereditary ovalocytosis (Southeast Asian Ovalocytosis)
Thalassemia Megaloblastic Anemia (Macro-ovalocytes)
Iron deficiency Anemia

References:

1. Landis-Piwowar K, Landis J, Keila P. The complete blood count and peripheral blood smear
evaluation. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 154-77.

2. Manchanda N. Anemias: red blood morphology and approach to diagnosis. In: Rodak’s hematology
clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 284-96.

3. Jones KW. Evaluation of cell morphology and introduction to platelet and white blood cell
morphology. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis

60
 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Company; 2009. p. 93-116.

4. Ford J. Red blood cell morphology. Int J Lab Hematol [Internet]. 2013 Mar 9 [cited 2018 Jul
12];35(3):351–7. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijlh.12082

5. Gallagher PG. Abnormalities of the erythrocyte membrane. Pediatr Clin North Am [Internet]. 2013
Dec 15[cited 2018 Jun 26];;60(6):1349–62. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4155395/

6. Da Costa L, Galimand J, Fenneteau O, Mohandas N. Hereditary spherocytosis, elliptocytosis, and

other red cell membrane disorders. Blood Rev [Internet]. 2013[cited 2018 Jul 24];27(4):167–78.
Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0268960X13000192

7. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Variations in shape and distribution of erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology
atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 93-106.

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

10
Pyknocytes
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=258

Images of peripheral blood smears with pyknocytes present. Pyknocytes are indicated by the arrows.
100x oil immersion. From MLS Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: https://doi.org/10.7939/R33B5WQ09

Image 2: https://doi.org/10.7939/R3VX06J4H

Image 3: https://doi.org/10.7939/R3KS6JM01

Cell Description:

Pyknocytes appear as small, dark, pyknotic RBCs that lack central pallor and have an irregular, non-
spherical shape.

Cell Formation:

Pyknocytes are rare, but may form as a result of red blood cell dehydration or oxidative damage.

Associated Disease/Clinical States: (6 Mary Louise ch 6 pg 103)

Pyruvate Kinase Deficiency

Glucose-6-phosphate (G6PD) Deficiency

Acute and severe hemolytic anemias

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Infantile pyknocytosis

References:

1. Turgeon ML. Normal erythrocyte lifecycle and physiology. In: Clinical hematology: theory and
procedures. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 103.

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11
Rouleaux
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=260

Images of peripheral blood smears with rouleaux present. From MLS Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3445HT5R

Image 2: 10x magnification. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3HQ3SD56

Image 3: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3HM5313R

Cell Description:

Red blood cells are arranged into rows or linear chains, appearing on top of one another in a “coin

stacking” fashion. The outlines of the the individual cells are usually seen.1,2

Cell Formation:

Can form naturally after blood is collected and allowed to sit for a long period of time.1

Similar morphology can be seen in the thick areas of a blood smear.1 Pathological rouleaux is only
reported when seen in the thin areas of a peripheral blood smear where a differential would usually be

performed.3

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

In pathological states, the increase of plasma proteins (e.g. fibrinogen, globulins) will coat the red blood

cells and cause them to become “sticky” and result in rouleaux formation.1,4

Associated Disease/Clinical States:2,5

*Associated with any condition that results in the increase of plasma proteins

Acute and chronic inflammatory disorders

Plasma Cell Myeloma (Multiple Myeloma)

Polyclonal or monoclonal hyperglobulinemia

Note: Unlike with agglutination, the formation of rouleaux can be reversed with the addition of saline.2

References:

1. Landis-Piwowar K, Landis J, Keila P. The complete blood count and peripheral blood smear
evaluation. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 154-77.

2. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Variations in shape and distribution of erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology
atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 93-106.

3. Turgeon ML. Erythrocyte morphology and inclusions. In: Clinical hematology: theory and
procedures. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 99-111.

4. Jones KW. Evaluation of cell morphology and introduction to platelet and white blood cell
morphology. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 93-116.

5. Ford J. Red blood cell morphology. Int J Lab Hematol [Internet]. 2013 Mar 9 [cited 2018 Jul
12];35(3):351–7. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijlh.12082

65
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

12
Schistocytes
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=272

Images show peripheral blood smears with schistocytes present (indicated by the arrow). From MLS
Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R34Q7R51T

Image 2: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3N29PN8H

Image 3: https://doi.org/10.7939/R31R6NG3M

Cell Description:

Fragmented red blood cells with varying shapes and sizes. Cells often appear small, with multiple

pointed and angular ends and lack an area of central pallor.1,2

Cell Formation:

Formed in circulation when a red blood cell is damaged by mechanical means (e.g. damaged by fibrin
strands or mechanical heart valves). The presence of schistocytes suggests an intravascular hemolytic

process is occurring2,3

Associated Disease/Clinical States:1,2,4,5

Microangiopathic Hemolytic Anemia (MAHAs)

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Macroangiopathic Hemolytic Anemias

Renal graft rejection

Severe burns

References:

1. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Variations in shape and distribution of erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology
atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 93-106.

2. Ford J. Red blood cell morphology. Int J Lab Hematol [Internet]. 2013 Mar 9 [cited 2018 Jul
12];35(3):351–7. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijlh.12082

3. Landis-Piwowar K, Landis J, Keila P. The complete blood count and peripheral blood smear
evaluation. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 154-77.

4. Jones KW. Evaluation of cell morphology and introduction to platelet and white blood cell
morphology. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 93-116.

5. Manchanda N. Anemias: red blood morphology and approach to diagnosis. In: Rodak’s hematology
clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 284-96.

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13
Sickle Cells (Drepanocytes)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=278

A peripheral blood smear demonstrating sickle cells (indicated by arrows). From MLS Collection,
University of Alberta.

Image 1: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3TQ5RV8M

Image 2: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3X05XT8X

Cell Description:

Red blood cells that lack an area of central pallor, are thin, and appear curved or S-shaped (cells

resemble a sickle or crescent). The ends of the cell are pointed.1

Cell Formation:

A genetic mutation in the β globin chain results in the production of abnormal hemoglobin S. The
mutation results in an amino acid substitution in the 6th position from glutamine to valine. Red blood
cells have normal morphology under normal conditions but under hypoxic conditions (decreased oxygen
tension), hemoglobin S polymerizes and causes the red blood cell to assume the characteristic sickle

shape.2 Sickle cell formation causes the red blood cell to become rigid and inflexible.3

Factors that contribute to hemoglobin S polymerization and RBC sickling include:

Low oxygen saturation

Decreased pH
Increased 2,3-BPG

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Dehydration

These factors affect either the oxygenation or concentration of hemoglobin S inside the red blood cell,
leading to polymerization and sickling.

Note: Formation of sickle cells can be reversible when hypoxic conditions are corrected however not all

sickle cells have the ability to revert back to a normal morphology.2,3

Associated Disease/Clinical States:1

Sickle Cell Disease (Homozygous Hemoglobin S disease)

Hemoglobin SC Disease

Note: Sickle cells not usually seen in heterozygous hemoglobin S (Hemoglobin AS or Sickle Cell Trait).1

References:

1. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Variations in shape and distribution of erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology
atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 93-106.

2. Landis-Piwowar K, Landis J, Keila P. The complete blood count and peripheral blood smear
evaluation. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 154-77.

3. Jones KW. Evaluation of cell morphology and introduction to platelet and white blood cell
morphology. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 93-116.

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

14
Spherocytes
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=283

Images show peripheral blood smears with numerous spherocytes present (examples are indicated by
arrows). From MLS Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R39883320

Image 2: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3XG9FS24

Cell Description:

Round red blood cells that lack an area of central pallor. Cells often appear darker and smaller than a

normocytic red blood cell.1

Cell Formation:

Formation of spherocytes in circulation occurs due to a partial loss of the red blood cell membrane. This

can occur when RBCs are not fully phagocytosed by macrophages during extravascular hemolysis.2
Cellular content remains the same and this leads to a decrease in the surface to volume ratio and

spherocyte formation.3

Hereditary Spherocytosis: the formation of spherocytes occurs due to the defects in the vertical protein
linkages between the membrane and cytoskeleton, resulting in a loss of unsupported RBC membrane

and spherocyte formation.4

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Associated Disease/Clinical States:1,5-7

Hereditary Spherocytosis

Warm Auto-Immune Hemolytic Anemia (WAIHA)

Drug-Induced Immune Hemolytic Anemia

Allo-Immune-mediated hemolysis (delayed hemolytic transfusion reactions, Hemolytic Disease of the

Fetus and Newborn)

Glucose-6-Phosphate (G6PD) Deficiency

Transfused cells (storage lesion)

Severe burns

Note: Spherocytes have an increased MCHC (>360 g/L).5

References:

1. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Variations in shape and distribution of erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology
atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 93-106.

2. Doig K. Introduction to increased destruction of erythrocytes. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical

applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 348-66.

3. Bain BJ. Morphology of blood cells. In: Blood cells: a practical guide [Internet]. 5th ed. Chichester,
UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2015 [cited 2018 Jul 10]: 67-185. Available from:
http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118817322

4. Da Costa L, Galimand J, Fenneteau O, Mohandas N. Hereditary spherocytosis, elliptocytosis, and

other red cell membrane disorders. Blood Rev [Internet]. 2013[cited 2018 Jul 24];27(4):167–78.
Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0268960X13000192

5. Landis-Piwowar K, Landis J, Keila P. The complete blood count and peripheral blood smear
evaluation. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 154-77.

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6. Ford J. Red blood cell morphology. Int J Lab Hematol [Internet]. 2013 Mar 9 [cited 2018 Jul
12];35(3):351–7. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijlh.12082

7. Turgeon ML. Erythrocyte morphology and inclusions. In: Clinical hematology: theory and
procedures. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 99-111.

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15
Stomatocytes
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Cell Description:

Red blood cells that appear to have an area of central pallor that is slit-like (stoma) instead of circular.1

Cells are normal in size but lack it’s normal biconcavity.2 By using electron microscopy, cells instead

appear “cup” or “bowl” shaped.3

Cell Formation:

Cell formation is due to a membrane defects (acquired or inherited) that results alterations in cell
volume. Both an increase (hydrocytosis) and a decrease (xerocytosis) in cell volume can cause the

production of stomatocytes.2

Associated Disease/Clinical States:1,2,4,5

Hereditary Stomatocytosis

Artifact

Alcoholism

Liver disease

Rh Null Disease

Drugs (effects are often reversible)

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References:

1. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Variations in shape and distribution of erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology
atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 93-106.

2. Jones KW. Evaluation of cell morphology and introduction to platelet and white blood cell
morphology. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 93-116.

3. Bain BJ. Morphology of blood cells. In: Blood cells: a practical guide [Internet]. 5th ed. Chichester,
UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2015 [cited 2018 Jul 10]: 67-185. Available from:
http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118817322

4. Landis-Piwowar K, Landis J, Keila P. The complete blood count and peripheral blood smear
evaluation. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 154-77.

5. Ford J. Red blood cell morphology. Int J Lab Hematol [Internet]. 2013 Mar 9 [cited 2018 Jul
12];35(3):351–7. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijlh.12082

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

16
Target Cells (Codocytes)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=292

Images show peripheral blood smears with numerous target cells present (examples are indicated by
arrows). From MLS Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3R49GR23

Image 2: 40x magnification. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3NG4H71X

Image 3. 60x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3R78644B

Cell Description:

Target cells adopt a “bullseye” morphology where hemoglobin is concentrated in the center and on the
periphery with a colourless zone in between the two areas. Other target cells may also look folded or

bell shaped.1-3

Note: The target cell membrane is thinner than normal cells.1,4

Cell Formation:

Liver Disease: membrane cholesterol concentration is reduced, decreasing the tensile strength of the

membrane, resulting in target cell formation.2,3,5

Artifact: Target cell formation occurs when blood smears are made when humidity is high.1

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Hemoglobinopathies: There is a uneven distribution of hemoglobin within the cell, and an increased

surface area to volume ratio.1

Note: Target cells have an increased surface area to volume ratio and decreased osmotic fragility.1,3

Associated Disease/Clinical States:1,2,5

Hemoglobinopathies (Hemoglobin C Disease, Sickle cell Disease, Thalassemia, etc.)

Iron deficiency anemia

Obstructive Liver disease

Splenectomy

Artifact

References:

1. Landis-Piwowar K, Landis J, Keila P. The complete blood count and peripheral blood smear
evaluation. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 154-77.

2. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Variations in shape and distribution of erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology
atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 93-106.

3. Jones KW. Evaluation of cell morphology and introduction to platelet and white blood cell
morphology. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 93-116.

4. Bain BJ. Morphology of blood cells. In: Blood cells: a practical guide [Internet]. 5th ed. Chichester,
UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2015 [cited 2018 Jul 10]: 67-185. Available from:
http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118817322

5. Turgeon ML. Erythrocyte morphology and inclusions. In: Clinical hematology: theory and
procedures. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 99-111.

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

17
Tear Cells (Dacrocytes, Teardrops)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=297

Images show peripheral blood smears with numerous tear cells (examples indicated by arrows). From
MLS Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R37S7J768

Image 2: https://doi.org/10.7939/R3D21S07J

Image 3: https://doi.org/10.7939/R38P5VR5R

Cell Description:

Red blood cells that are teardrop or pear shaped with one blunt projection.1 The size of these cells are

variable.2

Cell Formation:

Red blood cells with inclusions: Teardrop cells form from these cells when the cells attempt to pass
through the microcirculation resulting in the pinching the cell as the part containing the inclusion is left

behind.2

Myelophthisis: displacement of normal hematopoietic tissue in the bone marrow by abnormal cells
(malignancies) or fibrosis, leading to bone marrow crowding and pinching of RBCs as they as pushed
out of the bone marrow.

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Associated Disease/Clinical States:1-3

Primary myelofibrosis

Thalassemia

Megaloblastic Anemia

Sideroblastic Anemia

Myelophthisic Anemia

Drug-induced Heinz body formation

References:

1. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Variations in shape and distribution of erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology
atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 93-106, 289.

2. Jones KW. Evaluation of cell morphology and introduction to platelet and white blood cell
morphology. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 93-116.

3. Bain BJ. Morphology of blood cells. In: Blood cells: a practical guide [Internet]. 5th ed. Chichester,
UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2015 [cited 2018 Jul 10]: 67-185. Available from:
http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118817322

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

III
RED BLOOD CELLS: ABNORMAL RBC
INCLUSIONS
 18
Basophilic Stippling
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=302

Images show peripheral blood smears with basophilic stippling in the red blood cells (indicated by
arrows). From MLS Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3G15TS2N

Image 2: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3RJ4993X

Image 3: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3J960R3H

Appearance:

Multiple dark blue-purple granules that are distributed throughout the red blood cell. Granules can
appear coarse, fine, round, and/or irregularly shaped, and are present in numerous

numbers.1,2 Typically, only coarse basophilic stippling is reported.

Inclusion composition:1-3

Aggregates of ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

1,2
Associated Disease/Clinical States:

Lead toxicity

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Thalassemia

Abnormal heme synthesis

References:

1. Landis-Piwowar K, Landis J, Keila P. The complete blood count and peripheral blood smear
evaluation. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 154-77.

1. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Variations in shape and distribution of erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology
atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 93-106.

3. Bain BJ. Morphology of blood cells. In: Blood cells: a practical guide [Internet]. 5th ed. Chichester,
UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2015 [cited 2018 Jul 10]: 67-185. Available from:
http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118817322

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

19
Cabot Rings
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a peripheral blood smear showing a cabot ring. 100x oil immersion. From MLS Collection,
University of Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3B854027

Appearance:

Red-purple inclusions that appear as a loop, ring, or figure-eight shape and span the diameter of the red

blood cell. 1-2 cabot rings may be seen in a single cell.1

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Note: Finding is rare, and not to be confused with malaria.

Inclusion composition:1

Remnant microtubules of mitotic spindle

Associated Disease/Clinical States:1-3

Myelodysplastic Syndrome (MDS; Dyserythropoiesis)

Megaloblastic Anemia

Lead poisoning

References:

1. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Inclusions in erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis,
Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 107-14.

2. Landis-Piwowar K, Landis J, Keila P. The complete blood count and peripheral blood smear
evaluation. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 154-77.

3. Turgeon ML. Erythrocyte morphology and inclusions. In: Clinical hematology: theory and
procedures. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 99-111.

83
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

20
Heinz Bodies
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

A peripheral blood smear stained with a supravital

stain demonstrating numerous heinz bodies A supravital stained peripheral blood smear
(indicated by arrows). 100x oil immersion. From showing numerous heinz bodies (indicated by
MLS Collection, University of Alberta, arrows). 100x oil immersion. From MLS Collection,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R35718396 University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3901ZX4N

Appearance:

Inclusions are not visible on Wright or Romanowsky-stained blood smears. Inclusions can only be
visualized with supravital stains. After staining, Heinz body inclusions appear dark blue-purple and are
located at the periphery of the red blood cell at the membrane. The inclusions are round and look as if

they are being ejected out of the cell.1,2

Note: Heinz bodies are usually not seen, as they are normally removed by splenic macrophages.3 Their
presence indicates an increase in hemoglobin denaturation and precipitation, seen in numerous
conditions that result in hemoglobin instability, oxidative damage, or excess globin chains.

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Inclusion composition:1,2

Denatured or precipitated hemoglobin

Associated Disease/Clinical States:1,2

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) Deficiency

Hemoglobinopathies (may result in the formation of unstable hemoglobins)

Thalassemia

Post-splenectomy

Oxidizing drugs

Note: Appear in conditions where unstable hemoglobin can form.2

References:

1. Landis-Piwowar K, Landis J, Keila P. The complete blood count and peripheral blood smear
evaluation. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 154-77.

2. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Inclusions in erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis,
Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 107-14.

3. Bain BJ. Important supplementary tests. In: Blood cells: a practical guide [Internet]. 5th ed.
Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2015 [cited 2018 Jul 10]: 277-94. Available from:
http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118817322

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

21
Hemoglobin H (Hb H)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=317

Images show supravital stained peripheral blood smears with numerous hemoglobin H inclusions
(examples indicated by arrows). Note the golf ball-like appearance of the red blood cells. From MLS
Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3GM8243H

Image 2: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R33F4M37Z

Appearance:

Hemoglobin H inclusions can only be visualized with supravital stains and not Wright or Romanowsky
stains. With supravital stains, such as Brillian Cresyl Blue, the red blood cells are covered with

numerous small, dark blue dots that give the cells a “golf ball” or “raspberry” appearance.1,2

Inclusion composition:1,2

Hemoglobin H is made up of 4 globin chains in a tetramer formation. Hemoglobin H is unstable and

will precipitate over time in the RBC, leading to Heinz Body formation. Precipitation can be induced
using supravital stains, and can be used to visualize Hemoglobin H inclusions.

Associated Disease/Clinical States:1,2

Hemoglobin H Disease

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References:

1. Randolph TR. Thalassemia. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p.
251-276.

2. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Inclusions in erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis,
Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 107-14.

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22
Hemoglobin C Crystals
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Appearance:1,2

Dark red hexagonal crystals with blunt ends. The crystal is prominent within the red blood cell, or may
be found extra-cellularly. Usually only one crystal is present per single cell. Hemoglobin C crystals are
rarely found, as the spleen will remove them from circulation, though patients who have undergone a
splenectomy have may numerous hemoglobin C crystals present on their peripheral blood smear.

Inclusion composition:2

Crystalized Hemoglobin C.

Associated Disease/Clinical States:1

Homozygous Hemoglobin C Disease

References:

1. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Variations in shape and distribution of erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology
atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 93-106.

2. Jones KW. Evaluation of cell morphology and introduction to platelet and white blood cell
morphology. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 93-116.

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

23
Hemoglobin SC Crystals
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Appearance:

Crystals appear as a combination of sickle cells and hemoglobin C crystals. They are dark red inclusions

with blunt ended projections.1 The crystals are longer than Hemoglobin C crystals, but shorter and
thicker than Hemoglobin S.

Inclusion composition:1

Hemoglobin S and hemoglobin C

Associated Disease/Clinical States:1

Hemoglobin SC Disease (compound heterozygosity)

References:

1. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Variations in shape and distribution of erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology
atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 93-106.

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24
Howell-Jolly Bodies
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

A peripheral blood smear with

Howell-Jolly bodies. A. shows A peripheral blood smear with
a Howell-Jolly body and a A peripheral blood smear with
Howell-Jolly bodies. B. shows Howell-Jolly bodies (indicated
platelets on top of a red blood platelet on the same red blood
cell. A. shows Howell-Jolly with arrows). 100x oil
cell. Note the clear space immersion. From MLS
surrounding the platelet. 50x body. B. shows platelets on top
of a red blood cell. 100x oil Collection, University of
oil immersion. From MLS Alberta,
Collection, University of immersion. From MLS
Collection, University of https://doi.org/10.7939/R3028P
Alberta, V21
https://doi.org/10.7939/R30R9 Alberta,
MK3C https://doi.org/10.7939/R3B853
Z9R

Appearance:

Under Wright/Romanowksy stains, Howell-Jolly Bodies appear as dark blue/purple round inclusions
located at the periphery of the RBC. They usually present as a single inclusion inside the cell. Howell-

Jolly Bodies are also visible under supravital stains.1-4

Inclusion composition:2,3

Nuclear fragments/remnants made up of DNA 1-4

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Associated Disease/Clinical States:

Thalassemia

Megaloblastic Anemia

Myelodysplastic Syndrome

Post-splenectomy

References:

1. Landis-Piwowar K, Landis J, Keila P. The complete blood count and peripheral blood smear
evaluation. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 154-77.

2. Jones KW. Evaluation of cell morphology and introduction to platelet and white blood cell
morphology. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 93-116.

3. Fritsma GA. Bone marrow examination. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and principles.
5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 253-68.

4. Ford J. Red blood cell morphology. Int J Lab Hematol [Internet]. 2013 Mar 9 [cited 2018 Jul
12];35(3):351–7. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijlh.12082

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

25
Pappenheimer Bodies (Siderotic
Granules)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An iron stained peripheral blood smear with

pappenheimer bodies present (indicated with An iron stained peripheral blood smear with
arrows). Perls Prussian Blue. 50x oil immersion. pappenheimer bodies present (indicated with
From MLS Collection, University of Alberta, arrows). Perls Prussian Blue. 50x oil immersion.
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3FN1173T From MLS Collection, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R36689100

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

A peripheral blood smear with pappenheimer A peripheral blood smear with pappenheimer
bodies present (indicated with arrows). 100x oil bodies present (indicated with arrows). 100x oil
immersion. From MLS Collection, University of immersion. From MLS Collection, University of
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R35X25V0R Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3251G16Q

Appearance:

Inclusions are visible under both Wright/Romanowsky stains and Perls Prussian Blue stain.
Pappenheimer inclusions appear as clusters of fine and irregular granules located at the periphery of

the red blood cell.1-3

Inclusion composition:3

Iron

Associated Disease/Clinical States:1,2

Splenectomy

Sideroblastic Anemia

Thalassemia

Sickle Cell Disease

Hemachromatosis

References:

1. Landis-Piwowar K, Landis J, Keila P. The complete blood count and peripheral blood smear
evaluation. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 154-77.

2. Jones KW. Evaluation of cell morphology and introduction to platelet and white blood cell
morphology. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 93-116.

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

3. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Inclusions in erythrocytes. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis,
Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 107-14.

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

26
Bacteria & Fungi
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=343

Images show peripheral blood smears with bacteria present. Neutrophils show toxic changes (toxic
vacuolation and granulation are most prominent) and contain ingested bacteria. Bacteria is also present
extracellularly. From MLS Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3NV99S2S

Image 2: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3J38KZ9T

Image 3: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R38K75C0V

Appearance:

The morphology of a microorganism depends on the type of microorganism (fungi or bacteria) present

in the blood. Can be seen extracellularly or intracellularly when patient is septic.1

Organisms:1

Fungi: Bacteria:
Yeast Clostridium perfringens
Histoplasma capsulatum Bartonella bacilliformis
Cryptococcus neoformans Cocci
Other Bacilli/Rods

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References:

1. Smith LA. Hemolytic anemia: nonimmune defects. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 372-87.

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27
Malaria
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a peripheral blood smear showing

multiple malarial rings (Plasmodium falciparum) An image of a peripheral blood smear showing a
inside red blood cells. From MLS Collection, crescent-shaped gametocyte (characteristic of
University of Alberta, Plasmodium falciparum). From MLS Collection,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3891263S University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R30R9MK4V

An image of a peripheral blood smear showing

An image of a peripheral blood smear showing a
malaria at the gametocyte stage in the center. 60x
malarial parasite at the trophozoite stage in a red
oil immersion. From MLS Collection, University of
blood cell. 100x oil immersion. From MLS

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R37941903 Collection, University of Alberta,

https://doi.org/10.7939/R3WS8J22C

Appearance:

The morphology of malarial parasites seen in the red blood cell varies depending on the stage of
maturation and species present. Malaria can appear as rings, trophozoites, schizonts, and gametocytes.
Ring forms appear as a pale blue ring with a pink/purple chromatin dot, and more than one may be
present in a single red blood cell. Malarial parasites are most often seen intracellular to the red blood

cell with various forms.1

Parasites can be visualized using the Giemsa stain during the screening of thin and thick smears.1

Note 1: Banana shaped gametocytes seen are characteristically in Plasmodium falciparum infections.

Note 2: Malarial rings may be confused with platelets when the appear on top of a red blood cell.

Platelets may be differentiated by a showing a slight clearing or halo around the platelet.2

Organisms:1

The malarial parasite is spread to humans by the female Anopheles sp. mosquito.

Malaria parasites:1,2

Plasmodium falciparum

Plasmodium vivax

Plasmodium ovale

Plasmodium malariae

Plasmodium knowlesi

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References:

1. Keohane EM. Extrinsic defects leading to increased erythrocyte destruction – nonimmune causes. In:
Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and principles. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p.
394-410.

2. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Microorganisms. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri:
Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 195-202.

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28
Babesia
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Appearance:

Like malaria, Babesia species can be seen both intracellularly and extracellularly and visualed with the

Giemsa stain. Babesia parasites appear as ring forms in the red blood cell with variable morphology.1

Note: Tetrad of rings may appear as a “maltese cross”.1

Organisms:

The Babesia microti parasite is carried by the Ixodes scapularis tick.1 Humans are incidental dead-end
hosts of Babesia.

References:

1. Keohane EM. Extrinsic defects leading to increased erythrocyte destruction – nonimmune causes. In:
Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p.
394-410.

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29
Trypanosomes
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=359

Images of peripheral blood smears showing C shaped trypanosomes (center). From MLS Collection,
University of Alberta.

Image 1: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3QZ22Z5K

Image 2: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3M61C52N

Appearance:

Hemoflagellates that are often visualized using Giemsa stain during screening of thin and thick smears,

though they are visible by regular Romanowsky staining procedures.1

Trypomastigotes appear C or U shaped in the peripheral blood, usually seen extracellular to the red

blood cells.2

Organisms:

The Reduviid bug (“kissing bug”) carries Trypanosoma cruzi in it’s gut where it matures. During a blood
meal, the Reduviid bug releases T.cruzi via feces onto the feeding sites or mucous membranes where it

can cause infection in the bloodstream.2

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Trypanosoma cruzi is the causative agent of Chagas Disease.2

References:

1. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Microorganisms. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri:
Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 195-202.

2. Ahmad N, Drew WL, Lagunoff M, Pottinger P, Reller LB, Sterling CR. Sarcomastigophora-the
amebas. In: Ryan KJ, Ray CG, editors. Sherris medical microbiology. 6th ed. McGraw-Hill Education;
2014. p. 823-44.

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IV
RED BLOOD CELLS: HYPOCHROMIC,
MICROCYTIC ANEMIAS
 30
Iron Deficiency Anemia (IDA)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a peripheral

blood smear demonstrating An image from a peripheral
blood smear showing An image from a peripheral
hypochromic and microcytic blood smear showing
red blood cells. 50x oil hypochromic, microcytic red
blood cells with occasional hypochromic, microcytic red
immersion. From MLS blood cells. 50x oil immersion.
Collection, University of targets which can beeen in IDA.
60x oil immersion. From MLS From MLS Collection,
Alberta, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3P844 Collection, University of
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3KS6J
99C K8F
https://doi.org/10.7939/R39883
33G

Cause(s):1,2

Chronic Blood Loss (heavy menstruation, intermittent GI bleeding, etc.)

Increased Need (periods of rapid growth, pregnancy)

Inadequate intake (diet)

Impaired absorption (malabsorption)

Notes: When there is not enough iron to meet the requirements of the body, iron stores begin to

deplete, and IDA occurs. Development of IDA occurs over a period of time.1-4

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IDA development is said to occur in three stages:3

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

(Storage Iron Depletion): (Transport Iron Depletion): (Functional Iron Depletion- IDA):
– Normal RBC maturation – Decreased serum iron and ferritin – Anemia is evident
– Decline in storage iron (decreased ferritin, – Transferrin and TIBC levels increase – PBS shows microcytic, hypochromic RBCs
decreased iron stores in the bone marrow) – Absent iron stores in the bone marrow – RBC development is affected
– No other evidence of anemia development. – Evidence of anemia is not as apparent. – Same iron study results as stage 2
– Hb is decreased
– Hepcidin is decreased
– Erythropoietin is increased

Laboratory Features of Iron Deficiency Anemia (At Stage 3):1-4

CBC: PBS: BM:

RBC Count: Decreased Microcytic, hypochromic RBCs M:E Ratio: Decreased
PLT: Variable (increased in chronic bleeding) Target cells Erythroid hyperplasia
Hb: Decreased Elliptocytes Iron Stores: Absent or severely decreased (not
Hct: Decreased Teardrop cells sustainable)
MCV, MCH, MCHC: Decreased Normal WBC morphology
RDW: Increased

Iron Studies: Other Tests:

Serum Iron: Decreased Prussian Blue stain of the BM shows absent or
Ferritin: Decreased decreased iron
Transferrin: Increased Reticulocyte count decreased
Transferrin Saturation: Decreased
TIBC: Increased

References:

1. McKenzie SB. Anemias of disordered iron metabolism and heme synthesis. In: Clinical laboratory
hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 198-230.

2. Miller JL. Iron deficiency anemia: A common and curable disease. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med
[Internet]. 2013 Jul 1 [cited 2018 Jun 28];3(7):10.1101/cshperspect.a011866 a011866. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3685880/

3. Doig K. Disorders of iron kinetics and heme metabolism. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications
and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 297-313.

4. Finnegan K. Iron metabolism and hypochromic anemias. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of
hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 117-37.

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31
Anemia of Chronic
Inflammation/Disease (ACI/ACD)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Cause(s):

Anemia that occurs in patients with conditions that result in chronic inflammatory states such as
rheumatoid arthritis, infections, and malignancies. Anemia is reversed when underlying condition is

treated and inflammation subsides. 1 Chronic inflammation leads to an increase in inflammatory

cytokines and actue phase reactants that alter iron metabolism and decrease RBC production and
lifespan.

Additional notes:

Acute phase reactants are serum proteins whose levels are increased by the liver in response to

inflammation. Three related acute phase reactants to ACI are:2

1. Hepcidin

2. Lactoferrin

3. Ferritin

Mechanisms of anemia development in ACI:1,3

1. Decrease in iron available for erythropoiesis (increased hepcidin causes inhibition of iron release
from macrophages and decreased iron absorption from the diet, iron bound to lactoferrin and
ferritin is not available to developing RBCs)

2. EPO production in the kidneys is inhibited by cytokines

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3. Erythropoiesis is inhibited by cytokines (diminishes developing erythroid precursor’s response to

EPO)

4. Decreased RBC survival (increased activation of macrophages by inflammatory cytokines leads to

increased removal of RBCs from circulation and decreased survival)

Laboratory Features:1,2,4

CBC: PBS: BM:

RBC: Decreased Normochromic, Normocytic OR Microcytic, M:E Ratio: Increased
WBC: Normal or Increased depending on the cause of hypochromic RBCs (Decreased production of erythroids, +/- increased
the inflammation production of myeloids)
PLT: Normal Iron Stores: Increased
Hb: Decreased
Hct: Normal to Decreased
MCV, MCH, MCHC: Normal to Decreased
RDW: Increased

Iron Studies: Other Tests:

Serum Iron: Decreased N/A
Ferritin: Increased
Transferrin: Decreased
Transferrin saturation: Normal to Decreased
TIBC: Decreased

References:

1. McKenzie SB. Anemias of disordered iron metabolism and heme synthesis. In: Clinical laboratory
hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 198-230.

2. Doig K. Disorders of iron kinetics and heme metabolism. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications
and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 297-313.

3. Turgeon ML. Hypochromic anemias and disorders of iron metabolism. In: Clinical hematology: theory
and procedures. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 131-144.

4. Finnegan K. Iron metabolism and hypochromic anemias. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of
hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 117-37.

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

32
Sideroblastic Anemia
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

A peripheral blood smear picture showing a

dimorphic population of red blood cells: A peripheral blood smear picture showing a
hypochromic, microcytic and normochromic, dimorphic RBC population and tear cells in
normocytic red cells. Dimorphissm is commonly sideroblastic anemia. From MLS Collection,
seen in Sideroblastic Anemia cases. 50x oil University of Alberta,
immersion. From MLS Collection, University of https://doi.org/10.7939/R3CF9JN85
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3P844B3X

Cause(s): Development of sideroblastic anemia can be due to hereditary or acquired causes that lead

to abnormal heme synthesis.1,2

Hereditary: Sex-linked or autosomal recessive mutations

Acquired: Idiopathic, MDS and other malignancies, drugs, lead toxicity

Laboratory Features of Sideroblastic Anemia:1-3

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

CBC: PBS: BM:

RBC: Decreased Dimorphic population (Normochromic/Normocytic M:E Ratio: Decreased
WBC: Variable alongside Hypochromic/Microcytic ) Erythroid hyperplasia (ineffective erythropoiesis)
PLT: Variable Tears Ringed sideroblasts
Hb: Decreased Schistocytes Macrophages have increased iron (Increased iron
MCV, MCH, MCHC: Normal to Decreased (as they are Pappenheimer bodies stores)
averages of the RBC appearance) Basophilic stippling
RDW: Increased
RETIC: Decreased

Iron Studies: Other Tests:

Serum Iron: Increased Bilirubin: Increased
Ferritin: Increased Haptoglobin: Decreased
Transferrin: Normal to Decreased LD: Increased
Transferrin Saturation: Increased Prussian blue stain of BM shows increased iron
TIBC: Normal to Decreased levels and ringed sideroblasts

References:

1. McKenzie SB. Anemias of disordered iron metabolism and heme synthesis. In: Clinical laboratory
hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 198-230.

2. Doig K. Disorders of iron kinetics and heme metabolism. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications
and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 297-313.

3. Finnegan K. Iron metabolism and hypochromic anemias. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of
hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 117-37.

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33
Thalassemia
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=386

Images show thalassemia peripheral blood smears with hypochromic, microcytic red blood cells and
poikilocytosis. From MLS Collection, University of Alberta.
Image 1: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3DR2PQ4J
Image 2: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3V698T05
Image 3: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3HD7P773

Thalassemias are classified as a group of genetic hemoglobin disorders where the production of α and β
globin chains is affected. This is considered to be a quantitative hemoglobin disorder and is categorized
by the affected globin chain (alpha or beta), and as major or minor depending on the severity of the

disease.1,2

Alpha-Thalassemia:

Cause(s):

α globin chain genes are located on chromosome 16 and there are normally four genes in total (αα/αα),
two inherited from each parent. α-thalassemia results when there is a deletion in any number of the α
globin gene. The severity of anemia and amount of α globin chain production is dependent the number

of genes that are deleted.3

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

α-Thalassemia Silent Carrier (αα/α-):1,2

Occurs when one α gene is deleted. There is still adequate production of α to ensure normal hemoglobin
synthesis. Patient is asymptomatic and the mutation is benign.

In newborns, there is an excess production of γ globin chains. These γ globin chains tend to also form
tetramers and result in Hemoglobin Barts (Hb Barts). Hb Barts has a high oxygen affinity and is
inefficient for oxygen delivery to the tissues of the developing fetus. In the silent carrier state, there is
only a small amount of Hb Barts produced.

1,2
α-Thalassemia Minor (αα/–) or (α-/α-):

Occurs when two α genes are deleted. There is now a 50% reduction in normal α globin chain
production.

In adults, increased production of red blood cells is able to compensate for the decrease in α chain
production, and α and β globin chain production is balanced. Patients are asymptomatic and any
anemia present is mild.

There is between 5-15% hemoglobin Barts present at birth, but this decreases once β globin chain
production takes over and γ globin chain production decreases. In adults, globin chain production is
balances, so no Hemoglobin H is formed.

Hemoglobin H Disease (α-/–):1,2

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An image of a Hemoglobin H Disease peripheral A supravital stained Hemoglobin H Disease

blood smear showing marked poikilocytosis peripheral blood smear. Hemoglobin H inclusions
(tearsdrop cells, schistocytes, target cells, and are seen in the red blood cells (Golf-ball like). 50x
elliptocytes). 50x oil immersion. From MLS oil immersion. From MLS Collection, University of
Collection, University of Alberta, Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3BV7BB0V
https://doi.org/10.7939/R30P0X613

Occurs when three α genes are deleted. α gene production is significantly reduced (75% reduction)
causing a higher imbalance between the number of α and β globin chains being produced. Patients
present with a chronic hemolytic anemia that varies from mild to moderate. Patients are transfusion-
independent.

The excess β globin chains form tetramers known as Hemoglobin H (Hb H). Hb H is unstable and often
precipitates within red blood cells resulting in hemolytic anemia. Production of Hb Barts at birth is
increased.

Hydrops Fetalis/ α-Thalassemia Major (–/–):1

Occurs when all four α genes are deleted (no α globin chain production).

Because no sustainable amount of α globin chains is produced, this state is usually considered to be
incompatible with life. Excess γ globin chains result in the formation of Hb Barts. Due to its high affinity
for oxygen, it is not able to efficiently transport oxygen to the tissues of the developing fetus. The
marked tissue hypoxia usually results in fetal death in utero or shortly after birth.

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Table 1. Laboratory Findings of α-Thalassemias1

α-Thalassemia State CBC and RETIC PBS BM Hemoglobin Content

α-Thalassemia Silent Hb: Normal • Asymptomatic Normal Hb A: Normal

Carrier (αα/α-) RBC: Normal • Normocytic RBCs Hb Barts: 1-3% at birth
MCV/MCH/MCHC: Normal Hb H: 0%
RDW: Normal
RETIC: Normal

α-Thalassemia Minor Hb: Normal to Decreased • Mild asymptomatic anemia Erythroid Hyperplasia Hb A: Slight decrease
(αα/–) or (α-/α-) RBC: Normal to Increased • Hypochromic, microcytic RBCs Hb Barts: 5-15% at birth
MCV/MCH/MCHC: Decreased • Poikilocytosis: mainly targets Hb H: 0%
RDW: Normal • Basophilic Stippling
RETIC: Elevated

Hemoglobin H Disease Hb: Decreased • Mild to moderate anemia Erythroid Hyperplasia Hb A: Decreased
(α-/–) RBC: Increased • Hypochromic, microcytic RBCs Hb Barts: 10-40% at birth,
MCV/MCH/MCHC: Decreased • Poikilocytosis: targets, tears, traces in adults
RDW: Normal to Increased ellipto, schisto, sphero, etc. Hb H: 1-40% in adults
RETIC: Elevated • Polychromasia
• Basophilic Stippling
• Howell-Jolly Bodies
• Pappenheimer Bodies
• nRBCs
• Heinz Bodies and Hb H
inclusions (Supravital Stain)

Hydrops Fetalis/ Hb: Decreased • Severe anemia Erythroid Hyperplasia Hb A: 0%

α-Thalassemia Major RBC: Decreased • Hypochromic, microcytic RBCs Hb Barts: 80-90%
(–/–) MCV/MCH/MCHC: Decreased Hb H: Not formed
RDW: Increased Absent: Hb A, Hb A2, Hb F
RETIC: Elevated

Beta-Thalassemias

Cause(s):

β globin chain genes are located on chromosome 11 and there are normally two genes in total (β/β) one
inherited from each parent. β-thalassemia is usually due to point mutations in the β globin genes. These
0
point mutations cause production of β globin chains to be reduced (β+) or abolished completely (β ).3

β-Thalassemia Silent Carrier (βSilent/β):2

β globin chain genes mutation does not result in any abnormal hematological findings and β globin
chain production is normal or nearly normal.

0
β-Thalassemia Minor (β /β or β+/β):1,2

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One β globin chain gene is mutated while the other β globin chain gene is normal. Patient is able to
sufficiently produce enough β globin chains to maintain normal oxygenation and red blood cell lifespan.

Patients are asymptomatic and have mild anemia that can worsen under conditions of stress.

0
β-Thalassemia Intermedia (β+/βSilent or β /βSilent or βSilent/βSilent):2

Mutations in the β genes result in reduced β globin chain production. Clinical symptoms are variable,
and more severe than β-Thalassemia Minor, though patients do not require transfusions to survive.

0 0 0
β-Thalassemia Major (β+/β+ or β+/β or β /β ):1,2

Mutations to both β genes results in severely decreased or absent production of β globin chains. Excess
α globin chains are unable to form tetramers leading to their precipitation and accumulation in the red
blood cell. This damages the cell and results in a chronic and severe hemolytic anemia.

Patients require regular transfusions.

Table 2. Laboratory Findings of β-Thalassemias2

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β-Thalassemia State CBC and RETIC PBS BM Hemoglobin Content

Hb: Normal N/A N/A Hb A: Normal

RBC: Normal Hb A2: Normal
MCV/MCH/MCHC: Normal Hb F: Normal
β-Thalassemia Silent Carrier RDW: Normal
Silent RETIC: Normal
(β /β)

Hb: Decreased • Hypochromic, microcytic RBCs Erythroid Hyperplasia Hb A: 92-95%

RBC: Normal to Increased • Poikilocytosis: mainly targets Hb A2: 3.5-7.0%
MCV/MCH/MCHC: Decreased • Basophilic stippling Hb F: 1-5%
RDW: Normal
β-Thalassemia Minor RETIC: Normal to Increased
0
(β /β
+
or β /β)

Hb: Decreased • Hypochromic, microcytic RBCs Erythroid Hyperplasia Hb A: Decreased

RBC: Increased • Variable poikilocytosis and Hb A2: Increased
β-Thalassemia Intermedia MCV/MCH/MCHC: Decreased anisocytosis depending on the Hb F: Increased
+ Silent RDW: Normal genetic mutation.
(β /β
0 RETIC: Increased • Polychromasia
or β /βSilent • Basophilic stippling
Silent Silent
or β /β )

Hb: Decreased • Hypochromic, microcytic RBCs Erythroid Hyperplasia Hb A: Absent or decreased

RBC: Increased • Poikilocytosis: targets, tears, (Ineffective erythropoiesis) Hb A2: Variable
MCV/MCH/MCHC: Decreased ellipto, schisto, sphero, etc. Hb F: 70-90%
RDW: Normal to Increased • Polychromasia
RETIC: Increased • Basophilic Stippling
• Howell-Jolly Bodies
• Pappenheimer Bodies
• nRBCs
• Heinz Bodies (supravital stain)

β-Thalassemia Major
(β+/β+
0
+
or β /β
0 0
or β /β )

Other Laboratory Tests to Assess Thalassemia:2

Iron Studies (Thalassemia Iron Studies are shown in the next chapter)

Hemoglobin Electrophoresis

High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

Molecular testing for genetic mutations/deletions

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Notes:

Above results are only typical findings, which may be altered depending on individual variation,
treatment give (such as RBC transfusions), and genetic sub-type.

The peripheral blood smear picture for the minor forms of Thalassemia look very similar to that of Iron
Deficiency Anemia. The difference between the two conditions can be distinguished by comparing iron
study results, as well as specific CBC findings (RDW, RBC count), and peripheral smear findings

(inclusions, poikilocytosis).2

References:

1. Randolph TR. Thalassemia. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p.
251-276.

2. Keohane EM. Thalassemias. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St.
Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 454-74.

3. Chonat S, Quinn CT. Current standards of care and long term outcomes for thalassemia and sickle
cell disease. Adv Exp Med Biol [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2018 Jun 5];1013:59–87. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5720159/

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34
Iron Studies
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=400

Images of iron stained bone marrow particle smears showing various amounts of
iron stores (indicated by the amount of blue present). Perls Prussian Blue. From
MLS Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: 10x magnification. Low iron stores. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3NC5ST92

Image 2: 10x magnification. Normal iron stores. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3XP6VK0C
Image 3: 10x magnification. High iron stores. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3ZP3WG13

Table 1. Iron studies of hypochromic and microcytic anemias.1-3

Anemia Serum Iron Ferritin Transferrin Transferrin TIBC BM Iron stores

Saturation

IDA D D I D I Absent/D

Thalassemia Minor N/I N/I N/I N/I N N/I

Anemia of Chronic D I N N/D D I

Inflammation

Sideroblastic Anemia I I N/D I N/D I

N = Normal I = Increased D = Decreased

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

References:

1. McKenzie SB. Anemias of disordered iron metabolism and heme synthesis. In: Clinical laboratory
hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 198-230.

2. Doig K. Disorders of iron kinetics and heme metabolism. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications
and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 297-313.

3. Finnegan K. Iron metabolism and hypochromic anemias. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of
hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 117-37.

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V
RED BLOOD CELLS: DNA METABOLISM
ABNORMALITIES & BONE MARROW
FAILURE
 35
Megaloblastic Anemia
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image of a megaloblastic
bone marrow showing An image of a megaloblastic
bone marrow showing An image of a megaloblastic
nuclear-cytoplasmic asynchrony bone marrow demonstrating
in a polychromatic normoblast. nuclear-cytoplasmic asynchrony
in erythroid precursors. From erythroid hyperplasia and
From MLS Collection, nuclear-cytoplasmic
University of Alberta, MLS Collection, University of
Alberta, asynchrony. 40x magnification.
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3Q815 From MLS Collection,
76M https://doi.org/10.7939/R3KK94
T57 University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3C24R
36T

An image of a megaloblastic
bone marrow demonstrating a An image of a megaloblastic
bone marrow showing a An image of a megaloblastic
giant metamyelocyte. From bone marrow demonstrating a
MLS Collection, University of hypersegmented neutorphil and
a giant band. From MLS hypersegmented neutrophil.
Alberta, From MLS Collection,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R33J39 Collection, University of
Alberta, University of Alberta,
G7T https://doi.org/10.7939/R3V11
https://doi.org/10.7939/R37941
91K W200

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

An image of a megaloblastic An image of a megaloblastic A megaloblastic peripheral

peripheral blood smear peripheral blood smear blood smear demonstrating
showing a hypersegmented showing a hypersegmented oval macrocytes. Small
neutrophil and oval macrocytes. neutrophil and oval macrocytes. lymphocytes are present for
From MLS Collection, From MLS Collection, size comparison. From MLS
University of Alberta, University of Alberta, Collection, University of
https://doi.org/10.7939/R36970 https://doi.org/10.7939/R3B27Q Alberta,
D1B 653 https://doi.org/10.7939/R3XS5J
Z3P

Cause(s):

Megaloblastic anemia occurs when there are defects in DNA synthesis that cause problems with blood
cell production and maturation (all cells are affected, not just red blood cells). Megaloblastic anemia is
most commonly caused by deficiencies in Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) and folate (folic acid). Both Vitamin

B12 and folate are important factors used in the process of DNA synthesis.1

Cellular characteristics of Megaloblastic Anemia:

1. A characteristic finding in bone marrow smears for megaloblastic anemia would the appearance of

nuclear-cytoplasmic (N:C) asynchrony in all cell lines.1 N:C asynchrony describes the inability of the
cell’s chromatin to mature normally giving the nucleus a more immature, more fine, looser, and larger
appearance than expected compared to that of the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm maturation is not affected and

matures normally. Due to these characteristics, the cells are described as megaloblastic.1,2

2. Another characteristic finding on the peripheral blood smear would be the appearance of

hypersegmented neutrophils. Hypersegmentation is described when either observation is present:1,2

5% or more neutrophils have 5 lobes

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One neutrophil with ≥ 6 lobes

3. Oval macrocytes are also indicative of megaloblastic anemia.2

Function of Folate and Vitamin B12 in DNA synthesis:

Folate is ingested as folic acid which is inactive. The process of converting folic acid to its active form

(Tetrahydrofolate, THF) requires the help of Vitamin B12.1 Vitamin B12 is used as a cofactor in a reaction
that converts inactive folate (N5-methylTHF) into the active Tetrahydrofolate (THF) form which is then

used to continue DNA synthesis.1,3 Without Vitamin B12 or folate, the nucleotide thymidine cannot be

produced and DNA synthesis is impaired.2

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

Absorption:

Available in eggs, milk, and meat. The low pH in the stomach causes Vitamin B12 to be released from
ingested proteins. Vitamin B12 then binds to haptocorrin to be transported into the duodenum. In the
duodenum, proteases release the Vitamin B12 and then it is picked up by intrinsic factor where it

transports it to enterocytes of the ileum to be absorbed.1

Transport in circulation:

Once absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract, the transport protein called transcobalamin binds the

Vitamin B12 to be transported to the rest of the body in circulation.1,2

Vitamin B12 deficiency:

Can occur to due to a variety of causes such as: malabsorption, bacterial and parasitic infection,

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inadequate intake in the diet, or impaired utilization by the body.1,2

Vitamin B12 deficiency can develop secondary to the absence of intrinsic factor (IF) which is used to help
absorb Vitamin B12 into the body. IF deficiency can be caused by autoantibodies against IF and gastric

cells resulting in a type of anemia called Pernicious anemia.1,3

Folate (Folic acid)

Absorption:

Folate can be found in yeast, milk, eggs, mushrooms, and leafy greens and is easily destroyed by heat.
Folate is absorbed throughout the gastrointestinal tract as folic acid and converted into N5-methylTHF

in the cells.1

Folate deficiency:

Causes of folate deficiency can be due to inadequate intake in the diet, malabsorption, drugs that

interfere with use, and an increased need (such as during pregnancy or rapid growth).1,3

Laboratory Features of Megaloblastic Anemia:1,3

CBC: PBS: BM:

RBC, WBC, PLT, Hb, Hct: Decreased *Ovalmacrocytes M:E Ratio: decreased (Ineffective erythropoiesis)
*MCV: Usually > 110 fL Howell-Jolly Bodies Hypercellular
MCH: Increased *Hypersegmented neutrophils *N:C asynchrony
MCHC: Normal Schistocytes Enlarged precursors
RETIC: Normal to decreased Teardrop Cells Giant metamyelocytes and bands

Other Tests:
Folate deficiency
– Serum Folate: Decreased
Vitamin B12deficiency
– Serum Vitamin B12: Decreased
– IF blocking antibodies
– Antibody assays (Pernicious anemia)

* Indicates the characteristic morphological findings in megaloblastic anemia blood smears

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References:

1. Hubbard J, Robinson S. Megaloblastic and nonmegaloblastic macrocytic anemias. In: Clinical

laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 277-301.

2. Goossen LH. Anemias caused by defects of DNA metabolism. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical
applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 314-30.

3. Nagao T, Hirokawa M. Diagnosis and treatment of macrocytic anemias in adults. J Gen Fam Med
[Internet]. 2017 Oct 13 [cited 2018 Jun 25];18(5):200–4. Available from:
http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jgf2.31

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36
Non-Megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a peripheral blood smear demonstrating round macrocytes and poikilocytosis in liver disease.
100x oil immersion. From MLS Collection, University of Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3MP4W32X

Cause(s):

A group of anemias that present with macrocytes without megaloblastic features. Most often, non-
megaloblastic macrocytic anemias are caused by: alcoholism, liver disease, bone marrow failure, and

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myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS).1,2

Chronic and heavy consumption of alcohol can lead to macrocytosis due to a variety of effects it has in
erythrocyte development. Alcohol can not only interfere with folate metabolism but also is also directly

toxic on bone marrow precursors. 1,3

Liver disease is commonly associated with alcoholism and it is thought that macrocytosis is caused by

an increase in cholesterol and lipids in the red blood cell membrane.3

Note: Additional information about bone marrow failure and MDS will be discussed in later chapters.

1-4
Laboratory Features:

CBC: PBS: BM:

PLT: Decreased *Round Macrocytes Nomorcellular or hypercellular
Target cells Erythroid hyperplasia
*MCV: usually 100-110 fL *NO hypersegmented neutrophils *Megaloblastic features are absent in precursors
(MCV is rarely >110 fL)

*RETIC: Increased (if hemolytic anemia is present)

Iron Studies (Liver Disease): Other Tests:

Serum Iron: Decreased to Normal Liver enzyme tests
Ferritin: Increased
Transferrin: Normal
Transferrin Saturation: Normal to Increased

*Features that differentiate megaloblastic from non-megaloblastic anemias

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References:

1. Hubbard J, Robinson S. Megaloblastic and nonmegaloblastic macrocytic anemias. In: Clinical

laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 277-301.

2. Nagao T, Hirokawa M. Diagnosis and treatment of macrocytic anemias in adults. J Gen Fam Med
[Internet]. 2017 Oct 13 [cited 2018 Jun 25];18(5):200–4. Available from:
http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jgf2.31

3. Taghizadeh M. Megaloblastic anemias. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th
ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 138-55.

4. Goossen LH. Anemias caused by defects of DNA metabolism. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical
applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 314-30.

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37
Aplastic Anemia
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Bone Marrow Failure:

Bone marrow failure is characterized by reduced hematopoiesis in the bone marrow resulting in

cytopenias in one or more cell lines. Decreased hematopoiesis can be attributed to:1

1. Destruction of hematopoietic stem cells due to acquired causes

2. Destruction of hematopoietic stems cells due to inherited causes

3. Ineffective erythropoiesis

4. Disruption of bone marrow microenvironment

5. Reduced production of growth factors and hormones related to hematopoiesis

6. Infiltration of the bone marrow

Aplastic anemia is a bone marrow failure syndrome that is characterized by a decreased cell count in all
cell lines (pancytopenia) and a hypocellular (aplastic) bone marrow. (McKenzie ch 16 pg 303, Rodak ch
22 pg 332) Unlike other anemias, hepatosplenomegaly and lymphadenopathy are absent. (McKenzie ch
16 pg 307)

Cause(s):

There is no known, single cause of aplastic anemia but it’s development can be associated with a

variety of clinical states and agents which can be either acquired or inherited. 1,2 It is thought that
acquired causes of aplastic anemia can lead to an immunologic response against one’s own

hematopoietic stem cells.1

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Table 1. List of acquired and inherited causes of aplastic anemia.1-3

Acquired: Inherited:
Idiopathic Fanconi Anemia (autosomal recessive, rare X-linked
Drugs and Chemicals recessive)
Radiation Dyskeratosis congenita
Infectious agents Shwachman-Diamond Syndrome
Clonal Disorders (e.g. MDS, PNH)

Laboratory Features of Aplastic Anemia:1,3

CBC: PBS: BM:

RBC: Decreased Pancytopenia Hypocellular or dry tap
WBC: Decreased (Thrombocytopenia, neutropenia, anemia) Fatty infiltration
PLT: Decreased Normochromic
Hb: Decreased Normocytic or macrocytic
RETIC: Decreased
MCV: Normal to increased

Iron Studies: Other Tests:

Serum Iron: Increased Molecular testing
Ferritin: Increased Flow cytometry
Transferrin: Normal
Transferrin Saturation: Normal to increased

References:

1. Lo C, Glader B, Sakamoto KM. Bone marrow failure. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and
principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 331-47.

2. Laudicina R. Hypoproliferative anemias. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey:
Pearson; 2015. p. 302-16.

3. Perkins SL. Aplastic anemia including pure red cell aplasia, congenital dyserythropoietic anemia, and
paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 156-75.

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VI
RED BLOOD CELLS: INTRODUCTION
TO HEMOLYTIC ANEMIAS
 38
Introduction to Hemolytic Anemias
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Hemolytic anemia refers to a process where there is increased red blood cell destruction or decreased

red blood cell survival (hemolysis) leading to a drop in the measured hemoglobin (anemia).1

The type of hemolysis can be categorized into different categories based on the location of the
hemolysis (intravascular or extravascular) or the cause (intrinsic or extrinsic).

Intravascular and extravascular refers to the location of the hemolytic process, whether the process is

taking place within the blood vessels (intra) or outside the blood vessels (extra).2

Intrinsic and extrinsic refers to the cause of red blood cell destruction relative to the red blood cell
itself. If the cause is due to an issue with the red blood cell (e.g. inherited defects of the RBC), it is
referred to as being intrinsic. If the cause is due to factors from outside the red blood cell (e.g.

environment), it is referred to as being extrinsic.2

Compensated hemolysis refers to the ability of the bone marrow to increase red blood cell production in

order to compensate for the rate of hemolysis. As a result, anemia does not develop.2

Extravascular (Macrophage-mediated) Hemolysis

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(EVH)

Process:1, 3-5

1. RBCs are phagocytized in the spleen, bone marrow, or liver by macrophages.

2. Hemoglobin is broken down into iron, globin, and the protoporphyrin ring.

3. Iron is carried by transferrin to the bone marrow be reused or stored as ferritin or hemosiderin.

4. Globin is broken down into amino acids to be recycled.

5. The protoporphyrin ring is further is broken down to biliverdin and then to unconjugated bilirubin
in the macrophage.

6. Unconjugated bilirubin is then released and carried by albumin to the liver.

7. In the liver, unconjugated bilirubin is converted to conjugated bilirubin (bilirubin diglucuronide).

8. Conjugated bilirubin is excreted with bile into the intestines where it is converted into urobilinogen
by bacteria.

9. A majority of the urobilinogen is then excreted in feces, a small amount is reabsorbed by the
kidney, and another portion is excreted into the urine.

Intravascular (Fragmentation) Hemolysis (IVH)

Process:3-5

1. RBC hemolysis occurs in the blood vessels and hemoglobin is released into circulation.

2. Hemoglobin dissociates into αβ dimers and is picked up by Haptoglobin where it is carried to the
liver.

3. Subsequent catabolic steps are the same as extravascular hemolysis from the liver onwards.

4. If haptoglobin is not available, the αβ dimers become oxidized into methemoglobin where it is

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broken down into metheme and globin.

5. Metheme is carried by hemopexin to the liver.

6. If hemopexin is not available, metheme binds albumin instead to form methalbumin,.

7. Methemalbumin continues to circulate the body until hemopexin becomes available.

Table 1. Comparison of IVH and EVH Laboratory Findings1-3

Test IVH EVH

RBC, Hct, Hb Decreased Decreased

Total Bilirubin Increased Increased

LDH Increased Slightly Increased

Haptoglobin Decreased Slightly Decreased

Hemopexin Decreased Slightly Decreased

Hemosiderinuria Present Absent

Hemoglobinuria Present Absent

RBC Morphology Schistocytes Spherocytes

Thalassemia (Other hemoglobinopathies),

PNH, PCH, MAHAs, Mechanical trauma, Bacterial Enzymopathies, Membranopathies, Megaloblastic
Examples
Infections, Thermal Injury anemia, Autoimmune hemolytic anemia, Drug-induced
hemolytic anemia

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References:

1. Barcellini W, Fattizzo B. Clinical Applications of Hemolytic Markers in the Differential Diagnosis and
Management of Hemolytic Anemia. Dis Markers [Internet]. 2015 Dec 27 [cited 2018 Jun
26];2015:635670. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4706896/

2. McKenzie SB, Otto CN. Introduction to anemias. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p.178–97.

3. Doig K. Introduction to increased destruction of erythrocytes. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical

applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 348-66.

4. McKenzie SB. Hemoglobin. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p.
77-96.

5. Harmening DM. The red blood cell: structure and function. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals
of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 64-81.

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VII
RED BLOOD CELLS:
HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES
 39
Normal Hemoglobin Structure
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Location of globin genes:1

Chromosome 16: α globin genes

Chromosome 11: β globin genes

One α globin gene and one β globin gene are inherited from each parent.

Normal hemoglobin A is made up of two α globin chains, two β globin chains, and four heme molecules.

Heme is formed from protoporphyrin ring precurosors and ferrous iron (Fe2+).

Table #1 Normal hemoglobin content at various stages of life.1

Embryonic: Fetal: Adult:

Hb Gower I (ζ2ε2) HbF (α2γ2) HbA (α2β2) >95%
Hb Gower II (α2ε2) HbA2 (α2δ2) <3.5%
Hb Portland (ζ2γ2) HbF (α2γ2) 1-2%

References:

1. Keohane EM. Hemoglobin metabolism. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and principles.
5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 124-36.

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40
Sickle Cell (Hemoglobin SS) Disease
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image of a peripheral blood smear of a patient

with sickle cell disease. From MLS Collection, An image of a peripheral blood smear containing
University of Alberta, sickle cells, target cells, and increased
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3G737K46 polychromasia. 50x oil immersion. From MLS
Collection, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3XP6VJ98

Cause(s):

β globin chain amino acid substitution in the 6th position from glutamic acid (Glu) to valine (Val). In the

homozygous form of the disease, both β globin genes are affected.1

Inheritance:

Autosomal dominant2

Demographics:3

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Tropical Africa

Mediterranean Areas

Sickle cell disease is common in areas where malaria is prominent and it is suggested that the disease
acts as a protective factor for malaria. This protection is only seen in heterozygotes, as homozygotes
often lose splenic function, which is essential for combating the parasite.

Cellular Features:1-4

See sickle cell (drepanocytes) under RBC morphology for more information about cell formation.

The formation of sickle cells becomes irreversible over time leading to the formation of rigid and
“sticky” sickle cell aggregates resulting in many complications.

Complications:1-4

Chronic hemolytic anemia

Vaso-occlusion (can lead to ischemic tissue injury, splenic sequestration of RBCs, autosplenectomy)

Prone to infections

Nephropathies

Stroke

Laboratory Features of Sickle Cell Disease:2-4

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CBC: PBS: BM:

RBC: Decreased Sickle cells Erythroid Hyperplasia
WBC: Increased Normochromic, normocytic RBCs Iron stores: often increased
PLT: Increased Target cells
Hb: Decreased Polychromasia
RETIC: Increased nRBCs
RDW: Increased Howell-Jolly bodies
Pappenheimer bodies
Basophilic Stippling

Hemoglobin Electrophoresis: Other Tests:

Hb S: 80-95% Solubility Screen: Positive
Hb A: None Metasulfite Sickling Test: Positive
Hb A2: 2-% HPLC
Hb F: 5-20% Hemoglobin Electrophoresis

References:

1. Chonat S, Quinn CT. Current standards of care and long term outcomes for thalassemia and sickle
cell disease. Adv Exp Med Biol [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2018 Jun 5];1013:59–87. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5720159/

1. Randolph TR. Hemoglobinopathies (structural defects in hemoglobin). In: Rodak’s hematology clinical
applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 426-453.

3. Laudicina RJ. Hemoglobinopathies: qualitative defects. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed.
New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p.231–50.

4. Harmening DM, Yang D, Zeringer H. Hemolytic anemias: extracorpuscular defects. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 250-79).

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41
Sickle Cell Trait (Hemoglobin AS)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Cause(s):

β globin chain amino acid substitution in the 6th position from glutamic acid (Glu) to valine (Val). Only

one β globin genes is affected.1,2

Inheritance:

Heterozygous state where one normal β globin gene and one affected β globin gene are inherited.3

Clinical Findings:1-3

Due to the presence of Hb A and reduced concentration of HB S, polymerization of Hb S and sickling of

red blood cells does not normally occur. As a result, condition is mostly benign and asymptomatic.

Sickling can still occur under extremely low hypoxic conditions.

Laboratory Features:1-3

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CBC: PBS: BM:

All parameters (Even Hb) are normal Absence of sickle cells N/A
PBS appears normal
(may see a slight increase in target cells)

Hemoglobin Electrophoresis: Other Tests:

Hb S: 35-45% Solubility Screen: Positive
Hb A: 50-65% Metasulfite Sickling Test: Positive
Hb A2: Normal HPLC
Hb F: Normal Hemoglobin Electrophoresis
Hb A:Hb S is ~60:40

References:

1. Laudicina RJ. Hemoglobinopathies: qualitative defects. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed.
New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p.231–50.

2. Harmening DM, Yang D, Zeringer H. Hemolytic anemias: extracorpuscular defects. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 250-79).

3. Randolph TR. Hemoglobinopathies (structural defects in hemoglobin). In: Rodak’s hematology clinical
applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 426-453.

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42
Hemoglobin C (Hb CC) Disease
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Cause(s):

β globin chain amino acid substitution in the 6th position from glutamic acid (Glu) to lysine (Lys).1,2

Inheritance:

Autosomal dominant1

Demographics:

West Africa1

Clinical Features:1-3

See Hemoglobin C under RBC inclusions for additional information.

Less splenic sequestration and milder chronic hemolysis compared to sickle cell disease. Patients are
usually asymptomatic.

Laboratory Features:1,2

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CBC: PBS: BM:

Hb: Decreased Normochromic, normocytic RBCs N/A
Hct: Decreased *Hb C crystals
Target cells
nRBCs

Hemoglobin Electrophoresis: Other Tests:

Hb S: >90 Solubility Screen: Negative
Hb A: None Metasulfite Sickling Test: Negative
Hb A2: Normal HPLC
Hb F: <7% Hemoglobin Electrophoresis

*Not always seen, more likely in patients

who have had a splenectomy.

References:

1. Laudicina RJ. Hemoglobinopathies: qualitative defects. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed.
New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p.231–50.

2. Randolph TR. Hemoglobinopathies (structural defects in hemoglobin). In: Rodak’s hematology clinical
applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 426-453.

3. Harmening DM, Yang D, Zeringer H. Hemolytic anemias: intracorpuscular defects. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 207-29).

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43
Hemoglobin SC Disease
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Cause(s):

Both β globin chains are affected as both genes for hemoglobin S and hemoglobin C are both

inherited.1,2

Clinical Features:1

Complication is less severe than sickle cell disease but more severe than hemoglobin C disease. Cells
are still prone to sickling under decreased oxygen tension.

Complications are similar to those seen in sickle cell anemia and vaso-occlusion can occur.

Laboratory Features:1,2

CBC: PBS: BM:

Hb: Decreased Normochromic N/A
Hct: Decreased Normocytic
MCHC: Increased Target Cells
HbSC crystals

Hemoglobin Electrophoresis: Other Tests:

Hb S: 45% Solubility Tests: Positive
Hb C: 45% HPLC
Hb A: None Hemoglobin Electrophoresis
Hb A2: 2-4%
Hb F: 1%

References:

1. Laudicina RJ. Hemoglobinopathies: qualitative defects. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed.

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New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p.231–50.

2. Randolph TR. Hemoglobinopathies (structural defects in hemoglobin). In: Rodak’s hematology clinical
applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 426-453.

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VIII
RED BLOOD CELLS: EXTRINSIC
DEFECTS CAUSING HEMOLYTIC
ANEMIAS
 44
Microangiopathic Hemolytic Anemias
(MAHAs)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=464

Images of peripheral blood smears demonstrating features of microangiopathic hemolytic anemia . Note
the presence of schistocytes, increased polychromasia, and lack of platelets. From MLS Collection,
University of Alberta.

Image 1: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3FX74D2V

Image 2: 100 oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3B56DK8D

Image 3: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3639KM46

Introduction:1,2

Microangiopathic hemolytic anemias are a group of disorders that involve the fragmentation of red
blood cells in the circulation due to the formation of microthrombi in the microvasculature. This results
in intravascular hemolysis and thrombocytopenia.

Red blood cells are physically damaged as they pass through blood vessels resulting in the formation of
schistocytes (intravascular hemolysis). The damaged red blood cells are then often removed from
circulation by the spleen resulting in extravascular hemolysis.

These features can be found in certain clinical states:

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1. Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)

2. Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP)

3. Hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS)

4. HELLP Syndrome (Hemolysis, Elevated liver enzymes and Low platelets)

General Laboratory Findings of MAHAs:3

CBC: PBS: Other Tests:

PLT: Decreased Schistocytes Unconjugated Bilirubin: Increased
Hb: Decreased Polychromasia LDH: Increased
RETIC: Increased nRBCs Haptoglobin: Decreased
Urine urobilinogen: Increased
Variable hemoglobinuria and hemoglobinemia

References:

1. Smith LA. Hemolytic anemia: nonimmune defects. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p.372–87.

2. Harmening DM, Yang D, Zeringer H. Hemolytic anemias: extracorpuscular defects. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 250-79).

2. Keohane EM. Extrinsic defects leading to increased erythrocyte destruction – nonimmune causes. In:
Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p.
394-410.

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45
Macroangiopathic Hemolytic Anemias
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Traumatic Cardiac Hemolytic Anemia

In this condition, hemolysis is due to mechanical trauma caused by prosthetic cardiac valves. High
blood flow around the prosthetic causes red blood cells to fragment leading to intravascular hemolysis.
Any damaged cells that do not hemolyze in circulation are removed by the spleen via extravascular

hemolysis.1,2

Hemolytic anemia due to traumatic cardiac causes is uncommon and platelet count is not usually

decreased drastically. Any hemolysis that occurs is often compensated by the bone marrow.1,2

Laboratory Findings for Traumatic Cardiac Hemolytic Anemia:2

CBC: PBS: Other Tests:

PLT: Normal Schistocytes Unconjugated Bilirubin: Increased
Hb: Decreased LD: Increased
RETIC: Increased Haptoglobin: Decreased

Exercise-induced Hemoglobinuria

Transient hemolysis that occurs due to stress caused by exercise. Most often due to activities involving
contact with hard surfaces such as running. Red blood cells become damaged as they pass through

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small vessels. Anemia usually does not develop unless hemolysis is severe.1

Laboratory Findings for Exercise-induced Hemoglobinuria:2

CBC: PBS: Other Tests:

Hb: Increased Schistocytes are NOT present Unconjugated Bilirubin: Increased
RETIC: Increased LDH: Increased
MCV: Slight increase Haptoglobin: Decreased
Hemoglobinuria

Thermal Injury

Hemolytic anemia can develop after thermal burns to the body. Degree of hemolysis is dependent on the

amount of surface area affected. Hemolysis is due to direct thermal damage to the red blood cells.1

Laboratory Findings for Thermal Injury:1

CBC: PBS: Other Tests:

Hb: Decreased Schistocytes Hemoglobinuria
Micro-Spherocytes

References:

1. Smith LA. Hemolytic anemia: nonimmune defects. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p.372–87.

2. Keohane EM. Extrinsic defects leading to increased erythrocyte destruction – nonimmune causes. In:

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Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p.
394-410.

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46
Immune-Mediated Hemolytic Anemias
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Hemolytic anemias can be caused by antibodies that can be directed against self (auto-antibodies) or
foreign (allo-antibodies) antigens. Antibodies implicated vary in immunoglobulin class and optimal
temperature of reactivity.

Table 1. Comparison of Warm and Cold Reacting Antibodies.1

Warm Cold

Immunoglobulin Class IgG IgM

(Exception: autoanti- P is IgG)

Optimal Temperature 37℃ <30℃ (often at 4℃)

Pathological cold agglutinins react closer to body
temperature

Mechanism of Hemolysis Extravascular Extravascular or Intravascular

IgG or C3b attachment to macrophages Complement-mediated

Specificity anti-Rh (Broad specificity) Autoanti-I

Autoanti-i
Autoanti-P

Warm Auto-Immune Hemolytic Anemia (WAIHA)

Associated Conditions:2,3

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Lymphoproliferative diseases (e.g. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia)

Other autoimmune diseases: systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis

Ingestion of certain drugs

Some non lymphoid neoplasms

Some inflammatory diseases

Affected age: Usually old age (>40 years old).1

Antibody Specificity: Panreactive, polyclonal anti-Rh (IgG).3

Pathophysiology:

Often due to a Pan-reacting antibody against the Rh blood group system causing extravascular
hemolysis. The antibodies bind to the red blood cells, resulting in their removal by macrophages in the
spleen. Incomplete phagocytosis results in the removal of only some of the red blood cell membrane
allowing the rest to reform. This reformation changes the red blood cell shape, and it becomes as
spherocyte. Red blood cells can also be coated with complement along with IgG antibodies as another

mechanism of opsonization and removal from circulation.3

Laboratory Findings for WAIHA:1-3

CBC: PBS: BM:

WBC: Normal to increased Normochromic Erythroid hyperplasia
PLT: Normal to increased Normocytic Erythrophagocytosis by macrophages
Hb: Decreased Spherocytes
RETIC: Increased Polychromasia
+/- nRBCs

Other Tests:
DAT: Positive (IgG & C3b)
Osmotic Fragility: Increased
Antibody Screen: Positive with all cells
Autocontrol: Positive
Bilirubin: Increased
Haptoglobin: Decreased
LD: Increased
Hemoglobinuria: Positive
Hemosiderinuria: Positive

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Cold Agglutinin Disease (CAD)

Associated Conditions:2

Primarily idiopathic

B-cell lymphoproliferative neoplasms

Mycoplasma pneumoniae (anti-I)

Infectious mononucleosis (anti-i)

Affected age: > 50 years old.2

Antibody Specificity: Autoanti-I and autoanti-i.2

Autoantibody is an IgM antibody that reacts optimally below body temperature, usually around 4℃2.
Pathological cold agglutinins will react closer to body temperature (around 30℃).

Can be polyclonal (i.e. infections) or monoclonal (Monoclonal is more pathogenic).1

Pathophysiology:

Under cold temperatures (circulation in the extremities), the autoantibodies bind to the red blood cells
causing them to agglutinate. As the autoantibodies are strong complement activators, complement

(C3b) also binds the red blood cells.1,2,4

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When the cells return to body temperature (central circulation), the autoantibody unbinds allowing
cells to separate and leaves C3b behind remaining on the red blood cell. This leads to complement-

mediated hemolysis by macrophages in the liver (extravascular hemolysis).1,2,4

Can cause acrocyanosis and hemolysis is self-limiting.5

Laboratory Findings for CAD:1,2,4

CBC: PBS: BM:

RBC: Decreased Agglutination at room temperature (Not present if Erythroid hyperplasia
WBC: Normal sample is heated to 37℃)
PLT: Normal Spherocytes
RETIC: Increased Normohromic
MCV, MCH, MCHC: Falsely increased Normocytic
(due to cold-agglutination) +/- nRBCs

Other Tests:
DAT: Positive for C3b, but negative for IgG or IgM

IAT: Reactive at < 25℃

Screen Cells: Positive
Autocontrol: Positive

Cord cells: Negative (If autoanti-I, otherwise

positive if autoanti-i)

Bilirubin: Increased
Haptoglobin: Decreased
Hemoglobinemia
Hemoglobinuria (Acute)
Hemosiderinuria (Chronic)

Paroxysmal Cold Hemoglobinuria (PCH)

Associated Conditions:2,3

Can develop following viral infections or upper respiratory infections

Affected age: Primarily in children. 2

Antibody Specificity: autoanti-P (IgG, polyclonal, binds optimally at 4-20℃, reactive at 37℃).1,4,5

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Pathophysiology:1,4,5

Attachment of autoanti-P to cells do not cause the cells to agglutinate but does result in an
intravascular, complement-mediated hemolysis.

Autoanti-P is a biphasic antibody meaning that it activates only partial complement at cold
temperatures (<37℃) and full complement at warmer temperatures (37℃) leading to hemolysis.

Laboratory Findings for PCH:2-4

CBC: PBS: Other Tests:

WBC: Normal Spherocytes DAT: Positive for C3d only
Hb: Decreased Polychromasia LD: Increased
RETIC: Increased +/- nRBCs Haptoglobin: Decreased
Some Schistocytes Hemoglobinemia
Hemoglobinuria
Donath-Landsteiner Test is Positive:
Control incubated at 37℃: Hemolysis absent
Patient sample incubated at 37℃ only: Hemolysis absent
Patient sample incubated at 4℃ and 37℃: Hemolysis present

Table 2. Comparative Table of Warm and Cold Immune-Related Hemolytic Anemias

WAIHA CAD PCH

Age (years old) >40 >50 Children

(After viral infection)

Antibody Class IgG IgM IgG

Antibody Specificity Anti-Rh (most-often) Anti-I, Anti-i Anti-P

Optimal Binding Temperature 37℃ 4℃ <20℃

DAT Reactivity IgG IgG, C3d C3d

Donath-Landsteiner Test N/A Negative Positive

Type of Hemolysis Extravascular Extravascular Intravascular

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Drug-Induced Immune Hemolytic Anemia

Immune hemolytic anemias can also be induced when certain drugs are administered into the body.
There are four mechanisms in which they are able to do this:

1. Autoantibody Induction1,4,6

Most commonly caused by methyldopa.

Mechanism mimics that found in warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia. The drug induces the production
of warm-reactive antibodies against the red blood cell membrane (self-antigens). Antibodies bind at
37℃ and affected red cells are removed by the spleen through extravascular hemolysis.

2. Drug Adsorption (Hapten)1,4,6

Most commonly caused by penicillins.

The drug is non-specifically adsorbed onto the red blood cells and antibodies are produced against the
drug itself. As red blood cell pass through the spleen, they are removed by macrophages.

3. Immune Complex Formation (Innocent Bystander)1,4,6

Most commonly caused by quinidine.

An IgG or IgM antibody is produced against the drug when it loosely binds to the red blood cells
(antibody-drug immune complex). The immune complex induces the activation of complement, leading
to the formation of membrane attack complexes and intravascular hemolysis.

4. Membrane Modification1,6

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Most commonly caused by cephalosporins.

Drug modifies the red blood cell membrane causing it to become “sticky”. This results in red blood cells
becoming coated with many plasma proteins. No hemolysis occurs, but DAT testing will be positive.

Table 3. Comparison of Mechanisms Leading to Drug-Related Immune Hemolytic Anemia

Autoantibody Drug Adsorption Immune Complex Membrane Modification

Induction

Drug Example Methyldopa Penicillins Quinidine Cephalosporins

Antibody Class IgG IgG IgG or IgM N/A, due to plasma proteins

DAT IgG Positive IgG Positive C3 Positive Positive, due to plasma

C3 Negative C3 Negative IgG Variable proteins

Eluate Positive Usually Negative Usually Negative Usually Negative

Type of Hemolysis Extravascular Extravascular Intravascular No hemlysis

Alloimmune Hemolytic Anemias

Hemolytic anemias can also occur with there is sensitization of red blood cells due previous exposure to
another individual’s red blood cells.

1. Hemolytic Transfusion Reactions7

Hemolytic transfusion reactions occur when there is an incompatibility between the patient’s blood
(contain alloantibodies) and the transfused cells. Alloantibodies present in the patient’s blood binds the

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antigens on the transfused cells and this results in hemolysis. Transfusion reactions are classified as
being acute or delayed.

Table 4. Comparison of Acute and Delayed Transfusion Reactions.

Acute Delayed
Time Immediate; minutes to hours Days to weeks

Related Blood ABO Other non-ABO blood groups

Groups

Symptoms Fever, chills, back pain, pain at infusion site, difficulty breathing, Usually show no clinical symptoms but may develop a fever
hypotension, urticaria, tachycardia

Type of Hemolysis Intravascular Extravascular

DAT Negative (if all transfused cells have all been hemolyzed) Positive for IgG and/or C3d (Can be negative depending on time
of sample collection)

Other Laboratory Hemoglobinemia Hemoglobinuria

Findings Hb: Decreased Hb: Variable
Bilirubin: Increased after a few days Bilirubin: Increased
Haptoglobin: Decreased Eluate is positive for offending antibody.

2. Hemolytic Disease of the Fetus and Newborn (HDFN)

Hemolysis that occurs in the fetus or newborn due to incompatibility between the mother’s
alloantibodies and the fetus’s/newborn’s blood groups.

Mother’s immune system can become sensitized and produce alloantibodies against the blood group
antigens that she lacks during a previous pregnancy or transfusion. If the fetus/newborn contains the
blood group antigens that the mother has alloantibodies against, HDFN can develop. During pregnancy,
alloantibodies are able to pass through the placenta and bind to the red blood cells in the fetus/newborn

resulting in hemolysis of the fetal red blood cells.4,6

Newborns appear jaundiced and have high levels of bilirubin at birth.4,7 The peripheral blood smear will
show increased spherocytes, polychromasia, and increased nucleated red blood cells (normoblastemia).

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Alloantibodies can be produced against Rh, ABO, and other blood groups.7

References:

1. Smith LA. Hemolytic anemia: immune anemias. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 348-71.

2. Barcellini W, Fattizzo B. Clinical Applications of Hemolytic Markers in the Differential Diagnosis and
Management of Hemolytic Anemia. Dis Markers [Internet]. 2015 Dec 27 [cited 2018 Jun
26];2015:635670. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4706896/

3. Berentsen S. Role of complement in autoimmune hemolytic anemia. Transfus Med Hemotherapy

[Internet]. 2015 Sep 7 [cited 2018 Jun 27];42(5):303–10. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4678321/

4. Przekop KA. Extrinsic defects leading to increased erythrocyte destruction – immune causes. In:
Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p.
411-25.

5. Packman CH. The clinical pictures of autoimmune hemolytic anemia. Transfus Med Hemotherapy
[Internet]. 2015 Sep 11 [cited 2018 Jun 26];42(5):317–24. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4678314/

6. Harmening DM, Yang D, Zeringer H. Hemolytic anemias: extracorpuscular defects. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 250-79).

7. Landis-Piwowar K, Landis J, Keila P. The complete blood count and peripheral blood smear
evaluation. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 154-77.

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47
Infectious Agents
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Malarial Infection

An image from a peripheral

blood smear demonstrating An image from a peripheral
blood smear showing two An image from a peripheral
intra-cellular malarial rings blood smear showing ring
(Plasmodium falciparum) inside crescent-shaped gametocytes,
characteristic of Plasmodium forms of Plasmodium ovale in
red blood cells. From MLS oval-shaped red blood cells.
Collection, University of falciparum. From MLS
Collection, University of From MLS Collection,
Alberta, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R34J0B Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3BG2 https://doi.org/10.7939/R3W08
C8J WX95
HS02

An image from a peripheral

blood smear demonstrating the An image from a peripheral
blood smear demonstrating An image from a peripheral
gametocyte of Plasmodium blood smear showing signet
vivax. From MLS Collection, malaria at the gametocyte
stage in the center. 60X oil ring forms of malaria and a
University of Alberta,

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https://doi.org/10.7939/R3R786 immersion. From MLS large platelet in the center.

45T Collection, University of From MLS Collection,
Alberta, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R33J39 https://doi.org/10.7939/R3MG7
G6B GB25

Causative Agent:1,2

Malaria is transmitted by the female Anopheles mosquito.

There are five species of malaria:

Plasmodium falciparum – Most severe

Plasmodium vivax – Most common

Plasmodium ovale – Less common

Plasmodium malariae – Less common

Plasmodium knowlesi

Geographic Distribution:1

Tropical and subtropical areas

Clinical Features:1,2

Fever, headache, chills, sweating, splenomegaly. Patients can show cyclical patterns of fever and chills
being present then absent. In severe malaria, jaundice, shock, bleeding, seizures, or coma may occur.
Thrombocytopenia commonly occurs with malarial infections, and may lead to bleeding tendencies.

Hemolysis is mostly intravascular and occurs through a number of different mechanisms:1,2

1. Direct damage to the red blood cells

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2. Immune activation of macrophage activity (Increased extravascular hemolysis)

3. Release of cytokines that inhibit erythropoiesis (inhibit erythropoietin)

4. Increased oxidative stress on RBCs during infection

5. Induction of apoptosis in red blood cell precursors

Laboratory Results for Malarial Infections:1,2

CBC: PBS: BM:

RBC: Decreased Normochromic Erythroid Hypoplasia
WBC: Normal to Slightly Increased (neutropenia Normocytic
during chills) Intracellular Malarial parasite forms (forms and stages of
PLT: Decreased development seen differ by species)
Hct: Decreased
RETIC: Decreased

Other Tests:
Giemsa stain
Thin Smears: Morphology and parasitemia calculation
Thick Smears: Presence or absence of malaria
Immunoassays
Flow Cytometry
Molecular Testing (PCR)

Note: See “Malaria” under RBC inclusions for additional information.

Babesiosis

Causative agents:1,3

Babesia microti is carried by the Ixodes scapularis ticks. Babesia can also be transmitted by blood
transfusions.

Geographical Distribution:3

Northeast and Midwest United States

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Clinical Features:3

Clinical symptoms include: flu-like symptoms ranging from fever, headache, anorexia, fatigue. Some
patients may be asymptomatic. Hepatosplenomegaly may or may not be present.

Laboratory Results for Babesiosis:1,3

CBC: PBS: Other Tests:

WBC: Decreased RBCs shows tetrads of merozoites (Maltese Hemoglobinuria
PLT: Decreased cross) Proteinuria
Hb: Decreased Immunoassays
RETIC: Increased Molecular testing (PCR)

Note: See “Babesia” under Abnormal RBC inclusions for additional information.

Clostridial Sepsis

Causative agent:1,3

Clostridium perfringens is an anaerobic, gram-positive spore-forming bacilli that can infect tissues after
events involving trauma to the body. The bacteria releases enzymes and toxins that damage the
surrounding tissue and can allow the bacteria to reach the bloodstream.

Blood infection is often fatal and can lead to massive hemolysis and the activation of DIC.

Mechanism of RBC Destruction:1,3

Hemolysis by C. perfringens is intravascular and can occur due to direct effects of alpha-toxin that it
releases on the red blood cell membrane. Cell becomes spherical and subject to osmotic lysis.
Significant intravascular hemolysis ensues, leading to a marked decrease in hematocrit, and dark
red/brown plasma and urine.

Laboratory Results for Clostridia Infections:1,3

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CBC: PBS: Other Tests:

RBC: Decreased Spherocytes Hemoglobinemia
PLT: Decreased Microcytes Hemoglobinuria
Hct: Very Decreased Ghost cells
Toxic changes with a left shift
+/- ingested bacteria within neutrophils

References:

1. Harmening DM, Yang D, Zeringer H. Hemolytic anemias: extracorpuscular defects. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 250-79).

2. Akinosoglou KS, Solomou EE, Gogos CA. Malaria: a haematological disease. Hematology [Internet].
2012 Mar 1 [cited 2018 Jul 9];17(2):106–14. Available from:
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1179/102453312X13221316477336

3. Keohane EM. Extrinsic defects leading to increased erythrocyte destruction – nonimmune causes. In:
Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p.
394-410.

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IX
RED BLOOD CELLS: INTRINSIC
DEFECTS OF THE RBC MEMBRANE
CAUSING HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA
 48
Hereditary Spherocytosis
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=547

Images of hereditary spherocytosis peripheral blood smears demonstrating marked spherocytosis and
polychromasia. From MLS Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R34B2XK9F

Image 2: 50 x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3HM53096

Note:

The hereditary condition results in the formation of spherocytes with a decreased life span, decreased

deformability, and a reduced surface-to-volume ratio causing increased osmotic fragility.1

Mutation:

Genetic mutations in the vertical protein linkages between the membrane and cytoskeleton: α-spectrin,

β-spectrin, band 3, ankyrin, and protein 4.2.1-4 Results in loss of unsupported membrane overtime, and
spherocyte formation.

Inheritance:1,3

Autosomal dominant or recessive depending on which mutations are inherited.

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Clinical Features:1,3,4

Jaundice

Fatigue

Pallor

Splenomegaly

Iron Overload

Extramedullary erythropoiesis

Laboratory Results:1-3

CBC: PBS: BM:

Hb: Decreased Spherocytes (Variable amounts) M:E Ratio: Decreased
MCV: Decreased to Normal Polychromasia Erythroid Hyperplasia
MCH: Normal to Increased Increased inclusions (HJ bodies,
MCHC: Increased pappenheimer bodies)
(>360 g/L) +/- NRBCs
RETIC: Increased
RDW: Increased

Other Tests:
Osmotic Fragility: Increased
Eosin -5’-maleimide Binding Test: Decreased fluorescence
DAT: Negative (AIHA with spherocytes are DAT positive)

Markers of EVH:
Bilirubin: Increased
LD: Increased
Urobilinogen: Increased

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References:

1. Gallagher PG. Abnormalities of the erythrocyte membrane. Pediatr Clin North Am [Internet]. 2013
Dec 15 [cited 2018 Jun 26];60(6):1349–62. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4155395/

2. Keohane EM. Intrinsic defects leading to increased erythrocyte destruction. In: Rodak’s hematology
clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 367–93.

3. Andolfo I, Russo R, Gambale A, Iolascon A. New insights on hereditary erythrocyte membrane

defects. Haematologica [Internet]. 2016 Nov 22 [cited 2018 Jun 26];101(11):1284–94. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5394881/

4. Da Costa L, Galimand J, Fenneteau O, Mohandas N. Hereditary spherocytosis, elliptocytosis, and

other red cell membrane disorders. Blood Rev [Internet]. 2013[cited 2018 Jul 24];27(4):167–78.
Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0268960X13000192

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49
Hereditary Elliptocytosis & Related
Variants
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Hereditary Elliptocytosis

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=557

Images of hereditary elliptocytosis peripheral blood smears showing numerous elliptocytes. From MLS
Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3F18SW6B

Image 2: 100x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3JS9HQ0S

Hereditary elliptocytosis encompasses group of hereditary conditions that result in the formation of

elliptocytes with a decreased erythrocyte lifespan. 1 Variants of hereditary elliptocytosis include

Hereditary pyropoikilocytosis and Southeast Asian Ovalocytosis.

Mutation:

Genetic mutations involving the horizontal protein linkages between the membrane and cytoskeleton: α-

spectrin, β-spectrin, protein 4.1, glycophorin C).2-4 These mutations result in a decreased red blood cell
lifespan and increased susceptibility to hemolysis (primarily extravascular). Hemolysis is often mild.

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Inheritance:1,3,4

Autosomal dominant

Clinical Features:

Patients are usually asymptomatic and discovery of hereditary elliptocytosis is often incidental.1,3

Laboratory Results for Hereditary Elliptocytosis:1,5

CBC: PBS: Other Tests:

MCV: Normal to Increased Elliptocytes (Variable amounts) Osmotic Fragility: Normal
MCH, MCHC: Normal During hemolytic episodes may see: Thermal Stability: Decreased
Normocytic, normochromic anemia PCR
Increased Polychromasia Hyperbilirubinemia
LDH: Increased

Hereditary Pyropoikilocytosis (HPP)

A rare variant of hereditary elliptocytosis that presents with severe hemolytic anemia.4,5

Inheritance:2,4

Autosomal recessive

Mutation:2,4

Defects in spectrin that results in red blood cell fragmentation.

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Laboratory Findings for HPP:2,4,5

CBC: PBS: Other Tests:

RBC: Decreased Microspherocytes Osmotic Fragility: Increased
Hb: Decreased Schistocytes Thermal Sensitivity: Increased
MCV: Always decreased Elliptocytes Eosin -5’-maleimide Binding Test:
MCHC: Increased Decreased fluorescence

Southeast Asian Ovalocytosis (SAO)

A variant of hereditary elliptocytosis that and clinical symptoms are mainly asymptomatic. Ovalocytes
are large and may show one or more transverse bars in the cytoplasm of the cell. These ovalycotes are

much more rigid than normal red blood cells.5 Patients are usually asymptomatic.2

Inheritance:2-4

Autosomal dominant

Mutation:2,3

Mutation in the Band 3 protein.

Laboratory Findings for SAO:5

PBS: Elliptocytes (May show one or more transverse bars)

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References:

1. Gallagher PG. Abnormalities of the erythrocyte membrane. Pediatr Clin North Am [Internet]. 2013
Dec 15 [cited 2018 Jun 26];60(6):1349–62. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4155395/

2. Keohane EM. Intrinsic defects leading to increased erythrocyte destruction. In: Rodak’s hematology
clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 367–93.

3. Da Costa L, Galimand J, Fenneteau O, Mohandas N. Hereditary spherocytosis, elliptocytosis, and

other red cell membrane disorders. Blood Rev [Internet]. 2013[cited 2018 Jul 24];27(4):167–78.
Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0268960X13000192

4. Andolfo I, Russo R, Gambale A, Iolascon A. New insights on hereditary erythrocyte membrane

defects. Haematologica [Internet]. 2016 Nov 22 [cited 2018 Jun 26];101(11):1284–94. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5394881/

5. Coetzer T, Zail S. Hereditary defects of the red cell membrane. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 176–95).

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50
Hereditary Stomatocytosis Syndromes
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Overhydrated Hereditary Stomatocytosis

Condition results in cells with altered intracellular concentrations of sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+)
ions. There is an increased permeability of K+ into the cell and increased permeability of Na+ out of the
cell. This results in cells with increased volume (cells are overhydrated), a decreased surface-to-volume

ratio, and decreased cytoplasm viscosity.1-3

Mutation:1,3

Hereditary defect leading to alterations in the permeability of the red blood cell membrane.

1-3
Inheritance:

Autosomal dominant (Severe hemolysis may indicate a autosomal recessive inheritance)

Laboratory Results:1-3

CBC: PBS: Other Tests:

MCV: Increased Macorcytes Osmotic Fragility: Increased
MCHC: Decreased Stomatocytes

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Dehydrated Hereditary Stomatocytosis (Hereditary

Xerocytosis)

Defects lead to an increased movement of K+ out of the cell and results in the dehydration of cell.

Unlike Stomatocytes, cells have an increased surface-to-volume ratio.2

Inheritance:2-4

Autosomal dominant

Laboratory Results:1-4

CBC: PBS: Other Tests:

MCV: Increased Stomatocytes Osmotic Fragility: Increased
MCHC: Increased Target cells
Echinocytes
Macrocytes
RBCs with Hb concentrated at the periphery of
the cell

References:

1. Keohane EM. Intrinsic defects leading to increased erythrocyte destruction. In: Rodak’s hematology
clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 367–93.

2. Coetzer T, Zail S. Hereditary defects of the red cell membrane. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 176–95).

3. Da Costa L, Galimand J, Fenneteau O, Mohandas N. Hereditary spherocytosis, elliptocytosis, and

other red cell membrane disorders. Blood Rev [Internet]. 2013[cited 2018 Jul 24];27(4):167–78.
Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0268960X13000192

4. Andolfo I, Russo R, Gambale A, Iolascon A. New insights on hereditary erythrocyte membrane

defects. Haematologica [Internet]. 2016 Nov 22 [cited 2018 Jun 26];101(11):1284–94. Available from:

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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5394881/

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51
Hereditary Acanthocytosis
(Abetalipoproteinemia)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a peripheral blood smear showing acanthocytes and other poikilocytosis. Hereditary
acanthocytosis would typically show acanthocytes as the main red blood cell abnormality. From MLS
Collection, University of Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R31J97P8T

Mutation:1,2

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Microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) gene mutation that results in a lack of apolipoprotein B.
An increase in sphingomyelin concentration in the RBC membrane leads to increased membrane rigidity
and acanthocyte formation.

Inheritance:,1,2

Autosomal recessive

Laboratory Results:,1,2

CBC: PBS:
MCV: Normal Acanthocytes
MCH: Normal
MCHC: Normal
RETIC: Normal to increased

Hereditary Acanthocytosis References:

1. Cochran-Black D. Hemolytic anemia: membrane defects. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed.
New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 317-33.

2. Keohane EM. Intrinsic defects leading to increased erythrocyte destruction. In: Rodak’s hematology
clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 367–93.

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52
Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria
(PNH)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria is an acquired clonal disorder that starts at the stem cell level.

Cells produced become susceptible and are destroyed by chronic complement-mediated hemolysis.1,2

Cause(s):1,2

Deficiency in glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor proteins (GPIs). Normally, CD55 and CD59 act as
complement regulators to prevent autologous complement-mediated hemolysis. Without GPIs, cells lack
CD55 and CD59 and undergo spontaneous intravascular hemolysis.

Hemolytic episodes (Paroxysms) can be exacerbated by stressors such as inflammation or infections.

Complications:2

Hemolytic Anemia

Bone Marrow Failure

Thrombophilia

Laboratory Results for PNH:1,3,4

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CBC: PBS: BM:

RBC: Decreased May see: If BM Failure:
WBC: Decreased -nRBCs -Impaired hematopoiesis
PLT: Decreased -Polychromasia -Hypocellular
Hb: Decreased
MCV: Increased If Iron Deficiency Present: If not BM Failure, may be:
RETIC: Increased -Hypochromic -Normo to hypercellular
-Microcytic -Erythroid hyperplasia

If Folate Deficiency Present: Iron stores: Decreased, or absent

-Oval Macrocytes Note: Any dysplastic findings may be indicative of MDS.

If BM Failure Present:
-Pancytopenia

Iron Studies: Other Tests: Tests for IVH:

Same as iron deficiency anemia if patient Sucrose Hemolysis Test: Positive for hemolysis Indirect bilirubin: Increased
becomes iron deficient. Ham’s (Acidified Serum Lysis) Test: Positive Haptoglobin: Decreased
Flow cytometry (for CD55 and CD59) LD: Increased
DAT: Negative Hemoglobinemia
Osmotic Fragility: Normal Hemoglobinuria
Hemosiderinuria

References:

1. DeZern AE, Brodsky RA. Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria. A Complement-Mediated Hemolytic

Anemia. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am [Internet]. 2015 Jun 7 [cited 2018 Jun 26];29(3):479–94.
Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695989/

2. Mastellos DC, Ricklin D, Yancopoulou D, Risitano A, Lambris JD. Complement in paroxysmal

nocturnal hemoglobinuria: Exploiting our current knowledge to improve the treatment landscape.
Expert Rev Hematol [Internet]. 2014 Oct 2 [cited 2018 Jun 26];7(5):583–98. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4383744/

3. Cochran-Black D. Hemolytic anemia: membrane defects. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed.
New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 317-33.

4. Keohane EM. Intrinsic defects leading to increased erythrocyte destruction. In: Rodak’s hematology
clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 367–93.

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53
Glucose-6-phosphate Dehydrogenase
(G6PD) Deficiency
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

A peripheral blood smear stained with a supravital stain demonstrating numerous heinz bodies (indicated by
arrows). 100x oil immersion. From MLS Collection, University of Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R35718396

Normal G6PD Function: Hexose Monophosphate (HMP) Shunt and Oxidative Damage1,2

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The HMP Shunt describes the glycolytic pathway where glucose is transferred to and catabolized in the
cell to produce ATP and maintain sustainable amounts of reduced glutathione (GSH). GSH acts to
protect the red blood cell from oxidative damage by reducing oxidative molecules (Peroxides and free
oxygen radicals) and becoming oxidized itself.

In the HMP shunt, NADPH is generated by G6PD from NADP which than acts to regenerate reduced
glutathione from its oxidized state to allow continued protection from oxidative damage. A lack of G6PD
results in increased red blood cell destruction.

G6PD activity is highest in younger cells (i.e. reticulocytes) compared to that of older and more mature
1
red blood cells.

Mutation:2

G6PD gene mutation results in decreased G6PD levels.

Inheritance:1

X-linked

Complications:1,2

Acute hemolytic Anemia

Neonatal Hyperbilirubinemia

Chronic Nonspherocytic Hemolytic Anemia

Causes of Hemolytic Episodes:1,2

Exposure to oxidative agents:

-Drugs (e.g. antimalarials, sulfonamides)

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-Infections

-Fava Beans (Favism)

Notes:

G6PD deficiency is commonly associated with bite and blister cells. Oxidized hemoglobins become
denatured and form heinz bodies within the red blood cells. These heinz bodies can be removed by
splenic macrophages through a “pitting” mechanism, which results in the formation of bite and blister

cells.1

It has been suggested that G6PD deficiency acts as a protective mechanism from malaria as the

prevalence of G6PD deficiency coincides with that of malaria.1

Laboratory Results for G6PD Deficiency:1

CBC: PBS: Other Tests:

WBC: Increased Bite and Blister Cells Dye Reduction Test: No colour change
PLT: Normal Polychromasia G6PD Assay: Decreased activity
Hb: Decreased Occasional spherocytes DAT: Negative
MCHC: Increased Heinz bodies (Supravital staining)
RETIC: Increased Hemolysis Markers:
Indirect Bilirubin: Increased
LDH: Increased
Haptoglobin: Decreased
Hemoglobinemia
Hemoglobinuria

References:

1. Lake M, Bessmer D. Hemolytic anemia: enzyme deficiencies. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd
ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 334-47.

2. Keohane EM. Intrinsic defects leading to increased erythrocyte destruction. In: Rodak’s hematology
clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 367–93.

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54
Pyruvate Kinase (PK) Deficiency
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

A peripheral blood smear with a pyknocyte* shown by the arrow (A). 100x oil immersion. From MLS
Collection, University of Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3VX06J4H

Normal PK Function:

Pyruvate Kinase catalyzes the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate which results in the
production of ATP from ADP. A lack of pyruvate kinase results in the ability of cells to maintain proper

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cell shape, normal lifespan, and low levels of 2,3-PBG.1,2

Mutation:1,2

Mutations in the PKLR gene leading to decreased levels of pyruvate kinase.

Inheritance:1,2

Autosomal recessive

Complications:1,2

Chronic hemolytic anemia

Splenomegaly

Jaundice

Gallstones

Notes:1

WBCs contain more pyruvate kinase than RBCs.

Laboratory Results for PK Deficiency:1

CBC: PBS: Other Tests:

Hb: Decreased Normocytic Osmotic Fragility: Normal
RETIC: Increased Normochromic Pyruvate Kinase Assay: Decreased
Echinocytes Indirect bilirubin: Increased
Pyknocytes* LDH: Increased
Post-splenectomy shows varying degrees of anisocytosis Haptoglobin: Decreased or absent
and poikilocytosis

*Note: The term “pyknocyte” is not

universally used. It refers to a small,
dehydrated, dark-colored RBC.

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References:

1. Lake M, Bessmer D. Hemolytic anemia: enzyme deficiencies. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd
ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 334-47.

2. Keohane EM. Intrinsic defects leading to increased erythrocyte destruction. In: Rodak’s hematology
clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 367–93.

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X
WHITE BLOOD CELLS AND PLATELETS:
NORMAL MORPHOLOGY
 55
Granulocytes and
Granulocyte Maturation
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Myeloblast/Blast

An image from a bone marrow smear with a blast

(indicated with an arrow). 100x oil immersion. An image from a bone marrow smear with a blast
From MLS Collection, University of Alberta, (indicated with an arrow). 50x oil immersion. From
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3JM23X5J MLS Collection, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3JM23X5J

Notes: Earliest distinguishable and recognizable stage of granulocyte maturation.1

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: 4:1 2

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Nucleoli: 1-51

Nucleus:1,3

Round to oval

Central or eccentrically located

Loose, open, evenly stained, reddish-purple, chromatin

Cytoplasm:1,2

Dark to light basophilia

May contain granules (up to 20)

Golgi may be seen (pale area next to the nucleus)

Normal % in Bone Marrow: 0-2%2

Normal % in Peripheral Blood: 0%2

Promyelocyte

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An image from a peripheral An image from a bone marrow A peripheral blood smear
blood smear showing a smear showing a promyelocyte demonstrating a promyeloctye
promyelocyte. From MLS (indicated by the arrow) and (A) and a blast (B). From MLS
Collection, University of other myeloid precursors. 100x Collection, University of
Alberta, oil immersion. From MLS Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3FQ9 Collection, University of https://doi.org/10.7939/R3NK36
QM3R Alberta, M47
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3QJ78
D45

Notes: Presence of primary granules marks maturation at the promyelocyte stage.3

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: 3:1 2

Nucleoli: 1-32

Nucleus:1-3

Round to oval

Central or eccentrically located

Reddish-blue chromatin

Fine and slightly coarser chromatin than a myeloblast

Cytoplasm:2

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Lightly basophilic

Primary (fine, nonspecific) granules present (reddish-purple)

Normal % in Bone Marrow: 2-5%2

Normal % in Peripheral Blood: 0% 2

Myelocyte

An image from a bone marrow

smear showing four myelocytes An image from a bone marrow
smearing showing a An image of a bone marrow
(center) with both primary and smear with myeloid precursors.
secondary granules. 100x oil eosinophilic myelocyte
(indicated by the arrow). A Myelocytes are indicated with
immersion. From MLS arrows. 100x oil immersion.
Collection, University of neutrophil myelocyte is below
the eosinophil myelocyte. From From MLS Collection,
Alberta, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3V980 MLS Collection, University of
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3BC3T
69S C4P
https://doi.org/10.7939/R36M33
K0X

Notes: Presence of secondary granules marks maturation at the myelocyte stage. Primary granules may
still be seen but decrease in number as the cell matures. Secondary granules become more

predominant as the cell mature and are considered specific to a granulocytic lineage.1

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The myelocyte is the last stage where the cell is able to undergo mitosis.1

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: 2:1 2

Nucleoli: Usually not visible2

Nucleus:2,3

Round to oval

Eccentrically located

Reddish-purple, slightly clumped chromatin

Cytoplasm:2-5

Primary granules may be present in small amounts (Decrease in number as the cell matures).

Secondary (coarse, specific) granules present (Increase in number as the cell matures).

Granulocyte Cytoplasm Colour Secondary (Coarse, Specific) Granule Colour

Neutrophil pink-tan azurophilic (reddish-purple)

Eosinophil cream coloured to colourless eosinophilic (Pale to dark orange)

Basophil pale blue basophilic (dark purple-black)

Normal % in the Bone Marrow and Peripheral Blood:2,4,5

Granulocyte % In Bone Marrow % In Peripheral Blood

Neutrophil 5-19% 0%

Eosinophil 0-2% 0%

Basophil 0-1% N/A

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Metamyelocyte

An image from a bone marrow smear showing two

metamyelocytes (indicated with arrows). 50x oil An image from a bone marrow smear showing a
immersion. From MLS Collection, University of metamyelocyte (indicated with an arrow). A
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R30863M9J myelocyte is present on the left of the
metameylocyte. 100x oil immersion. From MLS
Collection, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R33T9DN6V

Notes: Cell is no longer capable of mitosis at this stage. Characteristic feature of a metamyelocyte is

the indented nucleus shape (nucleus looks as if it was lightly poked).1

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: 1.5:12

Nucleoli: Not visible2

Nucleus:1-3

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Indented (kidney bean shaped); indent is less than one-third of the diameter of the hypothetical round
nucleus

Eccentrically located

Dark purple, coarse, clumped chromatin

Cytoplasm:2-5

Granulocyte Cytoplasm Colour Secondary (Coarse, Specific) Granule Colour

Neutrophil pink-tan azurophilic (reddish-purple)

Eosinophil cream coloured to colourless eosinophilic (Pale to dark orange)

Basophil pale blue basophilic (dark purple-black)

Normal % in the Bone Marrow and Peripheral Blood:2-5

Granulocyte % In Bone Marrow % In Peripheral Blood

Neutrophil 3-22% 0%

Eosinophil 0-2% 0%

Basophil 0-1% N/A

Band

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An image from a bone marrow smear An image from a bone marrow smear
demonstrating a band (indicated by an arrow) .100x demonstrating a band (indicated by an arrow).
oil immersion. From MLS Collection, University of From MLS Collection, University of Alberta,
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3G44J599 https://doi.org/10.7939/R36Q1SZ5T

Notes: Stage shows a nucleus with a larger indentation than a metamyelocyte but it still considered

non-segmented.1

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: Cytoplasm predominates 2

Nucleoli: Not visible2

Nucleus:1,3

Indentation takes up more than one-third of the diameter of the hypothetical round nucleus.

Appears C, U, or S shaped

Centrally or eccentrically located

Dark purple, coarse, clumped chromatin

Cytoplasm:2-5

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Granulocyte Cytoplasm Colour Secondary (Coarse, Specific) Granule Colour

Neutrophil pink-tan azurophilic (reddish-purple)

Eosinophil cream coloured to colourless eosinophilic (Pale to dark orange)

Basophil pale blue basophilic (dark purple-black)

Normal % in the Bone Marrow and Peripheral Blood:2,4,5

Granulocyte % In Bone Marrow % In Peripheral Blood

Neutrophil 7-33% 0-5%

Eosinophil 0-2% Rare

Basophil 0-1% N/A

Mature (Segmented) Granulocyte

An image from a bone marrow

smear showing a mature, An image from a peripheral
blood smear showing a An image from a peripheral
segmented neutrophil blood smear with a mature
(indicated by an arrow). 100x neutrophil. 100x oil immersion.
From MLS Collection, eosinophil (top left). 50x oil
oil immersion. From MLS immersion. From MLS
Collection, University of University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R39Z90 Collection, University of
Alberta, Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R31V5B T0G
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3599Z
V7D H07

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A peripheral blood smear An image from a normal An image from a normal

picture showing a mature peripheral blood smear peripheral blood smear
eosinophil (top left) and showing a basophil. 100x oil showing a basophil. 100x oil
neutrophil (bottom right). 50x immersion. From MLS immersion. From MLS
oil immersion. From MLS Collection, University of Collection, University of
Collection, University of Alberta, Alberta,
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R30K26 https://doi.org/10.7939/R34Q7R
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3V11 S7N 548
W18D

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: Cytoplasm predominates

Nucleoli: Not visible2

Nucleus:1-5

Centrally or eccentrically located

Coarse, clumpy, dark purple staining chromatin

Nucleus is separated into lobes which are all connected by chromatin filaments:

Granulocyte Normal Number of Segmented Lobes

Neutrophil 2-5

Eosinophil 2-3

Basophiil Usually 2, often obscured by granules

Cytoplasm:2,4,5

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Granulocyte Cytoplasm Colour Secondary (Coarse, Specific) Granule Colour

Neutrophil pink-tan azurophilic (reddish-purple)

Eosinophil cream coloured to colourless eosinophilic (Pale to dark orange)

basophilic (dark purple-black), often obscure the
Basophil pale blue
nucleus

Normal % in the Bone Marrow and Peripheral Blood:2,4,5

Granulocyte % In Bone Marrow % In Peripheral Blood

Neutrophil 3-11% 50-70%

Eosinophil 0-3% 0-5%

Basophil <1% 0-1%

References:

1. Landis-Piwowar K. Granulocytes and Monocytes. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 97-121.

2. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Neutrophil maturation. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri:
Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 41-54.

3. Bell A, Harmening DM, Hughes VC. Morphology of human blood and marrow cells. In: Clinical
hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 1-41.

4. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Eosinophil maturation. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri:
Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 65-74.

5. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Basophil maturation. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri:
Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 75-8.

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56
Lymphocytes
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a peripheral blood smear showing a

small lymphocyte (A) and a large lymphocyte (B). An image from a normal peripheral blood smear
50x oil immersion. From MLS Collection, University showing two large lymphocytes. 100x oil
of Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3JH3DH6Q immersion. From MLS Collection, University of
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R30Z71C10

An image from a peripheral blood smear showing a

small lymphocyte. 50x oil immersion. From MLS An image from a peripheral blood smear with a
Collection, University of Alberta, neutrophil (left) and a small lymphocyte (right).
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3H12VP79 100x oil immersion. From MLS Collection,
University of Alberta,

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https://doi.org/10.7939/R3930P92Z

Notes: Can be characterized as being small or large depending on the amount of cytoplasm. Small

lymphocytes are more uniform in appearance whereas large lymphocytes have a variable appearance.1

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: 5:1 to 2:1 1,2

Nucleoli: May be visible 1,2

Nucleus:1,2

Round, oval, or indented

Dark purple, dense chromatin (heterochromatin)

Cytoplasm:1,2

Pale blue

Scant to moderate

Vacuoles may be present

Granules:1,2

Large: Azurophilic granules may be present

Small: typically lack granules (agranular)

Normal % in Bone Marrow: 5-15% 2

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Normal % in Peripheral Blood: 20-40% 2

Lymphocyte Lineage

Lymphocytes can be characterized into two cell types depending on the site of cell maturation:

1. B Cells

Lymphocytes that mature in the bone marrow. These cells are lymphocytes that are able to mature into

plasma cells and take part in antibody production.1

Specific surface markers:1,3

CD10, CD19, CD20, D21, CD22, D24, CD38

2. T Cells

Lymphocytes that mature in the thymus and lymphoid tissues. When these cells become activated, they

are able to take part in cell-mediated immunity.1

Specific surface markers:1,3

CD2, CD3, CD4, CD5, CD7, CD8, CD25

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References:

1. Williams L, Finnegan K. Lymphocytes. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey:
Pearson; 2015. p. 122-43.

2. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Lymphocyte maturation. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri:
Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 79-88.

3. Czader M. Flow cytometric analysis in hematologic disorders. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical
applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 543-60.

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57
Plasma Cells
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a bone marrow smear showing a

plasma cell. Note the perinuclear clearing An image from a bone marrow smear with a plasma
surrounding the nucleus. 100z oil immersion. From cell (indicated by an arrow). 100x oil immersion.
MLS Collection, University of Alberta, From MLS Collection, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R30C4T111 https://doi.org/10.7939/R3JM23X5J

Notes: The maturation of a lymphocyte to a plasma cell marks the production of immunoglobulins.

Lymphocytes that mature into plasma cells are of B lineage.1

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: 2:1 to 1:1 2

Nucleoli: None 1,2

Nucleus:1,2

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Round or oval

Eccentrically located

Coarse, clumpy, dark purple staining chromatin

Cytoplasm:1,2

Abundant

Darkly basophilic

Perinuclear (clear) zone may be seen around the nucleus (Representing the golgi body)

Vacuoles may be present

Normal % in Bone Marrow: 0-1% 1,2

Normal % in Peripheral Blood: 0% 1,2

References:

1. Williams L, Finnegan K. Lymphocytes. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey:
Pearson; 2015. p. 122-43.

2. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Lymphocyte maturation. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri:
Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 79-88.

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58
Monocytes
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a peripheral

blood smear showing a An image from a peripheral
blood smear showing a An image from a peripheral
monocyte in the center. 50x oil blood smear showing two
immersion.From MLS monocyte in the top left corner
(indicated with an arrow). 50x monocytes (indicated by
Collection, University of arrows) with prominent
Alberta, oil immersion. From MLS
Collection, University of vacuoles. 60x oil immersion.
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3Q52F From MLS Collection,
V0F Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3FN11 University of Alberta,
72B https://doi.org/10.7939/R3MG7
GB06

Notes: Monocyte nuclear and cytoplasmic morphology can be highly variable.1

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: Variable 2

Nucleoli: Not visible 2

Nucleus:1,2

Variable shapes (Folds, kidney shaped)

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Loose, lacy, violet chromatin

Cytoplasm:1,2

Blue-gray cytoplasm (Ground glass appearance due to fine, diffuse granules)

May have pseudopods

May have vacuoles

Normal % in Bone Marrow: 2%2

Normal % in Peripheral Blood: 3-11%2

References:

1. Landis-Piwowar K. Granulocytes and Monocytes. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 97-121.

2. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Monocyte maturation. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri:
Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 55-64.

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59
Macrophages
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a bone marrow smear showing a

macrophage with a valuolated and granular An image from a Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
cytoplasm. 100x oil immersion. From MLS cytospin slide showing erythrophagocytosis in a
Collection, University of Alberta, macrophage. Ingested red blood cells, vacuolation,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3DV1D40B and hemosiderin granules can be seen within the
cell. 60x oil immersion. From MLS Collection,
University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R36H4D570

Notes: Macrophages represent the mature form of monocytes when they leave the circulation and enter

the tissues.1

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: N/A 2

Nucleoli: 1-2 2

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Nucleus:2

Variable shapes (kidney, rounded, indented, oval)

Eccentrically located

Dark purple, coarse, clumped chromatin

Cytoplasm:1,2

Abundant

Irregular shaped

Many azurophilic granules

May contain ingested material and/or storage granules (hemosiderin, red blood cells, lipids,
microorganisms, debris)

May contain vacuoles

References:

1. Landis-Piwowar K. Granulocytes and Monocytes. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 97-121.

2. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Monocyte maturation. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri:
Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 55-64.

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60
Megakaryocytes
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a bone marrow

smear showing a normal An image from a bone marrow
smear showing a An image from a bone marrow
megakaryocyte with multiple smear showing three
nuclear lobes. 50x oil megakaryocyte (indicated by an
arrow) in the tails of the smear. megakaryocytes in the tail of
immersion. From MLS the smear. 10x magnification.
Collection, University of 10x magnification. From MLS
Collection, University of From MLS Collection,
Alberta, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3FF3 Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3TQ5R https://doi.org/10.7939/R3K64B
MF8N 82D
V93

Notes: Develop and are mainly found in the bone marrow. Maturation usually involves the division of

nucleus but not the division of the cytoplasm, this gives rise to a polyploid cell.1

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: Variable 2

Nucleoli: N/A 2

Nucleus:

Variable number of lobes (2-32)2

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Cytoplasm:2

Abundant

Blue to purple cytoplasm

Reddish blue granules may be visible

% in Bone Marrow: 5-10 (per field at 100x magnification)2

% in Peripheral Blood: None

References:

1. Lynne Williams J. The Platelet. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015.
p. 144–53.

2. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Megakaryocyte maturation. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis,
Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 31-40.

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61
Platelets
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from the thicker

section of a peripheral blood An image from a peripheral
blood smear showing platelet An image from a peripheral
smear showing platelet blood smear demonstrating
satellitism around three satellitism around a neutrophil.
100x oil immersion. From MLS platelet clumping. 100x oil
neutrophils. 100x oil immersion. From MLS
immersion. From MLS Collection, University of
Alberta, Collection, University of
Collection, University of Alberta,
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3F766
P1H https://doi.org/10.7939/R3XD0R
https://doi.org/10.7939/R31Z42 D0V
80R

Notes: Platelets are cytoplasmic fragmentations from a megakaryocyte. Fragmentation occurs by the

megakaryocyte demarcation membrane system.1

Nucleus-to-Cytoplasm Ratio: N/A2

Nucleoli: N/A2

Nucleus: N/A2

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Cytoplasm:1,2

Light blue to colourless

Azurophilic granules present

% in Bone Marrow: N/A

% in Peripheral Blood: 7-25 per field (100x oil immersion field)

Reticulated Platelets

Immature platelets that contain an abundant amount of RNA.1

Platelet Clumps and Satellitism

Platelet satellitism is a phenomenon that can occur in vitro when a blood sample is collected in an
EDTA anticoagulant tube. Platelets adhere to neutrophils by an antibody mediated process and this

results in falsely decreased platelet counts.3,4

Platelet clumping can also occur when blood is collected in an EDTA tube. Platelets become
activated and aggregate. EDTA causes some cell antigens to be unmasked and react with antibodies in

the serum.3,4

In both cases, the issue may be corrected when blood samples are collected in sodium citrate anti-

coagulated tubes.3,4

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References:

1. Lynne Williams J. The Platelet. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015.
p. 144–53.

2. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Megakaryocyte maturation. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th ed. St. Louis,
Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 31-40.

3. Burns C, Dotson M. Hematology Procedures. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey:
Pearson; 2015. p. 782-814.

4. Clark KS, Hippe TGl. Manual, semiautomated, and point-of-care testing in hematology. In: Rodak’s
hematology clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p.187-207.

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XI
WHITE BLOOD CELLS:
NON-MALIGNANT LEUKOCYTE
DISORDERS
 62
Neutrophil Hyposegmentation
VALENTIN VILLATORO AND MICHELLE TO

Hyposegmentation

An image from a peripheral blood smear showing a

mildly hypogranular and hyposegmented An image from a peripheral blood smear showing a
neutorphil. Note the mature cytoplasm colour and unilobed (hyposegmented) neutrophil. 100x oil
nuclear chromatin pattern. 100x oil immersion. immersion. From MLS Collection, University of
From MLS Collection, University of Alberta, Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3JW8733H
https://doi.org/10.7939/R30863M82

If there are many mature granulocytes that have a nucleus with less than 3 lobes, they are considered

to be hyposegmented.1 The term “Pelger Huet” or “Pseudo Perlget Huet” may also be used depending
on the context.

Related Conditions:2

Pelger-Huet Anomaly

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Pseudo-Pelger-Huet Anomaly

References:

1. Landis-Piwowar K. Granulocytes and Monocytes. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 97-121.

2. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Nuclear and cytoplasmic changes in leukocytes. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th
ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 131-38.

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63
Neutrophil Hypersegmentation
VALENTIN VILLATORO AND MICHELLE TO

Neutrophil Hypersegmentation

This smear demonstrates a hypersegmented neutrophil. 100x magnification. From MLS Collection, University
of Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3GT5FX0V

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

If there are many mature granulocytes that have a nucleus with 5 or more lobes, they are considered to

be hypersegmented.1

Related Conditions:2

Megaloblastic Anemia

Myelodysplastic Syndromes

Chronic Infections

References:

1. Landis-Piwowar K. Granulocytes and Monocytes. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 97-121.

2. Rodak BF, Carr JH. Nuclear and cytoplasmic changes in leukocytes. In: Clinical hematology atlas. 5th
ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.; 2017. p. 131-38.

218
 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

64
Toxic Changes
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a peripheral

blood smear showing a band An image from a peripheral
blood smear showing toxic A peripheral blood smear
with a blue dohle body picture showing granulocytes
inclusion found in the center of changes (Granulation,
vacuolation) in two neutrophils. with toxic changes. The Band
the cell and toxic granulation. (center) shows toxic
100x oil immersion. From MLS 100x oil immersion. From MLS
Collection, University of granulation and a dohle body.
Collection, University of The neutrophil (bottom) shows
Alberta, Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R38912 toxic vacuolation. From MLS
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3930P Collection, University of
95D 61T
Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3HT2
GT1K

Cell Features:1,2

Toxic morphological changes are seen in neutrophils. A left shift with an increase in immature
granulocytes typically accompanies toxic changes. In order to report toxic changes, typically two out of
the three features should be seen in the majority of neutrophils:

1. Toxic Granulation:1-3

Dark blue-black peroxidase positive granules that appear in the cytoplasm of the neutrophil. Appear
very similar to Alder-Reilly bodies found in Alder-Reilly anomaly but is commonly found with other
features of toxicity. Can be found in mature neutrophils, bands, and metamyelocytes.

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2. Toxic Vacuolation:1-3

Clear, circular, and unstained cytoplasmic areas that represent phagocytosis or autophagocytosis.
Vacuoles may contain bacteria or yeast if the patient is septic.

3. Dohle Bodies:1-3

Pale blue, round or elongated cytoplasmic inclusions containing remnant ribosomal ribonucleic acid
(RNA) in parallel rows (rough endoplasmic reticulum). Often present in mature neutrophils and bands
near the periphery of the cell. Bodies are non-specific and can appear in several conditions such as
pregnancy, cancer, burns, and infections.

Note: A left shift is usually seen on the peripheral blood smear when toxicity is present. A Left shift
refers to the increase presence of immature bands and myeloid precusors.

Cause:1

Reaction to infection, inflammation, stress, and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor therapy

Laboratory Features:1,2

CBCD: Peripheral Blood Smear:

Moderate leukocytosis At least 2 of 3 toxic changes in the majority of neutrophils
Neutrophilia Left shift (often)

References:

1. Manonneaux S. Nonmalignant leukocyte disorders. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and
principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 475-97.

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

2. Jones KW. Evaluation of cell morphology and introduction to platelet and white blood cell
morphology. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 93-116.

3. Landis-Piwowar K. Nonmalignant disorders of leukocytes: granulocytes and monocytes. In: Clinical

laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 388-407.

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65
Pelger-Huet Anomaly
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=643

Images of Pelger-Huet Anomaly in various peripheral blood smears showing numerous hyposegmented
neutrophils with mature clumped chromatin. From MLS Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3DB7W572

Image 2: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R32Z13500

Image 3: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3Z60CH59

PBS Key Features:1-4

Neutrophil nuclei appear hyposegmented – can appear as a single round nucleus (unilobed, homozygous
Pelger-Huet Anomaly) or dumbbell shaped (bilobed, heterozygous Pelger-Huet Anomaly). Anomaly is
differentiated from a left shift by displaying mature chromatin pattern, abundant cytoplasm (low
nuclear:cytoplasmic ratio), mature granulation, and an absence of toxic changes.

Congenital Pelger-Huet: granulocytes show normal granulation, 50-90% of neutrophils are affected.

Pseudo Pelger-Huet: seen in leukocyte malignancies and Myelodysplastic Syndrome, hypogranulation

and other Dy’s plastic features may be present, 10-30% of neutrophils are affected.

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Clinical Significance and Cause:1,3,5

Pelger-Huet Anomaly is benign and cell function is normal. Psuedo Pelger-Huet may indicate leukocyte
malignancies and myelodysplasia.

Congenital: Lamin β-receptor gene mutation.

Acquired (Pseudo-Pelger-Huet): Hematologic malignancies such as myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS),

acute myeloid leukemia (AML), myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs). Pseudo-Pelger-Huet may also be
seen during infections, and drug interactions.

Inheritance Pattern:1-3,5

Autosomal dominant

CBC:2

Congenital Pelger-Huet: Cytopenias often absent

Pseudo-Pelger-Huet: Cytopenias often present

References:

1. Turgeon ML. Nonmalignant Disorders of Granulocytes and monocytes. In: Clinical hematology:
theory and procedures. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 206-16.

2. Cunningham JM, Patnaik MM, Hammerschmidt DE, Vercellotti GM. Historical perspective and
clinical implications of the Pelger-Huet cell. Am J Hematol [Internet]. 2009 Oct 20 [cited 2018 Jul
10];84(2):116–9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1002/ajh.21320

3. Manonneaux S. Nonmalignant leukocyte disorders. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and
principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 475-97.

223
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

4. Harmening DM, Marty J, Strauss RG. Cell biology, disorders of neutrophils, infectious mononucleosis,
and reactive lymphocytosis. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 305-30.

5. Landis-Piwowar K. Nonmalignant disorders of leukocytes: granulocytes and monocytes. In: Clinical

laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 388-407.

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66
Chediak-Higashi Syndrome
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image of a peripheral blood

smear demonstrating An image of a peripheral blood
smear demonstrating a An image of a peripheral blood
neutrophils with abnormally smear demonstrating a
large fused granules seen in neutrophil with abnormally
large fused granules (top) and a lymphocyte containing a single
Chediak-Higashi Syndrome. 50x large granule in the cytoplasm
oil immersion. From MLS lymphocyte containing a single
large granule in the cytoplasm seen in Chediak-Higashi
Collection, University of syndrome. 100X oil immersion.
Alberta, (bottom) seen in
Chediak-Higashi syndrome. 50x From MLS Collection,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R39S1 University of Alberta,
M158 oil immersion. From MLS
Collection, University of https://doi.org/10.7939/R33776
Alberta, 97R
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3707X
414

PBS Key Features:1,2

Leukocytes contain abnormally large lysosomal granules in the cytoplasm. Granules represent the
aggregation of primary granules combined with the fusion of secondary granules.

Cause:3

Mutation in the CHS1/LYST gene which encodes for a vesicle transport protein.

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Inheritance Pattern:3-5

Autosomal recessive

Clinical Significance:1,3-5

Development of lysosomes are abnormal resulting in the fusion of granules. The syndrome results in
impaired chemotaxis, defective degranulation, and defective killing of bacteria. Granulocytes, Platelets,
Monocytes, and lymphocytes are dysfunctional.

Patients often present with oculocutaneous albinism, recurrent bacterial infections and bleeding
tendencies. Complications develop during early childhood.

CBC:1,2,5

Anemia

Neutropenia

Thrombocytopenia

References:

1. Harmening DM, Marty J, Strauss RG. Cell biology, disorders of neutrophils, infectious mononucleosis,
and reactive lymphocytosis. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 305-30.

2. Bain BJ. Morphology of blood cells. In: Blood cells: a practical guide [Internet]. 5th ed. Chichester,
UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2015 [cited 2018 Jul 10]: 67-185. Available from:
http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118817322

3. Manonneaux S. Nonmalignant leukocyte disorders. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and
principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 475-97.

226
 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

4. Turgeon ML. Nonmalignant Disorders of Granulocytes and monocytes. In: Clinical hematology:
theory and procedures. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 206-16.

5. Landis-Piwowar K. Nonmalignant disorders of leukocytes: granulocytes and monocytes. In: Clinical

laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 388-407.

227
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67
Alder-Reilly Anomaly
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

PBS Key Features:1,2

Granulocytes show metachromatic and darkly staining inclusions (Alder-Reilly bodies) containing
partially digested mucopolysaccharides that resemble toxic granulation but are permanent (non-
transient). Anomaly is differentiated from toxicity by a lack of Dohle bodies, left shift, and neutrophilia.
Abnormal granules may also be seen in lymphocytes and monocytes.

Cause:1,2

Incomplete degradation of mucopolysaccharides (Mucoplysaccharidosis disorder)

Inheritance Pattern:1-3

Autosomal recessive

Clinical Significance:1-5

Leukocyte function is not impaired. Associated syndromes include Tay‐Sachs disease, Hunter syndrome,
Hurler syndrome, and Maroteaux-Lamy polydystrophic dwarfism which all result in different clinical
symptoms.

CBC:

N/A

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References:

1. Manonneaux S. Nonmalignant leukocyte disorders. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and
principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 475-97.

2. Harmening DM, Marty J, Strauss RG. Cell biology, disorders of neutrophils, infectious mononucleosis,
and reactive lymphocytosis. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 305-30.

3. Turgeon ML. Nonmalignant Disorders of Granulocytes and monocytes. In: Clinical hematology:
theory and procedures. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 206-16.

4. Bain BJ. Morphology of blood cells. In: Blood cells: a practical guide [Internet]. 5th ed. Chichester,
UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2015 [cited 2018 Jul 10]: 67-185. Available from:
http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118817322

5. Landis-Piwowar K. Nonmalignant disorders of leukocytes: granulocytes and monocytes. In: Clinical

laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 388-407.

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68
May-Hegglin Anomaly
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a peripheral

blood smear demonstrating a An image from a peripheral
blood smear demonstrating An image from a peripheral
blue dohle body-like inclusion blood smear demonstrating
in a neutrophil and a giant blue dohle body-like inclusions
in two neutrophils seen in blue dohle body-like inclusions
platelet seen in May-Hegglin in two neutrophils along with
anomaly. 100x oil immersion. May-Hegglin anomaly. 100x oil
immersion. From MLS enlarged platelets seen in
From MLS Collection, May-Hegglin anomaly. 50x oil
University of Alberta, Collection, University of
Alberta, immersion. From MLS
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3W669 Collection, University of
Q4B https://doi.org/10.7939/R34Q7R
53S Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R30Z71
B9D

PBS Key Features:1-4

Graunulocyte and Monoyte cytoplasms contain large basophilic inclusions that resemble Dohle bodies
but are much larger and elongated. Inclusions are composed of precipitated myosin heavy chains.

Giant platelets and thrombocytopenia are also associated with this anomaly.

Cause:1

MYH9 gene mutation

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Inheritance Pattern:1,5

Autosomal dominant

Clinical Significance:1-3,5

May-Hegglin anomaly is a platelet disorder that can cause mild bleeding tendencies but majority of
patients are asymptomatic. Degree of bleeding is correlated to the degree of thrombocytopenia.
Leukocyte function is unaffected.

CBC:1,5

Variable thrombocytopenia

References:

1. Manonneaux S. Nonmalignant leukocyte disorders. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and
principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 475-97.

2. Harmening DM, Marty J, Strauss RG. Cell biology, disorders of neutrophils, infectious mononucleosis,
and reactive lymphocytosis. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 305-30.

3. Turgeon ML. Nonmalignant Disorders of Granulocytes and monocytes. In: Clinical hematology:
theory and procedures. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 206-16.

4. Bain BJ. Morphology of blood cells. In: Blood cells: a practical guide [Internet]. 5th ed. Chichester,
UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2015 [cited 2018 Jul 10]: 67-185. Available from:
http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118817322

5. Landis-Piwowar K. Nonmalignant disorders of leukocytes: granulocytes and monocytes. In: Clinical

laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 388-407.

231
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69
Chronic Granulomatous Disease
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

PBS:1

Leukoctye morphology is normal.

Cause:2

Mutations in the NADPH oxidase subunit genes.

Inheritance Pattern:2-4

Autosomal recessive, X-linked recessive

Clinical Significance:2-4

Antmicrobial activity defect where neutrophils and monocytes are unable to kill catalase positive
organisms after ingestion. The respiratory burst is not activated and cells are unable to produce
reactive oxygen species and superoxide. Disease results in recurrent and life-threatening bacterial and
fungal infections in the first year of life.

Infections occur often in the lung, skin, lymph nodes, and liver. Granuloma formation can be found in
various organs and cause obstruction.

Additional Tests:1

Nitroblue Tetrazolium Test (NBT)

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Flow Cytometry

References:

1. Manonneaux S. Nonmalignant leukocyte disorders. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and
principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 475-97.

2. Harmening DM, Marty J, Strauss RG. Cell biology, disorders of neutrophils, infectious mononucleosis,
and reactive lymphocytosis. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 305-30.

3. Turgeon ML. Nonmalignant Disorders of Granulocytes and monocytes. In: Clinical hematology:
theory and procedures. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 206-16.

4. Landis-Piwowar K. Nonmalignant disorders of leukocytes: granulocytes and monocytes. In: Clinical

laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 388-407.

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70
Infectious Mononucleosis/Reactive
Lymphocytes
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=667

Images of peripheral blood smears with heterogeneous reactive lymphocytes with prominent basophilic
skirting of the cytoplasm. From MLS Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3G44J57B

Image 2: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R34M91R9B

Image 3: 60 x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3GQ6RH6F

Cell Features:1-3

Large reactive (atypical) lymphocytes that represent activated T cells. The cytoplasm shows
characteristic basophilic skirting in areas where there is contact with red blood cells. Red blood cells
look as if they are creating indents in the cytoplasm. The population of reactive lymphocytes is
heterogeneous with diverse shapes and sizes in cytoplasm and nuclear shapes.

Cause:1,3-5

Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) infection that is usually acute, benign, and self-limiting.

Age group affected:1,3,5

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Young adults (approx. 15-25 years of age)

Common Clinical Symptoms:1,4

Classic Triad: Pharyngitis, fever, lymphadenopathy.

Laboratory Features:1,3,5

CBC: PBS
Leukocytosis Reactive lymphocytes
Absolute lymphocytosis

Other Tests:1,3,5

Positive heterophile antibody*

Positive EBV specific antigen and antibody (ELISA)*

Elevated C-reactive protein (CRP)

Viral cultures

Flow cytometry (to rule out malignancies with similar cell morphologies)

*Positivity for antigen or antibody varies depending on the date of testing. Some antigen or antibodies
may appear only after a few weeks of infection.

Immunologic Markers:2

CD3, CD4 or CD8

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References:

1. Manonneaux S. Nonmalignant leukocyte disorders. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and
principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 475-97.

2. Holmer LD, Bueso-Ramos CE. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia and related lymphoproliferative
disorders. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 440-65.

3. Beglinger SS. Nonmalignant lymphocyte disorders. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 409-24.

4. Turgeon ML. Leukocytes: nonmalignant lymphocytic disorders. In: Clinical hematology: theory and
procedures. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p. 229-43.

5. Harmening DM, Marty J, Strauss RG. Cell biology, disorders of neutrophils, infectious mononucleosis,
and reactive lymphocytosis. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 305-30.

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XII
WHITE BLOOD CELLS: ACUTE
LEUKEMIA
 71
Introduction to Leukemias
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a peripheral blood smear

demonstrating blasts with a loose, immature An image from a bone marrow smear
chromatin pattern, a high nuclear-cytoplasmic demonstrating an abundance of blasts and a
ratio, and basophilic cytoplasm seen in an Acute reduction of normal hematopoietic cells seen in an
Leukemia. 50x oil immersion. From MLS Collection, Acute Leukemia. 50x oil immersion. From MLS
University of Alberta, Collection, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3TB0Z99Q https://doi.org/10.7939/R3Z31P43G

Leukemia: Describes tumors that originate from the bone marrow.1

Lymphoma: Describes tumors that originate from the lymphatic tissues.1

The causes of acute leukemia are vast. There are a number of factors that can lead to the development
of leukemia, such as: genetic mutations, environmental factors (e.g. exposure to drugs, chemicals,
radiation), inherited syndromes (e.g. Down syndrome, fanconi anemia), viral infections (e.g. HIV),

immunologic dysfunction (e.g. immunosuppressants), or idiopathic factors.1

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There are different classification systems that exist to categorize acute and chronic leukemias. Two
examples are the French-American-British (FAB) system and the World Health Organization (WHO)

system.1-4

Note: Please be aware that these schemes are updated periodically and the sources used in this ebook
may not reflect the most current classification systems used.

Leukemias are described as being “acute” or “chronic” and specified as to which cell lineage and
5
maturation stage is affected.

Table 1. Comparison of Acute and Chronic Leukemias.5,6

Acute Chronic
All ages affected Mainly adults affected
Rapid onset Insidious onset
Involve immature cells Involve mature cells
≥20%* blasts in PBS or BM ≤20% blasts in PBS or BM

*WHO Classification Criteria

References:

1. McKenzie SB. Introduction to hematopoietic neoplasms. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed.
New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 424-45.

2. Roquiz W, Gandhi P, Kini AR. Acute leukemias. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and
principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 543-60.

3. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H, et al. editors. WHO Classification of
Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues Volume 2. 4th ed. International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC); 2008.

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4. Arber D, Orazi A, Hasserjian R, Thiele J, Borowitz MJ, Le Beau MM, et al. The 2016 revision to the
World Health Organization classification of myeloid neoplasms and acute leukemia. Blood [Internet].
2016 May 19;127(20):2391–405. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27069254

5. Gatter K, Cruz F, Braziel R. Introduction to leukemia and the acute leukemias. In: Clinical
hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p.
331-370.

6. Bentley G, Leclair SJ. Acute Myeloid Leukemias. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 500-21.

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72
Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

WHO Classification (2008):1

As of 2008, the WHO has classified ALL into categories based on the the lymphoblast origin and genetic
abnormalities:

1. B Lymphoblastic Leukemia/Lymphoma

With recurrent genetic abnormalities

Not otherwise specified (NOS)

2. T Lymphoblastic Leukemia/Lymphoma

Affected Age: Primarily children 2-5 years old.2

Affected Cell:1

B and T lymphoblasts

ALL Blasts Cell Features:1,3,4

Size: Blasts are variable in size, usually smaller than myeloblasts

Nucleoli: Often indistinct, 0-2

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Chromatin: Fine to coarse, dispersed chromatin

Cytoplasm: Usually scant and basophilic, vacuoles may also be present

Auer Rods: Not present

Auer Rods are thought to be fused primary granules and are only found in myeloblasts. Presence of auer

rods is distinctive of AML and can be used to differentiate the condition from ALL if they are present.2

Laboratory Results for ALL:1,3,5

CBC: PBS: BM:

RBC: Decreased Lymphoblasts ≥20% Lymphoblasts
WBC: Variable Normocytic Hypercellular with replacement of normal
PLT: Decreased Normochromic hematopoietic tissue
Anisocytosis, poikilocytosis, and nRBCs are
usually not present.

Immunologic Markers: Other Tests:

B cell: TdT, CD10, CD19, CD22, CD24, CD34 LD: Increased
Hyperuricemia
T cell: TdT, CD1, CD2, CD3, CD4, CD5, CD7, CD8, CD10 Hypercalcemia
Cytogenetics
Cytochemical Stains

References:

1. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H, et al. editors. WHO Classification of
Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues Volume 2. 4th ed. International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC); 2008.

2. McKenzie SB. Introduction to hematopoietic neoplasms. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed.
New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 424-45.

3. Leclair SJ, Bentley G.Precursor Lymphoid Neoplasms. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 522-34.

4. Gatter K, Cruz F, Braziel R. Introduction to leukemia and the acute leukemias. In: Clinical
hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p.

242
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331-370.

5. Roquiz W, Gandhi P, Kini AR. Acute leukemias. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and
principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 543-60.

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73
Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (AML)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a bone marrow

smear showing an abundant An image from a peripheral
blood smear showing An image from a peripheral
amount of myeloid precursors blood smear showing a
and a few myeloblasts seen in a myeloblasts. One myeloblast
contains a faint, pink staining, myeloblast with multiple auer
patient with acute myeloid rods (stained pink) seen in
leukemia. 50x oil immersion. auer rod. 60x oil immersion.
From MLS Collection, AML. 100x oil immersion. From
From MLS Collection, MLS Collection, University of
University of Alberta, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3C24R Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R32V2C https://doi.org/10.7939/R3DV1
R7N 34V
D397

WHO Classification (2008):

As of 2008, acute myeloid leukemias have been classified into different subcategories based on the type

of genetic abnormalities, type of myeloid cell type affected, and by cell characteristics:1

1. Acute myeloid leukemia with recurrent genetic abnormalities

2. Acute myeloid leukemia with myelodysplastic changes

3. Therapy related myeloid neoplasms

4. Acute myeloid leukemia, not otherwise specified (NOS)

5. Myeloid Sarcoma

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6. Myeloid Proliferations related to Down syndrome

7. Blastic plasmacytoid dendritic cell neoplasm

Affected Age: Adults.2

Cells of myeloid lineage are affected:1

Myeloblast

Monocytes

Erythrocytes

Megakaryocytes

Dendritic cells

AML Blasts Cell Features:3

Size: Myeloblasts are usually larger compared to lymphoblasts and have a consistent appearance.

Nucleoli: Prominent, 1-4 present

Chromatin: Loose open chromatin

Cytoplasm: Often abundant and granules may be visible

Auer Rods: may be present (stained faint pink with Wright’s stain)

Auer Rods are thought to be fused primary granules and are only found in myeloblasts. Presence of auer

rods is distinctive of AML and can be used to differentiate the condition from ALL if it is present.1

Laboratory Results for AML:1,4,5

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CBC: PBS: BM:

RBC: Decreased Myeloblasts ± Auer rods ≥20% Myeloblasts ± Auer rods
WBC: Variable Macrocytic RBCs Hypercellular
PLT: Decreased May see hypogranular PLT, Giant PLT Decreased fat
Hb: Decreased Neutropenia (Can appear dysplastic)
RDW: Increased May see Basophilia, Eosinophilia, Monocytosis

Immunologic Markers: Other Tests:

Depending on the subgroup, cells may be LD: Increased
positive for: Hyperuricemia
CD11b, CD13, CD14, CD33, CD34, CD117 Hyperphosphatemia
Hypocalcemia
Hypokalemia
Cytogenetics
Cytochemistry

References:

1. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H, et al. editors. WHO Classification of
Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues Volume 2. 4th ed. International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC); 2008.

2. McKenzie SB. Introduction to hematopoietic neoplasms. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed.
New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 424-45.

3. Gatter K, Cruz F, Braziel R. Introduction to leukemia and the acute leukemias. In: Clinical
hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p.
331-370.

4. Roquiz W, Gandhi P, Kini AR. Acute leukemias. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and
principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 543-60.

5. Bentley G, Leclair SJ. Acute Myeloid Leukemias. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 500-21.

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74
Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia (APL)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a bone marrow

smear demonstrating numerous An image from a bone marrow
smear showing faggot cells An image from a bone marrow
myeloid precursors arrested at smear showing faggot cells
the promyelocyte stage, and with bundles of auer rods seen
in acute promyelocytic with bundles of auer rods seen
cells with bundles of auer rods in acute promyelocytic
known as faggot cells in acute leukemia. 100x oil immersion.
From MLS Collection, leukemia. 100x oil immersion.
promyelocytic leukemia. 50x oil From MLS Collection,
immersion. From MLS University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3N010 University of Alberta,
Collection, University of https://doi.org/10.7939/R3H708
Alberta, 854
G10
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3WH2
DW4D

Note: APL is a subtype of AML where the promyelocytes specifically are affected. It is classified under
the “AML with recurrent genetic abnormalities” and is associated with a specific genetic abnormality:
t(15;17)(q22;q12); PML-RARA.

Affected Age:

Most often middle age adults, but APL can develop at any age,1,2

1
Affected Cell:

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Promyelocyte

Cell Description:1,2

Nucleus: The shape of the nucleus is variable and can be bilobed, multilobed, indented, or folded. May
demonstrate a typical “butterfly shape” appearance.

Cytoplasm: The hypergranular variant of APL is characterized by numerous promyelocytes with

abundant abnormal, coarse, and dense granulation. The granules stain light pink to reddish-purple and
heavily cover and obscure the nucleus of the cell. In the microgranular variant, the abnormal
promyelocyte cells demonstrate a lack of granulation but often have abnormal bi-lobed nuclei.

Cells may contain characteristic multiple or bundles of auer rods (light pink) which the cells are then
termed “Faggot cells.”

The granules in the neoplastic promyelocytes have procoagulant activity. Because of this, Disseminated
Intravascular Coagulation (DIC) is associated as a complication of APL. Coagulation studies including
fibrinogen and DDimer measurement can aid in the diagnosis of DIC in these patients.

References:

1. Bentley G, Leclair SJ. Acute Myeloid Leukemias. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 500-21.

2. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H, et al. editors. WHO Classification of
Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues Volume 2. 4th ed. International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC); 2008.

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75
Cytochemical Testing
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Cytochemistry involves staining cells in vitro to visualize certain cellular components that will help

determine the lineage of the cell. After staining, cells are examined microscopically.1

Myeloperoxidase (MPO)

MPO is an enzyme that is found in the primary granules of all granulocytes and monocytes and not

present in lymphocytes. MPO is useful for differentiating between ALL and AML blasts.2,3

Results:2,3

Granulocytes, Myeloblasts, Auer rods: Positive

Monocytes: Negative to weak positive

Lymphocytes: Negative

Sudan Black B

Stains lipids present in the primary and secondary granules of granulocytes and monocyte lysosomes.

Similar to MPO, it is useful for differentiating between AML and ALL but it is less specific.1-3

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Results:1-3

Granulocytes, Myeloblasts: Positive

Monocytes: Negative to weakly positive

Lymphocytes: Negative

Nonspecific Esterases (Alpha-napthyl acetate

esterase)

An enzymatic stain that is used to differentiate granulocytes from monocytes. The stain is considered

nonspecific because other cells may also be stained.1-3

Results:1-3

Monocytes: Diffusely positive (Positivity can be inhibited by sodium fluoride)

Granulocytes: Negative

Lymphocytes: Negative (Except T lymphocytes which show focal positivity)

Specific Esterase (Chloroacetate esterase)

An enzymatic stain that is specific for granulocytes.1-3

Results:1-3

Granulocytes (Neutrophils), Myeloblasts, Auer rods: Positive

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Monocytes: Negative to weak positive

Periodic Acid Schiff (PAS)

PAS stains glycogen related compounds.3 PAS is useful for the identification of lymphoid cells.

Results:1

Leukemic erythroblasts: Positive (normal erythroblasts are not positive)

Lymphoblasts: Block positivity

Leukocyte Alkaline Phosphatase (LAP)

LAP is an enzyme present in the secondary granules of neutrophils and not present in eosinophils or
basophils. LAP is useful for distinguishing between chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) from other

conditions that show increased leukocyte counts.1

Results:1

CML: Low LAP score

Leukemoid Reactions: High LAP score

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Acid Phosphatase

An enzyme that is present in the lysosomes of normal leukocytes.1

Results:1

T cell ALL: Positive

Hairy cells: Positive

Hairy cells also show positivity for tartrate resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) whereas other cells would

be inhibited by TRAP.1

Terminal Deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT)

TdT is a DNA polymerase found in immature cells.1 Results are useful in identifying lymphoblastic
leukemias.

Results:1

Immature lymphocytes (ALL): Positive

Table 1. Cytochemistry Staining for ALL and AML Subgroups.1-5

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Acute Leukemia Nonspecific

MPO Sudan Black B Specific Esterase PAS
Subgroup Esterase

ALL – – ± – Block +

AML + + – + ±

AMML + + + + –

AMoL – ± + – –

AEL + + ± + +

AMkL – – ± + +

APL + + ± + –

ALL = Acute lymphoblastic leukemia + = Positive

AML = Acute myeloid leukemia – = Negative
AMML = Acute myelomonocytic leukemia ± = Can be positive or negative
AMoL = Acute monoblastic and monocytic leukemia
AEL = Acute Erythroid Leukemia
AMkL = Acute megakaryoblastic leukemia
APL = Acute promyelocytic leukemia

References:

1. McKenzie SB. Introduction to hematopoietic neoplasms. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed.
New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 424-45.

2. Roquiz W, Gandhi P, Kini AR. Acute leukemias. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and
principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 543-60.

3. Gatter K, Cruz F, Braziel R. Introduction to leukemia and the acute leukemias. In: Clinical
hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p.
331-370.

4. Bentley G, Leclair SJ. Acute Myeloid Leukemias. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 500-21.

5. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H, et al. editors. WHO Classification of
Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues Volume 2. 4th ed. International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC); 2008.

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76
Flow Cytometry, Cytogenetics &
Molecular Genetics
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Classification of Leukemia

The classification of Acute Leukemia relies on the use of a variety of laboratory results, including
morphology, immunophenotyping, genetic features, and clinical features. Classification allows for
appropriate disease management, treatment, prognosis, and monitoring to occur. The laboratory is
crucial in this aspect. The following is a brief summary of the type of laboratory testing involved in the
classification of Acute Leukemia in addition to what has already been discussed.

Flow Cytometry

Flow Cytometry, also known as immunophenotyping, is a technique that can be used to help determine
a cell’s lineage based on cell markers (e.g Cluster of Differentiation/CD Markers) present and the stage

of maturation of a cell.1

Principle:

Monoclonal antibodies with fluorescent labels that are specific for the surface antigen of interest are
incubated with the sample. Samples are taken up by the flow cytometer and injected into a stream of
sheath fluid to allow cells to be positioned centrally, this process is called hydrodynamic focusing. A
laser is directed at the cells and the bound antibodies fluoresce. Fluorescence detectors are used to

detect the fluorescence and a scatter graph is produced based on the antibodies bound. 2 Other
properties such as light scatter (in the forward and side direction) are combined with fluorescence
intensity measurements to distinguish cell populations.

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Flow cytometry can be used to help determine what cells are present to help diagnose acute leukemias
and other hematological disorders.

Table 1. Common Surface Markers for Blood Cells.2

Cell Lineage Surface Markers

Immature Cells CD34, CD117

Granulocytes, Monocytes CD13, CD14 ,CD15, CD33

Erythrocytes CD71, Glycophorin A

Megakaryocytes CD41, CD42, CD61

T Lymphocytes CD2,CD3, CD4, CD5, CD7, CD8

B Lymphocytes CD19, CD20, CD22

Cytogenetics

Cytogenetics involve the identification of abnormal karyotypes which may be characteristic to a related

disorder.1

Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)

FISH is a molecular method that is a cytogenetic tool that is used to detect chromosomal abnormalities
such as translocations, deletions, inversion, and duplications.3

The method involves using a fluorescently labelled DNA or RNA probe that is complementary to a
specific target sequence. After denaturing double stranded DNA to single stranded DNA, the labelled
probe is allowed to incubate and hybridize with the DNA. After incubation, the sample is washed to
remove any unbound probes and then a counterstain is added to assist examination. Samples are

examined with a fluorescent microscope to look for any chromosomal abnormalities in the cells.3

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Molecular Genetics

Molecular genetics involve the use of molecular techniques to identify specific genetic sequences and

mutations that can be characteristic for a diagnosis.1

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

PCR is commonly used to amplify a specific target sequence such a mutation.4

References:

1. McKenzie SB. Introduction to hematopoietic neoplasms. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed.
New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 424-45.

2. Czader M. Flow cytometric analysis in hematologic disorders. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical
applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 543-60.3. Vance GH.
Cytogenetics. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri:
Saunders; 2015. p. 498-512.

4. Jackson CL, Mehta S. Molecular diagnostics in hematopathology. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical
applications and principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 513-42.

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XIII
WHITE BLOOD CELLS: MATURE
LYMPHOID NEOPLASMS
 77
Introduction to Mature Lymphoid
Neoplasms
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

These group of disorders are also known as lymphoproliferative disorders and involve the clonal

proliferation of mature lymphocytes.1 The proliferation of these cells causes the formation of lymphomas

and leukemias.2

As with acute leukemia, there are also a variety of factors that can lead to the development of these

disorders:3

1. Acquired mutations leading to altered oncogene and tumor suppressor gene functions.

2. Inherited immunodeficiency syndromes that are associated with these neoplasms

3. Environmental factors that can lead to the development of neoplasms (e.g. viral and bacterial
infections)

The 2008 WHO Classification categorizes the related disorders based on the type of cell that is involved

(B or T cell).4

List of Mature B cell Neoplasms as per WHO 2008:4

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Hairy Cell Leukemia

Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia (lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma)

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Plasma cell neoplasms

Monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS)

Plasma cell myeloma/multiple myeloma

Note: WHO 2008 lists additional disorders under mature B-cell neoplasms and as well has mature T-cell
neoplasms. Only those listed above will be discussed in this eBook.

References:

1. Holmer LD, Bueso-Ramos CE. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia and related lymphoproliferative
disorders. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 440-65.

2. Czader M. Mature lymphoid neoplasms. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and principles.
5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 619-41.

3. Craig F. Mature lymphoid neoplasms. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey:
Pearson; 2015. p. 535-56.

4. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H, et al. editors. WHO Classification of
Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues Volume 2. 4th ed. International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC); 2008.

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

78
Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a peripheral blood smear showing

numerous small mature lymphocytes and smudge An image from a CLL peripheral blood smear
cells seen in a patient with CLL. 50X oil immersion. showing a smudge cell (A) and mature small
From MLS Collection, University of Alberta, lymphocytes (B). 100x oil magnification. From MLS
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3SQ8QZ8C Collection, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/https://doi.org/10.7939/R3D
J58X9R

1-4
Cell Features:

Abundant small mature small lymphocytes

Scant Cytoplasm

Condensed/clumped chromatin (often described as “soccer ball” or “parched earth” appearance)

Cause:1-4

A mature B cell neoplasm with no specific agent or cause. Cytogenetic findings show relation to trisomy
12 and other chromosomal deletions.

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Age group affected: Mainly older adults >50 years old.1,5,6

Laboratory Features for CLL:1,2,6

CBC: PBS: BM:

Normochromic, Normocytic Anemia Small mature lymphocytes Lymphocytic infiltration, reduced
Normal to Decreased reticulocyte count Presence of smudge cells numbers of normal hematopietic cells
Neutropenia Platelet and granulocyte morphology is normal
Thrombocytopenia

Immunologic markers: Other useful tests:

CD5, CD19, CD20, CD23 FISH
PCR
Associated with hypogammaglobulinemia

References:

1. Holmer LD, Bueso-Ramos CE. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia and related lymphoproliferative
disorders. In: Clinical hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis
Company; 2009. p. 440-65.

2. Czader M. Mature lymphoid neoplasms. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and principles.
5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 619-41.

3. Kipps TJ, Stevenson FK, Wu CJ, Croce CM, Packham G, Wierda WG, et al. Chronic lymphocytic
leukaemia. Nat Rev Dis Prim [Internet]. 2017 Jan 19 [cited 2018 Jun 27];3:16096. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5336551/

4. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H, et al. editors. WHO Classification of
Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues Volume 2. 4th ed. International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC); 2008.

5. McKenzie SB. Introduction to hematopoietic neoplasms. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed.
New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 424-45.

6. Turgeon ML. Malignant myeloid and monocytic disorders and plasma cell dyscrasias. In: Clinical
hematology: theory and procedures. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p.
275-92.

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79
Hairy Cell Leukemia (HCL)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a peripheral

blood smear demonstrating two An image from a peripheral
blood smear demonstrating the An image from a peripheral
hairy cells with abundant pale blood smear showing a form of
blue cytoplasm, small different forms of hairy cells.
100x oil immersion. From MLS hairy cell with hairy
cytoplasmic projections, and cytoplasmic projections (left)
mature-looking nucleus giving Collection, University of
Alberta, and a different form of hairy
the cell a “fried egg” cell with abundant pale blue
appearance. 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3610W
71F cytoplasm (right). 50x oil
From MLS Collection, immersion. From MLS
University of Alberta, Collection, University of
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3ZG6G Alberta,
P2C https://doi.org/10.7939/R32805
D72

Cell Features:1-4

Two types of characteristic B lymphocyte morphologies can be seen in Hairy Cell Leukemia. Hairy cells
are small to medium sized cells with either serrated cytoplasmic projections giving it a “hairy”
appearance or more abundant pale blue cytoplasm giving it a “fried egg” appearance. The nucleus can
be oval or indented, lacks nucleoli, and has an evenly stained mature chromatin patttern.

Cause:1,5,6

An indolent clonal mature B cell disorder has been associated with the BRAF -V600E mutation.

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Age Group Affected:2,6

Middle-aged adults (median age of 55 years).

Laboratory Features for HCL:1,2,4,6

CBCD: Peripheral Blood Smear: Bone Marrow:

Pancytopenia Hairy Cells (± Fried egg appearance) Dry Tap due to fibrosis (Aspirate)
Relative lymphocytosis Hypocellular

Immunologic markers: Other useful tests:

CD19, CD20, CD22, CD25, CD123, Annexin A1 Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) stain positive

References:

1. Grever MR, Abdel-Wahab O, Andritsos LA, Banerji V, Barrientos J, Blachly JS, et al. Consensus
guidelines for the diagnosis and management of patients with classic hairy cell leukemia. Blood
[Internet]. 2016 Feb 2 [cited 2018 Jun 22];129(1):553–61. Available from:
http://www.bloodjournal.org/cgi/doi/10.1182/blood-2016-01-689422

2. Turgeon ML. Malignant myeloid and monocytic disorders and plasma cell dyscrasias. In: Clinical
hematology: theory and procedures. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999. p.
275-92.

3. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H, et al. editors. WHO Classification of
Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues Volume 2. 4th ed. International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC); 2008.

4. Czader M. Mature lymphoid neoplasms. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and principles.
5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p. 619-41.

5. Troussard X, Cornet E. Hairy cell leukemia 2018: Update on diagnosis, risk-stratification, and
treatment. Am J Hematol [Internet]. 2017 Dec 7 [cited 2018 Jun 25];92(12):1382–90. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5698705/

6. Jain P, Pemmaraju N, Ravandi F. Update on the biology and treatment options for hairy cell leukemia.
Curr Treat Options Oncol [Internet]. 2014 Jun [cited 2018 Jun 27];15(2):187–209. Available from:

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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4198068/

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80
Waldenstrom Macroglobulinemia
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Features:

Commonly characterized by an IgM monoclonal gammopathy. Increased igM may also result in
cryoglobulinemia. Deposits of IgM into tissues and organs can result in intestinal dysfunction, clotting,

and neuropathic complications.1

Cause:1,2

Genetic mutations

Inherited associations

Following viral infections (e.g. Hepatitis C).

Age Group Affected: 60-70 years old, slightly more predominant in males.1,2

Laboratory Results for Waldenstrom Macroglobulinemia:1,2

CBC: PBS: BM:

WBC: Increased (But lower than Increased number of small lymphocytes Infiltration of small
CLL) and maybe plasmacytoid lymphocytes. lymphocytes
Variable number of plasma
cells and plasmacytoid
lymphocytes.

Immunologic Markers: Other Tests:

CD19, CD20, CD22, CD25, CD27, Monoclonal Paraprotein IgM: Positive
CD38, CD79a

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References:

1. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H, et al. editors. WHO Classification of
Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues Volume 2. 4th ed. International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC); 2008.

2. Yun S, Johnson AC, Okolo ON, Arnold SJ, McBride A, Zhang L, et al. Waldenström
Macroglobulinemia: Review of Pathogenesis and Management. Clin Lymphoma, Myeloma Leuk
[Internet]. 2017 May 7 [cited 2018 Jun 27];17(5):252–62. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5413391/

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81
Monoclonal Gammopathy of
Undetermined Significance (MGUS)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Features:

MGUS is characterized has having an increase in serum M protein, clonal plasma cells, a lack of CRAB
symptoms (hyperCalcemia, Renal failure, Anemia, or lytic Bone lesions), and no diagnosis of any other

B cell lymphoproliferative disorder.1,2

Patients are asymptomatic and present with no other physical abnormalities.1,3

Cause:

No specific cause has been linked to the development of MGUS.1

Age Group Affected: >50 years old.1,3

Laboratory Results for MGUS:1,2

BM: Immunologic Markers: Other Tests:

Aspirates: CD19, CD38, CD138 Protein electrophoresis
Increased Plasma cells (<10%) Immunofixation
Biopsies: Flow cytometry
Slightly increased numbers of plasma cells FISH
with minimal morphological abnormalities

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References:

1. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H, et al. editors. WHO Classification of
Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues Volume 2. 4th ed. International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC); 2008.

2. Craig F. Mature lymphoid neoplasms. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey:
Pearson; 2015. p. 535-56.

3. Rajkumar SV. Multiple myeloma: 2016 update on diagnosis, risk-stratification, and management. Am
J Hematol [Internet]. 2016 Jul [cited 2018 Jun 27];91(7):719–34. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5291298/

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82
Plasma Cell Myeloma (Multiple
Myeloma)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a peripheral

blood smear demonstrating An image from a peripheral
blood smear demonstrating An image from a bone marrow
rouleaux, which is a direct smear in a patient with
characteristic finding of plasma rouleaux, which is a
characteristic finding of plasma plasma cell myeloma
cell myeloma. 50x oil demonstrating a plasma cell.
immersion. From MLS cell myeloma. 50x oil
immersion. From MLS Note the perinuclear clearing
Collection, University of surrounding the nucleus, and
Alberta, Collection, University of
Alberta, basophilic cytoplasm. 100x oil
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3833N immersion. From MLS
D55 https://doi.org/10.7939/R3CZ32
M1F Collection, University of
Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3VM4
3C6D

An image from a bone marrow

direct smear from a patient An image from a fluid cytospin
slide showing a mott cell An image from a fluid cytospin
with plasma cell myeloma slide demonstrating a mott cell
demonstrating two plasma cells (indicated with an arrow) with
(indicated with an arrow) with

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

(indicated by arrows). 50x oil round globules (Russell bodies). round globules (Russell bodies).
immersion. From MLS Mott cells may also be seen in Mott cells may be seen in
Collection, University of plasma cell myeloma bone plasma cell myeloma bone
Alberta, marrow smears. 60X oil marrow smears. 60X oil
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3348G immersion. From MLS immersion. From MLS
X60 Collection, University of Collection, University of
Alberta, Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3RV0D https://doi.org/10.7939/R31C1T
G30 X1V

An image from a bone marrow

direct smear from a patient An image from a bone marrow
with plasma cell myeloma direct smear from a patient
demonstrating a large plasma with plasma cell myeloma
cell variant known as a flame demonstrating a large plasma
cell (indicated by an arrow). cell variant known as a flame
100x oil immersion. From MLS cell (indicated by arrows). 100x
Collection, University of oil immersion. From MLS
Alberta, Collection, University of
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3CF9J Alberta,
N7P https://doi.org/10.7939/R3416T
F3X

Features:

This disorder is characterized by an increase in M protein (monoclonal gammopathy) in the serum

and/or urine with the presence of clonal plasma cells in the bone marrow.1

Unlike MGUS, patients with plasma cell myeloma often present with CRAB symptoms (hyperCalcemia,
Renal failure, Anemia, and lytic Bone lesions). Additional features include osteolytic bone lesions

without new bone formation.1,2 Some patients may be asymptomatic (smoldering multiple myeloma) but

other findings of plasma cell myeloma may still be found.1,3

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Due to bone damage, extramedullary hematopoiesis is a common finding.1

Cause:

Most cases of plasma cell myeloma have developed from MGUS.2

Other causes include infections, exposure to toxic substances, and other chronic diseases which may

result in a long term antigenic stimulation.1

Cytogenetic abnormalities have been found to be associated with the development of multiple

myeloma.3

Age Group Affected: >50 years old, more common in males.1

Plasma Cell Morphology:

Aside from the characteristic appearance of plasma cells, morphologic variants of plasma cells are often
seen in Plasma Cell Myeloma. These include bi-lobed plasma cells, flame cells, and mott cells.

Flame Cells:

A reactive plasma cell that has reddish-purple cytoplasms. Colour of the cytoplasm is caused by
glycoprotein and ribosomes. The presence of flame cells has been associated with IgA multiple

myeloma.4

Mott Cells:

Are plasma cells with multiple round inclusions in the cytoplasm. The inclusions are termed “Russell

bodies” and are composed of immunoglobulins.3

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Laboratory Results for Plasma Cell Myeloma:1,2

CBC: PBS: BM:

Cytopenias due to decreased bone marrow Rouleaux formation (Due to M protein) Lytic regions
hematopoiesis Rare circulating plasma cells Plasmacytosis (>10%)
RBC: Decreased Normocytic Bi-lobed plasma cells, Flame cells, and/or Mott
HB: Decreased Normochromic cells may be seen.
Biopsy: interstitial clusters of plasma cells
Aspirates: shows various heterogeneous forms of
plasma cells in aggregates or sheets.

Immunologic Markers: Other Tests:

CD38, CD79a, CD138 Serum FLC: Increased
Bence-Jones proteinuria
FISH
Protein electrophoresis
Immunofixation
FLC assays
Cytogenetics

Reactive Plasmacytosis:

An increase in the number plasma cells and immunoglobulins can also be the result of a non-malignant
condition. Bacterial and viral infections (e.g infections mononucleosis, tuberculosis) can evoke a strong

antigenic response and lead to an increase in plasma cells in the peripheral blood.4 The reactive process
should NOT be confused with plasma cell myeloma.

Unlike plasma cell myeloma, there are no findings of CRAB symptoms or clonal plasma cells in the bone
marrow. Plasma cells may be increased in the bone marrow, but not above 10% . An increase in M

proteins and plasma cells (outside the bone marrow) may be found.3

References:

1. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H, et al. editors. WHO Classification of
Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues Volume 2. 4th ed. International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC); 2008.

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2. Rajkumar SV. Multiple myeloma: 2016 update on diagnosis, risk-stratification, and management. Am
J Hematol [Internet]. 2016 Jul [cited 2018 Jun 27];91(7):719–34. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5291298/

3. Craig F. Mature lymphoid neoplasms. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey:
Pearson; 2015. p. 535-56.

4. Beglinger SS. Nonmalignant lymphocyte disorders. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New
Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 409-24.

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XIV
WHITE BLOOD CELLS:
MYELOPROLIFERATIVE NEOPLASMS
(MPN)
 83
Introduction to Myeloproliferative
Neoplasms (MPNs)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

MPNs are a group of clonal disorders that involve the proliferation and accumulation of one or more
myeloid cell lines (erythrocytes, granulocytes, or platelets). These disorders are caused by genetic

mutations in hematopoietic stem cells.1,2

MPNs are commonly seen in middle age adults but some may occur during childhood.1

The 2008 WHO classification system lists the following disorders under this category:1

Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)

Polycythemia Vera (PV)

Essential Thrombocytopenia (ET)

Primary Myelofibrosis (PMF)

Note: WHO 2008 lists additional disorders under MPNs but only the ones listed above will be discussed
in this eBook.

References:

1. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H, et al. editors. WHO Classification of

275
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues Volume 2. 4th ed. International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC); 2008.

2. Randolph TR. Myeloproliferative Neoplasms. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey:
Pearson; 2015. p. 450-78.

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

84
Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a peripheral blood smear

demonstrating myeloid precursors and a few blasts An image from a peripheral blood smear
seen in chronic myelogenous leukemia. 50x oil demonstrating a neutrophilia and myeloid
immersion. From MLS Collection, University of precursors seen in CML. 500x oil immersion. From
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3NZ8155H MLS Collection, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3SQ8QZ9V

An image from a bone marrow smear

demonstrating myeloid hyperplasia and a few blasts An image from a bone marrow smear
seen in chronic myelogenous leukemia. Very few demonstrating myeloid hyperplasia in CML. 100x
oil immersion. From MLS Collection, University of

277
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

erythroid precursors are present. 50x oil Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R34X54Z0H

immersion. From MLS Collection, University of
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R38P5VR48

Affected Cell Line: Myeloid cell line (platelets and granulocytes are increased, however granulocyte

production is most prominent).1,2

Mutation: Philadelphia Chromosome, t(9;22), resulting in the BCR-ABL1 fusion gene.3 The gene is

characterized by a translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22 which is expressed as t(9;22).1

Age Group Affected: Seen commonly in middle aged adults, 46 to 53 years old.1

Clinical Features:

The onset of CML is insidious and in some patients may be asymptomatic.3 Other patients may have
complications associated with frequent infections, infiltration of leukocytes, bleeding, weight loss, fever,

fatigue, and anemia.1,4

Extramedullary hematopoiesis may occur, resulting in organomegaly.1

The course of CML occurs in three phases:

1. Chronic Phase

Peripheral blood: leukocytosis (usually >100 x109/L), thrombocytosis (Up to >1000 x109/L).3

Bone Marrow: hypercellularity due to increased granulopoiesis. Megakaryocytes are increased and may

appear small and hypolobulated.3

2. Accelerated Phase

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The bone marrow is hypercellular and often myelodysplastic features are seen. Additionally, there is an
increased number of myeloblasts, and a dropping platelet count resulting in thrombocytopenia. Total

white blood cell count continues to increase.3,4

3. Blast Phase (Acute Leukemia)

CML has transformed into an acute leukemia, either ALL or AML, and prognosis becomes poor even

with treatment.4

Blast Phase is diagnosed when either: Bone marrow shows ≥20% blasts or when extramedullary blast

proliferation is present.3,4

Laboratory Findings for CML:1,3,4

CBC: PBS: BM:

RBC: Decreased +/- NRBCs M:E ratio: Increased
WBC: Increased (Average: >100 x109/L) Neutrophilia, Eosinophilia, Basophilia Hypercellular
+/- Micromegakaryocytes Myeloid Hyperplasia
PLT: Increased to Normal to Decreased
Left shift Megakaryocytes: Increased, may be dysplastic
(depending on phase)
Hb: Decreased Dysplastic features may be present in granulocytes and Fibrosis in later stages
RETIC: Normal to Decreased platelets

Other Tests:
LAP: Decreased
Cytogenetics
Hyperuricemia
Uricosuria (May lead to gout)
PLT Function: Abnormal

Leukemoid Reaction

A leukemoid reaction is a response to different stress events such as infections, inflammation,

hemorrhage, or other malignant disorders that has a similar presentation to CML where there is an

increase in the number of white blood cells and a left shift.4,5

A leukemoid reaction should NOT be confused with CML.

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Table 1. Comparison of CML and Leukemoid Reaction.4,5

Laboratory Finding CML Leukemoid Reaction

PBS Left shift (Very Immature) Left shift (mild)

Neutrophilia Neutrophilia
Eosinophilia Absent eosinophilia
Basophilia Absent Basophilia
Dysplastic Features Toxic changes are often present

WBC
20-500 x109/L Rarely >60 x10 /L
9

PLT Increased Normal

Anemia Present Absent

LAP Score Low High

Chromosomal Abnormality Philadelphia Chromosome/BCR-ABL1 None

References:

1. Randolph TR. Myeloproliferative neoplasms. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and
principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p.561-90.

2. Schaub CR. Chronic Myeloproliferative disorders I: chronic myelogenous leukemia. In: Clinical
hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 371-84.

3. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H, et al. editors. WHO Classification of
Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues Volume 2. 4th ed. International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC); 2008.

4. Randolph TR. Myeloproliferative neoplasms. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey:
Pearson; 2015. p. 450-78.

5. Bain BJ. Disorders of white cells. In: Blood cells: a practical guide [Internet]. 5th ed. Chichester, UK:
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2015 [cited 2018 Jul 10]:416-81. Available from:
http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118817322

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

85
Polycythemia Vera (PV)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a peripheral blood smear showing a thick smear with an abundant red blood cells and platelets
often seen in polycythemia vera, 100x oil immersion. From MLS Collection, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3WH2DW3X

Affected Cell Line: Mainly erythrocytes, though tri-lineage growth (“panmyelosis”) is seen in the bone

marrow.1,2

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Mutation:

JAK 2 exon 12 and JAK 2 V617F gene mutations have been associated with PV.1,3

Age Group Affected: Average age of diagnosis is 60 years old.3

Features:

PV involves the proliferation of erythrocytes independent of normal erythropoiesis regulating

mechanisms (e.g. erythropoietin). There is also an a proliferation of granulocytes and megakaryocytes

(resulting in “panmyelosis”) but the proliferation of erythrocytes is most prominent.3-5

Unlike CML, PV does not readily transform into acute leukemia but may result in fibrosis over time.3
Splenomegaly is commonly seen.

Laboratory Findings for PV:2,4,5

CBC: PBS: BM:

RBC: Increased RBCs are normochromic/normocytic, M:E ratio: Normal to decreased
WBC: Increased though iron stores may be exhausted, Hypercellular due to increased proliferation in all cell
PLT: Increased leading to hypo/micro RBCs lines
Hb: Increased PBS appears crowded with RBCs (thick Megakaryocytes are increased in number and may be
Hct: Increased smears are due to the elevated Hct) enlarged and exhibit lobulated nuclei
MCV: Increased A left shift and basophilia may be seen Iron stores: decreased to absent
RETIC: Normal to increased

Other Tests:
Erythropoietin: Low or normal

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Secondary Polycythemia

Secondary polycythemia is a condition that occurs when there is an increased production of

erythrocytes due an increased level of erythropoietin. Bone marrow shows an erythroid hyperplasia.5

Causes include: Hypoxia, Inappropriate use of erythropoietin, Familial polycythemia, neonatal

polycythemia.5

Relative Polycythemia

Polycythemia that occurs due to a decrease in plasma volume, resulting in an elevated hematocrit, RBC

count, and hemoglobin. There is no actual increased production of erythrocytes. 5 The decrease in
plasma volume is often the result of dehydration.

Hemoglobin and hematocrit appear increased but other CBC parameters such as white blood cell and
platelet counts are normal. The bone marrow is also normal in terms of iron stores, cellularity and

number of megakaryocytes.5

Table 1. Comparison between the different Polycythemias.5

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

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284
 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

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References:

1. Choi CW, Bang S-M, Jang S, Jung CW, Kim H-J, Kim HY, et al. Guidelines for the management of
myeloproliferative neoplasms. Korean J Intern Med [Internet]. 2015 Nov 30 [cited 2018 Jul
9];30(6):771–88. Available from: http://kjim.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3904/kjim.2015.30.6.771

2. Schaub CR. Chronic Myeloproliferative disorders I: chronic myelogenous leukemia. In: Clinical
hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 371-84.

3. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H, et al. editors. WHO Classification of
Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues Volume 2. 4th ed. International Agency for Research

285
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

on Cancer (IARC); 2008.

4. Randolph TR. Myeloproliferative neoplasms. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and
principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p.561-90.

5. Randolph TR. Myeloproliferative neoplasms. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey:
Pearson; 2015. p. 450-78.

286
 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

86
Essential Thrombocythemia (ET)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks.library.ualberta.ca/mlsci/?p=757

Image of peripheral blood smears showing a giant platelet (center) and an increase in the number of
platelets seen in Essential Thrombocythemia. From MLS Collection, University of Alberta.

Image 1: 50x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3J09WK51

Image 2: 60x oil immersion. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3X63BM52

Affected Cell Line: Megakaryocytes, Platelets.1,2

Mutation: JAK 2 V617F, CALR, and MPL gene mutations.1,3

Age Group Affected: Diagnosed most commonly at 50-60 years old.1

Clinical Features:

Most patients are asymptomatic and present with a platelet count of ≥450 x109/L.1 Thrombosis,
vascular occlusion, and bleeding problems are the most commonly associated complications. Despite
having abundant platelets, they are often dysfunctional.

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Laboratory Findings for ET:1,4,5

CBC: PBS: BM:

WBC: Normal to Slightly Increased RBCs, are normocytic and normochromic Hypercellular due to increased megakaryopoiesis
9 Marked thrombocytosis Abnormal megakaryocyte morphology: Clusters, Enlarged,
PLT: Increased (often 1000-5000 x10 /L)
Hyperlobulated
Hb: Slightly Decreased
Abnormal platelet morphologies:
Hct: Slightly Decreased
MCV: Normal Giant, agranular, clumping, and irregularly shaped

Other Tests:
Platelet function tests: abnormal

Reactive Thrombocytosis

A non-malignant condition that involves an increased platelet count secondary to other conditions that

result in an increase in platelet production. It is associated with infections and inflammatory processes.5

Reactive thrombocytosis can be differentiated from essential thrombocythemia by looking at the platelet

count. Platelet count rarely reaches >1000 x109/L and platelet function tests are normal.5

References:

1. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H, et al. editors. WHO Classification of
Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues Volume 2. 4th ed. International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC); 2008.

2. Schaub CR. Chronic Myeloproliferative disorders I: chronic myelogenous leukemia. In: Clinical
hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 371-84.

3. Choi CW, Bang S-M, Jang S, Jung CW, Kim H-J, Kim HY, et al. Guidelines for the management of
myeloproliferative neoplasms. Korean J Intern Med [Internet]. 2015 Nov 30 [cited 2018 Jul
9];30(6):771–88. Available from: http://kjim.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3904/kjim.2015.30.6.771

4. Randolph TR. Myeloproliferative neoplasms. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and
principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p.561-90.

288
 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

5. Randolph TR. Myeloproliferative neoplasms. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey:
Pearson; 2015. p. 450-78.

289
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

87
Primary Myelofibrosis (PMF)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

An image from a peripheral blood smear showing

tears, elliptocytes, schistocytes, and a giant platelet An image from a peripheral blood smear showing
seen in primary myelofibrosis. 50x oil immersion. tears, elliptocytes, and schistocytes, and a
From MLS Collection, University of Alberta, nucleated red blood cell seen in primary
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3CJ88201 myelofibrosis. 100x oil immersion. From MLS
Collection, University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3416TF2F

Affected Cell Line: Granulocytes and Megakaryocytes in the bone marrow resulting in secondary

fibroblast stimulation and fibrotic desposition in the bone marrow.1,2

Mutation: JAK 2 V617F, CALR, and MPL gene mutations.1,3

Age Group Affected: >50 years old, occurs equally between males and females.4

Features:

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

Primary myelofibrosis is characterized by two stages:

1. Prefibrotic Stage

The bone marrow is hypercellular and shows minimal reticulin and fibrosis initially, with an increase in

megakaryocytes and granulocytes.1

2. Fibrotic Stage

Peripheral blood shows a characteristic leukoerythroblastic picture (immature granulocyte and

erythrocyte precursors) with poikilocytosis, especially teardrop cells and elliptocytes.1

Bone marrows shows marked fibrosis. 1 Extramedullary hematopoiesis is often seen, with cells
accumulating in the spleen, liver, and other organs.

Laboratory Findings for Primary Myelofibrosis:2,4,5

CBC: PBS: BM:

Early Stage: Platelets have a dysplastic morphology Often results in a dry tap
RBC: Normal (Giant, agranular) Hypercellular
WBC: Increased May see micromegakaryocytes Fibrosis of varying degrees (Marked fibrosis in later
PLT: Increased Variable poikilocytosis stages)
Hb: Normal Megakaryocyte aggregates
Fibrotic Stage: Dysgranulopoiesis
Fibrotic Stage: Pancytopenia Dysmegakaryopoiesis
RBC: Decreased Leukoerythroblastic picture
WBC:Decreased Teardrop cells
PLT: Decreased Elliptocytes
Hb: Decreased nRBCs

Other Tests:
PLT Function: Abnormal

References:

1. Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Pileri SA, Stein H, et al. editors. WHO Classification of
Tumours of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues Volume 2. 4th ed. International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC); 2008.

291
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

2. Schaub CR. Chronic Myeloproliferative disorders I: chronic myelogenous leukemia. In: Clinical
hematology and fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 371-84.

3. Choi CW, Bang S-M, Jang S, Jung CW, Kim H-J, Kim HY, et al. Guidelines for the management of
myeloproliferative neoplasms. Korean J Intern Med [Internet]. 2015 Nov 30 [cited 2018 Jul
9];30(6):771–88. Available from: http://kjim.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3904/kjim.2015.30.6.771
4. Randolph TR. Myeloproliferative neoplasms. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed. New Jersey:
Pearson; 2015. p. 450-78.

5. Randolph TR. Myeloproliferative neoplasms. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and
principles. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p.561-90.

292
 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

XV
WHITE BLOOD CELLS:
MYELODYSPLASTIC SYNDROMES
(MDS)
 88
Introduction to Myelodysplastic
Syndromes (MDS)
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

Myelodysplastic syndromes are a group of clonal disorders that result in cytopenias and defective cell

maturation.1 Morphology of cells during maturation show abnormalities, referred to as dysplasia.2

Dysplastic features seen varies in terms of the types of dysplasia seen, and the cell lines affected.
Progression toward acute leukemia is often seen later in the disease, leading to an increase in blasts
seen in the bone marrow and peripheral blood.

Age Group Affected: Commonly age of diagnosis is 70 years old.1

Affected Cell Line(s): Can affect one, two, or all three hematopoietic cell lines (erythroid, myeloid,

megakaryocyte).1

Cause(s):

Chromosomal abnormalities

Mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes

General Laboratory Findings for MDS:2

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

PBS: BM: Other Tests:

Anemia Dysplastic hematopoietic precursors Cytogenetic testing
Anisocytosis (Dimorphic) Usually hypercellular (though hematopoiesis FISH
Poikilocytosis is ineffective) Iron Studies:
Sideroblasts +/- Increased blasts Serum Iron: Normal to Increased
Dysplastic granulocytes Serum Ferritin: Normal to Increased
Dysplastic thrombocytes TIBC: Decreased to Normal
+/- Increased blasts

References:

1. Rodak BF. Myelodysplastic syndromes. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and principles.
5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p.591-603.

2. Lawrence LW, Taylor SA. Myelodysplastic syndromes. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed.
New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 479-99.

295
A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

89
MDS: Dyserythropoiesis,
Dysmyelopoiesis &
Dysmegakaryopoiesis
MICHELLE TO AND VALENTIN VILLATORO

As previously discussed, MDS is a clonal disorder that results in defective cell maturation and results in
dysplastic changes. The dysplasia can be seen in both the peripheral blood and in the bone marrow.
Dysplasia may be seen in one or more cell lines, and the types of dysplasia seen vary. Below are
descriptions that may be seen, organized by cell lineage.

Dyserythropoiesis

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

An image from a bone marrow smear showing a hypogranular, hyposegmented neutrophil (center-left) and a
mitotic figure that appears to be an erythroid precursor (center-right) seen in myelodysplastic syndrome. 100x
oil immersion. From MLS Collection, University of Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R34M91S2D

Affected Cell line: Erythroids.1-3

Table 1. Dysplastic features found in MDS erythrocytes in the peripheral blood and bone

marrow.1-3

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

PBS: BM:
Dimorphic Population Multiple Nuclei
Oval-macrocytes Abnormal Nuclear shapes (budding, lobes, fragmentation, bridging)
Hypochromic/Microcytic RBCs (with normal iron stores) Megaloblastoid features
Basophilic stippling Vacuolization
Howell-Jolly bodies Ringed Sideroblasts
Siderocytes Abnormal staining of the cytoplasm (due to basophilic stippling and
Decreased polychromasia hemoglobin)

Dysmyelopoiesis/Dysgranulopoiesis

An image from a peripheral blood smear

demonstrating a hyposegmented neutrophil with An image from a peripheral blood smear
mature chromatin pattern and hypogranulation demonstrating dysplastic features: a neutrophil
seen in a patient with MDS. 100x oil immersion. (top) with hypersegmention and hypogranulation,
From MLS Collection, University of Alberta, two neutrophils (bottom-right) undergoing
https://doi.org/10.7939/R3251G157 karyorrhexis, and platelet clumping (bottom-left)
seen in patients with myelodysplastic syndrome.
50x oil immersion. From MLS Collection, University
of Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3BK1750B

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

An image from a peripheral blood smear showing An image from a bone marrow smear showing
hyposegmented neutrophils and a myeloid hypogranular neutrophils and hypogranular
precursor seen in myelodysplastic syndrome. 50x myeloid precursors seen in myelodysplastic
oil immersion. From MLS Collection, University of syndrome. 50x oil immersion. From MLS Collection,
Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3KP7V654 University of Alberta,
https://doi.org/10.7939/R38C9RK5P

Affected Cell line: Granulocytes.1-3

Table 2. Dysplastic features found in MDS granulocytes in the peripheral blood and bone
1-3
marrow.

PBS: BM:
Agranulation Nuclear-cytoplasmic asynchrony
Hypogranulation Abnormal cytoplasmic staining
Abnormal nuclear shapes (hypersegmentaion, hyposegmentation, Abnormal granulation (hypogranulation, hypergranulation)
ring-shaped nuclei) Increased Blasts
Left shift +/- Auer rods
Monocytosis
Neutropenia
Increased Blasts

Dysmegakaryopoiesis

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A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

An image from a bone marrow smear showing mononuclear megakaryocyte seen in myelodysplastic syndrome.
50x oil immersion. From MLS Collection, University of Alberta, https://doi.org/10.7939/R3D21S081

Affected Cell line: Megakaryoctyes and platelets.1-3

Table 3. Dysplastic features found in MDS megakaryocytes and platelets in the peripheral
1-3
blood and bone marrow.

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 A Laboratory Guide to Clinical Hematology

PBS: BM:
Thrombocytopenia Magakaryocytes with multiple separated nuclei
Hypogranulation/Agranulation Abnormal granulation (hypogranulation)
Micromegakaryocytes Large mononuclear megakaryocytes
Giant PLTs Micromegakaryocytes
Micromegakaryoblasts

Other Tests:
Platelet function tests are abnormal

References:

1. Rodak BF. Myelodysplastic syndromes. In: Rodak’s hematology clinical applications and principles.
5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2015. p.591-603.

2. Lawrence LW, Taylor SA. Myelodysplastic syndromes. In: Clinical laboratory hematology. 3rd ed.
New Jersey: Pearson; 2015. p. 479-99.

3. D’Angelo G, Mollica L, Hebert J, Busque L. Myelodysplastic syndromes. In: Clinical hematology and
fundamentals of hemostasis. 5th ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company; 2009. p. 412-39.

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Thank You
This is eBook will be constantly updated, edited, and reviewed as new emerging information arises.
Should you have any suggestions, feedback, questions, or corrections regarding the content of this
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