TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL

Traffic Operations Division

Traffic Engineering Office

August 2018
TDOT TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL AUGUST 2018

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TDOT TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL AUGUST 2018

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents .................................................................................... iii

List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ xii
List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... xv
List of Equations ...................................................................................................................xvii
Appendices...........................................................................................................................xvii

Chapter 1: Introduction ......................................................................... 1-1

1.1 About this Manual ...........................................................................................................1-1
1.2 Standard Abbreviations ..................................................................................................1-2
1.3 Standard References ......................................................................................................1-4
1.4 Traffic Control Devices ...................................................................................................1-5
1.5 Design of Traffic Control Devices....................................................................................1-6
1.6 TDOT Traffic Operations Division, Traffic Engineering Office .........................................1-6
1.7 Governing Laws, Rules and Regulations ........................................................................1-6

Chapter 2: Traffic Impact Studies ......................................................... 2-1

2.1 General Information ........................................................................................................2-1
2.1.1 Purpose ...................................................................................................................2-2
2.1.2 Applicability ..............................................................................................................2-2
2.1.3 Prequalified Engineering Firms and Preparer Qualifications.....................................2-2
2.2 Traffic Impact Study Parameters.....................................................................................2-2
2.2.1 Proposed Development Trip Calculations ...............................................................2-2
2.2.2 Traffic Impact Study Screening Evaluation Form......................................................2-3
2.2.3 Minimum Threshold Levels ......................................................................................2-3
2.2.4 Traffic Impact Study Levels ......................................................................................2-4
2.2.5 Waiver .....................................................................................................................2-4
2.2.6 Target / Horizon Year ...............................................................................................2-4
2.2.7 Time Periods ............................................................................................................2-4
2.2.8 Traffic Impact Study Scoping Meeting ......................................................................2-5
2.3 Development of Traffic Conditions ..................................................................................2-6
2.3.1 Existing Traffic Conditions ........................................................................................2-6
2.3.2 Background Traffic Development and Growth Calculations ......................................2-6

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2.3.3 Future Traffic Conditions without Project ..................................................................2-6
2.3.4 Site Traffic Conditions ..............................................................................................2-7
2.3.5 Future Traffic Conditions with Project .......................................................................2-7
2.4 Traffic Impact Study Analyses and Mitigation Measures .................................................2-8
2.4.1 Capacity Analyses ...................................................................................................2-8
2.4.2 Level of Service (LOS) Goals .................................................................................2-10
2.4.3 Queuing Analyses ..................................................................................................2-11
2.4.4 Mitigation Measures ...............................................................................................2-11
2.5 Traffic Impact Study Report Format ..............................................................................2-13
2.5.1 General Information ...............................................................................................2-13
2.5.2 Title Page...............................................................................................................2-13
2.5.3 Table of Contents...................................................................................................2-13
2.5.4 Executive Summary ...............................................................................................2-13
2.5.5 Introduction ............................................................................................................2-14
2.5.6 Study Analysis Considerations ...............................................................................2-14
2.5.7 Existing Traffic Conditions ......................................................................................2-14
2.5.8 Background Traffic Development and Growth Calculations ....................................2-15
2.5.9 Future Traffic Conditions without Project ................................................................2-15
2.5.10 Site Traffic Conditions ..........................................................................................2-15
2.5.11 Future Traffic Conditions with Project ...................................................................2-15
2.5.12 Summary of Findings ...........................................................................................2-16
2.5.13 Recommendations ...............................................................................................2-16
2.5.14 Submittal Requirements .......................................................................................2-16

Chapter 3: TDOT Project Development ................................................ 3-1

3.1 Project Schedule ............................................................................................................3-1
3.2 Plans Development Responsibilities ...............................................................................3-1
3.2.1 TDOT Design Manager ............................................................................................3-1
3.2.2 Local Agency ...........................................................................................................3-1
3.2.3 Design Engineer ......................................................................................................3-1
3.3 Plan Development Stages ..............................................................................................3-2
3.4 Support Projects .............................................................................................................3-5
3.5 Conformance to TDOT Plans Format .............................................................................3-5

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT.)

Chapter 4: Justifying the Need for Traffic Signals .............................. 4-1

4.1 Justification for Traffic Signal Control ..............................................................................4-1
4.1.1 Engineering Study Data Collection ...........................................................................4-1
4.1.2 Traffic Signal Warrants...........................................................................................4-11
4.2 Authorization for Installation and Ownership of Traffic Signal Control ...........................4-13
4.2.1 Additional Requirements ........................................................................................4-14

Chapter 5: Traffic Signal Design – General Information ..................... 5-1

5.1 General Information ........................................................................................................5-1
5.2 Site Reviews ...................................................................................................................5-2
5.3 Proprietary Equipment for Traffic Signal Systems ...........................................................5-3
5.3.1 Necessary for Synchronization with Existing Facilities .............................................5-3
5.3.2 Unique Product for which there is No Equally Suitable Alternative ...........................5-3
5.3.3 Experimental Products .............................................................................................5-4

Chapter 6: Traffic Signal Design – Cabinets and Equipment ............. 6-1

6.1 Traffic Signal Cabinet ......................................................................................................6-1
6.2 Traffic Signal Controllers .................................................................................................6-2
6.3 Traffic Signal Detector Cards ..........................................................................................6-2
6.4 Traffic Signal Load Switches and Flasher .......................................................................6-2
6.5 Traffic Signal Monitor ......................................................................................................6-2
6.6 Traffic Signal Power Supply ............................................................................................6-3

Chapter 7: Traffic Signal Design – Operations and Coordination ...... 7-1

7.1 Traffic Signal Operation Basic Concepts.........................................................................7-1
7.1.1 Traffic Signal Movements .........................................................................................7-1
7.1.2 Traffic Signal Phases ...............................................................................................7-1
7.1.3 Ring-and-Barrier Diagrams ......................................................................................7-5
7.2 Traffic Signal Modes of Operation...................................................................................7-5
7.2.1 Pre-timed (Fixed Time) Operation ............................................................................7-5
7.2.2 Actuated Operation ..................................................................................................7-8
7.2.3 Coordinated Operation .............................................................................................7-8

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7.2.4 Volume-Density Operation .......................................................................................7-9
7.2.5 Traffic Responsive Operation ...................................................................................7-9
7.2.6 Adaptive Signal Control Technology Operation ........................................................7-9
7.2.7 Traffic Signal Preemption .........................................................................................7-9
7.2.8 Traffic Signal Priority ................................................................................................7-9
7.2.9 Flashing Mode Operation .......................................................................................7-10
7.3 Traffic Signal Phasing ...................................................................................................7-10
7.3.1 Need for Left-Turn Phasing ....................................................................................7-10
7.3.2 Types of Left-Turn Phasing ....................................................................................7-13
7.3.3 Guidelines for Selecting Left-Turn Phasing ............................................................7-16
7.3.4 Sequence of Left-Turn Phasing ..............................................................................7-18
7.3.5 Flashing Yellow Arrow for Left-Turn Movement Phasing ........................................7-23
7.3.6 Right-Turn Treatments ...........................................................................................7-26
7.4 Pedestrian Signal Phasing ............................................................................................7-31
7.4.1 Pedestrian Warrants and Signal Heads..................................................................7-31
7.4.2 Pedestrian Signal Phasing Alternatives ..................................................................7-31
7.5 Traffic Signal Timing .....................................................................................................7-33
7.5.1 TDOT’s Role ..........................................................................................................7-33
7.5.2 Traffic Signal Timing Considerations ......................................................................7-33
7.5.3 Data Collection.......................................................................................................7-34
7.5.4 Operational Objectives ...........................................................................................7-35
7.5.5 Yellow Change Interval and Red Clearance Interval ..............................................7-36
7.5.6 Pedestrian Signal Timing Parameters ....................................................................7-41
7.5.7 Pre-timed (Fixed Time) Operation Signal Timing Parameters ................................7-44
7.5.8 Actuated Operation Signal Timing Parameters.......................................................7-47
7.6 Traffic Signal Coordination............................................................................................7-53
7.6.1 Traffic Signal Coordination Objectives ...................................................................7-53
7.6.2 Fundamentals of Traffic Signal Coordination ..........................................................7-53
7.6.3 Traffic Signal Coordination Parameters Guidelines ................................................7-56
7.6.4 Traffic Signal Coordination Complexities ................................................................7-60

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT.)

7.7 Traffic Signal Timing Plans ...........................................................................................7-62
7.7.1 Timing Software .....................................................................................................7-62
7.8 Advanced Traffic Signal Operations..............................................................................7-63
7.8.1 Volume Density ......................................................................................................7-63
7.8.2 Traffic Responsive Plan Selection Systems ...........................................................7-69
7.8.3 Adaptive Signal Control Technology Systems ........................................................7-69
7.9 Traffic Signal Priority ...................................................................................................7-70
7.10 Traffic Signal Preemption ..........................................................................................7-71
7.10.1 Emergency Vehicle Preemption ...........................................................................7-71
7.10.2 Railroad Preemption ............................................................................................7-75
7.10.3 Multiple Preemption .............................................................................................7-80
7.11 Flashing Operations....................................................................................................7-80
7.11.1 Types of Flashing Operation ................................................................................7-80
7.11.2 Flashing Operation Signal Display .......................................................................7-81

Chapter 8: Traffic Signal Design – Detection ....................................... 8-1

8.1 Detection ........................................................................................................................8-1
8.1.1 Detection Objectives ................................................................................................8-1
8.1.2 Detection Location ...................................................................................................8-1
8.2 Detection Parameters......................................................................................................8-2
8.2.1 Detection Operating Modes......................................................................................8-2
8.2.2 Detection Memory Modes ........................................................................................8-2
8.2.3 Detection Modifiers ..................................................................................................8-3
8.3 Phase Recalls .................................................................................................................8-5
8.3.1 Minimum Recall .......................................................................................................8-5
8.3.2 Maximum Recall ......................................................................................................8-5
8.3.3 Soft Recall ...............................................................................................................8-5
8.3.4 Pedestrian Recall .....................................................................................................8-5
8.4 Detection Design for Approaches Below 35 MPH ............................................................8-7

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8.5 Detection Design for Approaches 35 MPH or Above .......................................................8-9
8.5.1 Timing of the Yellow Change Interval .......................................................................8-9
8.5.2 Driver Behavior ........................................................................................................8-9
8.6 Detection Design for Coordinated Systems ...................................................................8-12
8.7 Pedestrian Detection .....................................................................................................8-12
8.7.1 Accessible Pedestrian Signals ...............................................................................8-12
8.8 Types of Detection ........................................................................................................8-13
8.8.1 Inductive Loop Detection ........................................................................................8-13
8.8.2 Video Detection......................................................................................................8-16
8.8.3 Radar Detection .....................................................................................................8-16

Chapter 9: Traffic Signal Design – Supports and Signal Heads ......... 9-1
9.1 Traffic Signal Supports ...................................................................................................9-1
9.1.1 Traffic Signal Strain Poles ........................................................................................9-1
9.1.2 Traffic Signal Mast Arm Poles ..................................................................................9-5
9.2 Traffic Signal Indications .................................................................................................9-9
9.2.1 Lens Size, Illumination and Shielding .......................................................................9-9
9.2.2 Traffic Signal Housing ..............................................................................................9-9
9.2.3 Traffic Signal Backplates ..........................................................................................9-9
9.2.4 Strobe Lights ............................................................................................................9-9
9.2.5 Countdown Displays ................................................................................................9-9
9.2.6 Number of Signal Faces and Arrangement on an Approach...................................9-10
9.2.7 Visibility of Signal Faces on an Approach...............................................................9-10
9.2.8 Mounting Height of Signal Faces............................................................................9-11
9.2.9 Lateral and Longitudinal Positioning of Signal Faces .............................................9-12
9.2.10 Shared and Separate Signal Faces......................................................................9-12
9.2.11 Signal Head Visors...............................................................................................9-14
9.2.12 Visibility-Limited Traffic Signal Devices ................................................................9-16
9.2.13 Use of Signs at Signalized Intersections ..............................................................9-18
9.2.14 Use of Stop Signs at Signalized Intersections ......................................................9-18
9.2.15 Pedestrian Signal Indications ...............................................................................9-19

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT.)

Chapter 10: Traffic Signal Design – Pull Boxes, Conduits,

and Wiring .................................................................... 10-1
10.1 Pull Boxes ..................................................................................................................10-1
10.1.1 Type/Size/Use of Pull Boxes ................................................................................10-1
10.1.2 Spacing of Pull Boxes ..........................................................................................10-1
10.1.3 Pull Box Material ..................................................................................................10-1
10.2 Traffic Signal Conduits ................................................................................................10-2
10.2.1 Conduit Material Type ..........................................................................................10-2
10.2.2 Conduit Installation Methods ................................................................................10-2
10.2.3 Depth Installed Underground ...............................................................................10-3
10.2.4 Conduit Sizing ......................................................................................................10-3
10.2.5 Communications Cable Conduit ...........................................................................10-4
10.2.6 Power Cable Conduit ...........................................................................................10-4
10.2.7 Jacked and Bored Conduit ...................................................................................10-4
10.2.8 Conduit Radii .......................................................................................................10-4
10.2.9 Spare Conduit ......................................................................................................10-4
10.2.10 Conduit for Road Widening Projects...................................................................10-4
10.3 Traffic Signal Wiring....................................................................................................10-5
10.3.1 Signal Control Cable ............................................................................................10-5
10.3.2 Inductive Loop Wire .............................................................................................10-5
10.3.3 Loop Detector Lead-In Cable Wire .......................................................................10-5
10.3.4 Preformed Loop Detector Wire .............................................................................10-5
10.3.5 Coordinated Systems Communications................................................................10-5
10.3.6 Cable Lashing ......................................................................................................10-6
10.3.7 Cable/Wire Sizing and Measurements .................................................................10-6

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT.)

Chapter 11: Traffic Signal Design – Miscellaneous Information ...... 11-1

11.1 Signal Control for Driveways within Signalized Intersections ......................................11-1
11.2 Utilities ........................................................................................................................11-1
11.3 Street Lighting on Traffic Signal Supports at Intersections ..........................................11-3
11.3.1 Street Light Support Design .................................................................................11-3
11.3.2 Luminaire Mounting Height ..................................................................................11-3
11.3.3 Wiring Requirements............................................................................................11-3
11.4 Traffic Signal Installation Inspection Guidelines ..........................................................11-4
11.4.1 Responsibilities of the Inspector ...........................................................................11-4
11.4.2 Preconstruction Activities .....................................................................................11-4
11.4.3 Sampling and Testing of Materials .......................................................................11-5
11.4.4 General Principles................................................................................................11-5
11.4.5 Inspection Activities .............................................................................................11-5
11.4.6 Final Acceptance and Notification ........................................................................11-6
11.5 Traffic Signal Activation Procedures ...........................................................................11-7

Chapter 12: Traffic Signal Design – Post-Installation ....................... 12-1

12.1 Traffic Signal Maintenance Guidelines ........................................................................12-1
12.1.1 Reducing Agency Exposure to Liability ................................................................12-1
12.1.2 Preventive Maintenance.......................................................................................12-2
12.1.3 Response Maintenance .......................................................................................12-5
12.2 Automated Traffic Signal Performance Measures .......................................................12-6
12.3 Removal of Traffic Signals ........................................................................................12-10

Chapter 13: Other Types of Traffic Signals........................................ 13-1

13.1 Highway Traffic Signals ..............................................................................................13-1
13.2 Pedestrian Hybrid Beacons ........................................................................................13-2
13.3 Emergency-Vehicle Traffic Control Signals .................................................................13-3
13.3.1 Displays ...............................................................................................................13-3
13.3.2 Control .................................................................................................................13-3
13.3.3 Signing .................................................................................................................13-3

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13.4 Flashing Beacons .......................................................................................................13-5
13.4.1 Intersection Control Beacons ...............................................................................13-5
13.4.2 Stop Sign Beacons...............................................................................................13-5
13.4.3 Speed Limit Sign Beacons ...................................................................................13-5
13.4.4 School Zone Speed Limit Sign Beacons ..............................................................13-7
13.4.5 Warning Sign Beacons .........................................................................................13-7
13.4.6 Traffic Signal Ahead Beacons ..............................................................................13-7

Chapter 14: Signing and Pavement Markings.................................... 14-1

14.1 General Information ....................................................................................................14-1
14.2 Signing .......................................................................................................................14-1
14.2.1 MUTCD ................................................................................................................14-2
14.2.2 Application ...........................................................................................................14-2
14.2.3 Sign Layouts ........................................................................................................14-2
14.2.4 Conventional Highways (Non-Access Controlled) Signs ......................................14-2
14.2.5 Freeway and Expressway Signs (Access Controlled).........................................14-29
14.2.6 Sign Vertical Clearances ....................................................................................14-31
14.2.7 Traffic Signal Signs ............................................................................................14-32
14.2.8 Other Traffic Control Signs .................................................................................14-37
14.2.9 Proposed Overhead Street Name Sign Layouts .................................................14-38
14.3 Pavement Markings ..................................................................................................14-39
14.3.1 Stop Lines ..........................................................................................................14-39
14.3.2 Yield Lines .........................................................................................................14-42
14.3.3 Crosswalks ........................................................................................................14-43
14.3.4 Turn Arrows .......................................................................................................14-44
14.3.5 Materials ............................................................................................................14-44

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT.)

Chapter 15: Roadway and Intersection Lighting ............................... 15-1

15.1 General Information ....................................................................................................15-1
15.1.1 Need for Engineering Expertise............................................................................15-1
15.1.2 Priorities and Funding Guidelines.........................................................................15-2
15.2 Analyzing Highway Lighting Needs .............................................................................15-4
15.2.1 Freeways .............................................................................................................15-4
15.2.2 Streets and Highways Other Than Freeways .......................................................15-8
15.2.3 Other Locations..................................................................................................15-13
15.3 New Lighting Projects ...............................................................................................15-15
15.3.1 Lighting Design Process ....................................................................................15-15
15.3.2 Lighting Design Process Overview .....................................................................15-16
15.3.3 Design Considerations .......................................................................................15-18
15.3.4 Determine Classifications ...................................................................................15-18
15.3.5 Roadside Safety Considerations ........................................................................15-30
15.3.6 Other Design Considerations .............................................................................15-30
15.4 Lighting Design Criteria, Policies, and Procedures....................................................15-33
15.4.1 Methodologies....................................................................................................15-33
15.4.2 Computerized Design.........................................................................................15-38
15.4.3 Electrical Design ................................................................................................15-38
15.4.4 Foundation, Pole Mounting, and Structural Considerations ................................15-42
15.4.5 TDOT Foundation Design ..................................................................................15-44
15.4.6 High-Mast Lighting Design .................................................................................15-45
15.4.7 Underpass Lighting ............................................................................................15-46
15.4.8 TDOT Bridge Lighting Plan ................................................................................15-47
15.5 Materials and Equipment ..........................................................................................15-53
15.5.1 Foundations and Mounting .................................................................................15-54
15.5.2 Pole Bases .........................................................................................................15-54
15.5.3 Poles ..................................................................................................................15-55
15.5.4 Luminaires .........................................................................................................15-55
15.5.5 Other Materials and Equipment ..........................................................................15-56

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15.6 TDOT Lighting Plans Layouts ...................................................................................15-57
15.6.1 Plans Preparation ..............................................................................................15-57
15.6.2 Photometric/Preliminary Plans Preparation ........................................................15-59
15.6.3 Photometric/Preliminary Plan Review.................................................................15-60
15.6.4 Lighting Computer-Aided Design Drafting Standards .........................................15-60
15.6.5 Site and Field Reviews .......................................................................................15-60
15.6.6 Photometric Plans and Work Files Submittal ......................................................15-61
15.6.7 Lighting Design Checklists .................................................................................15-62

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 – Vehicular, Pedestrian, and Bicycle Counts Example .........................................4-3
Figure 4.2 – Condition Diagram Example ..............................................................................4-9
Figure 4.3 – Collision Diagram Example ............................................................................4-10
Figure 7.1 – Movement and Phase Numbering (East-West as Major Street) .........................7-2
Figure 7.2 – Movement and Phase Numbering (North-South as Major Street) ......................7-3
Figure 7.3 – Movement and Phase Numbering (Permissive Left-Turns)................................7-4
Figure 7.4 – Standard NEMA Dual Ring-and-Barrier Diagram ...............................................7-6
Figure 7.5 – Pre-timed and Actuated Operation ....................................................................7-7
Figure 7.6 – Horizontal Intersection Sight Distance for Left-Turns .......................................7-12
Figure 7.7 – Offset Left-Turn Lanes ....................................................................................7-13
Figure 7.8 – Ring-and-Barrier Diagram and Left-Turn Phasing............................................7-14
Figure 7.9 – Guidelines for Selecting Left-Turn Phasing......................................................7-17
Figure 7.10 – Sequence of Left-Turn Phasing .....................................................................7-19
Figure 7.11 – Left-Turn Yellow Trap ....................................................................................7-22
Figure 7.12 – Flashing Yellow Arrow (Permissive Left-Turn Movement Display) .................7-25
Figure 7.13 – Right-Turn Overlap ........................................................................................7-28
Figure 7.14 – Right-Turn Overlap Phase Lettering Scheme ................................................7-29
Figure 7.15 – Right-Turn On Red (RTOR) Signal Displays ..................................................7-30
Figure 7.16 – Exclusive Pedestrian Phasing .......................................................................7-32
Figure 7.17 – Leading Pedestrian Interval ...........................................................................7-32
Figure 7.18 – Pedestrian Intervals .......................................................................................7-43
Figure 7.19 – Webster’s Minimum Delay Cycle ...................................................................7-45
Figure 7.20 – Actuated Phase Operation Parameters .........................................................7-48
Figure 7.21 – Time-Space Diagram ....................................................................................7-55
Figure 7.22 – Cycle, Split, and Offset Relationships ............................................................7-59
Figure 7.23 – Rest-in-Walk Parameter ................................................................................7-61
Figure 7.24 – Volume Density (Variable Initial) ....................................................................7-64
Figure 7.25 – Volume Density (Gap Reduction) ..................................................................7-66
Figure 7.26 – Emergency Vehicle Preemption Sequence....................................................7-73
Figure 7.27 – Emergency Vehicle Preemption Design Example ..........................................7-74
Figure 7.28 – Railroad Preemption Sequence (2 or 3 Phase Operation) .............................7-76
Figure 7.29 – Railroad Preemption Sequence (8 Phase Operation) ....................................7-77
Figure 7.30 – Railroad Preemption Sequence .....................................................................7-79

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONT.)

Figure 8.1 – Typical Detection Design Schematics (< 35 MPH) ............................................8-7
Figure 8.2 – Inductive Loop Detection (< 35 MPH) ................................................................8-8
Figure 8.3 – Typical Detection Design Schematics (≥ 35 MPH) ...........................................8-10
Figure 8.4 – Inductive Loop Detection (≥ 35 MPH) ..............................................................8-11
Figure 8.5 – Preformed Inductive Loop ...............................................................................8-15
Figure 9.1 – Typical Strain Pole Span Wire Layouts ..............................................................9-4
Figure 9.2 – Typical Mast Arm Pole Layouts .........................................................................9-8
Figure 9.3 – Positioning of Signal Faces .............................................................................9-13
Figure 9.4 – Types of Signal Head Visors ...........................................................................9-14
Figure 9.5 – Line of Sight Angle Measurements ..................................................................9-15
Figure 9.6 – Recommended Signal Head Screening Types ................................................9-16
Figure 9.7 – Types of Visibility-Limited Screening Devices ..................................................9-17
Figure 11.1 – Uniform Color Codes for Underground Utilities ..............................................11-2
Figure 12.1 – Automated Traffic Signal Performance Measure Before Example .................12-8
Figure 12.2 – Automated Traffic Signal Performance Measure After Example ....................12-9
Figure 13.1 – Pedestrian Hybrid Beacon Sequence Display ...............................................13-2
Figure 13.2 – Emergency Vehicle Traffic Signals ................................................................13-4
Figure 13.3 – Intersection Control Beacons and Stop Beacons (Red) .................................13-6
Figure 13.4 – School Zone Speed Limit Sign Beacons ........................................................13-8
Figure 13.5 – Warning Beacons (Yellow) and Traffic Signal Ahead Beacons ......................13-9
Figure 14.1 – Intersection of Two Major Routes (4-Way Intersection) .................................14-4
Figure 14.2 – Intersection of Two Major Routes (3-Way Intersection) .................................14-5
Figure 14.3 – Intersection of Two Major Routes with Overlapping Route Numbers .............14-6
Figure 14.4 – 4-Way Intersection Route Signing with Scenic (Bird) Route ..........................14-7
Figure 14.5 – 3-Way Intersection Route Signing with Scenic (Bird) Route ..........................14-8
Figure 14.6 – 3-Way Intersection Route Signing with Scenic (Bird) Route
with Overlapping Route Numbers ..................................................................................14-9
Figure 14.7 – Crossroad Signing, Medians less than 30 feet, One-Way
and Wrong-Way Signing..............................................................................................14-10
Figure 14.8 – Signalized Intersection, Medians less than 30 feet, One-Way
and Wrong-Way Signing..............................................................................................14-11
Figure 14.9 – “T” Intersection Right, Medians less than 30 feet, One-Way
and Wrong-Way Signing..............................................................................................14-12

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONT.)

Figure 14.10 – “T” Intersection Left, Medians less than 30 feet, One-Way
and Wrong-Way Signing..............................................................................................14-13
Figure 14.11 – Median Crossover, Medians less than 30 feet, One-Way
and Wrong-Way Signing..............................................................................................14-14
Figure 14.12 – Crossroad Signing, Medians 30 feet or greater, One-Way
and Wrong-Way Signing..............................................................................................14-15
Figure 14.13 – Signalized Intersection, Medians 30 feet or greater, One-Way
and Wrong-Way Signing..............................................................................................14-16
Figure 14.14 – “T” Intersection Right, Medians 30 feet or greater, One-Way
and Wrong-Way Signing..............................................................................................14-17
Figure 14.15 – “T” Intersection Left, Medians 30 feet or greater, One-Way
and Wrong-Way Signing..............................................................................................14-18
Figure 14.16 – Median Crossover, Medians 30 feet or greater, One-Way
and Wrong-Way Signing..............................................................................................14-19
Figure 14.17 – Estimating Length of Sign Support ............................................................14-26
Figure 14.18 – Strain Pole Foundation and Cable Connection Details ..............................14-28
Figure 14.19 – Strain Pole Foundation and Cable Connection Details ..............................14-30
Figure 14.20 – Sign Vertical Clearances ...........................................................................14-33
Figure 14.21 – Typical Signal Related Signs .....................................................................14-34
Figure 14.22 – Stop Line Placement .................................................................................14-40
Figure 14.23 – Stop Line Locations ...................................................................................14-41
Figure 15.1 – Partial Interchange Lighting (Crossing Types A and B)..................................15-7
Figure 15.2 – Partial Interchange Lighting (Crossing Types C and D) .................................15-7
Figure 15.3 – Lighting Design Process Flow Chart ............................................................15-15
Figure 15.4 – Plan View of Roadway Coverage from IES Luminaires ...............................15-25
Figure 15.5 – Sample Utilization Curve .............................................................................15-26
Figure 15.6 – Roadway Luminaire Dirt Depreciation Curve ...............................................15-28
Figure 15.7 – Typical Luminaire Arrangements for Conventional Highway
Lighting Design ...........................................................................................................15-29
Figure 15.8 – Calculation Points for Luminance and Illuminance Design Methods ............15-35
Figure 15.9 – Detail of Overpass Bridge Lighting for Submittal to Structures.....................15-49
Figure 15.10 – Detail of Underpass Bridge Lighting for Submittal to Structures .................15-50
Figure 15.11 – Detail of Proposed Lighting Layout at Bridge Overpass (NTS) ..................15-51
Figure 15.12 – Detail of Proposed Lighting Layout at Bridge Underpass (NTS) ................15-52
Figure 15.13 – Typical Highway Lighting Structure............................................................15-53

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 – Traffic Impact Study Minimum Threshold Levels ................................................2-2
Table 2.2 – Minimum LOS Goals ..........................................................................................2-2
Table 2.3 – Examples of Possible Mitigation Measures .........................................................2-3
Table 3.1 – Plan Sheet Numbering Example .........................................................................3-6
Table 4.1 – Tennessee Statewide Average Traffic Volumes Hourly Percentages..................4-4
Table 4.2 – TDOT Region 1 Average Traffic Volumes Hourly Percentages ...........................4-5
Table 4.3 – TDOT Region 2 Average Traffic Volumes Hourly Percentages ...........................4-6
Table 4.4 – TDOT Region 3 Average Traffic Volumes Hourly Percentages ...........................4-7
Table 4.5 – TDOT Region 4 Average Traffic Volumes Hourly Percentages ...........................4-8
Table 7.1 – Minimum Critical Left-Turn Related Crashes ....................................................7-11
Table 7.2 – Minimum Critical Left-Turn Related Crashes for Left-Turn Phasing
(Single Left Turn Lanes) ................................................................................................7-16
Table 7.3 – Left-Turn Phase Sequence Advantages and Disadvantages ............................7-20
Table 7.4 – Calculated Yellow Change Intervals .................................................................7-37
Table 7.5 – Recommended Yellow Change Intervals ..........................................................7-38
Table 7.6 – Calculated 85th Percentile Speed Red Clearance Intervals ...............................7-39
Table 7.7 – Recommended 85th Percentile Red Clearance Intervals ...................................7-39
Table 7.8 – Calculated Posted Speed + 7 MPH Red Clearance Intervals............................7-40
Table 7.9 – Recommended Posted Speed + 7 MPH Red Clearance Intervals ....................7-40
Table 7.10 – Minimum Values for Phase Green Intervals for Pre-timed Operation ..............7-46
Table 7.11 – Typical Minimum Green Values Needed to Satisfy Driver Expectancy............7-47
Table 7.12 – Typical Minimum Green Values Needed to Satisfy Queue Clearance.............7-49
Table 7.13 – Typical Values for Maximum Green ................................................................7-50
Table 7.14 – Typical Values for Passage Time for Stop Line Detection...............................7-52
Table 7.15 – Volume Density Typical Values for Minimum Initial Settings ..........................7-64
Table 7.16 – Volume Density Typical Values for Added Initial Settings ...............................7-65
Table 7.17 – Volume Density Typical Values for Maximum Initial Settings ..........................7-65
Table 7.18 – Volume Density Gap Reduction Settings for Passage Time ...........................7-67
Table 7.19 – Volume Density Gap Reduction Settings for Time Before Reduction ..............7-67
Table 7.20 – Volume Density Gap Reduction Settings for Time to Reduce .........................7-68
Table 7.21 – Volume Density Gap Reduction Settings for Minimum Gap ............................7-68

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LIST OF TABLES (CONT.)

Table 8.1 – Typical Detector Switching Settings ....................................................................8-4
Table 8.2 – Typical Phase Recall Settings ............................................................................8-6
Table 8.3 – Typical Advance Detection Placement................................................................8-9
Table 9.1 – Minimum Sight Distance for Signal Visibility .....................................................9-11
Table 9.2 – Mounting Height of Signal Faces ......................................................................9-11
Table 9.3 – Mounting Height to Top of Signal Housing (40-53 Feet) ...................................9-12
Table 10.1 – Conduit Size Requirements ............................................................................10-4
Table 10.2 – Typical Cable/Wire Sizes ................................................................................10-7
Table 12.1 – Types of ATSPMs and Controller/Detection Requirements .............................12-7
Table 14.1 – Post Selection for Various Sign Assemblies (5 Pages) .................................14-21
Table 14.2 – Determining Weight of Sign Supports ...........................................................14-27
Table 15.1 – Pavement Classification ...............................................................................15-21
Table 15.2 – Typical TDOT Highway Lighting Design Parameters ....................................15-33
Table 15.3 – TDOT Illuminance Design Criteria ................................................................15-36
Table 15.4 – TDOT Luminance Design Criteria .................................................................15-37
Table 15.5 – Lamp Amperes (HPS Mag Regular Ballast) ..................................................15-40
Table 15.6 – Conductor Properties....................................................................................15-41

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LIST OF EQUATIONS
Equation 7.1 – Change Interval Formula .............................................................................7-36
Equation 7.2 – Pedestrian Clearance Time .........................................................................7-42
Equations 7.3 through 7.5 – Pedestrian Change Intervals ...................................................7-42
Equation 7.6 – Webster’s Cycle Length Estimate ................................................................7-44
Equations 7.7 and 7.8 – Apportion All Phases’ Green Intervals ...........................................7-46
Equations 7.9 and 7.10 – Minimum Green Duration for Queue Clearance ..........................7-49
Equation 7.11 – Passage Time ...........................................................................................7-51
Equation 7.12 – Coupling Index ..........................................................................................7-53
Equation 9.1 – Pole Height....................................................................................................9-2
Equation 15.1 – Roadway Length for Transition Lighting...................................................15-12
Equation 15.2 – Luminaire Spacing ...................................................................................15-17
Equation 15.3 – Uniformity Ratio .......................................................................................15-17
Equation 15.4 – Percentage Voltage Drop for One Luminaire ...........................................15-41
Equation 15.5 – Voltage Drop for Each Luminaire .............................................................15-41
Equation 15.6 – Branch Circuit Breaker Size.....................................................................15-42
Equation 15.7 – Main Circuit Breaker Size ........................................................................15-42
Equation 15.8 – Length of Foundation...............................................................................15-44
Equation 15.9 – Lateral Movement of Foundation at Ground Line .....................................15-44

APPENDICES
Appendix A – Traffic Impact Study Forms
Appendix B – Traffic Signal Forms
Appendix C – Traffic Inspection Forms
Appendix D – Traffic Maintenance Forms
Appendix E – Roadway and Intersection Lighting Forms/TDOT LED Specifications
Appendix F – Traffic Operations Standard Drawings List and Current Memorandums

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 About this Manual
This manual is prepared in conjunction with the TDOT Roadway Design Guidelines to
aid in the development of construction plans involving traffic signals, roadway lighting,
signs, pavement markings, and minor intersection improvements. Where any conflict
occurs between these manuals in the areas of project management or plans
development, the TDOT Roadway Design Guidelines should be followed. Although this
manual is not intended to provide the ultimate answers to all traffic engineering
questions, the guidelines listed do represent the preferred procedures for developing
traffic signal, roadway lighting, signing, and pavement marking construction plans.
The technical requirements of this manual should be used in the design of any traffic
control devices that will be placed on a state highway, regardless of whether or not it is
part of a TDOT construction project. Any devices installed on state highways by local
forces or directly for a local agency shall adhere to this manual, unless otherwise noted
in the construction plans.
The purpose of this manual is to present the concepts and standard practices related to
the design of traffic control systems within the State of Tennessee. The following is a list
of the chapters contained in this manual:
 Chapter 1: Introduction
 Chapter 2: Traffic Studies (Future Chapter)
 Chapter 3: TDOT Project Development
 Chapter 4: Justifying the Need for Traffic Signals
 Chapter 5: Traffic Signal Design – General Information
 Chapter 6: Traffic Signal Design – Cabinets and Equipment
 Chapter 7: Traffic Signal Design – Operation and Coordination
 Chapter 8: Traffic Signal Design – Detection
 Chapter 9: Traffic Signal Design – Supports and Signal Heads
 Chapter 10: Traffic Signal Design – Pull Boxes, Conduits, and Wiring
 Chapter 11: Traffic Signal Design – Miscellaneous Information
 Chapter 12: Traffic Signal Design – Post-Installation
 Chapter 13: Other Types of Traffic Signals
 Chapter 14: Signing and Pavement Markings
 Chapter 15: Roadway and Intersection Lighting

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1.2 Standard Abbreviations

Standard abbreviations referred to within this Traffic Design Manual include, but are not
limited to, the following sources:
 AADT – Annual Average Daily Traffic
 AASHTO – American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
 ADA – Americans with Disabilities Act
 ANSI – American National Standards Institute
 ASCT – Adaptive Signal Control Technology
 ATC – Advanced Transportation Controller
 ATSPM – Automated Traffic Signal Performance Measures
 ATSSA – American Traffic Safety Services Association
 AWG – American Wire Gauge
 BBS – Battery Backup System
 BIU – Bus Interface Unit
 C – Cutoff
 CADD – Computer-Aided Design Drafting
 CBD – Central Business District
 CFL – Continuous Freeway Lighting
 CFR – Code of Federal Regulations
 CIL – Complete Interchange Lighting
 CMB – Concrete Median Barrier
 CMU – Conflict Monitoring Unit
 COE – Corps of Engineers
 CU – Coefficient of Utilization
 EF – Equipment Factor
 FDW – Flashing Don’t Walk
 FHWA – Federal Highway Administration
 HCM – Highway Capacity Manual
 HCS – Highway Capacity Software
 HDPE – High-Density Polyethylene
 HID – High-Intensity Discharge
 HPS – High Pressure Sodium
 ID – Identification

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 IES – Illuminating Engineering Society

 IMSA – International Municipal Signal Association
 ITE – Institute of Transportation Engineers
 ITS – Intelligent Transportation Systems
 LDDF – Luminaire Dirt Depreciation Factor
 LED – Light Emitting Diode
 LLDF – Lamp Lumen Depreciation Factor
 LLF – Light Loss Factor
 LOS – Level of Service
 LPS – Low Pressure Sodium
 LRT – Light Rail Transit
 LRTP – Long Range Transportation Plan
 MH – Metal Halide
 MMU – Malfunction Management Unit
 MOE – Measures of Effectiveness
 MOA – Memorandum of Agreement
 MOU – Memorandum of Understanding
 MUTCD – Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
 MV – Mercury Vapor
 N/A – Not Applicable
 NC – Non-Cutoff
 NCHRP – National Cooperative Highway Research Program
 NEC – National Electrical Code
 NEMA – National Electrical Manufacturers Association
 NESC – National Electrical Safety Code
 NFPA – National Fire Protection Association
 PDF – Portable Document Format
 P.E. – Professional Engineer
 PIL – Partial Interchange Lighting
 PTOE – Professional Traffic Operations Engineer
 PVC – Polyvinyl Chloride
 RGS – Rigid Galvanized Steel
 RTOR – Right Turns On Red
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 SC – Semi-Cutoff
 SEA – Systems Engineering Analysis
 SOP – Standard Operating Procedure
 STV – Small-Target-Visibility
 TAS – Traffic Access Study
 TCA – Tennessee Code Annotated
 TDEC – Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation
 TDOT – Tennessee Department of Transportation
 TIP – Transportation Improvement Program
 TIS – Traffic Impact Study
 TMP – Transportation Management Plan
 TOD – Time-of-Day
 TRB – Transportation Research Board
 TRPS – Traffic Responsive Plan Selection
 TSP – Transit Signal Priority
 TVA – Tennessee Valley Authority
 TWRA – Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency
 UPS – Uninterruptible Power Supply

1.3 Standard References

Standards, specifications, and references referred to within this Traffic Design Manual
include, but are not limited to, the following sources (latest edition unless otherwise
noted):
 TDOT – Roadway Design Guidelines
 TDOT – Intelligent Transportation Systems Design Guidelines
 TDOT – Standard Traffic Operations, Roadway, and Structures Drawings
 TDOT – Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction
 TDOT – Tennessee Supplement to the Standard Highway Signs
 TDOT – Special Provisions
 TDOT – Survey Manual
 FHWA – Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, 2009 Edition
 FHWA – Standard Highway Signs
 FHWA – Traffic Signal Timing Manual

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 FHWA – Traffic Detector Handbook, Volumes 1 and 2

 FHWA – Performance Measurement Fundamentals
 FHWA – Lighting Handbook
 ITE – Traffic Control Devices Handbook
 ITE – Traffic Engineering Handbook
 ITE – Manual of Traffic Signal Design
 ITE – Traffic Signal Installation and Maintenance Manual
 ITE, IMSA – Traffic Signal Maintenance Handbook
 TRB – Highway Capacity Manual, 2010 Edition
 US Access Board – Proposed Right-of-Way Accessibility Guidelines (PROWAG)
 ITS America – Transit Signal Priority Handbook
 AASHTO – LRFD Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs,
Luminaires, and Traffic Signals
 AASHTO – A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (i.e. Green
Book), 2012 Edition
 AASHTO – An Informational Guide for Roadway Lighting, 2005 Edition
 AASHTO – Roadway Lighting Design Guide
 AASHTO, ITE, NEMA – Advanced Transportation Controller Standards
 NEC, NESC – Electrical Codes
 NEMA – Standards

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1.4 Traffic Control Devices

Traffic control devices are defined by the MUTCD as all traffic signals, signs, pavement
markings, and other devices used to regulate, warn, or guide traffic, placed on, over, or
adjacent to a street, highway, private road open to public travel, pedestrian facility, or
shared-use path by authority of a public agency or official having jurisdiction, or, in the
case of a private road open to public travel, by authority of the private owner or private
official having jurisdiction. Shared-use path is defined as a bikeway outside the traveled
way and physically separated from motorized vehicular traffic by an open space or
barrier and either within the highway right-of-way or within an independent alignment.
Shared-use paths are also used by pedestrians (including skaters, users of manual and
motorized wheelchairs, and joggers) and other authorized motorized and non-motorized
users. The purpose of traffic control devices, as well as the principles for their use, is to
promote highway safety and efficiency by providing for the orderly movement of all road
users on streets and highways. Traffic control devices notify road users of regulations
and provide warning and guidance needed for the safe, uniform, and efficient operation
of all elements of the traffic stream.

1.5 Design of Traffic Control Devices

The design of traffic control devices must be carefully prepared by a qualified individual
in the traffic engineering profession whose specialty is in traffic engineering. The
qualified individual who is responsible for the traffic engineering construction plans of
the project shall be a registered professional engineer in Tennessee and in good
standing. The TDOT Traffic Engineering Office also recognizes the certification of a
PTOE. The proper design and use of traffic control devices can result in an efficient and
safe transportation system. However, improper or inadequate design can result in
system inefficiency, decreased safety and potential liability. In addition to this TDOT
Traffic Design Manual, other TDOT design information is available on TDOT’s web site
at www.tn.gov/tdot.

1.6 TDOT Traffic Operations Division, Traffic Engineering Office

The TDOT Traffic Operations Division, Traffic Engineering Office is responsible for the
development of traffic signal, signing (overhead and street name signs), and roadway
lighting construction plans, either as stand-alone projects or in support of larger
roadway design projects administered by TDOT.

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1.7 Governing Laws, Rules and Regulations

State laws, which govern the process of determining the need for and the installation of
traffic control devices on all streets and highways in Tennessee, include:

 T.C.A. 54-5-108. Cooperation by department with federal government in

designating roads, and in erection of danger signals and safety devices;
.... (b) The department has full power, and it is made its duty, acting through its
commissioner, to formulate and adopt a manual for the design and location of
signs, signals, markings, and for posting of traffic regulations on or along all
streets and highways in Tennessee, and no signs, signals, markings or postings
of traffic regulations shall be located on any street or highway in Tennessee
regardless of type or class of the governmental agency having jurisdiction thereof
except in conformity with the provisions contained in said manual.

 T.C.A. 54-5-601. Maintenance of signal light on state highway without

commissioner's approval - Misdemeanor.
Any person who installs or maintains a signal light on a state highway without
having secured prior written approval of the commissioner commits a Class C
misdemeanor.

 T. C.A. 54-5-602. Signal light declared public nuisance.

In addition, a signal light installed and maintained on a state highway without the
authority of the commissioner is hereby declared a public nuisance which may be
abated by the employees of the department at the direction of the commissioner
or, upon the commissioners request, by any peace officer, or by civil actions or
suits brought in the circuit or chancery courts as provided by the general law.

 T C.A. 54-5-603. Inapplicable within boundaries of municipal corporation.

This part does not apply within the boundaries of municipal corporations.
Under the Uniform Administrative Procedures Act, the Manual on Uniform Traffic
Control Devices (MUTCD) and subsequent revisions are part of the Rules and
Regulations of the State of Tennessee, Department of Transportation as certified
by the Secretary of State (Tennessee Rule 1680-03-01). The MUTCD shall serve
as the basis for the choice and installation of all traffic control devices installed in
State of Tennessee, Department of Transportation roadway projects.

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CHAPTER 2
TRAFFIC IMPACT STUDIES

2.1 General Information

2.1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this section is to standardize Traffic Impact Study requirements
and procedures in order to ensure consistency of information concerning the
traffic impacts resulting from a proposed development. Generally, a traffic impact
study will vary in detail and complexity depending on the type, size, and location
of the proposed development. The submitted traffic impact study will assist TDOT
in its evaluation of the impacts to traffic of a particular site and if necessary,
identify appropriate mitigation measures to maintain the integrity of the
surrounding transportation system.

2.1.2 Applicability
This document specifically applies to, but is not limited to, the following:

 All proposed new developments that meet minimum trip generation

thresholds as defined in Table 2.1.
 All proposed redevelopment (i.e., proposed modifications to existing
developments) that meet minimum trip generation thresholds as defined in
Table 2.1.

Once a traffic impact study has been approved by TDOT, the approved traffic
impact study shall be effective for a period of three years unless significant
changes are made to the original proposed development and those changes
result in additional impacts to the surrounding transportation system. Whether
significant changes have occurred will be determined by the Regional Traffic
Engineer. After the three-year period has elapsed, any proposed development
seeking permits who have not demonstrated due diligence toward the completion
of the project shall be re-evaluated by TDOT to determine the degree to which
background traffic conditions have changed since the original traffic study was
approved. Due diligence is generally defined as a project that has achieved at
least 50% of the total proposed development’s build out (e.g. in square-footage,
units) by the end of the three-year period. If necessary, at the sole discretion of
TDOT, a new traffic study may be required in order to provide information to help
determine if any additional mitigation measures are necessary.

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2.1.3 Prequalified Engineering Firms and Preparer Qualifications

All traffic impact studies shall be prepared by a registered P.E., or an individual
under the supervision of a registered P.E. The P.E. shall have specific training in
traffic engineering and be in good standing with the State of Tennessee. All traffic
impact studies submitted to TDOT for final review shall be signed and sealed by
the P.E.

2.2 Traffic Impact Study Parameters

2.2.1 Proposed Development Trip Calculations

The number of trips generated by a proposed development shall be calculated
using land use codes published in the latest edition of the ITE Trip Generation
Manual. If the type of proposed development is not addressed in the ITE Trip
Generation Manual, then other rates may be used as long as they are published
documents and pre-approved by TDOT. A trip is defined as a single, one-way
movement either to or from the proposed development. For the purposes of
redevelopment (i.e., proposed modifications to existing developments), the
estimated number of trips generated shall be measured as the net number of
new trips generated by the proposed development as compared to trips
generated by the existing use(s) on the site. In all cases, the total number of trips
generated will be based on 100% occupancy of the proposed development,
whether by a construction phase approach or full build-out. The utilization of a
reduction in generated trips for internal capture trips and pass-by trips is allowed
and shall be conducted in good faith based on ITE-approved data and
methodologies.

Internal Capture Trips

The base number of trips generated by a proposed development may be reduced
by rate of internal capture trips when two or more land uses are proposed using
the methodology recommended in the latest edition of the ITE Trip Generation
Manual. Internal capture reduction percentages greater than 10% require pre-
approval by TDOT for use in the traffic study. The internal capture reduction
percentage shall be applied before the pass-by trip percentages are applied.

Pass-by Trips
The base number of trips generated by a proposed development may be reduced
by rate of pass-by trips using the methodology recommended in the latest edition
of the ITE Trip Generation Manual. A pass-by trip is considered an intermediate
trip between an origin and primary destination and is not diverted from another
roadway. Pass-by trip reduction percentages of the existing adjacent public roads
greater than 10% require pre-approval by TDOT for use in the traffic study.

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2.2.2 Traffic Impact Study Screening Evaluation Form

The developer of a proposed development, as part of the application process,
shall submit a Traffic Impact Study Screening Evaluation Form contained in
Appendix A. When the form is submitted for review, TDOT will determine the
appropriate next step in the traffic impact study process – either granting a
waiver or determining the type of traffic impact study required for evaluation.

2.2.3 Minimum Threshold Levels

Table 2.1 presents the minimum threshold levels for a traffic study and the typical
study area required, depending upon the number of new trips generated by a
proposed development.

Table 2.1 – Traffic Impact Study Minimum Threshold Levels

Traffic Study
Minimum Thresholds Typical Study Area
Level
50 to 99 new peak hour trips All site access intersections to existing adjacent public
1 or 250 to 499 new daily trips, roads and the existing adjacent public roads to the first
whichever is greater control point* from all site access intersections.
100 to 249 new peak hour All site access intersections to existing adjacent public
trips or 500 to 2,999 new roads, existing major public roads, and study
2
daily trips, whichever is intersections (signalized and unsignalized) within ¼
greater mile of all site access intersections.
250 to 399 new peak hour All site access intersections to existing adjacent public
trips or 3,000 to 5,999 new roads, existing major public roads, and study
3
daily trips, whichever is intersections (signalized and unsignalized) within ½
greater mile of all site access intersections.
All site access intersections to existing adjacent public
≥400 new peak hour trips or
roads, existing major public roads, and study
4 ≥6,000 new daily trips,
intersections (signalized and unsignalized) within ¾
whichever is greater
mile of all site access intersections.
*Control points are intersections controlled by traffic signal or stop signs. For cases where a traffic control device
does not exist within a ¼ mile of a site access intersection, TDOT will determine the extent of the study area.

The above minimum thresholds are calculated for both new peak hour trips and
new daily trips. The minimum threshold is satisfied if the calculated number of
new trips satisfies either condition. If the new peak hour trip and new daily trip
calculations satisfy different traffic study levels, then the higher study level is
required. If necessary, the typical study area limits for each level of traffic study
may also be extended or shortened at the sole discretion of TDOT and the
Regional Traffic Engineer. An applicant of a proposed development shall not
avoid the intent of these traffic study requirements by submitting piecemeal
applications or approval requests for subdivision plats, site development plans,
building permits, etc.

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2.2.4 Traffic Study Levels

As shown in Table 2.1, there are four (4) levels of Traffic Impact Studies. Level 1
Traffic Impact Studies are typically required for smaller scale projects that are
anticipated to have a smaller impact on the surrounding transportation system,
mostly at the site access intersections. Level 2, 3, and 4 Traffic Impact Studies
are typically required for larger scale projects that are anticipated to have a
greater impact on the surrounding transportation system.

2.2.5 Waiver
Utilizing the Traffic Impact Study Screening Evaluation Form, TDOT may grant a
waiver for a traffic impact study if the applicant shows that the trips generated by
the proposed development on the surrounding transportation system is
insignificant. Insignificant is typically defined as less than 50 new peak hour trips
and 250 new daily trips generated by the proposed development. The waiver
request shall be made in writing and shall include the traffic data analysis
necessary to support the proposed development. If a waiver is granted, TDOT
will notify the applicant in writing.

2.2.6 Target / Horizon Year

The traffic study shall be developed for all target and horizon years, as set by
TDOT. Typically, the horizon year will be five years after build out of the
proposed development. If a construction phase approach is being planned, then
traffic conditions for multiple target years shall be developed for each
construction phase year, as determined by the developer. Final target and
horizon dates are to be determined by TDOT.

2.2.7 Time Periods

The time periods for analyzing traffic impacts are typically based on the type of
proposed development when the highest traffic volumes from the proposed
development are expected. Additional considerations to help determine the
necessary time periods to analyze shall be the weekday a.m. and p.m. peak
hours of adjacent street traffic that the proposed development is accessing.
Depending upon the type of proposed development, additional weekend or
midday (i.e., lunchtime) peak periods may be required to analyze traffic impacts.

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2.2.8 Traffic Impact Study Scoping Meeting

Before beginning a Traffic Impact Study, the developer of a proposed
development and/or his traffic consultant shall meet with the TDOT Region
Traffic Engineering Office in the region where the property is located to verify the
type of study that is to be conducted and to determine the scope of the traffic
impact study. The traffic impact study scoping meeting shall be coordinated with
TDOT for time and location. The following items may be discussed during the
scoping meeting:

 Traffic Impact Study Screening Evaluation Form

 Level of traffic impact study required
 Extent of the study area limits, including the existing adjacent public roads
and the major study intersections (signalized and unsignalized) to be
analyzed
 Trip generation, distribution, and assignment methodology
 Assumptions for pass-by and internal capture trip reductions
 Assumptions for background growth rates
 Traffic analysis target and horizon years for the proposed development
 Traffic analysis time periods (a.m. peak hours, p.m. peak hours, weekend
peak periods, etc.) for the proposed development
 Necessity of additional analyses, such as traffic signal warrant, safety,
intersection sight distance, gap, and traffic simulation
 Other current and/or proposed transportation improvement projects within
the vicinity of the proposed development site
 Consideration of pedestrian, bicycle, and ADA accommodations.
 Analysis software and reporting requirements

The minutes of the traffic study scoping meeting shall be prepared by the
developer of a proposed development and/or his traffic consultant. Some
meeting items may require follow up after the traffic study scoping meeting.
When ready, the prepared minutes shall be submitted to TDOT for approval.
Written approval from TDOT shall be obtained prior to initiating the traffic impact
study.

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2.3 Development of Traffic Conditions

2.3.1 Existing Traffic Conditions

Existing traffic conditions are considered the characterization, in the current year,
of the surrounding transportation system within the study area limits and without
the proposed development. If available, existing peak hour traffic volumes may
be utilized if they are within two years from the date of the traffic study scoping
meeting. If not available, the developer of a proposed development shall be
responsible to collect the required traffic volume data at study intersections within
the study area limits. Additional required geometric data to be collected include
functional roadway classifications, traffic control devices at intersections including
traffic signal phasing and timings, linear distance between intersections, posted
speed limits, sight distance measurements from all site access intersections,
identification of bicycle and pedestrian facilities, lane usage including lane width
for roadways and intersections within the study area limits. Also, any driveways
across from or adjacent to site access intersections shall be located. An analysis
of the existing traffic conditions within the study area limits is important in order to
determine existing deficiencies in the surrounding transportation system. The
schedule for collecting new traffic volume data should consider area schools or
seasonal peaks.

2.3.2 Background Traffic Development and Growth Calculations

For each target and horizon year, background traffic development and growth are
defined as the increased traffic volumes of the surrounding transportation system
within the study area limits without the proposed development. Projects that have
an opening date at least one year out from the preparation of the traffic study will
be impacted by natural background traffic volume growth (e.g. traffic from
approved projects, population growth, etc.). The background traffic development
and growth are developed by applying a background growth rate to the traffic
volumes contained in the existing traffic conditions for each target/horizon year.
The background growth rate is typically based on historical traffic count
information from AADT counts located in the vicinity of the study area limits.
Additional consideration shall be given to the likelihood for future growth in the
study area and shall include traffic from other approved developments where
applicable. In all cases, the background growth rate shall be pre-approved by
TDOT.

2.3.3 Future Traffic Conditions without Project

Future traffic conditions without project are considered the characterization, for
all target and horizon years, of the surrounding transportation system within the
study area limits and without the proposed development. The future traffic
conditions without project are simply developed by adding the traffic volumes
contained in the existing traffic conditions together with the background traffic
conditions for each horizon year. An analysis of the future traffic conditions
without project within the study area limits is important in order to determine

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future deficiencies in the surrounding transportation system and to compare it

against future traffic conditions with project.

2.3.4 Site Traffic Conditions

Site traffic conditions are considered the characterization, based on 100%
occupancy of the construction phase or full build-out, of the total number of trips
generated by the proposed development of the surrounding transportation
system within the study area limits. The estimated number of trips generated by a
proposed development shall be calculated in accordance with Table 2.1 of this
document. During the analysis of the site traffic conditions, internal circulation
shall be evaluated including the location of all site ingress/egress access
intersections to existing adjacent public roads. The number of access points
should be kept to a minimum and designed to be consistent with the type of
existing adjacent public roadway facility. A directional trip distribution percentage
model of the new trips generated by the proposed development should be based
on an acceptable trip distribution methodology including, but not limited to,
existing traffic patterns on adjacent public roads, population centers, and
employment centers of the surrounding transportation system within the study
area limits. If the proposed development is a mixed-use development, each land
use shall justify a separate directional trip distribution percentage model.
Typically, the same directional trip distribution percentage models are utilized for
each construction phase or full build-out. Once a directional trip distribution
percentage model is developed, the total number of trips generated by the
proposed development is assigned throughout the surrounding transportation
system within the study area limits by multiplying the total number of trips by
each directional trip distribution percentage model. If multiple directional trip
distribution percentage models are utilized to develop the site traffic conditions,
then the trip assignment for each land use and/or construction phase shall be
developed separately and an overall total trip assignment generated by the entire
proposed development shall be prepared to summarize all of the directional trip
distribution percentage models.

2.3.5 Future Traffic Conditions with Project

Future traffic conditions with project are considered the characterization, for all
target and horizon years, of the surrounding transportation system within the
study area limits and with the proposed development. The future traffic conditions
with project are simply developed by adding the traffic volumes contained in the
future traffic conditions without project together with the site traffic conditions for
each target/horizon year. An analysis of the future traffic conditions with project
within the study area limits is important in order to determine future deficiencies
in the surrounding transportation system and to compare it against future traffic
conditions without project.

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2.4 Traffic Impact Study Analyses and Mitigation Measures

2.4.1 Capacity Analyses

Capacity analyses shall be conducted by using the most recent version, including
updates, of HCS software for all study roadway segment and intersections as
determined during the traffic impact study scoping meeting. Although other
measurements may be considered, the primary measurement for determining
traffic impacts of the surrounding transportation system within the study area
limits is LOS, as defined in the latest edition of the HCM. Capacity analyses for
each target/horizon year and time period shall be conducted for the following
three traffic conditions:

 Existing Traffic Conditions + Background Traffic Conditions =

 Future Traffic Conditions Without Project + Site Traffic Conditions =
 Future Traffic Conditions with Project

Other traffic software packages such as Synchro, CorSim, and Sidra are not
required, but may be utilized in the traffic impact study analyses. Results from
any traffic software shall be reported in HCM/HCS, Synchro, or as approved by
TDOT.

Signalized Intersections**
LOS for existing signalized intersections shall utilize existing traffic signal timing
plans provided by signal owner as a base for evaluation. Additional traffic signal
phases and adjustments in existing traffic signal timings may be evaluated as
long as there is not a decrease in LOS for all lane group movements within an
intersection. All signalized intersections that are part of a coordinated traffic
signal system shall be analyzed as such under all traffic conditions. The analysis
results shall be provided in the Full Report format, including the letter grade and
delay (in seconds). Unless field data is collected otherwise, the following defaults
are to be used in the HCS software:

 Analysis Type = Operational

 Analysis Period Duration = 0.25
 Multiple Period Analyses (in 15-minute increments beginning from an
uncongested time period before the peak period to an uncongested time
period after the peak period)
 Peak Hour Factor (PHF) = As provided by TDOT or 1.00
 Right-Turn of Red (RTOR) Reductions = As provided by traffic analysis
software or as recommended by TDOT
 Cycle Length Range = 60 to 90 seconds for 2 phases, 70 to 120 seconds
for 3 phases, 80 to 150 seconds for 4 or more phases (if the traffic signal

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is located within a coordinated traffic signal system, then the actual

coordinated cycle length shall be used)
 Base Saturation Flow Rate = 1,900 passenger cars/hour/lane
 Arrival Type = 3 for isolated traffic signals or 4 for coordinated traffic
signals
 Lane Width = 12 feet
 Upstream Filtering Adjustment Factor = 1.0
 Percent Heavy Vehicles = As provided by TDOT or 3% (minimum). A
heavy vehicle is defined as any vehicle with three or more axles.

**An Intersection Control Evaluation (ICE) may be required if signalized

intersections are being considered for addition or improvements. As of 5/1/2018,
TDOT has yet to finalize standards and guidance for ICE, however once these
standards are implemented additional evaluation may be required.

Unsignalized Intersections
LOS for unsignalized intersections evaluated with an overall LOS E or a lane
group movement with LOS F shall also be evaluated to determine which control
type may be best.

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2.4.2 Level of Service (LOS) Goals

The minimum LOS goals for each study roadway segment and intersection
evaluated shall be in accordance with Table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Minimum LOS Goals

Future Traffic Conditions LOS (Without Project)1,2

2 2
A B C D E F
Future Traffic Conditions LOS

A -

B B -
(With Project)1,2

C B C -

D B C C -

3
E B C C D -

3
F B C C D E -

1
LOS values are for all lane group movements within a specific roadway segment and/or intersection.
2
If the volume to capacity (v/c) ratio is equal to or greater than 1.0, then the LOS is F regardless of the calculated
LOS value.
3
Signalized or unsignalized intersections operating at LOS E or F in Future Traffic Conditions without Project shall
not experience increased vehicular delay greater than 10% (measured in seconds/vehicle) when compared to
the Future Traffic Conditions with Project.

A summary of Table 2.2 indicates that:

 When the LOS without the proposed development is LOS A, the minimum
LOS goal shall be LOS B for all lane group movements within a specific
roadway segment and/or intersection.
 When the LOS without the proposed development is LOS B, the minimum
LOS goal shall be LOS C for all lane group movements within a specific
roadway segment and/or intersection.
 When the LOS without the proposed development is LOS C, D, E, or F the
minimum LOS goal shall be equal to the LOS without the proposed
development for all lane group movements within a specific roadway
segment and/or intersection.

The LOS values contained in Table 2.2 are considered goals and not regulatory
requirements. Instead, these LOS goals shall be utilized primarily as a screening
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tool to assist in the determination of whether or not the traffic impacts resulting
from a proposed development require mitigation. Proposed developments whose
study roadway segments and intersections that satisfy the conditions in Table 2.2
may not be required to provide mitigation beyond their site ingress/egress access
intersections to existing adjacent public roads and/or improve motorist’s safety
concerns adjacent to the proposed development.

2.4.3 Queuing Analyses

Queuing analyses shall be conducted at all signalized and unsignalized
intersections for left turn and right turn lanes to determine the calculated storage
length of the turn lanes in order to manage queue spillover. For proper queue
evaluation, the queue storage ratio shall be less than 1.0. The HCS 95%
percentile queue model shall be utilized to determine the appropriate vehicle
queue length in feet and shall be rounded up and reported in 25-foot increments.
If the 95th percentile queue model cannot be achieved due to physical and/or
geometric constraints currently existing within the surrounding transportation
system, then the reduced queue model percentage shall be reported along with
an explanation why there is a need to reduce the queue model percentage. Any
reduction from the 95% percentile queue model percentage shall require prior
approval from TDOT.

2.4.4 Mitigation Measures

Mitigation measures are defined as modifications to the existing surrounding
transportation system within the study area limits and may be required based on
the comparison results of the Future Traffic Conditions without Project and the
Future Traffic Conditions with Project. In the event that the LOS results are below
the LOS goals presented in Table 2.2 (i.e., transportation system deficiencies),
mitigation measures for the transportation system deficiencies shall be identified
to determine necessary transportation system improvements necessary to satisfy
the minimum LOS goals in order to maintain the future background traffic
conditions at their current level before the construction of the proposed
development. To be considered an adequate proposed solution, mitigation
measures should be specific. Mitigation measures for proposed developments
that result from alleviating traffic impacts directly caused by the proposed
development shall be identified for which the developer would be 100%
responsible for the implementation of the mitigation measure. Mitigation
measures for proposed developments that result from alleviating traffic impacts
indirectly caused by the proposed development shall be identified for which the
developer would be responsible for an equitable share payment to TDOT. The
proposed development’s equitable share is defined as its highest percentage of
the facility’s total traffic volumes during any target/horizon year and time period
included in the traffic analyses. Mitigation measures may also include a reduction
of the proposed development’s size in order to reduce the number of peak hour
trips that are generated. For proposed developments with multiple construction
phases, a construction phasing plan of the mitigation measures is acceptable.
Unless a construction phasing plan is being proposed, all mitigation measures
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that are 100% responsible for by the developer shall be implemented prior to
receipt of any certification of occupancy or final plat approval, whichever is
appropriate. Examples of possible mitigation measures are presented in Table
2.3.

Table 2.3: Examples of Possible Mitigation Measures

Mitigation Category Possible Mitigation Measure*

• Improving sight distance
• Repaving and/or re-striping
• Realigning streets to eliminate offsets
• Adding new travel lanes such as thru lanes and
Roadway Improvements center two-way, left turn lanes
• Constructing new roadways
• Constructing acceleration/deceleration lanes
• Improving pedestrian/bicycle access and/or
circulation, including sidewalks and/or bike lanes
• Extending or constructing left turn and/or right turn
lanes
• Modifications to control type based on intersection
control evaluation
Intersection Improvements • Modifying traffic control devices
• Modifying traffic signal timing or phasing
• Improving traffic signal progression
• Improving pedestrian/bicycle access and/or
circulation, including sidewalks and/or bike lanes
• Increasing driveway spacing
• Reducing the number of driveways
Access Management Improvements • Relocating driveways or intersections
• Constructing shared access driveways
• Installing divided medians
• Reducing the proposed development size
• Adjusting construction phasing plan
• Increasing driveway queue length
• Improving internal circulation
Site Plan/Land Use Improvements • Revising service vehicle/truck access and/or
circulation
• Improving pedestrian/bicycle access and/or
circulation, including sidewalks and/or bike lanes
• Improving way-finding to destinations through
directional signs and pavement markings
*Including but not limited to.

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2.5 Traffic Impact Study Report Format

2.5.1 General Information

The following traffic study report format is considered a recommended outline in
preparing a traffic study for review by TDOT. A summary of this outline is
contained in Appendix A. Most traffic studies can be documented using the
sections in this outline, but additional sections may be required based on more
complex proposed developments. In contrast, some of the following sections in
this outline may be excluded if they are not applicable. The text contained in the
traffic impact study shall be comprehensive and complete. All of the required
data and information contained in the traffic impact study shall flow in an orderly
manner and be clearly identified in the appropriate sections of the report
including appendices.

2.5.2 Title Page

The title page is the first page of the traffic impact study and summarizes the
name and location of the proposed development, name of the applicant, contact
information for the applicant, and date of the study. If the traffic study was
prepared by a consultant, their name and contact information is included on the
title page. In addition, the professional engineer in responsible charge along with
their Tennessee P.E. registration number, signature, and seal shall also appear
on the title page.

2.5.3 Table of Contents

The table of contents shall provide a list of all sections, figures, and tables
included in the traffic impact study report. Page numbers shall denote the
location of all items listed in the table of contents. A list of all appendix headers
shall also be provided in the table of contents.

2.5.4 Executive Summary

The executive summary represents a short, clear, concise description of the
study findings and recommendations. The executive summary should include a
general description of the proposed development scope, target and horizon
years, time periods analyzed, existing and future conditions including a summary
of the capacity analyses, identification of transportation system deficiencies
including their mitigation measures, conclusions, and recommendations.
Technical publications, calculations, documentation, data reporting, and detailed
design should not be included in the executive summary.

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2.5.5 Introduction
The introduction identifies the applicant’s request including the need and purpose
for the proposed development. The introduction provides a brief description of
the proposed development’s location including a figure showing a location map
and a detailed description of the proposed development including the current
zoning classification, the size of the parcel, anticipated completion year (or years
if multiple construction phases are being planned), and the existing and proposed
uses for the proposed development (e.g. square footage of each use, the number
and size of dwelling units of each use, etc.). The introduction shall also identify
other transportation improvement projects, other proposed roadway improvement
projects, and other approved, but unconstructed, development projects in the
vicinity of the proposed development site. The recommended manuals, software,
and other tools used in the traffic impact study analyses shall be provided in the
introduction. The traffic impact study scoping meeting shall be summarized in the
introduction. The minutes from the traffic study scoping meeting including the
Traffic Study Screening Form shall be contained in the appendix.

2.5.6 Study Analysis Considerations

The study analysis considerations shall describe the study area limits that were
evaluated in the traffic impact study and identify the location of the proposed
development including a figure showing the study area limits. The study analysis
considerations shall also describe the surrounding transportation system within
the study area limits and identify the horizon year (or years if multiple
construction phases are being planned), peak hours, background growth rates,
and transportation modes such as accommodations for pedestrians and bicycles.

2.5.7 Existing Traffic Conditions

The existing traffic conditions, as discussed in Section 2.3.1, shall consist of
describing the existing geometric characteristics of the surrounding transportation
system within the study area limits including figures showing the geometric
characteristics. Such characteristics shall include acceleration, deceleration and
weaving lanes. The existing traffic conditions shall also consist of developing
existing year traffic volumes including figures showing the peak hour traffic
volumes. The capacity and queuing analysis results of the existing year traffic
volumes shall be included in this section. Any deviation from the HCS default
values shall be documented. The existing traffic counts used to develop the
existing year traffic volumes and the HCS computer printouts for the existing year
analyses shall be contained in the appendix.

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2.5.8 Background Traffic Development and Growth Calculations

The background traffic development and growth calculations, as discussed in
Section 2.3.2, shall consist of documenting the development of background
growth rate being applied to the current year traffic volumes for each horizon
year of the proposed development.

2.5.9 Future Traffic Conditions without Project

The future traffic conditions without project, as discussed in Section 2.3.3, shall
consist of developing the future traffic volumes resulting from the combination of
existing year traffic volumes and the background traffic growth for each
target/horizon year of the proposed development, including figures showing the
peak hour traffic volumes. The capacity and queuing analysis results of the future
year traffic volumes without project shall be included in this section. Any
deviation from the HCS default values shall be documented. The HCS computer
printouts for the future traffic conditions without project analysis shall be
contained in the appendix.

2.5.10 Site Traffic Conditions

The site traffic conditions, as discussed in Section 2.3.4, shall consist of
describing the proposed development, including internal circulation and the
location of all site ingress/egress access intersections to existing adjacent public
roads. The trip generation, distribution, and assignment methodologies shall be
documented in the site traffic conditions, including tables and figures showing the
development of the number of trips for the proposed development. If multiple
construction phases are being planned, the trip generation, distribution, and
assignment methodologies shall be documented separately for each construction
phase. Support information for the proposed development shall be contained in
the appendix.

2.5.11 Future Traffic Conditions with Project

The future traffic conditions with project, as discussed in Section 2.3.5 shall
consist of developing the future traffic volumes resulting from the combination of
future traffic conditions without project traffic volumes and the site traffic volumes
for each target and horizon year of the proposed development, including figures
showing the peak hour traffic volumes. The capacity and queuing analysis results
of the future year traffic volumes with project shall be included in this section. Any
deviation from the HCS default values shall be documented. The HCS computer
printouts for the future traffic conditions with project analysis and any other
related traffic analyses required in this study (e.g. multi-way stop control
warrants, traffic signal warrants) shall be contained in the appendix.

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2.5.12 Summary of Findings

The summary of findings shall document the comparison of the Future Traffic
Conditions without Project and the Future Traffic Conditions with Project,
including a table presenting the comparison results. The summary of findings
shall consist of providing any transportation system deficiencies, including their
proposed transportation improvement mitigation measures, as discussed in
Section 2.4.4, required to maintain minimum acceptable LOS standards, as
discussed in Section 2.4.2, for the surrounding transportation system within the
study area limits.

2.5.13 Recommendations
The recommendations shall document in a clear, concise way any transportation
improvements contained in the traffic impact study. These transportation
improvements describe the mitigation measures, including the percentage of
responsibility for the implementation of each mitigation measure between TDOT
and the developer. The recommendations shall separate the mitigation measures
into groups if multiple construction phases are being planned. The
recommendation should end with a statement indicating whether or not the
proposed development will meet minimum acceptable LOS standards described
herein through the completion at horizon year. Proposed mitigation measures as
well as road or signal improvements may also require completion target dates if
the project is to be completed in a phased approach.

2.5.14 Submittal Requirements

For each traffic study review by TDOT, the consultant shall include an electronic
copy of the traffic study, including data analysis files that match the data analysis
presented in the traffic study. Submittal shall include two (2) signed and sealed
printed copies along with the electronic final versions of the traffic study data in
PDF format. Analysis files that match the data analysis presented in the
approved traffic study shall also be included. Submittals shall be made to the
Regional Traffic Engineering Office in the region where the property is located.

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CHAPTER 3
TDOT PROJECT DEVELOPMENT
3.1 Project Schedule
Projects involving traffic signal, signing, and roadway lighting work are imperative to be
kept on schedule, as projects of this type are quite often developed to improve an
identified safety deficiency. Keeping projects on schedule is a shared responsibility
between the designer and the assigned TDOT Design Manager. The designer should
not hesitate to contact the TDOT Design Manager regarding any questions, difficulties
or delays in receiving materials or information.

3.2 Plans Development Responsibilities

Local governing agencies often prefer to use local funds to contract with design firms or
use in-house staff for the preparation of construction plans which will be let to contract
by TDOT with state and/or federal funding. Various responsibilities are as follows:

3.2.1 TDOT Design Manager

The TDOT Design Manager will provide traffic projections, pavement design and
other related data as needed. The TDOT Design Manager will also schedule field
reviews and submit preliminary, right-of-way, and final construction plans for
project coordination and letting. In most cases, because of the smaller nature of
standalone traffic design projects, the preliminary and right-of-way phases will be
combined into one phase, which is commonly referred to as the Right-of-Way
Plans phase. The TDOT Design Manager will upload the plans and supporting
files on FileNet at the completion of the right-of-way and construction phases and
any subsequent plan revisions that occur.

3.2.2 Local Agency

The local agency will hire and approve the consultant or on-staff designer and
assure that the plans development process is completed in a timely manner. The
local agency will be responsible for contacting all parties to schedule and conduct
a kick-off meeting to determine the scope of the project and assign various
responsibilities.

3.2.3 Design Engineer

The design engineer (e.g. designer) will develop a set of construction plans and
will contact the TDOT Design Manager as needed in a timely manner to settle
design issues and answer questions. If the project is let by TDOT, then the
construction plans shall adhere to TDOT’s format (See Section 3.3).

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3.3 Plan Development Stages

The various stages of plan development for traffic signal, roadway lighting, and signing
projects follow the same procedures detailed in the Roadway Design Guidelines. The
following is a summary outline of the plan development process:
 Determination that a traffic signal, roadway lighting, and/or signing project
is needed and funds are obligated.
• Determination of projects can be made from various sources including, but
not limited to, the Roadway Design Division, the Traffic Operations
Division, the Strategic Transportation Investments Division, and the Local
Programs Office. In some cases, other sources can make the
determination of a needed project.
 Determination if the project can be surveyed and/or designed with in-house
forces. If not, a consultant is selected and requested to provide a proposal
for the services needed.
•If a consultant is utilized, then issue a work order and conduct a kick-off
meeting or some understanding, in writing, of the various duties and
responsibilities of the services needed.
• The TDOT Design Manager will request traffic projections once a project
commences.
 Perform survey.
• Survey control points should be coordinated with the TDOT Regional
Survey offices through the TDOT Design Manager.
• Surveys completed by consultants will be sent to the TDOT Regional
Survey offices for approval.
 If the design project right-of-way plans are not combined with the
preliminary plans, then follow the same process as right-of-way plans:
• Develop preliminary plans.
• Conduct preliminary field review.
• Finalize preliminary plans.
 Develop right-of-way plans.
• Right-of-way plans consist of a nearly complete set of plans for either a
utility only (if no right-of-way is required) or a right-of-way submittal and
should include all sheets except for the quantity sheet and some detail
sheets.
• Where feasible, avoid design features requiring the acquisition of right-of-
way, drainage structures, or conflicts with utilities to help expedite the
project.
• Six weeks are typically allowed for this stage.

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 Conduct site review.

• After the preliminary traffic signal layout and pole locations are
determined, a site review should be scheduled prior to the right-of-way
field review. In some cases, an in-person meeting can be scheduled at the
end of the right-of-way field review near the project site.
• One day including travel is typically allowed for this stage.
 Conduct right-of-way field review.
• In most cases, because of the smaller nature of stand-alone traffic design
projects, these field reviews consist of gathering comments from reviewers
instead of an in-person meeting.
• Three weeks are typically allowed for this stage.
 Finalize right-of-way plans.
• Once all of the review comments are received, the consultant will provide
the TDOT Design Manager with a disposition letter summarizing how they
will proceed in addressing the right-of-way field review comments. The
disposition letter should be submitted as soon as possible, but generally
no later than two weeks from receiving the comments. The disposition
letter shall include a statement that indicates whether or not there are
impacts to the project limits, ROW, and/or utilities on the project and how
they will be affected differently or changed due to the comments received.
• Upon approval from the TDOT Design Manager, the design engineer will
submit an electronically signed/sealed (title sheet only) right-of-way plan
set in PDF format.
• In addition to the signed and sealed right-of-way plan set, the design
engineer will submit an info plan set (i.e. plan set not signed/sealed and
marked not for construction), a right-of-way quantity estimate, and a ZIP
file containing all of the design files that were created during the
preparation of the design plans. This includes, but not limited to,
Microstation DGN files and their associated reference files, Geopak files,
survey files, cost estimates and their support data, pole designer software
files, word documents such as correspondences and the field review
comment disposition letters, spreadsheets such are earthwork grading
sheets and support calculations, location maps and sketches, associated
PDFs, and any other information or files that were used to develop and
prepare the design project.
• At the completion of the right-of-way plans phase, the TDOT Design
Manager will request the pavement design (if mainline paving is needed)
and the TMP.
• Four weeks are typically allowed for this stage.

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 Post right-of-way plans turn-in.

• Requests for right-of-way revisions will occasionally come from the TDOT
Design Manager and should be processed as soon as possible.
 Develop construction plans.
• After receiving both the environmental document and right-of-way funding
approval documents, the TDOT Design Manager will notify the consultant
to proceed with the development of construction plans.
• Construction plans consist of a complete set of plans including all index
sheets, quantities sheets, general and special notes, tabulations and
details as required.
• Six weeks are typically allowed for this stage.
 Conduct constructability field review.
• In most cases, because of the smaller nature of standalone traffic design
projects, these field reviews consist of gathering comments from reviewers
instead of an in-person meeting.
• Three weeks are typically allowed for this stage.
 Finalize construction plans.
• Once all of the review comments are received, the consultant will provide
the TDOT Design Manager with a disposition letter summarizing how they
will proceed in addressing the constructability field review comments. The
disposition letter should be submitted as soon as possible, but generally
no later than two weeks from receiving the comments. The disposition
letter shall include a statement that indicates whether or not there are
impacts to the project limits, ROW, and/or utilities on the project and how
they will be affected differently or changed due to the comments received.
• Upon approval from the TDOT Design Manager, the design engineer will
submit an electronically signed/sealed (on every sheet) construction plan
set in PDF format.
• In addition to the signed/sealed construction plan set, the design engineer
will submit an info plan set (i.e. plan set not signed/sealed and marked not
for construction), a final quantity estimate, and a ZIP file containing all of
the design files that were created during the preparation of the design
plans. This includes, but not limited to, Microstation DGN files and their
associated reference files, Geopak files, survey files, cost estimates and
their support data, pole designer software files, word documents such as
correspondences and the field review comment disposition letters,
spreadsheets such are earthwork grading sheets and support calculations,
location maps and sketches, associated PDFs, and any other information
or files that were used to develop and prepare the design project.

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• When ready, the TDOT Design Manager will submit construction plans for
turn-in.
• Four weeks are typically allowed for this stage.
 Post construction plans turn-in.
• Requests for letting and construction revisions will occasionally come from
the TDOT Design Manager and should be processed as soon as possible.

3.4 Support Projects

Support projects, which are typically prepared as part of a larger roadway design project
by a consultant or in-house staff, require only traffic signalization, roadway lighting,
detail sheets, signing layouts, and sign schedules. Since support projects are often
prepared by design engineers not under the direct supervision of the primary
professional engineer responsible for signing/sealing the plans in general, the traffic
engineering quantities and special notes should be included on a sheet separate from
the roadway project quantities under the seal of the supporting signal design engineer.
Coordination between the primary professional engineer, the supporting professional
engineer, and the TDOT Design Manager should be maintained throughout the design
process.

3.5 Conformance to TDOT Plans Format

TDOT requires all roadway plans let to contract in the State's bid process to be
developed in the particular TDOT format described in the TDOT Roadway Design
Guidelines and as adapted for traffic design in this manual. TDOT contracts for the
design and construction of hundreds of millions of dollars and many miles of road
construction projects and has developed a plans format that many designers, roadway
observers (i.e. roadway inspectors), and road contractors have become familiar and
comfortable with. Variations from this format could create some confusion and
misunderstanding and should be avoided. The following are plans layout requirements:
 Plan Sheet Numbering: On support projects, consult with the TDOT Roadway
Design Manager for sheet numbering. The example shown in Table 3.1 is an
intersection widening project with a traffic signal.
 Plan Scales: The typical plan scale for traffic signal intersection layouts is
1 inch = 30 feet (1”=30’). However, a plan scale of 1 inch = 20 feet (1”=20’) is
desired if the traffic signal intersection layout can fit on one plan sheet. No other
scales for traffic signal intersection layouts are acceptable unless approved by
the TDOT Design Manager. For traffic signal interconnect layouts, the minimum
plan scale is 1 inch = 50 feet (1”=50’) unless another scale is approved by the
TDOT Design Manager.

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 Aerial Photography: This may be used as a base for signal layout plans where
no utility relocation is involved and right-of-way is easily established. However, a
survey may be required for control purposes. Contact the TDOT Design Manager
before using aerial photography.
 Details: A signal detail sheet will be required for each signal installation and
should display wiring diagrams, tabulations of signal phasing, detection tables,
and signal timing requirements.
 Notes: Any notes not listed in the Roadway Design Guidelines as General Notes
are to be labeled Special Notes and shown apart from the General Notes.
 Quantities: Keep items as specific as possible. If possible, avoid costs to be
included in other items for items.

Table 3.1 – Plan Sheet Numbering Example

Sheet Preliminary* Right-of-Way Construction
Title 1 1 1
Index 1 or 1A 1 or 1A 1 or 1A
General Notes 2 2 2
Roadway Quantities N/A N/A 2A
Property Map,
N/A 3 3
Acquisition Table
Present Layout 3, 4, etc 4, 5, etc 4, 5, etc
Proposed Layouts 3A, 4A, etc. 4A, 5A, etc. 4A, 5A, etc.
ROW/Utility Details 3B, 4B, etc. 4B, 5B, etc. 4B, 5B, etc.
5 (or next number), 6 (or next number), 6 (or next number),
Signal Layout
6, etc. 7, etc. 7, etc.
Signal Details 5A, 6A, etc. 6A, 7A, etc. 6A, 7A, etc.
Erosion Control 7 (or next number) 8 (or next number) 8 (or next number)
Traffic Control 8 (or next number) 9 (or next number) 9 (or next number)
9 (or next number), 10 (or next number), 10 (or next number),
Cross-Sections
10, etc. 11, etc. 11, etc.
*Follow the Preliminary example if the project includes the separate preliminary phase.
Otherwise, follow the Right-of-Way example.

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CHAPTER 4
JUSTIFYING THE NEED FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS
4.1 Justification for Traffic Signal Control
In order to determine whether or not the installation of a traffic signal control is justified
an engineering study and a warrant analysis shall be performed as required by the
MUTCD. The engineering study shall be signed and sealed by a registered professional
engineer in Tennessee and in good standing. The engineering study shall be approved,
in writing, by the TDOT Design Manager.
Generally, the installation of a traffic control signal is considered only after all of the
following conditions are met:
 One or more of the MUTCD traffic signal warrants are met; and
 An engineering study shows that traffic signalization will improve the overall
traffic operations and/or safety of an intersection and the resulting traffic signal
will not seriously disrupt the progressive traffic flow from adjacent traffic signals.
The MUTCD cautions that “the satisfaction of a traffic signal warrant or warrants shall
not in itself require the installation of a traffic control signal.”

4.1.1 Engineering Study Data Collection

The following data should be included as a minimum in an engineering study:
 Traffic Counts: Traffic counts should be made on a typical weekday for
the location, normally in the middle of the week (Tuesday through
Thursday). Additionally, if the location is affected by school traffic, then the
count should be made when school is in session. Counts should be
avoided on holidays, and during special events or inclement weather. The
practitioner should be aware that counts may be inaccurate due to data
collection errors, and it is possible for traffic to vary significantly from day
to day, week to week, and month to month.
• Vehicular 24-Hour Traffic Counts: Twenty-four hour traffic counts
should be conducted on each approach counting all vehicles
entering the intersection. The 24-hour traffic volume profiles are an
important element in the data collection effort of an engineering
study and are used to identify the hours of the day during which
total traffic entering the intersection is greatest. The 24-hour traffic
volumes are usually collected using temporary road tubes.

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• Vehicular Turning Movement Counts: Turning movement counts

should be conducted on each approach of the intersection showing
all vehicular movements classified by vehicle type (trucks,
passenger cars, and public-transit vehicles) during each 15-minute
interval for a minimum of two hours in each of the AM, midday, and
PM peak periods. In any case, these hours should include the
periods during which total traffic entering the intersection is greatest
as revealed by the previously conducted 24-hour traffic counts.
• Pedestrian Traffic Counts: If pedestrians are a concern,
pedestrian volume counts should be conducted on each approach
for the same periods as the vehicular turning movement counts and
during the periods of peak pedestrian volumes. The presence of
nearby facilities that could generate young, elderly, or disabled
pedestrian traffic should be noted. The traffic count data should be
submitted in a format that shows hourly pedestrian volumes by
approach.
• Bicycle Traffic Counts: If bicycles are a concern, bicycle volume
counts should be conducted on each approach of the intersection
showing all bicycle movements for the same periods as the traffic
movement counts and during the periods of peak bicycle volumes.
The count data should be submitted in a format that shows hourly
bicycle volumes by approach. According to the MUTCD, bicycles
may be counted as pedestrians when using pedestrian facilities.
Examples of vehicular, pedestrian, and bicycle counts are shown in
Figure 4.1.
 Traffic Volumes Hourly Percentages when using AADT Volumes: In
lieu of vehicular 24-hour traffic counts, Tennessee statewide average
traffic volumes hourly percentages for arterial facilities (i.e. not interstate
facilities) when using AADT Volumes are presented in Tables 4.1 to 4.5. In
Table 4.1, the Tennessee statewide average traffic volumes hourly
percentages shown include two lane facilities, multi-lane facilities, and
overall for both facility types. Shaded areas indicate the eight highest
hourly percentages for traffic signal warrant analysis purposes. In
Tables 4.2 to 4.5, TDOT Region average traffic volumes hourly
percentages shown include two lane facilities and multi-lane facilities.
Further breakdown of the TDOT Region average traffic volumes hourly
percentages include population tiers from larger cities (Tier A) to smaller
cities/rural areas (Tier E).
 Speed Data: Information on the posted or statutory speed limit should be
collected and a speed study showing the 85th percentile speeds on the
uncontrolled approach of the intersection should be conducted.
 Condition Diagram: A condition diagram of an intersection typically
shows details of the physical layout, including such features as geometry,
channelization, grades, sight-distance restrictions, pavement markings,

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signs (traffic, business marquees, and billboards), driveways, utility poles,

roadway lighting, parking conditions, transit stops, sidewalks and curb
ramps, vegetation (if over three feet in height), adjacent land use, nearby
railroad crossings, and the distance to the nearest traffic signal (if less
than one mile). An example of a condition diagram is shown in Figure 4.2.
 Collision Diagram: A collision diagram or listing shows the crash record
for the intersection covering as a minimum, the most recent 12-month
period for which crash records are available. However, it is desirable to
show the most recent 3-year period. Each crash symbol, or record, should
show the crash type, travel direction of the vehicles, date, time of day,
severity (injuries/fatalities), pavement condition, weather, and lighting
conditions. An example of a collision diagram is shown in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.1 – Vehicular, Pedestrian, and Bicycle Counts Example

Source: Traffic Signal Timing Manual

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Table 4.1 – Tennessee Statewide Average Traffic Volumes Hourly Percentages

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Table 4.2 – TDOT Region 1 Average Traffic Volumes Hourly Percentages

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Table 4.3 – TDOT Region 2 Average Traffic Volumes Hourly Percentages

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Table 4.4 – TDOT Region 3 Average Traffic Volumes Hourly Percentages

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Table 4.5 – TDOT Region 4 Average Traffic Volumes Hourly Percentages

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Figure 4.2 – Condition Diagram Example

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Figure 4.3 – Collision Diagram Example

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4.1.2 Traffic Signal Warrants

Traffic signal warrants define minimum threshold levels of vehicular volume,
pedestrian volume, progression conditions, crashes, delay, and proximity to
railroad crossings that need to be met for an intersection to become a candidate
for a traffic control signal. Once met, signal warrants become part of an
engineering study that will determine if the installation of a traffic control signal
will improve the overall safety and/or operation of the intersection. The MUTCD
identifies nine traffic signal warrants as follows:
 Warrant 1 – Eight Hour Vehicular Volume
 Warrant 2 – Four Hour Vehicular Volume
 Warrant 3 – Peak Hour
 Warrant 4 – Pedestrian Volume
 Warrant 5 – School Crossing
 Warrant 6 – Coordinated Signal System
 Warrant 7 – Crash Experience*
 Warrant 8 – Roadway Network
 Warrant 9 – Intersection Near a Grade Crossing
*In addition to the MUTCD Traffic Signal Warrant 7 – Crash Experience,
FHWA has provided an interim approval for optional use of an Alternative
Signal Warrant 7 – Crash Experience (IA-19). TDOT applied and received
IA-19 (Optional Use of Alternative Signal Warrant 7 – Crash Experience)
from FHWA for all state and local jurisdictions in Tennessee. Any
jurisdiction in Tennessee that chooses the option of IA-19 must coordinate
the traffic signal warrant with the TDOT State Traffic Engineer.
Even though these nine warrants can justify a traffic signal installation, TDOT
considers Warrant 1 and Warrant 7 as the primary warrants that should be
utilized for traffic signal installation approval. If geometric improvements are
proposed as part of the project, Warrant 7 may not be applicable if the proposed
improvements are expected to reduce crashes. The following are additional
considerations for use in an engineering study:
 Effect of Right-Turning Vehicles: Engineering judgment should be used
to determine what, if any, portion of the right-turn traffic is subtracted from
the minor-street traffic count when evaluating the count against the signal
warrant threshold tables.
• Shared Right-Turn Lane: Right-turn traffic should be considered
when a shared lane contains both through and right-turning traffic.
• Exclusive or Channelized Right-Turn Lane: Right-turn traffic
should not be considered when an exclusive or channelized right-
turn lane is present.

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 Lane Configuration: Engineering judgment should also be used when

determining if an approach should be considered a one-lane or a two-lane
approach for signal warrant analysis.
• Left-turn Lane: For an approach with one lane for through and
right-turning traffic plus an exclusive left-turn lane, if engineering
judgment indicates that it should be considered a one-lane
approach because the traffic using the left-turn lane is minor, the
total traffic volume approaching the intersection should be applied
against the signal warrants as a one-lane approach. The approach
should be considered two lanes if approximately half of the traffic
on the approach turns left and the left-turn lane is of sufficient
length to accommodate all left-turn vehicles.
• Right-Turn Lane: If an exclusive right-turn lane is present on an
approach, it may be considered an approach lane if it has a
significant volume of traffic, has sufficient storage capacity to store
right turning traffic, and is not channelized away from the
intersection. However, if right-turn volumes have been eliminated
from the approach volumes for warrant analysis, then any exclusive
right-turn lane present should not be included in the number of
approach lanes.
 Estimating Future Conditions: At a location where a signal study is
requested, but the future development is not yet in place, the hourly
generated traffic volumes must be estimated based on the phase of
development to be completed at the time of signal installation using the
following procedures:
• Similar Developments: Where similar developments, in both type
and size, exist in the same or similar size community, actual hourly
generated traffic volumes can be measured and applied to the new
site. Signal warrants can then be applied using these volumes.
• Estimating Procedure: Where similar developments do not exist,
peak hour trip generated volumes can be estimated using the
current ITE Trip Generation Manual or based on an existing similar
development. In all cases, all assumptions and trip estimates shall
be pre-approved by a TDOT Region Traffic Engineer and/or the
State Traffic Engineer prior to developing traffic volumes.
 Access to Adjacent Signals: Consideration is to be given as to whether
the side street or driveway traffic being studied has access to an existing
traffic signal. If access to an adjacent signal exists, a new signal may not
be needed.

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 Capacity and Progression Analysis: A capacity analysis should be

considered to determine the impacts of installing traffic signal control at an
intersection. If the traffic signal control is to be installed on an existing
coordinated system or if progression on the corridor should be considered,
a progression analysis should also be completed.
In all cases, engineering judgment must be exercised in the justification of a
traffic signal installation.

4.2 Authorization for Installation and Ownership of Traffic Signal Control

Even though they may be installed under TDOT construction projects, TDOT does not
own, operate, or maintain traffic signal devices after the conclusion of a project unless
there are special circumstances. Therefore, ownership of the traffic signal installation,
along with responsibility for operation and maintenance, reverts to the local governing
agency.
 TDOT Projects (State or Local Routes): It shall be the responsibility of the
Traffic Signal Design Manager, a Regional Traffic Engineer, and/or the State
Traffic Engineer to review, comment, and/or approve the installation or upgrade
of any traffic signals installed as part of a TDOT managed project. All TDOT
studies proposing traffic signals are to be reviewed by Headquarters and
Regional Traffic Engineers prior to final study approval. Proposed signal
operation should safely, economically, and efficiently accommodate current and
future traffic and safety needs. Although some local governmental agencies may
request certain aesthetic features, enhancement of signal systems with materials
or equipment that goes beyond meeting basic operational needs may require the
local agency to cover the additional costs with local funds. The local agency will
be required to execute a Local Agency Program Agreement accepting ownership
and responsibility for the operation and future maintenance of the traffic signals.
 Non-TDOT Projects (on State Routes): Per TCA 54-5-603, an incorporated
municipality wishing to install traffic signals is not required to obtain approval
from TDOT, but they must comply with the requirements of the MUTCD. An
incorporated municipality may seek concurrence from TDOT regarding a signal in
which case the parties will execute a MOU. All other locally initiated signal design
projects shall follow procedures and conform to guidelines given in this manual.
The local agency must submit an installation request to the Regional Traffic
Engineer along with an engineering study signed by a registered professional
engineer. The local agency will be required to execute a MOA accepting
ownership and responsibility for the operation and future maintenance of the
traffic signals. It is TDOT's goal to provide a safe, reliable, and economically
sound traffic control installation that is best suited to the maintenance capabilities
of the local agency. In this regard and in limited cases, TDOT has prepared
Special Provisions for inclusion in contract documents that address the specific
requirements of several local government agencies. TDOT also provides special
notes and details on certain projects to conform to other agency practices.

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4.2.1 Additional Requirements

 Environmental Requirements: Basic signal installation projects usually
require little in the way of environmental permits due to the minimal impact
of locating poles, pull boxes, and conduit. However, larger projects
involving installation of turn lanes or widening of the road may require
various permits. Permit needs are assessed and applications are
processed and acquired by TDOT’s Environmental Planning Division. The
Environmental Planning Division may require some special maps, forms,
and plan sheets as prepared by the design engineer. Hydrological permits
may include:
• Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation
(TDEC):
o Notice of Intent (NOI)
o Aquatic Resource Alteration Permit (ARAP)
o Class V Injection Well Permit
• Corps of Engineers (COE): Section 404 of the Clean Water Act
requires permit applications for any stream, spring, wetland, or
sinkhole impact or total project impact of ½ acre or more.
• Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA): Section 26a is required when
any project impacts any water resource in the Tennessee River
Valley or on TVA lands. If the impact is low, TVA may issue a letter
of no objection.
• Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency (TWRA): Any impact on
the Reelfoot Lake Basin requires a TWRA permit.
Projects that contain federal funds shall require an environmental study.
The design engineer shall consult with the Environmental Division for the
latest requirements and guidelines for any environmental permits.
 Right-of-Way: Right-of-way impacts are categorized as acquisitions or
easements. If no right-of-way impacts are involved in the project, then the
project is categorized as Utilities Only. The goal of most traffic signal
projects are to minimize the right-of-way impacts, as most impacts are
usually limited to pole and controller foundations, pull boxes, and conduits.
All right-of-way activities are handled within the Right-of-Way Division.
 Erosion Control: Most simple traffic signal projects require minimal
erosion control, as the impact is usually limited to pole foundations and
trenching for conduit. A short list of items (hay bales, etc.) and standard
drawings is all that is usually required. No separate plan is required. On
larger projects with grading and drainage, an erosion control plan will be
required. Any project involving grading and drainage should also include a
drainage map.

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CHAPTER 5
TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN –
GENERAL INFORMATION
5.1 General Information
Highway traffic signal is a generic term that applies to intersection stop-and-go signals,
flashing beacons, lane use control signals, ramp entrance signals, and other types of
devices. A traffic control signal (traffic signal) shall be defined as any highway traffic
signal by which traffic is alternately directed to stop and permitted to proceed. Traffic is
defined as vehicles, pedestrians, bicyclists, streetcars, and other conveyances using
any highway or private road open to the public for purposes of travel. This chapter
presents the design of traffic control signals. In this manual, the term traffic signal
applies to a traffic control signal unless otherwise noted. Standards for traffic control
signals are important because they need to attract the attention of a variety of road
users, including those who are older, those with impaired vision, as well as those who
are fatigued or distracted, or who are not expecting to encounter a signal at a particular
location. The designer responsible for any type of traffic signal design project, including
traffic control signals, should be aware that the design must comply with various
standards. In addition to TDOT Standard Specifications, the following standards shall be
consulted:
 MUTCD: The MUTCD defines the standards used by road managers nationwide
to install and maintain traffic control devices on all public streets, highways,
bikeways, and private roads open to public travel. The MUTCD is published by
FHWA under 23 CFR, Part 655, Subpart F. As a minimum, the requirements of
the MUTCD must be met on all roads in Tennessee.
 Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs,
Luminaires and Traffic Signals: These specifications are published by
AASHTO to provide structural design criteria.
 NEC: The NEC contains provisions that are considered necessary for the
practical safeguarding of persons and property from hazards arising from the use
of electricity. The NEC is published by the NFPA.
 NEMA Standards: This publication describes the physical and functional
requirements of TS-1 and TS-2 signal controllers.
 ATC Standards: This publication by AASHTO, ITE, and NEMA is intended to
provide an open architecture hardware and software platform that can support a
wide variety of ITS applications, including traffic management, safety, security,
and other applications.
 TDOT Design Standards (www.tn.gov/tdot): These standards are composed
of a number of standard drawings that address specific situations that occur on a
large majority of construction projects.

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This chapter is structured to document the recommended concepts of traffic signal

design as they apply to traffic signal timing and to traffic signal infrastructure in the State
of Tennessee. The first few sections will introduce basic concepts related to traffic
signal design elements, followed by a discussion of traffic signal modes of operation.
Next, guidelines to the selection of traffic signal phasing will be presented leading into
traffic signal detection design. The following sections will explore traffic signal timing
parameters for different modes of operation and preemption guidelines, concluding with
several traffic signal infrastructure requirements.

5.2 Site Reviews

A very necessary, but sometimes overlooked, part of a complete traffic signal design is
the need for site reviews. The number of site reviews will be dependent on the
complexity of the project. It is prudent that the designer have at least one site review
during the right-of-way design phase, preferably before the right-of way field review
plans are submitted for review. The following benefits may be obtained through site
reviews:
 Site reviews can provide information that is not always visible from the survey,
such as drainage structures, clusters of trees, ditches and steep slopes. The
designer should be aware of the location of these obstacles to avoid pole
placement in their vicinity. Removal of vegetation and trees should be considered
only as a last resort;
 Site reviews clearly show the roadway configuration and can provide the
designer with a better idea of the magnitude and proximity of overhead
obstructions, hazards or structures to the roadway;
 Site reviews will enable the designer to select potential service point locations by
identifying power sources within the project area;
 Site reviews will enable the designer to verify that the locations of proposed poles
are not in conflict with existing or proposed utilities including at-grade and aerial
roadway structures.
Sign-in sheets are required during site reviews to document those in attendance.
Typical site review attendees include the maintaining agency, local officials, utility
companies (especially the power company), railroad (if applicable), TDOT project
manager, TDOT HQ project manager (if different), TDOT Region traffic engineer, and
consultant engineers/designers. After the site review has concluded, a summary of the
meeting minutes shall be prepared by the designer to document the discussions in the
field and to identify action items required along with who is responsible for those action
items. Site review guidance information is contained in Appendix B.

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5.3 Proprietary Equipment for Traffic Signal Systems

Proprietary, as part of a traffic signal installation project, means that a particular piece of
equipment (i.e. brand, manufacture, model number, etc.) can be specified in the
construction plans (i.e. sole source). Typically, the proprietary item is the predominate
piece of equipment installed or being installed by the local maintaining agency. For
TDOT consideration and approval of proprietary items, the local maintaining agency (i.e.
city, county, etc.) shall make a formal written request to TDOT and justify the need for
the proprietary item based on the reasons given in the CFR 23, Part 635.411. The
requested item shall also be included in a traffic signal specifications document that is
posted on the local maintaining agency’s website. Typically, traffic signal proprietary
items that are requested include traffic signal controllers, traffic signal monitors,
Ethernet switches, radar/video detection, decorative traffic signal poles, and emergency
preemption equipment. The specification of proprietary items will not be allowed except
in special pre-approved cases by the Director of the Traffic Operations Division. The
following are considered during TDOT’s review for certification of proprietary items:

5.3.1 Necessary for Synchronization with Existing Facilities

The local maintaining agency shall provide written documentation that the
required proprietary item is needed for synchronization with existing facilities.
Synchronization means that a product matches specific current or desired
characteristics of a project and shall be based on the following or a combination
of the following factors:
 Function: The proprietary product is necessary for the satisfactory
operation of the existing facility;
 Aesthetics: The proprietary product is necessary to match the visual
appearance of existing facilities; and
 Logistics: The proprietary product is interchangeable with products in an
agency's maintenance inventory.
Other factors as they relate to synchronization include:
 Lifecycle: The relative age of existing systems that will be expanded and
the remaining projected life of the proposed proprietary element in relation
to the remaining life of the existing elements; and
 Size/Extent of Products and Systems to be Synchronized To/With:
The relative cost of the proprietary elements compared with replacing the
elements requiring synchronization

5.3.2 Unique Product for which there is No Equally Suitable Alternative

The local maintaining agency shall provide written documentation that the
required proprietary item does not have an equivalent. The documentation may
also include the submission of specific material(s) or product(s) to evaluate in
TDOT’s review of the proprietary item.

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5.3.3 Experimental Products

The local maintaining agency shall provide written documentation that the
required proprietary item is for research or for a distinctive type of construction at
an intersection for experimental purposes. The documentation shall include an
experimental product work plan for review and approval. The work plan should
provide for the evaluation of the proprietary product, and where appropriate, a
comparison with current technology. Products which have been approved under
special funding/evaluation programs do not require additional certification for the
use of patented or proprietary products.

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CHAPTER 6
TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN –
CABINETS AND EQUIPMENT

6.1 Traffic Signal Cabinet

The traffic signal cabinet houses the control equipment at an individual intersection. The
traffic signal cabinet equipment shall be in accordance with current TDOT standards
and specifications, the NEC and the NESC. The following information should be
considered in regards to traffic signal cabinets:
 Location: Traffic signal cabinets should be located as far as practical off the
edge of the roadway and in the same intersection quadrant as the power source
whenever possible. Traffic signal cabinets shall not be placed within the
pedestrian walkway portion of a sidewalk if it obstructs ADA pathway and
protection requirements. Traffic signal cabinets should have easy access for
parking of maintenance vehicles and should be oriented for maintenance
personnel to simultaneously see the inside of the cabinet and traffic signal
displays for several phases, thus making troubleshooting and field observations
more effective. In other words, the traffic signal cabinet door should not be facing
the roadway. Consideration should also be given to the effect of cabinet
placement on sight distance.
 Cabinet Mounting: The are two types of mounting for traffic signal cabinets:
• Pole-Mounted Cabinets
• Ground-Mounted Cabinets
 Service Pads: All ground-mounted controller cabinet installations not
immediately adjacent to a sidewalk shall be provided with a service pad in front
of the cabinet door for use by maintenance personnel.
 Cabinet Construction: Cabinets shall be constructed of aluminum. Standard
cabinet sizes are shown in TDOT Standard Drawing T-SG-5.
 Bonding and Grounding Requirements: All bonding and grounding shall be in
accordance with the NEC. Bonding is defined in the NEC as the permanent
joining of metallic parts required to be electrically connected. Grounding is
defined in the NEC as a conducting connection between an electrical circuit or
equipment and the earth, or to some conductive body that serves in place of
earth. The NEC requires all traffic signal cabinets to be grounded to equipment
ground.
 Interconnect/Communications: Where installed in a system, the traffic signal
cabinet shall have facilities for the appropriate communications.

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6.2 Traffic Signal Controllers

The controller is the piece of equipment in the signal cabinet that translates input
information from the detectors into output information for the displays. Signal timing
parameters (programmed into the controller software) determine how the controller
interprets the detector and display information. The standard controller to be used at all
new signalized intersections is an 8-phase, NEMA traffic signal controller that meets
current TDOT standards and specifications. An 8-phase controller should be used even
when 4-phase cabinets are installed.

6.3 Traffic Signal Detector Cards

Detector cards (i.e. detector amplifiers) when used with inductive loops, identify user
actuations from the field detectors and pass the information along to the signal
controller. Most detector cards can handle between one and four detector channels and
various modes of operation. Adequate detector rack space should be provided to allow
for near-term and possible long-term needs.

6.4 Traffic Signal Load Switches and Flasher

Load switches are relay devices that allow the controller, which operates in a 12/24-volt
DC environment, to direct a 120-volt AC current to various signal displays. Each load
switch (and associated wiring) plugs into the back panel of the cabinet into load switch
bays. The number of load switch bays will dictate the number of output channels that
the signal designer has to work with at the intersection. Ensuring that there are enough
load switch bays for existing and future phasing is recommended. A load switch is
typically required for each vehicle signal phase, each pedestrian phase, and each
overlap. Similar to a load switch, a flasher controls the signal displays when the
intersection is in flashing mode.

6.5 Traffic Signal Monitor

The NEMA MMU and the older CMU are traffic signal monitors that work completely
independent from the traffic signal controller and serve to ensure intersection safety.
Invalid signal voltage levels, burnt lamps, conflicting green movements, improper
sequencing, incorrect timing, and several other features are monitored by the
equipment. Traffic signal monitors will identify the type of fault (e.g., conflict, red fail,
clearance fail, dual indication), which signal faces were active at the time of the fault,
and can retrieve historical data about the fault. The monitors will remain in fault mode
until reset.

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6.6 Traffic Signal Power Supply

Power supply to traffic signal cabinets shall adhere to local utility company
requirements. The source power service location through coordination with the local
utility company may support the location of new traffic signal cabinets, but that
information is not to be detailed on the traffic signal plans or associated bid documents.
The traffic signal power supply is an electrical device in the cabinet that converts AC to
correct DC voltage for various devices in the traffic signal cabinet. If the power supply
cable travels underground, it shall be run in a separate RGS conduit from detector,
signal, and communications cables. If it travels overhead, it shall be run on a separate
messenger cable above all other signal cables. Where street lights are installed on
traffic signal poles, they shall have their own circuit breaker on the service pole and the
power conductor routing shall not pass through the controller cabinet.
When utility power is disrupted and not available at times, a back-up power supply unit
(i.e. BBS or UPS) can be utilized to provide emergency power to connected equipment
by supplying power from a separate source (i.e. batteries). The MUTCD Section 4D.27
recommends that traffic control signals that are adjacent to highway-rail grade crossings
and that are coordinated with the flashing-light signals or that include railroad
preemption features be provided with a back-up power supply unit. The use of a back-
up power supply unit is also recommended on high-volume intersections where
maintenance of traffic signal operations during power outages is critical to traffic flow.

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CHAPTER 7
TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN –
OPERATIONS AND COORDINATION

7.1 Traffic Signal Operation Basic Concepts

The following are basic concepts in traffic signal operation:

7.1.1 Traffic Signal Movements

Traffic signal movements refer to the actions of users at a signalized intersection.
Typical movements include vehicles turning left, turning right or traveling through
the intersection, and pedestrian crossings. In a four-legged intersection it is
possible to have twelve vehicle movements and four two-way pedestrian
movements. The HCM assigns numbers to each of these movements, as shown
on Figure 7.1, with the major street on the East–West orientation. Figure 7.2
shows a typical movement numbering with the major street on the North–South
orientation.

7.1.2 Traffic Signal Phases

A phase is a timing process, within the signal controller, that facilitates serving
one or more movements at the same time (for one or more modes of users).
Phase numbers must be assigned to the movements at a signalized intersection
in order to begin selecting signal timing values. Even phases are typically
associated with vehicular through movements and odd phases are typically
associated with vehicular left-turn movements. Pedestrian phases are typically
set up to run concurrently with the even-numbered vehicular phases and are
generally assigned the same phase number as the adjacent parallel vehicular
phases. A four-legged intersection with protected left-turn movements will
generally follow the phase numbering as shown in Figures 7.1 and 7.2. This
standard NEMA phase numbering system combines the right-turn movements
with the through movements into single phases. Figure 7.3 illustrates the typical
movement and phase numbering (4-phase or 8-phase) used at an intersection
with permitted left-turn movements where all of the movements on an approach
are assigned to one phase. It is common practice to maintain a consistent phase-
numbering scheme within a specific jurisdiction.

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Figure 7.1 – Movement and Phase Numbering (East-West as Major Street)

Source: Adapted from Traffic Signal Timing Manual

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Figure 7.2 – Movement and Phase Numbering (North-South as Major Street)

Source: Adapted from Traffic Signal Timing Manual

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Figure 7.3 – Movement and Phase Numbering (Permissive Left-Turns)

Source: Adapted from Traffic Signal Timing Manual

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7.1.3 Ring-and-Barrier Diagrams

Traffic signal phases and their sequence are represented graphically by a ring-
and-barrier diagram composed of:
 Rings: Each ring identifies phases that may operate one after another, but
never simultaneously. At any moment there may be only one phase active
per ring. Dual ring operations allow concurrent (non-conflicting) phases in
separate rings to operate at the same time.
 Barriers: In dual ring operation, a barrier is the point at which the phases
in both rings must end simultaneously. Barriers typically separate major
and minor street phases.
Figure 7.4 provides an example of a standard NEMA eight-phase, dual ring-and-
barrier diagram, with protected leading left-turns (See Section 7.3) on all
approaches. A table of active and concurrent phases and a standard NEMA
eight-phase actuated controller phase sequence are also shown.

7.2 Traffic Signal Modes of Operation

An intersection may be controlled independently (isolated operation) or have the ability
to synchronize to multiple intersections in a coordinated operation. Isolated and
coordinated intersections can operate either in pre-timed (fixed) or actuated mode,
where detectors will monitor traffic demand. Furthermore, actuated operation can be
characterized as fully-actuated or semi-actuated, depending on the number of traffic
movements that are being detected (See Section 7.2.2). Advanced types of operation
include volume density, traffic responsive, and adaptive control. Finally, signalized
intersections may also operate under special conditions like preemption or priority, or
they may be set up to operate in the flashing mode. The selected mode of operation on
a signalized intersection will determine its safety and efficiency. The following
paragraphs will briefly describe each mode of operation and additional detailed
information will be further explored in subsequent sections.

7.2.1 Pre-timed (Fixed Time) Operation

During pre-timed operation, the total green time allocated to a phase will always
have a preset time, regardless of demand. For each specific TOD plan the phase
sequence is also fixed and phases cannot be skipped. Therefore, a complete
sequence of signal indications (i.e. cycle) will be displayed every time (i.e. fixed
cycle length). Figure 7.5 illustrates pre-timed operation.
 Advantages: Ideally suited to coordination of closely spaced intersections
with consistent daily traffic volumes and patterns, since both the start and
end of green phases are predictable. Such conditions are often found in
CBD or downtown grid areas. Also, pre-timed operation does not require
detection, thus reducing maintenance needs.
 Disadvantages: Inability to adjust to fluctuations in traffic demand
potentially generating excessive delays to users of the intersection.
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Figure 7.4 – Standard NEMA Dual Ring-and-Barrier Diagram

Source: Traffic Signal Timing Manual

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Figure 7.5 – Pre-timed and Actuated Operation

Source: Traffic Signal Timing Manual

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7.2.2 Actuated Operation

During actuated operation, detection actuations will determine phases to be
called as well as phase extension. The duration of each phase is determined by
detector input and corresponding controller parameters. For each specific TOD
plan, the phase sequence is fixed but phases can be skipped due to traffic
demand being monitored by detection. Therefore, when not coordinated,
actuated operation may not always display a complete sequence of signal
indications (i.e. cycle) leading to a variable cycle length.
 Advantages: Ability to adjust to fluctuations in traffic demand potentially
reducing delay to users of the intersection.
 Disadvantages: Higher equipment cost and more extensive maintenance
needs due to the need of detection.
Actuated operation can be characterized as fully-actuated or semi-actuated,
depending on the number of traffic movements provided with detection.
Figure 7.5 illustrates both actuated operations.
 Fully-Actuated Operation: In fully-actuated operation, detection is
provided to all the phases at an intersection. This type of operation is
ideally suited to isolated intersections where less predictable traffic
demand exists on all approaches.
 Semi-Actuated Operation: In semi-actuated operation, detection is
provided only to the phases controlling the minor movements at an
intersection. The major movements (typically major road through
movements) are operated non-actuated. Locations with sporadic or low
volumes on the side streets are best suited for semi-actuated operation.
This type of operation is common under coordinated systems where the
coordinated phases are guaranteed service every cycle and minor
movements are serviced only when demand exists. It is necessary to note
that semi-actuated operation under a non-coordinated system (e.g.: free
operation during early morning hours) will require the programming of the
traffic signal controller to recall the non-actuated phases.

7.2.3 Coordinated Operation

During coordinated operation, multiple signalized intersections are synchronized
to enhance the progression of vehicles on one or more directional movements in
a system. Pre-timed coordination provides better progression from a driver
standpoint, but higher delay is also experienced. Actuated coordination is more
efficient, but progression is not consistently achieved. Section 7.6 explores
coordination design parameters and coordination challenges in detail.

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7.2.4 Volume-Density Operation

Volume-density (also known as density timing) is an enhanced actuated
operation where actuated controller parameters (minimum green and passage
time) are automatically adjusted to improve intersection efficiency according to
varying traffic demand. Section 7.8.1 explores volume-density design parameters
in detail.

7.2.5 Traffic Responsive Operation

Traffic responsive is an advanced mode of operation that uses data from traffic
detectors, rather than time of day, to automatically select the timing plan best
suited to current traffic conditions. A predetermined library of timing plans is
necessary. Section 7.8.2 explores traffic responsive design parameters in detail.

7.2.6 Adaptive Signal Control Technology Operation

Adaptive traffic signal control is an advanced mode of operation where vehicular
traffic is monitored by upstream and/or downstream detection and an algorithm is
used to automatically implement timing adjustments to accommodate fluctuations
in traffic demand. Section 7.8.3 explores adaptive signal control technology
design parameters in detail.

7.2.7 Traffic Signal Preemption

Traffic signal preemption is a type of preferential treatment based on the
immediate transfer of normal operation of a traffic control signal to a special
control mode of operation to accommodate the most important classes of
vehicles during their approach to and passage of the intersection (e.g. railroad,
LRT, emergency vehicle, etc.). Preemption may interrupt signal coordination. A
request for preemption shall be serviced by the traffic signal equipment. Section
7.10 explores traffic signal preemption design parameters in detail.

7.2.8 Traffic Signal Priority

Traffic signal priority is a type of preferential treatment based on an operational
strategy communicated between vehicles and traffic signals to alter the signal
timing for the benefit or priority of those vehicles (mostly transit and heavy
trucks). Coordination will not be affected by priority. Service is not guaranteed
during a priority request. Section 7.9 explores traffic signal priority design
parameters in detail.

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7.2.9 Flashing Mode Operation

A signalized intersection is operating under the flashing mode when at least one
traffic signal indication in each vehicular signal face of a highway traffic signal is
turned on and off repetitively. Flashing mode operation can be characterized by
planned or unplanned circumstances:
 Planned Operation: Based on engineering study or engineering
judgment, traffic control signals may be operated in the flashing mode on
a scheduled basis during one or more periods of the day (night time, off-
peak) rather than operated continuously in the steady (stop-and-go) mode.
 Unplanned Operation: A signalized intersection will be forced into the
flashing mode when a malfunction is detected in the traffic signal
equipment or it may be forced into the flashing mode when it is
undergoing maintenance. A signalized intersection may also be operating
under flashing mode during preemption. Additional information is provided
in Section 7.11.

7.3 Traffic Signal Phasing

The determination of the traffic signal phasing and its sequence is an important step in
traffic signal design. The design should incorporate the fewest number of signal phases
that can safely and efficiently move traffic. Additional phases will increase the total start-
up lost time experienced at the beginning of each green interval as well as the number
of signal clearance intervals (yellow change plus red clearance) per cycle, leading to
larger cycle lengths and higher intersection delay. Special consideration is necessary
for the selection of left-turn treatments. There are four options for the left-turn phasing at
an intersection: permissive only, protected only, protected/permissive or the left-turn
movement can be prohibited. When protected left-turn phasing is used, it is also
necessary to select its sequence relative to the complimentary through movement:
leading left-turns, lagging left-turns, a combination of the two sequences (lead-lag left-
turns), or split phasing. Additional consideration is needed on the selection for right-turn
treatments. For example, the use of overlaps and the use of RTOR will influence overall
intersection operation.

7.3.1 Need for Left-Turn Phasing

The primary factors to consider in the need for protection are the left-turn volume
and the degree of difficulty in executing the left-turn through the opposing traffic.
The designer should be aware that left-turn phases can sometimes significantly
reduce the efficiency of an intersection. Left-turn phasing should be considered
on an approach with a peak hour left-turn volume of at least 100 vehicles and a
capacity analysis showing that the overall operations are improved by the
addition of the left-turn phase. In addition, the following guidelines may be used
when considering the addition of separate left-turn phasing at either a new or
existing signalized intersection. The following warrants may be used in the
analysis of the need for the installation of separate left-turn phases.

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 Left-Turn Volume Cross-Product: Left-turn phasing may be considered

based on a cross-product threshold as defined by the product of the left-
turning peak hour volume multiplied by the peak hour volume of opposing
traffic (opposing traffic includes both opposing through and opposing right-
turning traffic volumes) during the same peak hour. Left-turn phasing
should be considered on any approach that meets the following product
thresholds:
• One Opposing Lane – 50,000
• Two or Three Opposing Lanes – 100,000
 Left-Turn Delay: Left-turn phasing may be considered if the left-turn delay
is greater than or equal to two vehicle hours on the left-turn approach
during the peak hour. Also, a minimum left-turn volume of two vehicles per
cycle should exist with the average delay per vehicle being no less than
35 seconds.
 Left-Turn Crash: Left-turn phasing may be considered if an analysis of
the critical left-turn related crashes is recommended, depending on the
availability of crash data. Table 7.1 shows the minimum critical left-turn
related crashes for an approach.

Table 7.1 – Minimum Critical Left-Turn Related Crashes

Number of Left Turn Lanes Crash Year Period Minimum Critical Left-Turn
on the Critical Approach (Years) Related Crashes
1 4
1 2 6
3 7
1 6
2 2 9
3 13

 Horizontal and Vertical Sight Distance: Left-turn phasing may be

considered if an analysis of the available sight distance for left-turning
vehicles is recommended. Figure 7.6 presents a table from AASHTO’s A
Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets with horizontal
intersection sight distance for left-turns from the major road (Case F)
made by passenger cars. The table also considers the number of major-
road lanes to be crossed. For other conditions, including vertical
intersection sight distance and design vehicles, the sight distance should
be recalculated in accordance to the above manual.
 High Speed, Wide Intersections: Left-turn phasing may be considered
where two or more opposing lanes of traffic having a posted speed limit of
45 miles per hour or greater must be crossed for the left-turn movement.
 Offset Left-Turn Lanes: Left-turn phasing may be considered to improve

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sight distance and safety for left-turning vehicles. At signalized

intersections, the use of offset left-turn lanes is preferred where feasible.
Sight distance for left-turning vehicles ranges from a negative offset
(Figure 7.7a), to being aligned with no offset (Figure 7.7b), and to a
positive offset (Figure 7.7c).

Figure 7.6 – Horizontal Intersection Sight Distance for Left-Turns

Source: AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

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Figure 7.7 – Offset Left-Turn Lanes

7.3.2 Types of Left-Turn Phasing

Figure 7.8 illustrates the typical ring-and-barrier diagram arrangement for
different types of left-turn phasing.
 Permissive Only Left-Turn Phasing: This phase is served concurrently
with the adjacent through movement, and requires left-turning vehicles to
yield to conflicting vehicle and pedestrian movements.
• Advantages: Reduced intersection delay and efficient green
allocation.
• Disadvantages: Requires users to choose acceptable gaps in traffic
and, left-turn yellow trap (See Section 7.3.4) can occur if opposing
movement is a lagging left-turn.
• Signal Display: Circular green or flashing left-turn yellow arrow (See
Section 7.3.5).
 Protected Only Left-Turn Phasing: This phase gives left-turning vehicles
the right-of-way without any conflicting movements.
• Advantages: Reduced delay for left-turning vehicles and because
users always receive exclusive right-of-way, gaps in traffic do not
need to be identified; higher degree of safety for left-turning
vehicles.
• Disadvantages: Increased intersection delay.
• Signal Display: Green arrow.

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Figure 7.8 – Ring-and-Barrier Diagram and Left-Turn Phasing

Source: Traffic Signal Timing Manual

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 Protected/Permissive Left-Turn Phasing: Left-turning vehicles receive

exclusive right-of-way, but can also make permissive left-turn movements
during the complementary through movement green indication, when
yielding to conflicting vehicle and pedestrian movements is required.
• Advantages: Compromise between safety of protected left-turn
phase and efficiency of permissive left-turn phase with no
significant increase in delay for other movements.
• Disadvantages: Left-turn yellow trap (see Section 7.3.4) can occur
if opposing movement is a lagging left-turn.
• Signal Display: Green arrow followed or preceded by circular green
or flashing left-turn yellow arrow (see Section 7.3.5).
 Prohibited Left-Turn Phasing: Implemented to maintain mobility at an
intersection, particularly during times of day when gaps are unavailable
and operation of permissive left-turn phasing may be unsafe.
• Advantages: Reduced conflicts at intersection.
• Disadvantages: Users must find alternative routes.
• Signal Display: A No Left-Turn sign (R3-2) is necessary and should
be supplemented with time and day restrictions, if applicable.
 Left-Turn Phasing for Inadequate Geometry of the Intersection: Two
operational strategies can be applied at intersections where there is
inadequate room for opposing left-turn movements to move
simultaneously without a conflict:
• The use of split phasing left-turn sequence (See Section 7.3.4) that
requires the use of protected only left-turn phasing on both
approaches; or
• The use of lead-lag left-turn phasing sequence (See Section 7.3.4)
that allows the use of protected only left-turn phasing on both
approaches or the use of protected-only left-turn phasing for the
leading left-turn movement while the lagging left-turn movement
can operate as protected/permissive left-turn phasing.
 Lack of Exclusive Left-Turn Lane: Protected only left-turn phasing shall
not be used at intersections where there is no exclusive left-turn lane,
unless split phasing (See Section 7.3.4) is used (MUTCD Section 4D.17).
It is acceptable to use protected/permissive phasing without an exclusive
left-turn lane if the following two conditions are satisfied:
• A red indication is never shown to straight-through traffic on the
approach at the same time as the green or yellow left-turn arrow is
shown; and
• A red left-turn arrow is never shown to straight-through traffic on the
approach at the same time as the a green indication is shown.

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7.3.3 Guidelines for Selecting Left-Turn Phasing

If the need for left-turn phasing on an intersection approach has been
established, the guidelines in Section 7.3.4 should be used to select the type of
left-turn phasing to provide. Care should be taken to avoid a yellow trap which
can occur in some combinations of the type and sequence of left-turn
movements. The flowchart presented in Figure 7.9 is a recommendation from the
Traffic Signal Timing Manual, with the objective of providing practitioners with a
structured procedure for the evaluation and selection of left-turn phasing. The
selection of left-turn phasing should be movement specific; therefore, it is
necessary to check each approach separately. The following information
supports the information utilized in Figure 7.9:
 Critical Left-Turn Related Crashes: Depending upon the critical number
of left-turn related crashes, Table 7.2 shows the threshold crash numbers
in considering the implementation of two types of left-turn phasing:
protected only and protected/permissive.

Table 7.2 – Minimum Critical Left-Turn Related Crashes

for Left-Turn Phasing (Single Left Turn Lanes)

Crash Year Minimum Critical Left-Turn Related Crashes for Left-Turn Phasing
Period (Years) Protected Only Protected/Permissive
1 6 4
2 11 6
3 14 7

 Horizontal and Vertical Sight Distance: See Section 7.3.1.

 Offset Left-Turn Lanes: See Section 7.3.1.
 Multiple Left-Turn Lanes: On approaches with two or more adjacent left-
turn lanes, protected only left-turn phasing is the recommended operation.
 Number of Opposing Through Lanes: On approaches where left-turning
vehicles must cross four or more opposing through lanes, protected only
left-turn phasing is the recommended operation. Engineering judgment
should be used to determine if permissive movement may be allowed (use
of flashing yellow arrow, use of left-turn lane offset, etc.).
 Speed of Opposing Through Traffic: Approaches where left-turning
vehicles must cross less than three through lanes and the 85th percentile
speed or the posted speed limit of opposing traffic is 45 mph or greater
should operate with protected only left-turn phasing.
 Left-Turn Delay: See Section 7.3.1.
 Left-Turn Volume Cross-Product (i.e. Vlt x Vo): See Section 7.3.1.

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Figure 7.9 – Guidelines for Selecting Left-Turn Phasing

Source: Traffic Signal Timing Manual

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7.3.4 Sequence of Left-Turn Phasing

When protected left-turn phasing is used, it is necessary to select its sequence
relative to the complementary through movement. However, special attention is
necessary when selecting the left-turn sequence phasing regarding the potential
for the left-turn yellow trap. Figure 7.10 illustrates the typical ring-and-barrier
diagram arrangement for different types of left-turn phasing sequence. Although
there is no standardized method to select the sequence of left-turn phasing,
practitioners can base their selection on the advantages and disadvantages
provided in Table 7.3 and on the following operational characteristics:
 Leading Left-Turns: The protected left-turn phase is served prior to the
complementary through movement on an approach. The use of leading
left-turn phasing on both approaches (lead-lead) is the most common type
of operation.
 Lagging Left-Turns: The protected left-turn phase is served after the
complementary through movement on an approach. The use of lagging
left-turn phasing on both approaches (lag-lag) is most commonly used in
coordinated systems with closely spaced intersections, such as diamond
interchanges.
 Lead-Lag Left-Turns: During this operation, leading left-turn phasing and
lagging left-turn phasing are provided on opposing approaches of the
same street. This operation produces independence between the through
phases, being desirable under coordinated operations, and to
accommodate platoons of traffic arriving from each direction at different
times.
 Split Phasing Left-Turns: During this operation, all movements of a
particular approach are serviced followed by the servicing of all
movements of the opposing approach. Typically, it is the minor street (side
street) that operates under split phasing left-turns at intersections with
geometry constraints or crash issues, where allowing concurrent left-turn
movements is problematic. Split phase left-turns are usually less efficient
than standard eight-phase operation when opposing traffic volumes are
fairly well balanced and there is a need for left-turn protection. However, in
cases where one approach carries substantially more traffic than the other
or where there are large volume differences between opposing left-turn
movements, then split phasing left-turns may not be significantly less
efficient than standard eight-phase operation. If there is a need for split
phasing left-turns at an intersection of a coordinated system, it is
recommended to lead the lower volume side street split phase prior to
servicing the higher volume side street split phase. The controllers at such
locations should be programmed to transfer any unused green time from
the lower-volume side street to the higher-volume side street, which in turn
provides for more efficient operating conditions.

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Figure 7.10 – Sequence of Left-Turn Phasing

Source: Traffic Signal Timing Manual

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Table 7.3 – Left-Turn Phase Sequence Advantages and Disadvantages

Left-Turn
Advantages Disadvantages
Phase Sequence
• Drivers tend to react more quickly to
a leading green arrow indication • Potential for the left-turn yellow trap.
than to a lagging left-turn. • Left-turning vehicles may continue to
• Minimizes conflicts between left- turn after the green arrow display
turns and opposing through ends.
movements by clearing left-turning • Through vehicles in the adjacent lane
Leading vehicles first and reducing the need may make false starts in an attempt
of left-turn drivers to find safe gaps. to move with turning vehicles.
• Minimizes conflicts between left- • Potential pedestrian conflicts at the
turns and through movements on beginning of the left-turn phase due
the same approach when the left- to pedestrian expectation of a Walk
turn volume exceeds the available signal display.
storage bay length.
• Provides operational benefits when
the through movement queue
blocks access to the left-turning bay
and the left-turn is "starved" of
traffic;
• Potential for the left-turn yellow trap.
• Left-turning vehicles may clear the
Lagging intersection during the permissive • Drivers usually react slower to a
phase (if operating under lagging left-turn than to a leading left-
protected/permissive left-turn turn.
phasing) and not bring up the
protected phase, increasing
intersection efficiency;
• Less pedestrian conflicts.
• Beneficial in accommodating
through movement progression in a
coordinated system by providing a
Lead-Lag larger bandwidth. • Potential for the left-turn yellow trap.
• Accommodates approaches that
lack left-turn lanes.
• Eliminates conflicts when opposing
left-turn paths overlap because of
intersection geometry;
• Accommodates approaches that
lack left-turn lanes;
• Accommodates the use of shared • Less efficient than other types of left-
lanes (left/through lane) on turn phasing.
Split Phase intersections with high left-turn and • Increased coordinated cycle length,
through volumes, providing more particularly if both split phases have
efficient operation; concurrent pedestrian phases.
• Useful where crash history indicates
an unusually large numbers of side-
swipe or head-on crashes in the
middle of the intersection that
involve left turning vehicles.

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 Left-Turn Yellow Trap: The left-turn yellow trap is a condition where a

left-turn driver sees the onset of a steady yellow ball indication (when a 5-
section signal display is used) and incorrectly assumes oncoming through
traffic sees the same steady yellow ball indication. This scenario can be
problematic, leading to a potential crash, if the left-turn driver attempts to
“sneak” through the intersection on yellow when oncoming traffic still sees
a green ball indication. Technically, the left-turn yellow trap occurs during
the change from permissive left-turn phasing in both directions of traffic to
a lagging left-turn protected phasing in one direction. Therefore, the
potential for the left-turn yellow trap does not occur when an intersection is
operating under protected only left-turn phasing in both directions of traffic.
Figure 7.11 illustrates the left-turn yellow trap. The use of flashing left-turn
yellow arrow signal displays (See Section 7.3.5) is recommended to avoid
the left-turn yellow trap. In locations where a 5-section signal display is
used, the following strategies are alternatives to minimize the risk of the
left-turn yellow trap for different left-turn phasing sequences:
• Leading Left-Turns: When an intersection is operating under
protected/permissive leading left-turn phasing on opposing
approaches during light traffic conditions and, in the absence of
minor street traffic, there is the possibility for the protected left-turn
phase to be re-serviced after the permissive movement. This
results in a lagging left-turn and a potential for the left-turn yellow
trap. Practitioners should explore controller features that provide
left-turn backup protection or that ensures the servicing of side
street phases prior to returning to the protected left-turn phase.
• Lagging Left-Turns: When an intersection is operating under
permissive/protected lagging left-turn phasing on opposing
approaches, practitioners should design the signal timing and
settings so that the through movement phases clear (end)
simultaneously, before the protected left-turn phases. Using a
single ring-and-barrier structure will also prevent the potential for
the left-turn yellow trap in this case.
• Lead-Lag Left-Turns: When an intersection is operating under
lead-lag left-turn phasing, practitioners should use protected-only
left-turn phasing for the leading left-turn movement while the
lagging left-turn movement may still operate as
protected/permissive left-turn phasing.

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Figure 7.11 – Left-Turn Yellow Trap

Source: FHWA Signalized Intersections: Informational Guide

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7.3.5 Flashing Yellow Arrow for Left-Turn Movement Phasing

The MUTCD under Sections 4D.17 through 4D.20 and Sections 4D.25 through
4D.26 discusses the Flashing Yellow Arrow for left-turn phasing. The Flashing
Yellow Arrow is an alternative for the typical circular green indication used for
permissive left-turns. Figure 7.12 presents information on the Flashing Yellow
Arrow. Research has demonstrated that there is the potential for drivers to
misinterpret the meaning of the circular green indication for a permissive left-turn
movement. A Flashing Yellow Arrow for permissive left-turn movement shall not
be used when an engineering study demonstrates that the subject left-turning
vehicle has limited sight distance and when intersection geometrics create a
conflicting left-turn path.
 Operational advantages of the Flashing Yellow Arrow:
• Eliminate the left-turn yellow trap;
• Minimize the circular green indication confusion;
• Potential environment benefits due to more efficient left-turn
operations, reducing driver delay;
• Allow the use of different left-turn modes of operation during
different times of the day, for example:
o Eight-phase protected-only operation during peak hour;
o Eight-phase protected/permissive operation during non-peak
hours;
o Two-phase permissive only operation during low-volume
periods.
 Flashing Yellow Arrow Sequence: When the Flashing Yellow Arrow for
permissive left-turn movement indication is used and when
protected/permissive operation is active, a minimum of three seconds
should be programmed for the red-clearance interval (all-red interval)
when transitioning from protected left-turn mode to the permissive left-turn
mode.
 Flashing Yellow Arrow Retrofits: When retrofitting existing traffic signal
faces from the circular green indication to the Flashing Yellow Arrow,
additional signal faces will be needed on the approach. Therefore, the
following should be considered:
• Mast arm length;
• Traffic signal pole and mast arm structural design;
• Vertical clearance at new Flashing Yellow Arrow signal face;
• Preemption equipment compatibility;
• Ensuring a second through lane display is available;

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• Intersection geometry (sight distance);

• Pedestrian conflicts;
• Check cabinet load switch assignments;
• Check controller capability (software version, etc.);
• Check conflict monitor / malfunction management unit.
 Additional Information on the Flashing Yellow Arrow: In addition to the
MUTCD standards and guidelines on the Flashing Yellow Arrow, the FHWA has
provided an interim approval for optional use of 3-section Flashing Yellow Arrow
Signal Faces (IA-17).

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Figure 7.12 – Flashing Yellow Arrow (Permissive Left-Turn Movement Display)

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7.3.6 Right-Turn Treatments

Right-turn movements typically operate under permissive only phasing from
shared through/right-turn lanes. The use of protected only or protected/
permissive phasing is also allowed. The existence of exclusive right-turn lane(s)
and how the pedestrian phases are serviced will dictate the right-turn movement
treatment selection.
 Overlaps: An overlap is a separate traffic signal controller output that
uses logic to improve intersection operations by combining two or more
phases for any non-conflicting movements. An overlap should not be used
to achieve a phasing operation that can be accomplished without an
overlap in a standard cabinet and controller configuration. Overlaps are
most often used for right-turn movements where exclusive right turn lanes
exist. For right-turn overlaps, the parent phase is typically the compatible
protected left-turn phase on the intersecting road. Figure 7.13 illustrates a
right-turn overlap. Figure 7.14 illustrates a typical phase lettering scheme
for right-turn overlaps. Practitioners should consider the following when
designing a right-turn overlap:
• Cabinet Set-up: An overlap requires its own load switch (See
Section 6.4) and shall not be set-up by hard-wiring multiple
movements together in the signal cabinet. Eliminating the use of an
overlap load switch has operational safety issues and decreases
flexibility in the signal timing.
• Signage: U-turns from the complementary protected left-turn phase
on the intersecting road shall be prohibited or signed to yield. The
use of sign R10-16 is recommended in this case.
• Adjacent Through Phase: Available current technology allows an
intersection to operate the right-turn overlaps with both the
compatible left-turn phase and the adjacent through phase,
improving intersection operational efficiency. However, additional
consideration to potential pedestrian conflicts is necessary.
Practitioners should explore the availability of controller features on
the selected project equipment that allow a right-turn overlap to be
omitted when the conflicting pedestrian phase (associated with the
through vehicular movement) is active. Therefore, the right-turn
overlap will be displayed with the adjacent through phase only
when a pedestrian call has not been placed, providing better right-
turn movement efficiency.

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 Right Turn On Red: The prohibition of RTOR at signalized intersections

warrants appropriate traffic signal display and signage design. The TCA
Section 55-8-110 states:
“A right-turn on a red signal shall be permitted at all
intersections within the state; provided, that the prospective
turning car shall come to a full and complete stop before
turning and that the turning car shall yield the right-of-way to
pedestrians and cross traffic traveling in accordance with their
traffic signals; provided, further, such turn will not endanger
other traffic lawfully using the intersection. A right turn on red
shall be permitted at all intersections, except those that are
clearly marked by a “No Turns On Red” sign, which may be
erected by the responsible municipal or county governments
at intersections which they decide require no right turns on
red in the interest of traffic safety.”
See Section 14.2.7 for application of the No Turn On Red signs.
Furthermore, the Tennessee Rule 1680-03-01 adopts the MUTCD.
Therefore, designers should consider the use of the following traffic signal
displays for RTOR:
• RTOR Allowed: A steady circular red (typically used) or a steady
red arrow plus a LED blank-out (illuminated) R10-17a sign. The
second option is used when right-turning vehicular traffic and
pedestrian traffic conflict is to be avoided, in conjunction with
railroad preemption, and during exclusive pedestrian phases. The
LED blank-out R10-17a sign would be illuminated only when the
conflicting pedestrian phase is not active.
• RTOR Not Allowed: A steady circular red plus a No Turn On Red
sign or a steady red arrow plus a No Turn On Red sign.
Figure 7.15 illustrates the recommended traffic signal displays for RTOR
and Section 8.2.3 explores detection strategies, like the delay parameter,
to be used with RTOR.

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Figure 7.13 – Right-Turn Overlap

Source: Traffic Signal Timing Manual

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Figure 7.14 – Right-Turn Overlap Phase Lettering Scheme

Source: Traffic Signal Timing Manual

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Figure 7.15 – Right-Turn On Red (RTOR) Signal Displays

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7.4 Pedestrian Signal Phasing

Pedestrian movements are typically served concurrently with the adjacent parallel
vehicular phase at an intersection. This type of pedestrian phasing simplifies the
operation of the intersection, but puts pedestrians in conflict with right-turning vehicles
and vehicles turning left permissively by allowing their movement at the same time. In
the case of protected phasing, where an arrow signal (left or right) is used to indicate a
mandatory traffic turning movement, the green arrow phase is never actuated at the
same time as the walk signal for the adjacent crosswalk across which the traffic will
turn. A pedestrian phase is initiated by demand on activation of a pedestrian pushbutton
(detection) or by setting a traffic signal controller recall that would activate selected
pedestrian phases automatically (See Section 8.3.4). The following discussion provides
guidelines on pedestrian signal phasing alternatives, as well as on pedestrian signal
warrants and on accessible pedestrian signals.

7.4.1 Pedestrian Warrants and Signal Heads

When pedestrian signal phasing is being considered for signalized intersections,
see MUTCD Sections 4C.05, 4C.06, and 4E.03 for standards, guidance, and
support information. In addition, this manual contains pedestrian phase timing
parameters, pedestrian detection guidelines, including accessible pedestrian
signals, and pedestrian signal head requirements (See Sections 7.4, 7.5.6, and
9.2.14).

7.4.2 Pedestrian Signal Phasing Alternatives

The use of exclusive pedestrian phasing and the leading pedestrian interval can
mitigate some of the potential pedestrian conflicts occurring during vehicular
turning movements, providing additional safety to pedestrians.
 Exclusive Pedestrian Phase: An exclusive pedestrian phase dedicates
an additional phase for the exclusive use of all pedestrians. During this
additional phase, no vehicular movements are served concurrently with
pedestrian traffic. Pedestrians can simultaneously cross any of the
intersection legs and may even be allowed to cross the intersection in a
diagonal path. This type of pedestrian phasing has an advantage of
reducing conflicts between turning vehicles and pedestrians, but it comes
at a penalty of reduced vehicular capacity and longer cycle lengths,
increasing delay to some users. An exclusive pedestrian phase is
recommended at locations that may experience high pedestrian volumes
and high conflicting vehicle turning movements during specific hours of the
day. Practitioners should determine when the exclusive pedestrian phase
is serviced, either after the major road movements or after the minor road
movements. Figure 7.16 illustrates a ring-and-barrier diagram for an
exclusive pedestrian phase.
 Leading Pedestrian Interval: A leading pedestrian interval allows the
walk indication for a pedestrian phase to be displayed prior to the
associated vehicle phase. This treatment allows a pedestrian to establish

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right-of-way in an intersection, and can also aid in pedestrian visibility for

drivers, bicyclists, and other system users. The MUTCD states that if a
leading pedestrian interval is used, it should be at least three seconds in
duration. Figure 7.17 illustrates a ring-and-barrier diagram for a leading
pedestrian interval.

Figure 7.16 – Exclusive Pedestrian Phasing

Source: Traffic Signal Timing Manual

Figure 7.17 – Leading Pedestrian Interval

Source: Traffic Signal Timing Manual

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7.5 Traffic Signal Timing

Proper signal timing is essential to the efficient operation of a signalized intersection.
The determination of appropriate user phase timings (vehicular, pedestrian, bicycle,
and/or preferential treatment) and the determination of appropriate clearance timings
constitutes the basics of signal timing. It is important to note that the process of signal
timing is not exact. There is not a one-size-fits-all method for signal timing. Practitioners
should seek an outcome-based approach for signal timing, observing the operating
environment, user priorities, and local operational objectives. Therefore, signal timing
involves judgmental elements and represents true engineering design in a most
fundamental way. It is practically impossible to develop a complete and final signal
timing plan that will not be subject to subsequent fine tuning. No straightforward signal
design and timing process can completely include and fully address all of the potential
complexities that may exist in any given situation. The yellow change interval and the
red clearance interval plus the pedestrian phase timings are traffic signal parameters
that are calculated independent of mode of operation. However, the cycle length and
individual phase green timing parameters may vary depending on the mode of
operation. The following sections address initial signal timing considerations and
provide guidelines on typical traffic signal timing controller parameters for different
modes of operation.

7.5.1 TDOT’s Role

Unless otherwise specified, TDOT typically provides basic traffic signal timings
designed to allow the safe system startup of a signalized intersection project.
Local agencies can provide initial signal timings with agreement from TDOT.
Startup signal timing should emphasize safety over efficiency and be based on
traffic volumes expected for the three years following completion of construction.

7.5.2 Traffic Signal Timing Considerations

Practitioners should initially consider the following basic information that may
affect traffic signal timing:
 Location: Signalized intersections may be located in rural, suburban, or
urban environments, requiring different signal timing objectives for each
location. Rural areas typically experience isolated intersections with higher
speeds and fewer pedestrians, cyclists, and transit vehicles. This scenario
would require strategies to accommodate indecision zone issues (See
Section 8.5.2). The focus on suburban areas is on achieving smooth flow
by minimizing stops along arterials. This scenario would require
coordinating intersections and appropriate timing plans to reflect changing
traffic patterns. Urban environments, like downtown areas, would typically
accommodate all users of the system and shorter cycle lengths may be
the desired strategy used in this situation. Practitioners should also
understand the roadway classification of the transportation network and
identify if the signalized intersection is part of a major freight route, transit
route, or has key pedestrian and bicycle crossings. Most important is the

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notion of a system of traffic signals operating in a corridor across multiple

jurisdictions. Operating agencies should coordinate their signal timing
efforts to provide users with a seamless transition and consistent
operation.
 Users: The mix of users at an intersection will influence the operational
effectiveness of signal timing. Practitioners should consider the potential
multimodal environment at intersections, understanding the relationship
and competing needs of light and heavy vehicles, pedestrians, bicycles,
emergency vehicles, and transit vehicles. Prioritizing one or a group of
users will require trade-offs of other users.

7.5.3 Data Collection

The minimum data requirements for the development of traffic signal timing is
similar to the data in the engineering study used to justify the installation of traffic
signals (See Section 4.1.1). Being time sensitive, care should be taken regarding
the relevance and accuracy of the data used. The following sections detail
additional information that can be collected to aid in the development of traffic
signal timing.
 Field Visits: Practitioners should visit the location and observe the study
area during the different times of the day to understand traffic behavior
and user interactions. It is informative to drive the corridor and notice
critical movements and platoon progression while being attentive to
bottlenecks that can potentially influence traffic demand. Queue
observation is critical for understanding capacity constrained intersections.
Traffic demand may be different than collected traffic volume at such
locations.
 Traffic Counts: In regards to traffic signal timing, the 24-hour traffic
counts provide useful information on:
• The number of timing plans that should be used during the
weekdays and weekends;
• When to transition from one timing plan to the next;
• Directional distribution of traffic along the corridor.
 Existing Traffic Signal Timing and Control Devices: When retiming a
signalized intersection (or group of intersections) is the task at hand, the
following information may be helpful to understand the current operational
situation:
• Existing traffic signal head layout;
• Existing type of traffic signal controller;
• Existing detector layout and parameter settings;

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• Existing timing plan parameter settings (minimum green, maximum

green, passage time, pedestrian parameters, clearance
parameters, cycle length, splits, offsets, etc.);
• Existing phase sequence (use of overlaps, etc.).

7.5.4 Operational Objectives

The selection of traffic signal operational objectives should reflect user needs
and current traffic conditions. Signal timing strategies will change according to
the chosen objectives. It is important to note that typical traffic signal timing
software has a focus on minimizing system vehicle delay which may not be the
desired operational objective. For example, if the operational objective is smooth
arterial flow with minimal stops, then the output from a delay minimization
software tool may need to be manually adjusted to obtain values that are
appropriate for the operational objective. Increasing the cycle length slightly may
not correspond to the minimum possible delay, but it may significantly reduce the
number of stops. Similarly, when an intersection goes from an undersaturated
state to one where demand exceeds capacity, queue management becomes the
objective rather than delay minimization. The following operational objectives
should be considered (see the Traffic Signal Timing Manual for additional
objectives):
 Vehicle Mobility – Capacity Allocation: Serve vehicle movements as
efficiently as possible, while also distributing capacity as fairly as possible
across movements and modes. Prioritize movements according to need
without excessively delaying other movements.
 Vehicle Mobility – Corridor Progression: Move vehicles along high-
priority paths (typically along high-volume movements on corridors) as
efficiently as possible without excessively delaying other movements.
 Queue Length Management: Prevent formation of excessive queues on
critical lane groups, such as freeway exit ramps.
 Pedestrian Safety and Accessibility: Minimize pedestrian involvement
in collisions, reduce pedestrian conflicts, and provide sufficient time for
pedestrians to execute movements. Provide the ability for pedestrians,
including special needs groups, to execute movements.
 Pedestrian Mobility: Serve pedestrian movements as efficiently as
possible.

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7.5.5 Yellow Change Interval and Red Clearance Interval

The yellow change interval and the red clearance interval (all-red interval) should
provide enough time so that the motorist can either stop or proceed safely
through the intersection prior to the release of opposing traffic. The purpose of
the yellow change interval is to warn the driver that the green interval has ended
and that there will be a change in right-of-way at the intersection. A red indication
will be displayed immediately thereafter. The purpose of the red clearance
interval is to allow time for vehicles that entered the intersection during the yellow
change interval to clear the intersection before the display of a conflicting green
signal indication. The red clearance interval is an optional signal timing
parameter but its use is recommended by TDOT. The TCA Section 55-8-110
requires a minimum of three seconds for the yellow change interval. The 2009
MUTCD (see Section 4D.26) recommends that the duration of the yellow change
interval and the duration of the red clearance interval shall be determined using
engineering practices. The MUTCD recommends that the yellow change interval
should have a minimum duration of three seconds and a maximum duration of
six seconds, and that the red clearance interval should have a duration not
exceeding six seconds. The MUTCD continues by stating that engineering
practices can be found in the ITE Traffic Control Devices Handbook and in the
ITE Manual of Traffic Signal Design. The first part of Equation 7.1 is used to
calculate the yellow change interval, while the last part of the equation is used to
calculate the all-red clearance interval.

Yellow Red

CP = +

Equation 7.1 – Change Interval Formula

Where,
CP = Change Period (yellow change interval plus all-red clearance interval);
t = Perception-Reaction Time (sec), typically assumed to be 1 sec;
v = Approach Speed (mph), typically the posted speed limit;
a = Average Deceleration Rate (ft/sec2), typically assumed to be 10 ft/sec2;
g = Approach Grade (±%grade/100), plus for upgrade, minus for downgrade;
W = Intersection Width (ft);
L = Vehicle Length (ft), typically assumed to be 20 ft.
Note: The NCHRP Report 731 – Guidelines for Timing Yellow and Red Intervals
at Signalized Intersections recommends the following guidelines regarding the
use of Equation 7.1:

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When calculating the yellow change interval:

 For through movements, the approach speed (v) should be the 85th
percentile speed determined under free flow conditions. If a speed study is
unavailable, the approach speed (v) can be estimated as the posted
speed limit plus seven mph.
 For left-turn movements, the approach speed (v) should be set at the
posted speed limit minus five mph.
Tables 7.4 and 7.5 present the calculated and recommended values,
respectively, for the yellow change interval based on Equation 7.1 for a 0%
approach grade. If other approach grades are being considered, the designer
should use Equation 7.1 accordingly.
Table 7.4 – Calculated Yellow Change Intervals (Based on 0% Approach Grade)

Approach Calculated Yellow Change Interval (Seconds)

Speed Through Movement Left Turn Movement
(MPH) th
85 Percentile (Posted Speed + 7 mph) [Posted Speed – 5 mph]
20 (27) [15] 3.0* 3.0* 3.0*
25 (32) [20] 3.0* 3.4 3.0*
30 (37) [25] 3.2 3.7 3.0*
35 (42) [30] 3.6 4.1 3.2
40 (47) [35] 3.9 4.5 3.6
45 (52) [40] 4.3 4.8 3.9
50 (57) [45] 4.7 5.2 4.3
55 (62) [50] 5.0 5.6 4.7
60 (67) [55] 5.4 5.9 5.0
6.0* (Add 0.5 seconds to
65 (72) [60] 5.8 5.4
red clearance)
* MUTCD minimum (3.0 seconds) and maximum (6.0 seconds) values.

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Table 7.5 – Recommended Yellow Change Intervals (Based on 0% Approach Grade)

Approach Recommended Yellow Change Interval (Seconds)

Speed Through Movement Left Turn Movement
(MPH) th
85 Percentile (Posted Speed + 7 mph) [Posted Speed – 5 mph]
20 (27) [15] 3.0* 3.0* 3.0*
25 (32) [20] 3.0* 3.5 3.0*
30 (37) [25] 3.5 4.0 3.0*
35 (42) [30] 4.0 4.5 3.5
40 (47) [35] 4.0 4.5 4.0
45 (52) [40] 4.5 5.0 4.0
50 (57) [45] 5.0 5.5 4.5
55 (62) [50] 5.0 6.0* 5.0
60 (67) [55] 5.5 6.0* 5.0
6.0* (Add 0.5 seconds to
65 (72) [60] 6.0* 5.5
red clearance)
* MUTCD minimum (3.0 seconds) and maximum (6.0 seconds) values.

When calculating the red clearance interval:

 For through movements, the intersection width (W) should be measured
from the upstream edge of the approaching movement stop line to the far
side of the intersection, as defined by the extension of the curb line or
outside edge of the farthest travel lane;
 For left-turn movements, the intersection width (W) should be the length of
the approaching vehicle’s turning path measured from the upstream edge
of the approaching movement stop line to the far side of the intersection
cross street, as defined by the extension of the curb line or outside edge
of the farthest travel lane.
 For through movements, the approach speed (v) is the same approach
speed used to calculate the yellow change interval;
 For left-turn movements, the approach speed (v) should be set at 20 mph
regardless of the posted speed limit.
 The one second is deducted from the red clearance time result in
Equation 7.1 to account for the delay that is typically exhibited by the lead
vehicle waiting on the conflicting approach to react to the green signal
display and begin moving forward. The designer has the option to add this
one second back to the red clearance time result.
 Use a minimum of one second.
Table 7.6 presents the calculated values for the 85th percentile speed red
clearance interval based on Equation 7.1 for a 0% approach grade. If other

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approach grades are being considered, the designer should use Equation 7.1
accordingly. Table 7.7 presents the recommended values for the 85th percentile
speed red clearance interval for a 0% approach grade based on
recommendations from The NCHRP Report 731 – Guidelines for Timing Yellow
and Red Intervals at Signalized Intersections.

Table 7.6 – Calculated 85th Percentile Speed Red Clearance Intervals

(Based on 0% Approach Grade)

Approach Calculated 85th Percentile Speed Red Clearance Interval (Seconds)

Speed Intersection Width (Feet)
(MPH) 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
20 0.7 1.0 1.4 1.7 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.1 3.4 3.8
25 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.5 2.8
30 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2
35 - 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7
40 - - 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4
45 - - 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.1
50 - - - 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9
55 - - - - 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
60 - - - - - 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6
65 - - - - - - 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Table 7.7 – Recommended 85th Percentile Speed Red Clearance Intervals

(Based on 0% Approach Grade)

Approach Recommended 85th Percentile Speed Red Clearance Interval (Seconds)

Speed Intersection Width (Feet)
(MPH) 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
20* 1.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 2.5 3.0 3.5 3.5 4.0
25 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.5 3.0
30 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.5
35 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0
40 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5
45 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5
50 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
55 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
60 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
65 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

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In addition to the 85th percentile speed values, Table 7.8 presents the calculated
values for the posted speed + 7 mph red clearance interval based on Equation 7.1 for
a 0% approach grade. If other approach grades are being considered, the designer
should use Equation 7.1 accordingly. Table 7.9 presents the recommended values for
the posted speed + 7 mph red clearance interval for a 0% approach grade based on
recommendations from The NCHRP Report 731 – Guidelines for Timing Yellow and
Red Intervals at Signalized Intersections.

Table 7.8 – Calculated Posted Speed + 7 MPH Red Clearance Intervals

(Based on 0% Approach Grade)

Approach Calculated (Posted Speed + 7 MPH) Red Clearance Interval (Seconds)

Speed Intersection Width (Feet)
(MPH) 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
20 (27) 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.5
25 (32) 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.8 2.0
30 (37) - 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
35 (42) - - 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.3
40 (47) - - - 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0
45 (52) - - - - 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.8
50 (57) - - - - 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7
55 (62) - - - - - 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
60 (67) - - - - - - 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
65 (72) - - - - - - - 0.1 0.2 0.3

Table 7.9 – Recommended Posted Speed + 7 MPH Red Clearance Intervals

(Based on 0% Approach Grade)

Approach Recommended (Posted Speed + 7 MPH) Red Clearance Interval (Seconds)

Speed Intersection Width (Feet)
(MPH) 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
20 (27) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.5
25 (32) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.0
30 (37) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0
35 (42) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5
40 (47) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
45 (52) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
50 (57) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
55 (62) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
60 (67) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
65 (72) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

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When there are unique conditions that may warrant modifying the parameters for
calculating the yellow change and red clearance intervals, engineering judgment
may be applied and documented with supporting information justifying the
modifications.
 Clearance Intervals and Left-Turn Phasing Considerations – NCHRP
Report 731 recommends that when calculating yellow change and red
clearance intervals for left-turning vehicles, signal phasing should ideally
be considered as follows:
• For protected-only left-turn movements, the yellow and red intervals
shall be calculated for each approach and implemented as
calculated. The intervals do not have to be the same duration for
opposing approaches.
• For permissive-only left-turn movements, the yellow and red
intervals shall be calculated for opposing approaches, including the
through movements. The implemented intervals shall be the
longest of the calculated values (left, through, or combination). The
intervals shall be the same duration for the left-turn and through
movements on opposing approaches to ensure that termination is
concurrent.
• For protected/permissive left-turn movements, the yellow and red
intervals shall be calculated and implemented as described above
for the respective protected and permissive portions of the phase.

7.5.6 Pedestrian Signal Timing Parameters

There are two parameters that need to be programmed on the controller to
adequately serve pedestrians: the walk interval and the pedestrian change
interval (i.e. FDW interval).
 Walk Interval: The walk interval typically begins at the start of the
concurrent vehicular green interval and is timed so that a pedestrian that
has pushed the pushbutton can leave the curb or shoulder and enter the
crosswalk. The MUTCD states that the walk interval should be at least
seven seconds long. The MUTCD allows the walk interval to be as low as
four seconds if an engineering study demonstrates that, due to pedestrian
volumes and intersection capacity constraints, there is no need for the full
seven seconds to be used. In areas with higher pedestrian volumes (i.e.
school zones, downtown areas, sport and entertainment venues, etc.) the
walk interval may be longer (10 to 15 seconds) to allow all waiting
pedestrians to enter the crosswalk before the walk interval concludes.
 Flashing Don’t Walk Interval: The FDW interval (i.e. pedestrian change
interval) is derived from the pedestrian clearance time. The MUTCD states
that the pedestrian clearance time should be sufficient to allow a
pedestrian crossing in the crosswalk, who left the curb or shoulder at the
end of the walk interval, to travel at a walking speed of 3.5 feet per second

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to at least the far side of the traveled way (or to a median of sufficient
width for pedestrians to wait). The pedestrian clearance time can be
calculated using Equation 7.2.

Equation 7.2 – Pedestrian Clearance Time

Where,
PCT = Pedestrian Clearance Time (seconds);
Dc = Pedestrian Crossing Distance (feet);
vp = Pedestrian Walking Speed (feet per second).

The MUTCD recommends that, where there are pedestrians who walk
slower than 3.5 feet per second and/or pedestrians who use wheelchairs
routinely at a crosswalk, a walking speed of less than 3.5 feet per second
should be considered in determining the pedestrian clearance time. The
group of pedestrians who walk slower than 3.5 feet per second may be
represented by young children, the elderly, or the physically impaired. For
these situations, the ADA Accessibility Guidelines recommend the use of
three feet per second.
The MUTCD also requires the steady don’t walk indication to be displayed
following the FDW interval for at least three seconds prior to the release of
any conflicting vehicular movement (buffer interval). Typically, the buffer
interval will be the yellow change interval plus the red clearance interval.
Therefore, the pedestrian change interval (i.e. FDW interval) can be
determined from Equations 7.3 through 7.5.

• FDW = PCT - Y (Equation 7.3)

• FDW = PCT – (Y + R) (Equation 7.4)
• FDW = PCT (Equation 7.5)
Equations 7.3 through 7.5 – Pedestrian Change Intervals
Where,
FDW = Flashing Don’t Walk (seconds);
PCT = Pedestrian Clearance Time (seconds);
Y = Yellow Change Interval (seconds);
R = Red Clearance Interval (seconds).

Equation 7.3 is preferred for most intersections; Equation 7.4 may be

considered if there are capacity constraints in the intersection; and
Equation 7.5 should be considered if there are special pedestrian crossing
needs. The minimum recommended flashing don’t walk interval is four

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seconds to account for pedestrian expectancy. FDW times should be

rounded up to the nearest integer value. Figure 7.18 illustrates the three
available pedestrian timing strategies.

Figure 7.18 – Pedestrian Intervals

Source: 2009 MUTCD

FDW = PCT – Y (Equation 7.3)

FDW = PCT – (Y + R) (Equation 7.4)

FDW = PCT (Equation 7.5)

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The traffic signal controllers’ timing tables require the input of a minimum
of two pedestrian parameters: the walk interval and the pedestrian
clearance interval. Practitioners should be cautious since the
programmable pedestrian clearance interval is, in reality, the FDW interval
calculated in Equations 7.3, 7.4, or 7.5.
The MUTCD guidance states that the combined sum of the walk interval
plus the pedestrian clearance time should also be adequate to allow a
pedestrian walking at a speed of three feet per second to travel from the
location of the pedestrian detector (or if no detector is present, a location
six feet from the edge of curb or pavement) to the far side of the traveled
way or the median.

7.5.7 Pre-timed (Fixed Time) Operation Signal Timing Parameters

Pre-timed (fixed time) operation requires the calculation of the yellow change and
red clearance intervals (See Section 7.5.5), walk and pedestrian clearance
intervals (See Section 7.5.6), plus a cycle length and phase green times for each
timing plan to be used throughout the day.
 Cycle Length for Pre-timed Operation: A cycle length is the total time
required for a complete sequence of signal indications. Cycle length
calculation is not standardized, and many different techniques are used to
estimate its value. Typically, the cycle length needed to accommodate all
of the vehicles at an intersection is estimated by identifying the
movements that require the most time using the critical movement
analysis. The critical movement analysis is a simplified technique based
on the principal that for each phase, one of the movements will have the
maximum traffic volume per lane (critical lane volume). If a phase is long
enough to discharge the vehicles in the critical lane, then all vehicles in
additional lanes serviced by the same phase will be discharged as well.
Therefore, to estimate a cycle length, it is necessary to know the sum of
the critical lane volumes (sample calculations of the critical movement
analysis can be found in the Traffic Signal Timing Manual). Practitioners
can then use the Webster formula in Equation 7.6 to estimate the cycle
length:

Equation 7.6 – Webster’s Cycle Length Estimate

Where,
C = Optimum, minimum delay cycle length (seconds);
L = Lost time per cycle (seconds);
Y = Sum of the critical lane volumes divided by saturation flow rate.

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Notes on Lost Time and Saturation Flow Rate:

• Lost time is defined as the portion of time at the beginning of each
green interval (start-up lost time) and a portion of each yellow
change plus red clearance intervals that is not used by vehicles.
The HCM states:
o Lost time = start-up lost time + clearance lost time;
o Start-up lost time = two seconds per phase;
o Clearance lost time = yellow change interval + red clearance
interval – two seconds (assumed time motorists’ use of yellow
change and red clearance intervals).
• Saturation Flow Rate is defined as the maximum flow rate, that the
conditions will allow, at which vehicles can traverse an intersection
approach. The HCM states that saturation flow rate should be:
o 1,900 pc/h/l (passenger cars per hour per lane) for
metropolitan areas with population ≥ 250,000 people;
o 1,750 pc/h/l for areas with population ˂ 250,000 people.
When using the Webster formula, it is good practice to round the result up
to the nearest multiple of five (i.e. 70, 75, 80, etc.). It is also important to
recognize that, even though the result is theoretically an optimal minimum
delay cycle as shown in Figure 7.19, the final intersection cycle length is
dependent on pedestrian requirements and coordination requirements
(See Sections 7.5.6 and 7.6, respectively).

Figure 7.19 – Webster’s Minimum Delay Cycle

As a general rule, cycle lengths should be established at the lowest value

that accommodates the required user demand. Longer cycle lengths
theoretically increase the capacity of the intersection when considering all
lanes operate under saturated flow rates. Longer cycle lengths can also
increase queue length, potentially leading to turn bay storage being
exceeded or access being blocked.

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 Phase Green Time for Pre-timed Operation: The green time for each
individual phase in an intersection can be calculated using the critical
movement analysis. It is necessary to subtract the sum of all individual
phases’ change period (yellow change and red clearance times) from the
calculated cycle length (Equation 7.7). The result is the available time that
can be apportioned between all phases’ green intervals. Then,
Equation 7.8 is used to determine each individual phase green interval.

Equation 7.7 Equation 7.8

Apportion All Phases’ Green Intervals
Where,
At = Available time to apportion between all phases’ green interval (sec);
C = Calculated cycle length (sec);
CPi = Change Period (yellow change interval plus red clearance interval)
for each phase (sec);
Gi = Phase green interval for each phase (sec);
VA = Critical lane volume for phase i (vph or pc/h/l);
VT = Sum of critical lane volumes for all phases (vph or pc/h/l).
Table 7.10 presents minimum values for phase green intervals for pre-
timed (fixed) operation.
Table 7.10 – Minimum Values for Phase Green Intervals for Pre-timed Operation
Minimum Value for Phase
Movement Type
Green Interval (Seconds)
Major Street Through (Speed Limit > 40 mph) 25
Major Street Through (Speed Limit ≤ 40 mph) 15
Major Street Left-Turn 5
Minor Street Through 10
Minor Street Left-Turn 5

The pedestrian timing requirements must be considered when determining

the phase green time for pre-timed (fixed) operation. The concurrent
phase green time shall be equal to or greater than the pedestrian timing
requirements, independent of the presence of pedestrian signal heads.
When phase green times estimated by the critical movement analysis are
made longer due to pedestrian timing requirements, it is good practice to
“rebalance” the green time of all additional phases to accommodate its
potential additional demand. Furthermore, practitioners should consider
extending the walk interval when the concurrent phase green time is
greater than the pedestrian requirements.

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7.5.8 Actuated Phase Operation Signal Timing Parameters

Actuated operation requires the calculation of the yellow change and red
clearance intervals (See Section 7.5.5), walk and pedestrian clearance intervals
(See Section 7.5.6) plus a minimum green, a maximum green, and a passage
time for each timing plan to be used throughout the day. Figure 7.20 illustrates
the relationship between actuated operation parameters.
 Minimum Green Guidelines: The minimum green parameter represents
the least amount of time that a green signal indication will be displayed
when a phase is called. The minimum green should be set to meet driver
expectancy, but its duration may also be based on considerations of
detection design or pedestrian timing requirements.
• Driver Expectancy: The minimum green setting is intended to
ensure that the green interval that is displayed is sufficiently long to
allow the waiting queue enough time to perceive and react to the
green indication. A minimum green that is too short may violate
driver expectations, increasing the potential for rear-end crashes.
Table 7.11 lists typical values for different facility types.

Table 7.11 – Typical Minimum Green Values Needed to Satisfy Driver Expectancy
Minimum Green Values
Phase Type Facility Type Needed to Satisfy Driver
Expectancy (Seconds)
Major Arterial (Speed Limit > 40 mph) 10 to 15
Through Major Arterial (Speed Limit ≤ 40 mph) 7 to 15
Minor Arterial, Collector, Local, Driveway 5 to 10
Left-Turn Any 5

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Figure 7.20 – Actuated Phase Operation Parameters

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• Queue Clearance: The duration of the minimum green can also be

influenced by detector location. When no stop line detection is used
and only advance detection is available, the minimum green setting
shall be sufficiently long to allow vehicles queued between the stop
line and the nearest advance detector to clear the intersection (to
avoid vehicle(s) getting caught in the subject area and not being
serviced). For this scenario, the minimum green can be calculated
using a combination of Equations 7.9 and 7.10.

Equation 7.9 Equation 7.10

Minimum Green Duration for Queue Clearance
Where,
Gq = Minimum green duration for queue clearance (seconds);
n = number of vehicles between stop line and nearest advance
detector in one lane;
d = distance between the stop line and the downstream edge of
the nearest detector (feet);
Lv = length of average vehicle plus spacing between vehicles,
assumed to be 25 feet
Table 7.12 lists typical values for minimum green for queue
clearance. It is important to notice that the calculated minimum
green time may lead to very inefficient intersection operations with
low vehicular demand. Therefore, the use of Volume Density
Variable Initial (See Section 7.8.1) is recommended.

Table 7.12 – Typical Minimum Green Values Needed to Satisfy Queue Clearance
Setback Detector Placement Minimum Green Values Needed to
n*
Distance from Stop Line (Feet) Satisfy Queue Clearance (Seconds)**
285 11 25
325 13 29
365 14 32
405 16 35
445 18 38
485 19 41
*n is calculated using setback detector size of 6x6 feet.
**Use volume density variable initial to minimize inefficient operation.

• Pedestrian Timing Requirements: The pedestrian timing

requirements must be considered when determining the minimum

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green time for actuated operation. First, if no pedestrian signal

heads are present, the minimum green time shall be equal to or
greater than the pedestrian timing requirements. Where pedestrian
signal heads are present, practitioners should explore controller
capabilities when deciding on the minimum green parameter. Older
technology requires the minimum green time to be equal to or
greater than the pedestrian timing requirements. Newer technology
allows the minimum green time to be calculated for vehicular needs
and the controller logic will automatically extend the minimum green
time (to meet pedestrian requirements) upon activation of the
pushbutton, providing more efficient operation.
 Maximum Green Guidelines: The maximum green parameter represents
the maximum amount of time that a green signal indication can be
displayed in the presence of a serviceable conflicting call or another phase
on recall. One common practice to estimate values for each phase
maximum green parameter is to multiply the results for phase green time
calculated using the critical movement analysis (See Section 7.5.7) by a
factor of 1.25 to 1.50. With that, the maximum green has the potential to
exceed the green duration to serve the typical maximum queue and
thereby allow the phase to accommodate peaks in demand. Table 7.13
lists typical ranges for maximum green duration for different facility types.
These values should be used as a starting point and adjusted based on
field conditions.
Table 7.13 – Typical Values for Maximum Green
Maximum Green
Phase Type Facility Type
(Seconds)
Major Arterial (Speed Limit > 40 mph) 50 to 70
Major Arterial (Speed Limit ≤ 40 mph) 40 to 60
Through
Minor Arterial, Collector 30 to 50
Local, Driveway 20 to 40
Left-Turn Any 15 to 30

 Passage Time Guidelines: The passage time parameter represents a

controller function that extends the green signal indication beyond the
minimum green time up to the maximum green time. It operates through a
timer that starts to count down (from a user defined value) from the instant
a detector is not occupied and is reset to its initial value with each
subsequent actuation if it has not yet expired. If a conflicting call exists on
another phase, the phase will gap out when the passage timer expires
before the maximum green time is reached. The phase will max out when
there is enough demand to continue to extend the phase up to the
maximum green time. If a conflicting call does not exist on another phase,
the current phase rests in green. Passage time is also known as vehicle

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extension time or gap time. Practitioners should refer to traffic signal

controller manuals to determine the appropriate parameter to be
programmed. It is critical to understand that passage time is directly
related to efficiency at a signalized intersection. A passage time of two
seconds would theoretically maintain a flow rate of 1,800 vehicles per
hour. A passage time of three seconds would theoretically maintain a flow
rate of 1,200 vehicles per hour. Therefore, as the passage time increases,
the amount of inefficient flow increases because of acceptable larger
headways and because of lost time generated when the traffic signal
remains green for the length of the selected passage time after the last
vehicle is detected (stop line scenario). The objective when determining
the passage time value is to make it large enough to ensure that all
vehicles in a moving queue are served but to not make it so large that it
extends the green for randomly arriving traffic. The appropriate passage
time used for a particular signal phase is dependent on many
considerations, including: number of detection zones per lane, location of
each detection zone, detection zone length, detection operating mode,
and approach speed (See Chapter 8). Ideally, the detection design is
established and the passage time is determined so that the “detection
system” provides efficient queue service and, for high-speed approaches,
safe phase termination.
• Passage time for stop line detection: Equation 7.11 can be used
to calculate the passage time for stop line detection (presence
mode).

Equation 7.11 – Passage Time

Where,
PT = Passage Time (sec);
MAH = Maximum Allowable Headway (sec), use 3 seconds;
Lv = Length of Vehicle (use 20 feet);
Ld = Length of Detection Zone (feet);
v = Approach Speed (mph) (the Posted Speed Limit is
Recommended).

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For stop line detection, the longer the detection zone length, the
shorter the passage time, thus providing snappier operation. Table
7.14 lists typical passage time values for stop line detection based
on Equation 7.11. These values should be used as a starting point
and adjusted based on field conditions.

Table 7.14 – Typical Values for Passage Time for Stop Line Detection
Detection Zone Passage Time (Seconds) for Approach Speed (mph)*
Length (Feet) 25** 30 35 40 45
20 1.9 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4
25 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3
30 1.6 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2
35 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.2
40 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.1
45 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.0
50 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.9
55 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9
60 0.8 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
65 0.7 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.7
70 0.5 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.6
75 0.4 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.6
80 0.3 0.7 1.1 1.3 1.5
*The passage time may be increased by up to 1.0 second if the approach is on a steep
upgrade and/or there is a large percentage of heavy vehicles.
**For left-turn movements, use an approach speed of 25 mph.
• Passage Time for Advance Detection: Advance detection is
typically used for indecision zone protection (See Section 8.5.2).
Here, the passage time parameter should extend the green interval
long enough for a vehicle to clear the indecision zone. A passage
time of 3.5 seconds is typically sufficient to clear a vehicle for the
indecision zones presented in Table 8.3, independent of approach
speed. It is necessary to note that no extend parameter or volume
density gap reduction (See Section 7.8.1) is used in combination
with the recommended passage time. When a combination of stop
line detection and advance detection is available at an intersection,
typically the queue detector parameter is used and the passage
time of 3.5 seconds is set for the advance detection.

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7.6 Traffic Signal Coordination

Coordination can be defined as the ability to synchronize multiple intersections to
enhance the operation of one or more directional movements in a system. The following
sections explore coordination objectives and fundamentals, introduce coordination
parameter guidelines, and discuss coordination complexities.

7.6.1 Traffic Signal Coordination Objectives

The latest National Traffic Signal Report Card states a common objective for the
coordination of traffic signals:
“The intent of coordinating traffic signals is to provide smooth flow
of traffic along streets and highways in order to reduce travel times,
stops and delay.”
In addition, coordination may be used to maximize throughput on a corridor
during specific times of the day. Practitioners should be aware that typical
software programs have a focus on system vehicle delay, which may not be the
selected operational objective for coordination. Well-timed coordination systems
may also be beneficial to reduce driver frustration, improve safety (less stops
resulting in less rear-end crashes), and to reduce fuel consumption and
emissions.

7.6.2 Fundamentals of Traffic Signal Coordination

The understanding of the following concepts and tools are fundamental for traffic
signal coordination design.
 Determining Intersections to be Included in the System: Determining
which intersections should be included in a coordinated system is
important. Typically, intersections spaced within ½ mile of each other will
benefit from coordination, especially during periods of large traffic demand
when platoons of vehicles may form. Intersections spaced one mile or
more apart may benefit from coordination if there is minimal access
turbulence on segments. Otherwise, Equation 7.12 can be used to
calculate the coupling index to assist in the decision process.

Equation 7.12 – Coupling Index

Where,
CI = coupling index;
V = two-way traffic volume on the street to be coordinated (vehicles/hour);
L = segment length (feet), measured between the center of the subject
intersection and the center of the adjacent signalized intersection.

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The coupling index should be analyzed for specific traffic conditions during
different times of the day based on the scale below. Adjacent segments
that have an index of 0.5 or more are considered for grouping in the signal
system.
• 0.3 or less: unlikely to benefit from coordination;
• 0.3 to 0.5: segment likely to benefit if mid-segment access point
activity is low and turn-bays are provided on the major street at
each signalized intersection;
• 0.5 or more: likely to benefit from coordination.
It is important to notice that the system cycle length (See Section 7.6.3)
may also end up influencing which signalized intersections should be
included in the system. As additional intersections are added to a system,
it becomes increasingly difficult to provide progression. Sometimes it is
better to break a long corridor into smaller segments. Typically, the “stop”
location should be where there is adequate distance between
intersections to provide storage for vehicles without impacting the
upstream intersection.
 Coordinated Phases: Coordination requires the designation of a phase
or multiple phases as the coordinated phase(s). They are selected
(toggled) at a specific traffic signal controller menu and all other phases
being used at the intersection are automatically set as non-coordinated
phases. Coordinated phases are distinguished from non-coordinated
phases because they are guaranteed a minimum amount of green time
every cycle. The guaranteed green interval can be used to maintain the
coordinated relationship between intersections.
 Time-Space Diagrams: Time-space diagrams are a visual tool that
practitioners use to analyze coordination strategies and modify traffic
signal timing plans. A time-space diagram focuses on coordinated phases
and illustrates the relationship between intersection spacing, signal timing,
and vehicle movement. Figure 7.21 illustrates a typical time-space
diagram. Basically, time-space diagrams have a graphical representation
of distance on the y-axis and time on the x-axis, overlaid by the ring-and-
barrier diagram for each intersection. Protected left-turn movements may
be represented on each ring-and-barrier by directional hatching. This
helps practitioners identify what point in the cycle a vehicle can progress.
A very important component of time-space diagrams is to depict vehicle
trajectory lines representing movement either north/south or east/west.
Flat lines represent stopped vehicles and possible queuing while a
diagonal line represents vehicles’ movement at design speed.
Furthermore, the master clock and the local clock can also be represented
in a time-space diagram. The master clock is the background timing
mechanism within the controller logic that starts daily at a pre-defined
time, usually midnight (lower traffic volumes). Each local controller clock is
referenced to the master clock for coordination to occur.

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Figure 7.21 – Time-Space Diagram

Source: Traffic Signal Timing Manual

 Bandwidth: By definition, bandwidth is the maximum amount of green

time available for a vehicle travelling in a designated direction as it passes
through a corridor at an assumed constant speed, typically measured in
seconds. Bandwidth is an ideal representation of progression, in that it
does not explicitly account for vehicle acceleration from a stop, dispersion
of vehicles as they travel from one intersection to the next, or queued
vehicles at the downstream intersections. Figure 7.21 illustrates the
concept of bandwidth. The Traffic Signal Timing Manual provides
additional information on bandwidth.

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 System Configurations: The way that the coordinated system is

configured depends on availability of communication at individual
intersections. Under time base control, each intersection traffic signal
controller works by itself and will be related to each other by the
synchronized internal clocks (or external GPS clocks). No physical
interconnect exists. Timing plans are developed and entered individually
into each controller. Additional maintenance may be required due to
drifting of individual controller clocks. Under a closed loop system, each
intersection traffic signal controller is interconnected and communicates to
an on-street master signal controller (which can be configured to
communicate to a central system). Timing plans can be downloaded to
individual intersections via the master signal controller. Lastly, a
coordinated system may be configured to have all individual intersections
communicating directly to a central system. The typical types of
interconnection used in coordinated systems are twisted-pair, fiber optic,
telephone lines, wireless radio, Ethernet, etc. Current technology enables
the ability of interconnected systems to provide extensive system
monitoring with data collection, analysis functions, reporting, and status
information beyond the usual uploading and downloading of timing
settings. It is recommended that signal timing plans reside in the local
controllers in the field to avoid potential problems with communication
failures.

7.6.3 Traffic Signal Coordination Parameters Guidelines

Several traffic signal parameters must be programmed in the traffic signal
controller for coordination to work. The following sections provide guidelines
regarding system cycle length, splits, offsets, force-offs, and pedestrian
parameters.
 System Cycle Length: In coordination, all intersections included in a
system must have a common cycle length in order to maintain a
consistent time-based relationship between intersections. It is known as
system cycle. For coordination, traffic signal timing software is typically
used to determine appropriate system cycle lengths with data collected at
representative periods of the day. Optimization models generally use a
given set of inputs (including the range of preferred cycle lengths) and
estimated performance measures to determine an optimal solution.
Practitioners should have an understanding of desired objectives (See
Section 7.6.1) and software limitations. Manual methods for determining
system cycle length can also be used in simple networks, like downtown
areas, based on constant block spacing. Nevertheless, system cycle
lengths are frequently selected to address operations at a critical (or
highest volume) intersection in a group of coordinated signalized
intersections. It is good practice to perform an analysis on intersections
requiring longer cycle lengths to determine if operation would benefit from
having the particular intersection operating independently, in full actuated

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mode. Imposing a long system cycle length may increase overall

congestion and delay in the system. A scenario with a smaller intersection
requiring a shorter cycle length may benefit by running “double cycles”
(half the system cycle length), where phases are serviced twice as often
as other intersections in the system.
 Splits: Splits are the portion of the system cycle allocated to each phase,
including the green interval, yellow change, and red clearance intervals.
Splits are selected based on individual intersection phasing and expected
demand. Therefore, splits may vary from intersection to intersection.
Similarly to system cycle length determination, splits are determined using
traffic signal timing software. When implementing splits on a traffic signal
controller, the sum of the phase splits must be equal to or less than the
programmed cycle length. Some traffic signal controllers will allow splits to
be less than pedestrian requirements. This is intended for situations in
which there are few pedestrian calls. The traffic signal controller may need
to transition (See Section 7.6.4) after servicing a pedestrian call under this
scenario.
 Offsets: Offset is the time that elapses between the master clock and the
offset reference point at each local intersection included in the system.
Therefore, each signalized intersection will also have a relative offset to
each other. It is through this association that the coordinated phase is
aligned between intersections to create the relationship for synchronized
movements. The offset reference point is a user defined traffic signal
controller parameter that helps structure the relationship between
coordinated intersections by defining the point in time when the cycle
begins timing. Offsets should be chosen based on the actual or desired
travel speed between intersections, distance between signalized
intersections, and traffic volumes. In an ideal coordinated system, offsets
would allow platoons (leaving an upstream intersection at the start of
green) to arrive at a downstream intersection near the start of green, or
after the queue from minor streets or driveways discharged (green starts
early enough to clear queued vehicles before the platoon arrives). Field
observations and software outputs (time-space diagrams) should be used
in combination to optimize the system. Figure 7.22 illustrates the
relationship between cycle, split, and offset.
 Force-offs: Force-offs are used to enforce phase splits, making sure the
traffic signal controller logic returns to serve the coordinated phases no
later than the programmed time. There are two types of force-offs, fixed
and floating, that determine how unused actuated green time on the non-
coordinated phases is shared with subsequent phases. Under fixed force-
off, when any non-coordinated phase gaps out, its remaining green time
will be made available to the following phase in sequence to use. Under
floating force-off, when any non-coordinated phase gaps out, its remaining
green time will be transferred to the coordinated phase. The selection of
force-off mode is related to operational objectives. Floating force-offs favor

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the coordinated phases, as they do not allow non-coordinated phases to

inherit time. Therefore, any unused time will always be transferred to the
coordinated phase. Floating force-off is recommended if large queues
remain at the start of green on coordinated phases or if minor movements
have low traffic demand. Fixed force-offs can be beneficial when
fluctuations in traffic demand exist and a non-coordinated phase needs
more green time during a cycle to serve a surge in traffic. In this scenario,
unused green time may be available to a subsequent phase, that in turn
may not need all of the available time and “passes” it along to the next
phase in sequence until any remaining green time is finally transferred to
the coordinated phase. Fixed force-offs can also help to prevent the early
return to green on the coordinated phases, reducing perceived delay
along the corridor. Early return to green is a term used to describe the
servicing of a coordinated phase in advance of its programmed begin time
as a result of unused time from non-coordinated phases.

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Figure 7.22 – Cycle, Split, and Offset Relationships

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 Pedestrian Timing and Walk Modes: Pedestrians can have a direct

impact on coordination along a corridor when the time required to serve
them is larger than the green time needed for servicing vehicles. When
pedestrian service is actuated and demand is relatively low, it may be
desirable to allocate a split time that is less than the time required to serve
a pedestrian. This scenario would require the traffic signal controller logic
to be shifted out of coordination, but nevertheless, it may be more
effective to transition (See Section 7.6.4) back for the occasional
pedestrian, than to serve pedestrian timing every cycle. As a general rule,
pedestrian crossing time should be provided within the split time for the
phase whenever pedestrian volume is enough that it can repeatedly cause
disruption to coordination (goes into transition). It can vary on different
timing plans. This strategy is typically used when a pedestrian call occurs
more than 20 percent of the cycles. Practitioners can select pedestrian
parameters to accommodate different operational objectives. The rest in
walk parameter makes the traffic signal controller logic dwell in the
pedestrian walk interval while the coordinated phase is green. This mode
is often used when there are high pedestrian volumes (downtown areas,
schools, etc), during appropriate times of the day (when pedestrians are
present) providing better service to pedestrians. However, this walk mode
may delay the minor street movement’s vehicular service because the
traffic signal controller still has to time the flashing don’t walk interval when
a conflicting call comes in. Figure 7.23 illustrates the rest in walk
parameter.

7.6.4 Traffic Signal Coordination Complexities

The spacing between signalized intersections is critical for achieving appropriate
coordination. Evenly spaced intersections provide a better environment for two-
way coordination than intersections that don’t present consistent spacing.
Furthermore, access management takes an important role in coordination as a
designed bandwidth may be seriously compromised with the addition of a
signalized intersection in an existing system. Also, corridor operations are
improved when driveway connections (from parking lots, etc.) are managed and
kept to a minimum, providing less platoon disruption. Turn-bay interactions can
impact the effective capacity of an intersection. Turn-bay overflows can adversely
impact progression by disrupting through traffic from proceeding to downstream
intersections. Conversely, queued vehicles on the through movement may block
access to the turn-bay causing operational issues as well. See Table 7.3 for left-
turn phase sequence strategies to minimize turn-bay challenges. Heavy volumes
from minor streets, interchanges, or driveways can affect the ability to progress
through movements along a corridor. These surplus demands often enter the
system outside the band established for through movements and disrupt
operations. Downstream intersection timing may need to be adjusted for this
scenario.

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Figure 7.23 – Rest-in-Walk Parameter

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Another coordination issue is the early return to green (See Section 7.6.3) and
selection of force-off modes is crucial for reducing perceived delay. Lastly, but
potentially very disruptive to coordination, is when the traffic signal controller
undergoes transition logic. Transition is the process of either entering into a
coordinated timing plan from free operation or changing between two plans
(potentially different cycle lengths, splits and offsets). Transition may also occur
after preemption or due to a pedestrian actuation, where pedestrian timing
requirements exceed the allocated split time for the concurrent phase.
Technically, under any of these scenarios, the local offset reference point may be
shifted, requiring an algorithm to adjust the cycle to synchronize the local clock
with the master (system) clock. The process may take from one to five cycle
lengths, a period of time where the system is not responding to coordination as
designed. Practitioners should explore appropriate transition modes for the traffic
signal controller in use at the intersection according to system objectives. It is
best practice to avoid frequent changes to timing plans, minimizing the chance
for transition to happen and allowing a coordinated pattern to be running in a
specific timing plan for at least 30 minutes. Similarly, a timing plan should be
implemented before the start (5-10 minutes earlier) of the traffic demand period
for which it was developed, especially if it is a peak period, to minimize the
disruption that transition can cause at such critical time.

7.7 Traffic Signal Timing Plans

A traffic signal timing plan is a unique set of signal timing parameters (See Section 7.5)
that can be scheduled to run at specific periods of the day, week, month, or year. In
addition, signal timing plans can be customized to weekdays, weekends, or specific
days (i.e. holidays, special events, etc.). Typically, signalized intersections experience a
peak period during the morning, mid-day, and evening, warranting different signal timing
plans. Practitioners should develop signal timing plans based on specific outcomes to
help agencies meet operational objectives during different time periods (e.g. minimize
delay vs. control queue spillbacks vs. maximize throughput, etc). For coordination (See
Section 7.6), specific patterns should be developed, including cycle length, split, offset,
etc., that will integrate with signal timing plans. Signal timing plans should always be
monitored after installation and field adjustments performed (fine-tuned) to ensure safe
and efficient operations.

7.7.1 Timing Software

Computer-based tools are available to calculate and evaluate traffic signal timing,
but software capabilities and limitations need to be recognized. A good rule of
thumb is for practitioners to have a sense for the expected answer (based on
field knowledge or a quick critical movement analysis) to check if the software
results are reasonable. Typical traffic signal timing software includes: Synchro,
PASSER, Transit 7F, TEAPAC, Tru-Traffic, etc. Simulation models may be of
great benefit for practitioners to evaluate signal timing alternatives, explore

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features, and demonstrate potential operational improvements to public officials.

Similar to traffic signal timing software, simulation capabilities and limitations
need to be recognized.

7.8 Advanced Traffic Signal Operations

Advanced traffic signal systems rely on dynamic signal timing adjustments to enhance
traffic operations. Most advanced systems require considerable investment from local
agencies for equipment and maintenance. Therefore, a SEA report is recommended to
determine if a system is appropriate for a given location based on local needs and
requirements. For additional information on SEA requirements, see TDOT’s ITS Project
Development Guidelines. The following information explores volume density, traffic
responsive, and adaptive signal control technology systems.

7.8.1 Volume Density

Volume density (also known as density timing) is an enhanced actuated
operation where actuated controller parameters (minimum green and passage
time) are automatically adjusted to improve intersection efficiency according to
varying traffic demand. Variable initial modifies the minimum green parameter
while gap reduction modifies the passage time parameter functionality.
 Variable Initial: Section 7.5.8 provided guidelines for setting the minimum
green parameter for actuated operation. It mentioned that when detection
design consists of no stop line detection and only advance detectors are
present, the minimum green needs to be long enough to allow all vehicles
queued between the stop line and the nearest advance detector to clear
the intersection. This scenario may lead to a very long minimum green
(inefficient operation with low traffic volumes) due to long detector
advance distances (typically beyond 140 feet). Here is where the use of
variable initial becomes beneficial. The variable initial allows the minimum
green to be automatically calculated by the traffic signal controller based
on the number of detection actuations placed during the yellow change
and the red intervals. Therefore, the amount of minimum green is tailored
to existing traffic demand, providing more efficient operations. This
operation requires the programming of three traffic signal controller
parameters (minimum initial, added initial, and maximum initial) and
appropriate detection settings. Due to non-standard traffic signal
terminology, practitioners should refer to traffic signal controller manuals to
determine the appropriate parameters to be programmed. Figure 7.24
illustrates variable initial operation.

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Figure 7.24 – Volume Density (Variable Initial)

Source: Traffic Signal Timing Manual

• Minimum Initial: The minimum initial is the shortest amount of time

that the green interval will be active during volume density
operation. Its setting is based on the lower range value for
minimum green time to satisfy driver expectancy. The minimum
initial is intended to allow time for motorists to respond to the onset
of the green indication. If pedestrian timing requirements are a
concern, the minimum initial timing should follow the guidelines
presented for minimum green timing in Section 7.5.8. Table 7.15
provides typical values for minimum initial settings under volume
density operations.

Table 7.15 – Volume Density Typical Values for Minimum Initial Settings
Facility Type Time (Seconds)
Major Arterial (Speed Limit > 40 mph) 10
Major Arterial (Speed Limit > 40 mph) 7
Minor Arterial, Collector 5

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• Added Initial: Because the minimum initial is set to low values,

additional time may be needed to clear the queue of vehicles which
arrived during the yellow change and red intervals. Therefore, the
added initial is the incremental amount of time (in seconds) that
accumulates for every vehicle actuation received during the
associated phase yellow change and red intervals. The cumulative
value for added initial becomes the active amount of time for the
green interval once it exceeds the minimum initial value. Because
vehicles can drive through the intersection side by side, the setting
of the added initial parameter is dependent on the number of lanes
on the approach. Table 7.16 provides typical values for added initial
settings under volume density operations.

Table 7.16 – Volume Density Typical Values for Added Initial Settings
Number of Lanes Served by Phase Time (Seconds)
1 2
2 1.5
3 or More 1.2
Note: Slightly larger values can be used if the approach has a significant upgrade, has
significant number of trucks, or the intersection width is an issue for bicycles.

• Maximum Initial: The maximum initial is the longest amount of

time that the added initial cumulative value can be extended.
Typically, the maximum initial is set according to the minimum
green for queue clearance guidelines. The maximum initial cannot
exceed the maximum green for a phase. Table 7.17 provides
typical values for maximum initial settings under volume density
operations.

Table 7.17 – Volume Density Typical Values for Maximum Initial Settings
Setback Detector Placement Distance from Stop Line (Feet) Time (Seconds)
285 25
325 29
365 32
405 35
445 38
485 41

 Gap Reduction: In certain locations and traffic conditions, it may be

desirable to have a higher passage time initially to prevent a premature
gap out when vehicles are slowly clearing the intersection. Then, as the
green phase elapses and is continuously extended, it may be desirable to
have a shorter passage time as vehicular flow decreases, allowing the

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phase to gap out more efficiently, potentially minimizing the delay for
conflicting movements. This can be accomplished by the gap reduction
feature of volume density operation. Signalized intersections with upgrade
approaches, high traffic volumes, or considerable heavy vehicle volume
may benefit from gap reduction. This operation requires the programming
of four traffic signal controller parameters (passage time, time before
reduction, time to reduce, and minimum gap). Gap reduction can be used
with stop line detection and advance detection. Due to non-standard traffic
signal terminology, practitioners should refer to traffic signal controller
manuals to determine the appropriate parameters to be programmed.
Figure 7.25 illustrates gap reduction operation.

Figure 7.25 – Volume Density (Gap Reduction)

Source: Traffic Signal Timing Manual

• Passage Time: For stop line detection, the passage time should be
set using Equation 7.11 (See Section 7.5.8), but a maximum
allowable headway of four seconds should be used. Table 7.18
provides typical passage time values for stop line detection. For
advance detection, the passage time should be calculated as the
time it takes a vehicle to travel from the nearest advance detector
to the stop line (distance from the detector/approach speed). When
indecision zone protection is provided (See Section 8.5.2), the use
of gap reduction is not recommended.

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Table 7.18 – Volume Density Gap Reduction Settings for Passage Time
(Stop Line Detection)
Detection Passage Time (Seconds) for Approach Speed (mph)
Zone
Length 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
(Feet)
20 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.6
25 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.5
30 2.6 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.5
35 2.5 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.4
40 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.4
45 2.2 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3
50 2.1 2.4 2.6 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3
55 2.0 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.2
60 1.8 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2
65 1.7 2.1 2.3 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1
70 1.5 2.0 2.2 2.5 2.6 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1
75 1.4 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0
80 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.8 2.9 3.0
*The passage time may be increased by up to 1.0 second if the approach is on a steep
upgrade and/or there is a large percentage of heavy vehicles.

• Time Before Reduction: The time before reduction determines the

amount of time to be elapsed after a conflicting call is received and
before the passage time is allowed to be reduced. In most cases, it
should equal the minimum green setting (See Section 7.5.8).
Table 7.19 provides typical time before reduction values.

Table 7.19 – Volume Density Gap Reduction Settings for Time Before Reduction
Minimum Green (Seconds) Time (Seconds)
5 10
10 10
15 15
20 20

• Time to Reduce: The time to reduce determines the amount of

time to be elapsed during the linear reduction of the passage time
to the minimum gap value. It should equal one-half of the difference
between the maximum green and the minimum green setting.
Table 7.20 lists typical values for the time to reduce parameter.

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Table 7.20 – Volume Density Gap Reduction Settings for Time to Reduce
(Stop Line Detection)
Minimum Maximum Green (Seconds) for Approach Speed (mph)
Green
(Seconds) 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23 25 28 30 33
10 5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23 25 28 30
15 N/A 5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23 25 28
20 N/A N/A 5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23 25

• Minimum Gap: The minimum gap determines the minimum value

for the passage time to be reduced to. For stop line detection, the
minimum gap should be set using Equation 7.11 (See Section
7.5.8), but a maximum allowable headway of two seconds should
be used. Table 7.21 provides typical minimum gap values for stop
line detection. For advance detection, the minimum gap should be
set to two seconds with pulse mode detection. Again, when
indecision zone protection is provided (See Section 8.5.2), the use
of gap reduction is not recommended.

Table 7.21 – Volume Density Gap Reduction Settings for Minimum Gap
(Stop Line Detection)
Detection Passage Time (Seconds) for Approach Speed (mph)
Zone
Length
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
(Feet)
20 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6
25 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.5
30 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5
35 0.5 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4
40 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4
45 0.2 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3
50 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
55 0.0 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2
60 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
65 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
70 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
75 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
80 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0
*The passage time may be increased by up to 1.0 second if the approach is on a steep
upgrade and/or there is a large percentage of heavy vehicles.

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7.8.2 Traffic Responsive Plan Selection Systems

A TOD plan selection works well when traffic conditions are consistent and
predictable – that is, similar traffic patterns generally occur during the same times
each day. When an incident, a planned event (e.g., construction, county fair,
football game, etc.), extreme weather, or any other unusual occurrence causes a
significant change in the normal traffic conditions, the timing plan selected by the
TOD method may not be the plan best suited to current conditions. To address
this situation, the TRPS uses data from traffic detectors, rather than TOD, to
automatically select the coordinated timing plan best suited to current conditions.
Plan selection for responsive operations may also be invoked manually.
Agencies operating traffic signals from their traffic management centers have the
ability to use predetermined plans for planned special events or recurring
congestion on an as-needed basis. TRPS normally takes place on a field master
or central system. Considerable effort may be needed to:
 Identify vehicle detectors that will provide adequate representation of
traffic conditions;
 Establish appropriate parameter values associated with detectors;
 Establish appropriate threshold values to trigger the implementation of
new timing plans;
 Fine-tune once TRPS is implemented.
Historical traffic count data is necessary before the detector selection and setup
begins. Furthermore, transition (See Section 7.6.4) may become a problem due
to frequent changes in the timing plan. Therefore, it is recommended that the
current timing plan be running for a minimum amount of time before a new plan
can be implemented, and the new timing plan must typically be a certain
percentage improvement over the current running plan. Traffic responsive plan
selection systems merely select a timing plan to operate, but do not make
changes to the timings specified in the timing plan. That is the role of adaptive
traffic signal control. For additional information regarding TRPS systems, refer to
the Traffic Signal Timing Manual.

7.8.3 Adaptive Signal Control Technology Systems

ASCT systems are a concept where vehicular traffic in a network is detected at
an upstream and/or downstream point. A model is used to predict where the
detected vehicular traffic will be and an algorithm makes signal adjustments at
the downstream intersections based on those predictions. The signal controller
utilizes these algorithms to compute optimal signal timings based on detected
traffic volume and simultaneously implements the timings in real-time. This real-
time optimization allows a signal system to react to traffic volume variations,
resulting in potential reduced system user delay, shorter queues, and decreased
travel times. Adaptive systems are critically linked to good, reliable detection
systems. ASCT systems will provide the best operational improvements where:
 Traffic conditions fluctuate randomly on a day-to-day basis;

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 Traffic conditions change rapidly due to new developments in land use;

 Incidents, crashes, or other events result in unexpected changes to traffic
demand;
 Other disruptive events, such as preemption, require a response;
 Under-saturated conditions exist.
It is important to understand that ASCT systems are not set-and-forget systems.
They require ongoing fine-tuning and higher levels of maintenance than
traditional systems, in order to keep the detection and communications
infrastructure working at a high level of performance. For additional information
regarding ASCT systems, refer to the Traffic Signal Timing Manual.

7.9 Traffic Signal Priority

TSP is a type of preferential treatment based on an operational strategy communicated
between vehicles and traffic signals (or through detection vehicle type classification) to
alter the signal timing for the benefit or priority of those vehicles (mostly transit and
heavy trucks). Coordination will not be affected by priority. Service is not guaranteed
during a priority request. TSP may be accomplished through the following methods:
 Green/Phase Extension: Involves the extension of the preferred phase green
interval past its normal termination point to prevent long delays for preferred
vehicles that are anticipated to arrive near the end of the green interval (transit
and heavy trucks);
 Red Truncation/Early Green: Involves shortening the duration of non-preferred
phases in order to return earlier than normal to the green interval of the preferred
phase, preventing additional delays to preferred vehicles (transit and heavy
trucks);
 Phase Insertion: Involves the activation of a special, dedicated phase that is not
served during normal (non-preferred) operations, and is only displayed when a
preferred vehicle has been detected at the intersection. It is typically used to
provide service to lanes dedicated to preferred vehicles or to support queue
jumps, allowing preferred vehicles to enter a downstream link ahead of the
normal traffic stream;
 Phase Sequence Change: Involves changing the sequence of phases to
provide more immediate service to the preferred vehicle;
 Phase Skipping: Involves skipping service for non-preferred phases that would
normally be served, in order to expedite service to preferred phases.
The MUTCD Section 4D.27 requires that during priority control and during the transition
into or out of priority control:
 The shortening or omission of any yellow change interval, and of any red
clearance interval that follows, shall not be permitted;

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 The shortening of any pedestrian walk interval below that time described in
MUTCD Section 4E.06 shall not be permitted;
 The omission of a pedestrian walk interval and its associated change interval
shall not be permitted, unless the associated vehicular phase is also omitted or
the pedestrian phase is exclusive;
 The shortening or omission of any pedestrian change interval shall not be
permitted;
 A signal indication sequence from a steady yellow signal indication to a green
signal indication shall not be permitted.
For additional information on traffic signal priority, refer to the Traffic Signal Timing
Manual and to the Transit Signal Priority Handbook.

7.10 Traffic Signal Preemption

Traffic signal preemption is a type of preferential treatment that involves the transfer of
normal operation of a traffic control signal to a special control mode of operation,
typically including trains and emergency vehicles. Coordination will be affected by
preemption and a service is guaranteed during a preemption request. The MUTCD
Section 4D.27 requires that during the transition into preemption control:
 The yellow change interval, and any red clearance interval that follows, shall not
be shortened or omitted;
 The shortening or omission of any pedestrian walk interval and/or pedestrian
change interval shall be permitted;
 The return to the previous green signal indication shall be permitted following a
steady yellow signal indication in the same signal face, omitting the red clearance
interval, if any.
The MUTCD Section 4D.27 further requires that during preemption control and during
the transition out of preemption control:
 The shortening or omission of any yellow change interval, and of any red
clearance interval that follows, shall not be permitted;
 A signal indication sequence from a steady yellow signal indication to a green
signal indication shall not be permitted.
The following describes emergency vehicle preemption and railroad preemption.

7.10.1 Emergency Vehicle Preemption

Various mechanisms can be used to preempt traffic signals so that emergency
vehicles are provided with safe right-of-way as soon as practical. Emergency
preemption systems allow emergency vehicles to interrupt the normal sequence
of traffic signal phasing and provide preferential treatment to the approach with
the emergency vehicle. To accomplish the operation, a flexible response system

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is deployed using either a light emitter or siren in the vehicle and a receiver
connected to the traffic signal controller at various intersections. The receiver
sends a message to the signal controller, which terminates the current phase and
skips to the green interval on the required approach. Emergency vehicle
preemption should be considered at signalized intersections along key roadways
and routes to and from hospitals, fire stations, and police stations. Figure 7.26
shows an emergency vehicle preemption sequence. TDOT will normally install
emergency vehicle preemption detection devices (optical or siren activated
priority control systems) as a part of a traffic signal installation or upgrade project,
upon request of the local governing agency. TDOT will normally not provide
emitter/transponders unless the project’s purpose is to provide a city-wide or
area-wide preemption system and conforms with the area-wide or regional ITS
architecture. The typical information to be shown on traffic signal construction
plans for emergency vehicle preemption is shown in Figure 7.27.
 Methods of Emergency Vehicle Preemption - Several methods of traffic
signal preemption are typically utilized for emergency vehicles:
• Hardwired from Source: A connection between the traffic signal
controller and the source of an emergency call (e.g. fire station)
allows preemption.
• Optically Activated: Optical preemption systems consist of an
emitter mounted on a vehicle, detectors mounted above the
intersection, and a phase selector and other equipment in the traffic
signal controller cabinet. The detector senses the optical pulses
emitted by properly equipped emergency vehicles and informs the
traffic signal controller of the presence of designated vehicles.
• Siren Activated: Siren preemption systems consist of detectors
mounted above the intersection and a phase selector and other
equipment in the traffic signal controller cabinet. The system is
activated by a Class A electronic siren.
• GPS Activated: GPS preemption systems consist of a GPS
receiver and a radio antenna at the intersection to receive a coded
signal with approach information from the emergency vehicle
equipped to send preemption GPS coded information to the
intersection.

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Figure 7.26 – Emergency Vehicle Preemption Sequence

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Figure 7.27 – Emergency Vehicle Preemption Design Example

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7.10.2 Railroad Preemption

Railroad preemption is a special signal phasing sequence which is actuated upon
the detection of a train and is designed to clear traffic off the railroad tracks prior
to the arrival of the train at the highway-rail grade crossing. Furthermore, railroad
preemption shall inhibit movements that cross the railroad tracks until the train
has cleared the crossing. It results in a special traffic signal operation, depending
on the relation of the railroad tracks to the intersection, the number of phases of
the traffic signal, and other traffic conditions. Railroad preemption is normally
controlled by the highway-rail grade crossing warning equipment, which sends a
signal to the traffic signal controller to initiate preemption of the traffic signal.
Traffic signal preemption at a railroad crossing requires a permit with the railroad
authority. The highway agency and railroad authority should coordinate to
understand the operation of each other’s system(s). In order to determine the
minimum preemption warning time, factors such as equipment response and
programmed delay times, minimum green signal time, vehicular and pedestrian
clearances, queue clearances, and the train/vehicle separation times should be
considered.
 Railroad Preemption Warrant: The MUTCD Section 4C.10 presents the
standards and guidelines to determine if a traffic signal is warranted near
a highway-rail crossing. If warranted, preemption control shall be provided
in accordance to the MUTCD Sections 4D.27, 8C.09 and 8C.10.
 Railroad Preemption Pre-Signals: Pre-signals are traffic control signal
faces that control traffic approaching a highway-rail crossing, in
conjunction with the traffic control signal faces that control traffic
approaching an intersection beyond the tracks. Pre-signals are typically
used where the clear storage distance is insufficient to store one or more
design vehicles. The clear storage distance is the distance available for
vehicle storage, measured between six feet from the rail nearest the
intersection to the intersection stop line or the normal stopping point on
the highway. The MUTCD Section 8C.09 presents the standards and
guidelines regarding the use of pre-signals.
 Railroad Preemption Sequence: The preemption sequencing of two-
phase and three-phase traffic signals are shown in Figure 7.28. Railroad
preemption for an eight-phase intersection is shown in Figure 7.29. As the
figures show, the basic phases of the sequence are a right-of-way change
interval, a clear track interval, and preemption hold phasing (while the train
is occupying the highway-rail grade crossing).

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Figure 7.28 – Railroad Preemption Sequence (2 or 3-Phase Operation)

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Figure 7.29 – Railroad Preemption Sequence (8-Phase Operation)

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Railroad preemption of the traffic signal should have the following

sequence:
1. A yellow change interval and any required all-red clearance interval
for any signal phase that is green or yellow when preemption is
initiated and which will be red during the track clearance interval.
The length of yellow change and all-red clearance intervals shall
not be altered by preemption. Phases which will be green during
the track clearance interval and which are already green when
preemption is initiated, shall remain green. Any pedestrian walk or
pedestrian change interval, in effect when preemption is initiated,
shall immediately be terminated and all pedestrian signal faces
shall display steady don’t walk indication;
2. A track clearance interval for the traffic signal phase or phases
controlling the approach which crosses the railroad tracks;
3. Depending on traffic requirements and phasing of the traffic signal
controller, the traffic signal may then do one of the following:
• Go into flashing operation, with flashing red or flashing
yellow signal indications for the approaches parallel to the
railroad tracks and flashing red signal indications for all other
approaches. Pedestrian signals shall be inactive;
• Revert to limited operation with those signal indications
controlling through and left turn approaches towards the
railroad tracks displaying steady red. Permitted pedestrian
signal phases shall operate normally;
4. The traffic signal shall return to normal operation following the
release of preemption control.
The typical information to be shown on traffic signal construction plans for
railroad preemption is shown in Figure 7.30.
 Railroad Preemption Turn Restrictions: According to the MUTCD
Section 8B.08, a blank-out sign, changeable message sign, other similar
type sign, and/or appropriate highway traffic signal indication may be used
to prohibit turning movements toward the highway-rail grade crossing
during preemption. A blank-out sign displays a blank face unless internally
illuminated upon activation, showing the message/symbol No Left Turn
(R3-2) or No Right Turn (R3-1). Blank-out signs are useful as part of the
railroad preemption sequence at signalized intersections immediately
adjacent to grade crossing. At these locations, turn prohibition blank-out
signs can prevent traffic from turning into and occupying the limited
storage area between the tracks and the intersection, and eventually
blocking the intersection itself. These signs are activated upon initiation of
the railroad preemption and deactivated after the preemption is
completed.

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Figure 7.30 – Railroad Preemption Design Example

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 Railroad Preemption Terminology: Railroad preemption signal timing

design includes the calculation and programming of minimum warning
time, constant warning time, equipment response time, minimum time,
clearance time, buffer time, advance preemption time, total approach time,
etc. For additional information regarding railroad preemption, refer to the
Traffic Signal Timing Manual.

7.10.3 Multiple Preemption

A combination of railroad, emergency preemption, and priority control is allowed
at an intersection. There is usually a hierarchy in determining which preemption
and/or priority occurs first when more than one is received by the traffic signal
controller. The traffic signal controller preemption priority hierarchy shall be as
follows:
1. Railroad Train Preemption; over
2. Boat Preemption; over
3. Heavy Vehicle Emergency Vehicle Preemption (Fire, Rescue, or
Ambulance); over
4. Light Vehicle Emergency Vehicle Preemption (Law Enforcement); over
5. Light Rail Transit Priority; over
6. Rubber Tire Transit Priority.

7.11 Flashing Operations

All traffic signals are programmed to operate in the flash mode for emergencies. Signals
may also operate in maintenance flash, railroad preemption flash, or scheduled
operational flash modes. The type of flash used (all-red or yellow-red) must be
considered carefully. Driver expectation is an important factor. Drivers are conditioned
to react to situations through their experiences. Mixing the types of flash can confuse
drivers if they are accustomed to the all-red flash. The benefits of operating a mixed-
color flash must be weighed against the disadvantages. Violation of driver expectation
can be a disadvantage of a mixed-color flash. Flashing operations of a traffic signal
shall comply with MUTCD Sections 4D.28, 4D.29, 4D.30 and 4D.31.

7.11.1 Types of Flashing Operation

Flashing mode operation can be characterized by planned and unplanned
operation. More specifically:
 Emergency Flash: Emergency flash mode is used when the conflict
monitor (malfunction management unit) senses a malfunction. Emergency
flash shall use all-red flash exclusively.

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 Maintenance Flash: Maintenance flash mode can be programmed for the

operation of the intersection during routine maintenance. Yellow-red flash
can be used if the main street traffic is significantly more than the minor
street traffic.
 Scheduled Flash: Traffic signals can operate in scheduled flash mode as
a time-of-day operation (e.g. nighttime flash). Nighttime flash can reduce
delay at intersections operating in the fixed time mode. Scheduled flash
mode typically uses the yellow-red flash type operation. Nighttime flash
should not be used at fully actuated intersections unless all other
intersections in the area operate nighttime flash. Again, driver expectation
is a major factor in this decision. Isolated actuated traffic signals do not
normally have a programmed flash mode operation. If a traffic signal using
LED indications is placed in an automatic flashing mode during the night,
the LED signal indications should be dimmed to reduce the brightness of
the indications.
 Railroad Preemption Flash: When a traffic signal is preempted by a
train, flashing operation may be used while the train is going through the
crossing. Either all-red flash or yellow-red flash can be used.

7.11.2 Flashing Operation Signal Display

The following describes the all-red and the yellow-red flashing operation:
 All-Red Flash: This type of flashing operation flashes red to all
intersection approaches. It may be used under the following conditions:
• Traffic Volumes: Traffic volumes on the two intersecting streets
are approximately equal.
• Minor Street Delay: Minor street traffic would experience
excessive delays and/or hazard in trying to cross the major street
with yellow flashing signal indications. Engineering judgment must
be used to balance this benefit against the delay that will be
experienced by the major street traffic.
• Minor Street Sight Distance: Minor street traffic has insufficient
sight distance to safely enter or cross the major street with yellow
flashing signal indications.
 Yellow-Red Flash: This type of flashing operation is the most common
and flashes yellow to the major street and red to the minor street. Minor
street sight distance, as well as the difficulty the minor street traffic will
have crossing the major street, must be considered.

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CHAPTER 8
TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN –
DETECTION
8.1 Detection
Detection is a critical component of traffic signal design. Detectors provide the traffic
signal controller with the information necessary to determine the servicing of roadway
users. The sections below explore detection objectives and location. Furthermore,
guidelines on detection parameters and phase recalls are presented. Lastly, guidelines
for detection design of low-speed and high-speed approaches are discussed in addition
to pedestrian detection design and types of detection.

8.1.1 Detection Objectives

Enhancing intersection safety and efficiency are the overall goals of traffic signal
detection design. The following items characterize specific detection objectives:
 Identify user presence for a movement and call its phase when the phase
is red;
 Extend a phase when the phase is green;
 Identify gaps in traffic where a phase should end due to no traffic or
inefficient flow;
 Provide safe phase termination at the onset of the yellow indication for
high-speed vehicle movements;
 Monitor intersection performance using measure of effectiveness logs.

8.1.2 Detection Location

Detection can be located at the stop line or upstream from an intersection.
Typically, stop line detection addresses intersection efficiency issues while
upstream detection addresses intersection safety issues. See Sections 8.4 and
8.5 for specific detection design guidelines.
 Stop line Detection: Stop line detection is used for approaches below 35
mph on through lanes, exclusive left-turn lanes and exclusive right-turn
lanes. Stop line detection may also be used in conjunction with upstream
detection for high-speed approaches. Stop line detection is located where
vehicles are anticipated to stop, but should be extended a minimum of
three feet and not more than five feet beyond the stop line.
 Advance Detection: Advance detection is used for approaches 35 mph
or higher typically located in the path of vehicles on through lanes, and in
advance of the stop line (see Section 8.5). Advance detection provides
information on vehicles approaching the intersection that can be used to
safely terminate a phase on the onset of the yellow indication.

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8.2 Detection Parameters

Several detection settings will influence intersection operation. The following modes will
provide information on the typical detection parameters: presence and pulse, locking
and non-locking, delay, extend, call, queue, and detector switching. Note: The
terminology of detection parameters is not consistent between vendors; therefore,
specific vendor manuals should be consulted for appropriate parameter selection and
settings.

8.2.1 Detection Operating Modes

The detector’s operating mode influences the duration of the actuation submitted
to the traffic signal controller by the detector unit. One of two modes (presence or
pulse) can be used.
 Presence: Presence mode is used to measure occupancy. The actuation
starts with the arrival of the vehicle to the detection zone and ends only
when the vehicle leaves the detection zone. The actuation time duration
depends on vehicle length, detection zone length, and speed. Presence
mode is typically the default mode and is typically associated with stop line
detection.
 Pulse: Pulse mode is used to count vehicles. The actuation starts with the
arrival of the vehicle to the detection zone and ends after the pulse
activation (usually 0.10 to 0.15 seconds). Pulse mode is typically
associated with advance detection.

8.2.2 Detection Memory Modes

The detector’s memory modes affects the ability of the traffic signal controller to
remember an actuation received during a red interval. It can be set to locking or
non-locking mode.
 Locking: In the locking mode, the first actuation received by the traffic
signal controller on a specified channel during the red interval is used to
trigger a continuous call for service. This call is retained until the assigned
phase is serviced, regardless of whether or not any vehicles are waiting to
be served. Locking mode is usually associated with advance detection.
Locking mode will prevent the ability of permissive movements (Right-
turning vehicles) to be completed without invoking a phase change.
 Non-Locking: In the non-locking mode, an actuation received from a
detector is not retained by the traffic signal controller after the actuation is
dropped by the detection unit. The traffic signal controller recognizes the
actuation only during the time when there is a vehicle in the detection
zone. Non-locking mode is usually associated with stop line detection.
When coupled with the delay parameter (See Section 8.2.3), non-locking
mode allows permissive movements to be completed without invoking a
phase change, potentially improving intersection efficiency (e.g. RTOR
scenario).

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All actuations received during a green interval are treated as non-locking by the
traffic signal controller.

8.2.3 Detection Modifiers

Detector modifiers have the ability to alter the actuations received by the traffic
signal controller to improve intersection operations.
 Delay: Delay is used to temporarily disable the detector output for a
phase, essentially preventing vehicle actuations from being recognized
right away by the signal controller. An actuation is not made available
unless the delay timer has expired and the detection zone is still occupied.
The delay parameter should be considered for RTOR scenarios. Its use is
recommended for exclusive right-turn lanes on minor streets operating
with stop line detection, presence mode detection, or adjacent through
movement phases not on recall (See Section 8.3). An analysis of the
number of gaps available on the major road is necessary to make sure
that right-turning vehicles will not be further delayed when the delay
parameter is in use. The delay setting could range from eight to twelve
seconds, but should be fine-tuned for each individual location. The delay
parameter should also be considered to prevent erroneous calls from
being registered in the traffic signal controller if vehicles tend to traverse
over another phase’s detection zone. For example, left-turning vehicles
often cut across the perpendicular left-turn lane at the end of their turning
movement. A detector delay, coupled with non-locking memory, would
prevent a call from being placed for the unoccupied detector. The delay
setting could range from two to five seconds, but should be fine-tuned for
each individual location.
 Extend: Extend is used to temporarily increase the duration of a detection
actuation. An actuation continues to be made available to the traffic signal
controller as the detection zone becomes unoccupied, and the call is
retained until the extension timer expires. The extend parameter is
typically used with detection designs that combine multiple advance
detectors on high-speed intersection approaches. It is applied to advance
detectors that extend the green interval to ensure that a vehicle
approaching the intersection at design speed has sufficient time to reach
the next downstream detector. The extend parameter setting is dependent
on the approach speed, detector size; and distance between detectors.
Typical values range up to two seconds.
 Call: The call parameter allows the traffic signal controller to receive
actuations only when it is not timing a green interval. Therefore, actuations
received during the green interval are ignored (no extension of the phase
is possible). The call parameter is typically used with detection designs
that combine advance detection and stop line detection. Here, the call
parameter is set to the stop line detection to ignore the actuation these
detectors receive during the green interval. Advance detection would be

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used to ensure safe and efficient operation during the green interval.
Locations where detection design uses only advance detection, but where
a driveway exists between the stop line and the advance detection, can
also benefit from a call detector. It would be placed on the driveway to
ensure service to vehicles that have not crossed the advance detection.
 Queue: The queue parameter allows the traffic signal controller to receive
actuations for a determined amount of time to service the initial queue, at
which time it is deactivated until the start of the next conflicting phase. The
call parameter is typically used with detection designs that combine
advance detection and stop line detection. Here, the queue parameter is
set to the stop line detection and practitioners would determine the
amount of time necessary to serve the typical queue. Once that time is
elapsed, the stop line detection is deactivated and the advance detection
would be used to ensure safe operation during the remainder of the green
interval.
 Detector Switching: Detector switching allows detectors to extend a call
for one phase and then send calls to another phase (switch phase) once
the extend phase ends. Detector switching is commonly used on left-turn
lane detectors under protected/permissive operations. Vehicles detected
on left-turn lanes are switched to extend the through phase during the
permitted portion of the phase to provide more time for vehicles making
left-turn movements. Detector switching is a recommended operational
strategy when coordinated operation constrains and pedestrian timing
requirements limit the ability of providing additional time to protected left-
turn movements. Table 8.1 provides a summary of the typical settings for
detector switching at a standard eight-phase intersection with protected/
permissive operation on all approaches.

Table 8.1 – Typical Detector Switching Settings

Switch Phase
Phase Extend Phase Five-Section Signal Head Flashing Yellow Arrow
Protected/Permissive Protected/Permissive
Operation Operation
1 1 6 2
3 3 8 4
5 5 2 6
7 7 4 8

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8.3 Phase Recalls

A phase recall causes the traffic signal controller to place a call automatically for a
specified phase, regardless of the presence of any detector-actuated calls (vehicular or
pedestrian). Phase recalls are most commonly used on major road through phases,
causing the signal indication to rest in green on the main street in the absence of
demand on other phases. There are four types of phase recalls: minimum recall,
maximum recall, soft recall, and pedestrian recall. Table 8.2 provides typical phase
recall settings assuming a single detector per lane.

8.3.1 Minimum Recall

The minimum recall parameter causes the traffic signal controller to place a call
for vehicle service on a phase in order to serve at least its minimum green
duration.

8.3.2 Maximum Recall

The maximum recall parameter causes the traffic signal controller to place a
continuous call for vehicle service on a phase in order to run its maximum green
duration every cycle.

8.3.3 Soft Recall

The soft recall parameter causes the traffic signal controller to place a call for
vehicle service on a phase in the absence of a serviceable conflicting call.

8.3.4 Pedestrian Recall

The pedestrian recall parameter causes the traffic signal controller to place a
continuous call for pedestrian service on a phase.

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Table 8.2 – Typical Phase Recall Settings

Detection
Memory Mode
Recall Location
Recommended Use
Mode Stop Non-
Setback Locking
Bar Locking
• Major road through movement phases;
● ● semi-actuated, non-coordinated
intersections.
• Ensures that traffic signal controller will
Minimum or return to major road through
Recall movement phases regardless of
demand, where it will rest in green until
a conflicting call comes in. Phase
● ●
green time is extended based on
vehicle actuations.
• When fixed time operation is desired.
• When detection is temporarily out of
Maximum
No Detectors Not Applicable service.
Recall
• Note: May result in inefficient
operation.
• Major road through movement phases;
● ● fully-actuated, non-coordinated
intersections.
• Ensures that traffic signal controller
Soft Recall will rest on these phases’ green in the
or
absence of calls on conflicting phases,
and allow major road through
movement phases to be skipped in the
● ● absence of major street phase calls
when calls exist on other phases.
• Pedestrian detection is not present or
out of service.
Pedestrian
Not Applicable Not Applicable • High pedestrian demand on specific
Recall
locations and/or at times of the day
(downtown areas, schools, etc.).

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8.4 Detection Design for Approaches Below 35 MPH

Providing efficient operations is the main objective when designing detection for
approaches with a posted speed limit below 35 mph. Basically, the goal is to call the
low-speed approach phases and clear the standing queue while minimizing delay. The
use of only stop line detection is typical practice. The length of the detection zone and
its parameter settings is dependent on the type of detection used. The use of large
detection zones (either through a single larger detection zone or multiple smaller
detectors) allows practitioners to reduce the passage time parameter (See
Section 7.5.8), thus preventing premature termination of the phase due to sluggish
traffic, yet allowing for snappy termination when the last vehicle passes the stop line.
Fundamentally, the length of the detection zone provides the ability for the extension of
the green interval, thereby improving intersection efficiency, since there is no need to
time a larger passage time once the detection zone is not occupied. Figure 8.1
illustrates schematics for typical detection design for approaches below 35 mph.
Figure 8.2 provides typical inductive loop (See Section 8.8.1) design for approaches
below 35 mph.

Figure 8.1 – Typical Detection Design Schematics (< 35 MPH)

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Figure 8.2 – Inductive Loop Detection (< 35 MPH)

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8.5 Detection Design for Approaches 35 MPH or Above

Detection design on approaches with a posted speed limit 35 mph or above should
focus on serving the queue at the beginning of green and safely terminate the phase
once there is a conflicting call. The design of advance detection on approaches 35 mph
or above requires special attention. Drivers, when faced with the onset of the yellow
indication, may have problems deciding whether to stop or to proceed through the
intersection. This scenario is related to two issues that are often confused:

8.5.1 Timing of the Yellow Change Interval

Incorrect timing of the yellow change interval will lead to a dilemma zone
situation where a yellow is too short for a vehicle to safely enter the intersection,
but the vehicle is too close to the stop line to safely stop. See Section 7.5.5 for
recommendation on the appropriate timing of the yellow change interval. It is
important to note that even with well-designed yellow change intervals, drivers
will still experience the dilemma zone when driving above the design speed limit.

8.5.2 Driver Behavior

The human factors of driver perception, reaction, and judgment lead to an
indecision zone where each individual driver makes a different decision upon
seeing the yellow signal indication; some drivers may stop and others may go.
Research has shown that the limits of the indecision zone tend to be between 5.5
(beginning) and 2.5 (end) seconds of travel time from the stop line. To minimize
the effects of the indecision zone, advance detection should be located at the
beginning of the indecision zone and settings (passage time, extension, or a
combination of both parameters) programmed to prevent a phase from
terminating before a vehicle clears the indecision zone. Once the vehicle has
cleared the indecision zone, the onset of the yellow takes place. Appropriate
yellow change and red clearance (See Section 7.5.5) should provide enough
time for the vehicle to navigate safely through the intersection. Table 8.3 provides
recommended advance detection location.
Table 8.3 – Typical Advance Detection Placement
Begin of Indecision End of Indecision Setback Detection
Approach
Zone (5.5 Seconds Zone (2.5 Seconds Placement Distance
Vehicular Speed
from Stop Line) from Stop Line) from Stop Line
(MPH)
(Feet) (Feet) (Feet)
35 285 125 285
40 325 145 325
45 365 165 365
50 405 180 405
55 445 200 445
60 485 220 485

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In summary, appropriate timing of the yellow change interval for the design
speed, coupled with detection and settings that minimize the chance for a vehicle
to be in the indecision zone on the onset of the yellow signal display, will provide
acceptable approach detection design. Detection design for approaches 35 mph
or above varies from simple advance detection designs to more complex designs
using two or three advance detectors, with some designs incorporating stop line
detection and advance detection together. When a phase maxes out (See
Section 7.5.8) or is forced off by coordination (See Section 7.6), there is no
indecision zone protection. Figure 8.3 illustrates schematics for typical detection
designs for approaches 35 mph or above. Figure 8.4 provides typical inductive
loop (See Section 8.8.1) design for approaches 35 mph or above. The FHWA
Traffic Detector Handbook Volumes 1 and 2 provides additional information on
detection designs for all approaches.

Figure 8.3 – Typical Detection Design Schematics (≥ 35 MPH)

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Figure 8.4 – Inductive Loop Detection (≥ 35 MPH)

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8.6 Detection Design for Coordinated Systems

In coordination (See Section 7.6), the coordinated phases (typically major road through
movements) are guaranteed their split time every cycle. Therefore, it is common
practice to have no detectors for the major road through phases. However, practitioners
should plan for adequate serving of major road through phases during times that the
intersection is not operating in a coordinated system. This can be accomplished with the
use of detection or a maximum recall (efficiency issues). Especially in the case of video
detection, there is usually no additional cost for setting up detection zones on the major
road through movements, and practitioners should take advantage of traffic signal
controller features that may improve intersection operational efficiency by monitoring the
end of the coordinated phases.

8.7 Pedestrian Detection

When an intersection provides pedestrian signal phasing (See Section 7.4), the
servicing of pedestrians shall be accomplished by the use of pushbuttons, passive
detection devices, or a pedestrian recall (See Section 8.3.4). Passive detection devices
register the presence of a pedestrian in a position indicative of a desire to cross without
requiring the pedestrian to push a button. Some passive detection devices are capable
of tracking the progress of a pedestrian as the pedestrian crosses the roadway for the
purpose of extending or shortening the duration of certain pedestrian intervals. When a
pedestrian recall is used, its associated vehicular green phase time shall accommodate,
at a minimum, the required pedestrian interval timings. Pedestrian pushbuttons should
be located within easy reach of pedestrians and should be positioned in such a way to
make it obvious which pushbutton is associated with each crosswalk. Practitioners shall
refer to the MUTCD Section 4E.08 for requirements and guidance on pushbutton
locations and related signs. Consideration should be given to the use of additional
pedestrian pushbuttons on islands or medians and the use of pilot lights.

8.7.1 Accessible Pedestrian Signals

Practitioners shall refer to the MUTCD Sections 4E.09 through 4E.13 for
accessible pedestrian signals. The ADA requires access to the public right-of-
way for people with disabilities. Access to traffic and signal information is an
important feature of accessible sidewalks and street crossings for pedestrians
who have vision impairments. While most intersections pose little difficulty for
independent travelers who are blind or have low vision, there are some situations
in which the information provided by an accessible pedestrian signal is necessary
for independent and safe crossing. The primary technique that pedestrians who
have visual disabilities use to cross streets at signalized locations is to initiate
their crossing when they hear the traffic in front of them stop and the traffic
alongside them begin to move, which often corresponds to the onset of the green
interval. The existing environment is often not sufficient to provide the information
that pedestrians who have visual disabilities need to cross a roadway at a
signalized location as referred to in the MUTCD Section 4E.09. If a particular
signalized location presents difficulties for pedestrians who have visual

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disabilities to cross the roadway, an engineering study should be conducted that

considers the needs of pedestrians in general, as well as the needs of
pedestrians with visual disabilities. The engineering study should consider the
following factors:
 Potential demand for accessible pedestrian signals;
 A request for accessible pedestrian signals;
 Traffic volumes during times when pedestrians might be present, including
periods of low traffic volumes or high RTOR volumes;
 The complexity of traffic signal phasing (such as split phases, protected
turn phases, leading pedestrian intervals, and exclusive pedestrian
phases); and
 The complexity of intersection geometry.
The FHWA recommends that jurisdictions have a policy on accessibility including
the use of accessible pedestrian signals on new construction projects, as well as
a transition plan to retrofit established locations.

8.8 Types of Detection

Many different technologies exist to enable detection of vehicles at an intersection.
These can be categorized by in-ground and above-ground detection. Inductive loops
and magnetometers are in-ground types of detection and, due to the necessity of
pavement cutting for installation, they are also considered intrusive detection. Video,
radar (microwave), and thermal are types of above-ground detection and are
considered non-intrusive detection. Pushbuttons are the most appropriate type of
detection for pedestrians, while for bicycles, inductive loops are typical. Detection is also
necessary for vehicles receiving preferential treatment at intersections, such as
emergency vehicles, buses, light rail transit, and trains. Types of preferential treatment
detection typically include GPS, hard-wired loop, light-based, radio-based, sound-
based, and station pushbutton. Detailed information on types of detection can be found
in the FHWA Traffic Detector Handbook Volumes 1 and 2. The following provides
information on typical vehicular detection used in Tennessee.

8.8.1 Inductive Loop Detection

The inductive loop detects vehicles by sensing a change of inductance caused
by the passage or presence of a vehicle over the loop. Inductive loops are
placed in the pavement by saw cutting a slot, installing loop wire, and
encapsulating the wire by filling the saw cut with sealant. The induction detector
is made up of three components: a loop of wire, a lead-in (shielded) cable, and a
detector processing unit (detector amplifier) in the controller cabinet. The life of a
regular inductive loop which is saw cut into the pavement is dependent on the
condition of the pavement and it must be replaced each time a road is milled and
resurfaced. When long term maintenance is a concern, an alternative to the
traditional saw cut inductive loop (other than video, radar, etc.) for new
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construction projects is the preformed inductive loop. Preformed inductive loops

function similarly to a regular saw cut loop; however, the conductor is encased in
a heavy duty plastic housing. The loops are placed within concrete or in the lower
lifts of asphalt prior to final paving (See Figure 8.5). Preformed loops can last
longer than traditional saw cut loops and should be strongly considered on new
construction projects where maintenance of saw cut loops is an issue. While they
can be installed in existing pavement, preformed loops are not recommended
due to the size of the saw cut required. A presence detector should be able to
detect all licensed motor vehicles, including a small motorcycle. A conventional
long rectangular inductive loop may not detect a small motorcycle. A common
inductive loop configuration that provides greater detection capabilities is the
quadrupole loop. Quadrupole loops also provide more accuracy in vehicle
detection and minimize false detections from adjacent through lanes. Figures 8.2
and 8.4 illustrate typical inductive loop layout recommended by TDOT. Refer to
TDOT Standard Drawing T-SG-3 for additional information on inductive loop
detection.

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Figure 8.5 – Preformed Inductive Loop

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8.8.2 Video Detection

Video detection detects vehicles by sensing a change in the properties of image
pixels caused by the passage or presence of a vehicle over user-defined virtual
detection zones. Video detection is provided by cameras mounted above the
ground on stable fixtures, typically on mast arms, poles, or luminaire arms. Video
detection can be considered for a signalized intersection or interchange when
one or more of the following conditions are present:
 When a large number of detectors is needed at the location (twelve or
more);
 When inductive loop life is short due to poor pavement conditions;
 When extensive intersection reconstruction will last for one or more years;
 When inductive loop installation is physically impractical due to the
presence of a bridge deck, railroad tracks, or underground utilities;
 When the pavement in which the inductive loop is placed will be
reconstructed in less than three years or during overlay projects at large
intersections where the cost of replacing all inductive loops exceeds the
cost of installing video detection.
Camera position is the primary factor for successful video detection operation.
The optimal camera location maximizes detection accuracy by being stable, by
having an unobstructed view of each traffic lane on the approach, and by
excluding the horizon. Consideration should also be given to sight lines affected
by sun glare, shadows, and headlight glare during different times of the day, or
by moving power lines, utility cables, or any light-generating source that may
trigger unnecessary calls. Fog, snow, and heavy rain may also be a problem for
video detection and practitioners should explore equipment failsafe operation.
Cameras should not be mounted below 24 feet in height to minimize equipment
maintenance (dirt, spray, and mist on lenses). Detection zone layout varies by
equipment vendor, but due to its ease and flexibility, the use of longer detection
zones (greater than 60 feet) and low passage time (close to zero seconds) is
recommended for intersection efficiency. Typically, an additional camera (located
upstream from the intersection) is needed for advance detection. Refer to TDOT
Standard Drawing T-SG-3A for additional information on video detection.

8.8.3 Radar Detection

Radar detection detects and tracks vehicles by sensing a change in the influence
area of the radar transmitter caused by the passage or presence of vehicles over
user-defined virtual detection zones. Radar detection continuously tracks
vehicles in the influence area and is provided by corner fire and/or forward fire
units. To capture true presence detection where vehicles are continually tracked
throughout the presence detection phase, a second radar unit may be necessary
for the mainline approaches (one unit for the stop bar detection and one unit for
the advanced detection). Multiple detection zones can be designed at the stop
line and vehicles can be detected and tracked as far as 600 feet upstream,

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providing better indecision zone protection. Radar detection should be

considered for a signalized intersection or interchange for the same reasons
mentioned for video detection (See Section 8.8.2). Radar detection is not
influenced by obstructions and is not affected by sun glare, shadows, headlight
glare, light sources, and weather-related issues, which provides very low
maintenance needs. Refer to TDOT Standard Drawing T-SG-3A for additional
information on radar detection.

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CHAPTER 9
TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN –
SUPPORTS AND SIGNAL HEADS
9.1 Traffic Signal Supports
The two basic types of traffic signal supports are strain poles and mast arm
poles. Traffic signal supports shall be in accordance with current TDOT
standards and specifications and the AASHTO LRFD Specifications for Structural
Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals. In addition, traffic
signal supports shall be in accordance with the NEC and the NESC. Adjacent
utility poles shall not be used for traffic signal supports in new installations,
unless physical conditions preclude the installation of separate traffic signal
supports. In these cases, it is important to coordinate the traffic signal design and
installation with the affected utility company. TDOT no longer supports the
utilization of its Intersection Pole Designer Software for use in the design of traffic
signal pole foundations. Based on the traffic signal layout and other information
provided in the bid documents, the traffic signal contractor shall be responsible
for the design and installation of traffic signal poles and their associated
foundations.

9.1.1 Traffic Signal Strain Poles

A traffic signal strain pole is a pole (wood, steel, or concrete) to which span wire
is attached for the purpose of supporting the signal wiring and signal faces (See
TDOT Standard Drawings T-SG-1, T-SG-4, and T-SG-8). Wood poles should
only be used for temporary traffic signal installations. Steel or concrete strain
poles should be considered when span lengths exceed 90 feet or
easements/right-of-way will be required for guy wires. Traffic signal strain poles
should also be considered when a box span arrangement is used to provide
additional strength.
 Span Length: Strain poles should be located so as to limit the distance
between the stop line and the signal heads to a maximum of 180 feet. The
minimum breaking strength for span wires shall be noted in the plans.
Each span wire shall be grounded.
 Strain Pole Height Determination: The height of a strain pole is
determined by Equation 9.1. When providing a pole height on signal plans,
it is important to specify that the top of the pole foundation should usually
be at the same elevation as the roadway crown. In cut areas, fill may be
required to prevent the foundation from protruding out of the ground. An
exception is on high-fill roadway sections where the pole must be located
outside of the fill area. Consideration must be made to ensure an
adequate pole length is specified in such a situation.

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PH = 2 + LsS + c + H + d
Equation 9.1 – Pole Height
Where:
PH = Pole Height (feet)
Ls = Maximum Span Length (feet)
S = Design Sag (typically 5%)
c = Clearance above Road (17.5 feet typical)
H = Height of Signal Head with Backplate (usually 4.5 feet)
d = Side-slope Drop-off (feet from crown of road)
Where two span wires attach to the same strain pole, the pole height will
be determined by using the longer of the two span wires. Pole heights
shall be rounded up where necessary to be specified in even number feet
(i.e. 26, 28, 30, etc.).
 Strain Pole Location: Generally, strain poles should be located outside of
the clear zone, inside the right-of-way.
• Signal Location: Strain poles should be located so that signal
faces hung on their span wire are located between 40 to 180 feet
from the approach stop line.
• Minimum Horizontal Clearances: On curbed roadways, poles
shall be located no closer than two feet to the front of curb. In all
cases, traffic signal poles should be located as far as practical from
the edge of the travel lane without adversely affecting signal
visibility.
• Pedestrian Considerations: When installing a pedestrian
pushbutton, poles should be located adjacent to the sidewalk within
reach of pedestrians in accordance with the MUTCD.
 Luminaires: Where street lights are installed on traffic signal poles, their
design shall be integrated with the pole and they shall be mounted at a
minimum height of 30 feet above the roadway. Actual mounting height
shall be determined by the luminaire photometrics.
 Tether Wires: Tether wires shall be installed on all span wire assemblies
to minimize traffic signal face movement due to wind effects. Tether wires
must be able to breakaway from poles when hit or snagged.
 Span Wire Layouts: Span wire layouts in general allow for further pole
placement from the roadway than do mast arm installations. In addition,
they eliminate the need for boring under the roadway by allowing signal
and detector cables to be run overhead on the signal span wire. If
possible, diagonal span wire layouts should always be avoided. Typical
strain pole span wire layouts are shown in Figure 9.1. The following are
the most common span wire arrangements:

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• Box Span Arrangement: This signal arrangement is the most

common and places strain poles on each of the four corners of the
intersection.
Advantages:
o Allows good alignment of signal heads;
o Provides the required minimum 40-foot distance between the
signal heads and stop line on all approaches;
o Provides shorter span wire lengths and sag than diagonal
spans;
o Provides locations for pedestrian signals.
Disadvantages:
o Requires four poles;
o Could require supplemental signal faces if the signal faces
are more than 180 feet beyond the approach stop line.
• Suspended Box Arrangement: This signal arrangement is a box
span arrangement, but the box is connected to the poles by
diagonal spans. This is typically used at large intersections in order
to minimize the distance between signal faces and the stop line. A
variation where two corners of the box are connected by diagonal
spans and the other two corners are connected directly to the poles
is often used for skewed intersections. The suspended box
arrangement should be avoided, if possible, due to potential issues
maintaining the height of traffic signal faces.
Advantages:
o Same advantages as box arrangements, plus;
o Decreased distance between the signal heads and stop line.
Disadvantages:
o Same as box span arrangement but more difficult to install.

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Figure 9.1 – Typical Strain Pole Span Wire Layouts

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• Z-Span Arrangement: Z-spans are applicable at offset

intersections. Z-span installations may be applicable on divided
roadways where median clear zone requirements can be met.
Advantages:
o On divided roadways, shorter span wires are required across
the street with the median;
o Provides good signal face placement for offset intersections.
Disadvantages:
o On divided roadways, it places traffic signal poles in median
areas, where they are more likely to be struck by vehicles.
Check clear zone requirements;
o On divided roadways, additional pedestal poles may be
needed if pedestrian signals and detectors are required;
o On divided roadways, pedestrians cannot see the parallel
signal indications once they get to the median area.
• U-Span Arrangement: U-spans are applicable at T-intersections.
Advantages:
o Reduces the span wire length needed.
Disadvantages:
o Adds signal cable length;
o Depending upon the surrounding terrain, guy wires may be
needed to support the strain poles.

9.1.2 Traffic Signal Mast Arm Poles

A mast arm pole is a cantilever structure that permits the overhead installation of
the signal faces without overhead messenger cables and signal wiring, which is
run inside the arm structure (See TDOT Standard Drawing T-SG-9). Mast arm
supports provide a more rigid mounting for signal heads and overhead signs than
do span wire installations. They also require less maintenance because signal
faces and signs are less likely to rotate or turn around in the wind. Mast arm
installations are more aesthetically pleasing than span wire installations, since
there is no overhead span wire or visible signal wiring. Mast arm supports are
considered when they would result in fewer overall poles, when utilities are
underground, or when aesthetics are a concern. Generally, mast arm layouts are
more expensive than strain pole layouts. However, through the use of dual mast
arm poles, mast arm layouts can reduce foundation and mast arm support costs,
and they can become cost comparable to strain pole layouts. The installations of
traffic signal mast arms are also more expensive then strain poles because they
require boring under the roadway to route signal and detector cables to the
controller cabinet.

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 Traffic Signal Mast Arm Length: Mast arm length must be specified on
signal plan sheets. The arm length is determined by taking into account
signal face placement in relation to the approach travel lanes and the pole
distance off the edge of the travel way. Mast arm lengths shall be limited
to 90 feet or less. In mast arm lengths ranging from 50 to 90 feet, the last
signal head on a mast arm is located at least seven feet from the end of
the mast arm due to a damper plate installation being required. In addition,
mast arms with at least one mast arm greater than 60 feet shall require a
4-foot diameter width for the foundation. When twin mast arms are utilized,
the combined length between the two mast arms shall not exceed 120
total feet.
 Traffic Signal Mast Arm Height: Typical mast arm poles have a 22-foot
shaft, unless street lighting is integrated with the traffic signal pole. Refer
to TDOT Standard Drawing T-SG-9 for additional information on street
lighting supports.
 Traffic Signal Mast Arm Pole Location: The requirements are the same
as those listed for the location of strain poles (See Section 9.1.1).
 Luminaires: The requirements are the same as those listed for the
location of strain poles (See Section 9.1.1).
 Traffic Signal Mast Arm Pole Layouts: The following describes the two
layouts of traffic signal mast arm poles, single and dual, and shown in
Figure 9.2.
• Single Mast Arm Layout: A typical single mast arm installation
can be used at the intersection of two undivided roadways.
Advantages:
o Provides the required minimum 40-foot distance between the
signal heads and stop line of all approaches;
o Provides good far-side signal face visibility for pedestrians;
o Provides locations for pedestrian signal indications and
pedestrian detectors where needed.
Disadvantages:
o Requires four mast arm poles and foundations for a typical
four-leg intersection.

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• Dual Mast Arms Layout: The dual mast arm arrangement is often
applicable at offset intersections and at T-intersections.
Advantages:
o Uses fewer poles than a strain pole or single mast arm
arrangement;
o Provides good signal face placement for offset intersections;
o Good for locations with corners lacking right-of-way for
poles.
Disadvantages:
o Additional traffic signal poles may be needed if pedestrian
signals and detectors are required;
o Sight lines to the signal faces may be obscured.

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Figure 9.2 – Typical Mast Arm Pole Layouts

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9.2 Traffic Signal Indications

Traffic signal indication design shall comply with the MUTCD Sections 4D.04 through
4D.25. In addition, the following information should be considered.

9.2.1 Lens Size, Illumination and Shielding

All new traffic signal vehicular indications should be 12-inch diameter LED lenses
(See TDOT Standard Drawing T-SG-7). The use of LED lights conserves energy
and reduces maintenance requirements. As a minimum, all signal indications
shall be equipped with cut away or tunnel visors (See Section 9.2.12). Signal
visors exceeding twelve inches in length shall not be used on free-swinging
signal faces.

9.2.2 Traffic Signal Housing

Aluminum or polycarbonate traffic signal housings are recommended for traffic
signal indications. Due to its light weight, polycarbonate traffic signal housing
must either be tethered or rigidly mounted to minimize wind sway. Tethered
traffic signal housing must have break-away clamps to allow it to swing free
during heavy wind conditions. Aluminum traffic signal housing weigh more, but
require less maintenance and is more durable than polycarbonate traffic signal
housing. Traffic signal housing should have a black or yellow finish. The inside of
signal visors and the entire surface of louvers and fins shall have a dull black
finish.

9.2.3 Traffic Signal Backplates

Traffic signal backplates increase the contrast between the signal indications and
the signal background. Backplates shall be used at all rural locations, on
approaches 45 mph or greater, and at urban locations where glare or other visual
distractions are present which include a rising/setting sun or intensive advertising
signing along the roadway. Where used, backplates shall have a dull black finish
along with a retro-reflective strip around the border of the backplate (See TDOT
Standard Drawing T-SG-9A).

9.2.4 Strobe Lights

The use of strobe lights within or adjacent to any traffic signal indication is
prohibited.

9.2.5 Countdown Displays

The use of countdown displays as part of a vehicular traffic signal indication is
prohibited.

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9.2.6 Number of Signal Faces and Arrangement on an Approach

The number of primary signal faces and the need for supplemental signal faces
is determined by the following criteria:
 Primary Signal Faces: If a signalized through movement exists on an
approach, a minimum of two primary signal faces shall be provided for the
through movement. If a signalized through movement does not exist on an
approach, a minimum of two primary signal faces shall be provided for the
signalized turning movement that is considered to be the major movement
from the approach. Where two or more left-turn lanes are provided for a
separately controlled protected only left-turn movement, a separate
primary left-turn face shall be provided for each lane. The same applies for
right-turn lanes.
 Supplemental Signal Faces: Supplemental signal faces are used to
maximize visibility of traffic signal indications, to minimize issues of
approaching vehicles traveling behind large vehicles (trucks, buses, etc),
or in locations where sun glare is problematic. A supplemental near-side
signal face is required where primary signal faces are located more than
180 feet beyond the stop line. A supplemental near-side signal face may
be beneficial where primary signal faces are located between 150 feet and
180 feet from the stop line. A supplemental near-side or far-side signal
face may also be beneficial where approaching speeds are 45 mph or
greater.
Typically, traffic signal faces should be centered over the lanes to which they
apply or positioned over lane lines between lanes (shared signal faces).
Depending upon the number of approach lanes to the intersection and the traffic
signal phasing operation for that approach, the number and type of traffic signal
faces will vary. Refer to TDOT Standard Drawing Series T-SG-7A to T-SG-7S for
additional information regarding typical signal head placement on intersection
approaches. For additional information regarding specific lane configurations or
for alternative arrangements of signal faces, refer to the MUTCD.

9.2.7 Visibility of Signal Faces on an Approach

The two primary signal faces required as a minimum for each approach should
be continuously visible to traffic approaching the traffic control signal, from a
point at least the minimum sight distance provided in Table 9.2 in advance of and
measured to the stop line. This range of continuous visibility should be provided
unless precluded by a physical obstruction or unless another signalized location
is within this range. If approaching traffic does not have a continuous view of at
least two signal faces for at least the minimum sight distance shown in Table 9.1,
a sign (two signs in case of a median) shall be installed to warn approaching
traffic of the traffic control signal and a warning beacon may be used.

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Table 9.1 – Minimum Sight Distance for Signal Visibility

Approach Speed (mph) Minimum Sight Distance for Signal Visibility (Feet)
20 175
25 215
30 270
35 325
40 390
45 460
50 540
55 625
60 715
Note: Distances in this table are derived from stopping sight distance plus an assumed queue
length for shorter cycle lengths (60 to 75 seconds).

9.2.8 Mounting Height of Signal Faces

Table 9.2 provides the minimum vertical clearance (from the bottom of the signal
housing to the roadway, sidewalk, or median) and the maximum mounting height
(from the roadway, sidewalk, or median to the top of the signal housing) for
vertical and horizontal mounting of traffic signal faces. It is good practice to align
red signal indications at the same height. Table 9.3 provides the maximum
mounting height to the top of the signal housing for overhead signals located
between 40 feet and 53 feet from the stop line (See Figure 9.3). Individual signal
sections shall be mounted vertically rather than horizontally, unless sight
distance or vertical clearance concerns dictate.

Table 9.2 – Mounting Height of Signal Faces

Minimum Height to Bottom Maximum Height to Top
Mounting Location
(Feet) (Feet)
17.5 (Recommended)
Roadway 25.6
16.5 (Minimum)
Vertical
Sidewalk 8 19
Median 4.5 19
17.5 (Recommended)
Roadway 25.6
16.5 (Minimum)
Left-Turn
Sidewalk 8 22
Median 4.5 22

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Table 9.3 – Mounting Height to Top of Signal Housing (40-53 Feet)

Horizontal Distance from Stop Line Height to Top of Signal Housing Above Pavement
(Feet) (Feet)
40 21.0
41 21.3
42 21.7
43 22.1
44 22.4
45 22.7
46 23.2
47 23.5
48 23.8
49 24.2
50 24.5
51 24.9
52 25.3
53 25.6
Note: Distances in this table are derived from stopping sight distance plus an assumed queue
length for shorter cycle lengths (60 to 75 seconds).

9.2.9 Lateral and Longitudinal Positioning of Signal Faces

At least one and preferably both of the two minimum primary signal faces
required in Section 9.2.6 shall be located within the cone of vision illustrated in
Figure 9.3. Signal faces on the same span wire or mast arm are typically placed
twelve feet apart and shall be placed no closer than eight feet of horizontal
separation between faces on the same movement (measured from center to
center).

9.2.10 Shared and Separate Signal Faces

A shared signal face controls both a turn movement and the adjacent through
movement, always displaying the same color of circular signal indication as the
adjacent through signal face. A shared signal face can serve as one of the two
required primary signal faces for the through movement (See Section 9.2.6). A
separate signal face exclusively controls a turn movement and displays
indications that are applicable only to the turn movement. A separate signal face
cannot serve as one of the two required primary signal faces for the through
movement.

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Figure 9.3 – Positioning of Signal Faces

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9.2.11 Signal Head Visors

A signal head visor shall be in accordance with the MUTCD and should be used
to direct the signal indication to the appropriate approaching traffic, especially if
conflicting signal faces are readily visible, and to reduce sun phantom which can
result when external light enters the lens. A signal head visor should be used
with each lens on the signal head face and are made of the same material as the
housing. The rear of the signal head visor must have four, slotted mounting tabs
for easy attachment and for securing the visor to the signal housing door. The
signal head visor mounting method must permit the signal head visor to be
rotated and secured at 90 degrees for horizontal signal head installations. The
signal head visor shall have a minimum length of 9.5 inches and a minimum
downward tilt of 3.5 degrees measured from the center of the lens. There are
three types of signal head visors: cut-away, tunnel, and full-circle visors as
shown in Figure 9.4.

Figure 9.4 – Types of Signal Head Visors

Cutaway visors, sometimes referred to as a cap or partial visors, are signal head
visors with the bottom cut away. This type of signal head visor reduces water and
snow accumulation and does not let birds build nests within the visor.
Tunnel visors reduce the signal visibility from other approach directions by
providing an almost complete circle around the lens. Tunnel visors look like an
inverted "U" that encircles and shields the lens from a minimum 300 degrees with
the opening at the most bottom of the lens. This type of signal head visor
reduces water and snow accumulation and does not let birds build nests within
the visor.
Full-circle visors are similar to tunnel visors with the exception that it provides a
complete circle around the lens. Full-circle visors have a sharp angular beam cut
off for signal installations where highly directional beam characteristics are
necessary to prevent driver confusion, such as streets intersecting at a very
sharp angle of 35 degrees or less. Full-circle visors should only be considered
when using visibility-limited traffic signal devices (See Section 9.2.13). This type
of signal head visor has a drawback in that it inherently has possibility of snow
accumulation and bird nests built that can block the lens.

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Cut-away and tunnel visors are normally used on projects, but the decision on
which signal head visor type should be determined using engineering judgment
on a site-by-site basis. To assist in this determination, first measure the angle
between the lines of sight for approaching vehicles as shown in Figure 9.5(a). If
the approach bends to a near 90 degree angle as shown in Figure 9.5(b), then
use engineering judgment to determine the line of sight angle. Consideration of
the line of sight angle should also be given for vehicles at the stop lines as shown
for diagonal spans in Figure 9.5(c) and for mast arms in Figure 9.5(d).

Figure 9.5 – Line of Sight Angle Measurements

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

After determining the line of sight angle for approaching vehicles as shown in
Figure 9.5, the recommended signal head visor type should be determined using
Figure 9.6.

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Figure 9.6 – Recommended Signal Head Screening Types

For roadway approaches with line of

sight angles between 65 degrees and
90 degrees line of sight angles, use cut-
away or tunnel signal head visors.

For roadway approaches with line of

sight angles between 35 degrees and
65 degrees, use tunnel signal head
visors or full-circle signal head visors.

For roadway approaches with line of

sight angles less than 35 degrees, use
full-circle signal head visors with
visibility-limited signal devices.

9.2.12 Visibility-Limited Traffic Signal Devices

Visibility-limited traffic signal devices shall be in accordance with the MUTCD and
are an acceptable method of screening the view of motorists by restricting the
signal indication visibility to a specific lane. When considered for installation,
visibility-limited traffic signal devices should be reviewed by the TDOT Traffic
Engineering Office. Besides roadway approaches with line of sight angles less
than 35 degrees, another situation to consider visibility-limited traffic signal
devices is where traffic signal heads along a corridor are placed very close to
one another such as offset intersections. The conflicting signal indications could
be confusing to motorists because they could see both red and green signal
indications at the same time. Visibility-limited traffic signal devices should be
installed with full-circle visors (See Section 9.2.12) and mounted on a rigid traffic
signal support such as a mast arm rather than on a span wire assembly. There
are two types of visibility-limited traffic signal devices: geometrically programmed
louvers and optically programmed traffic signal heads as shown in Figure 9.7.

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Figure 9.7 – Types of Visibility-Limited Traffic Signal Devices

GEOMETRICALLY
PROGRAMMED LOUVER
(SHOWN ABOVE WITH AND
WITHOUT A FULL-CIRCLE OPTICALLY PROGRAMMED
SIGNAL HEAD VISOR) TRAFFIC SIGNAL HEAD

Geometrically programmed louvers, provide a sharp cut off through the use of a
series of louvers, which are full-circle vertical slats, sometimes referred to as fins,
fitted to the full-circle visor designed to restrict lateral (side-to-side) visibility.
When considered for installation, the designer should specify and detail on the
traffic signal plans: 1) a sight triangle to show the cone of visibility to the signal
indication; and 2) clearly delineate the degree of horizontal cut-off and which side
the cut-off is to occur, left or right, as viewed by the intended user.
Optically programmed traffic signal heads should be mounted in a manner
permitting very little or no motion because they are intended to direct the signal
indication to a specific approach lane and for a specific longitudinal distance.
Optically programmed traffic signal heads do not reduce the light intensity of the
display and their optically directed lenses provide an optical cut-off of the
indication, both horizontally and longitudinal distances as needed. Optically
programmed traffic signal heads should include a night time automatic dimming
circuit to adjust light output according to ambient light conditions. When
considered for installation, the designer should specify and detail on the traffic
signal plans: 1) a sight triangle to show the cone of visibility to the signal
indication; and 2) clearly delineate the degree of horizontal cut-off and the
longitudinal distance view limits, as viewed by the intended user. The designer
should also consider that because optically programmed traffic signal heads can
restrict visibility distance, there is a possibility that they can severely restrict
stopping sight distance. Therefore, signal phasing operation should be carefully

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chosen so that the proposed signal phasing operation does not create a situation
where motorists have inadequate warning of a red signal indication.
The satisfactory operation of visibility limiting signal devices is dependent on
correct alignment. Geometrically programmed louvers are typically less
expensive than optically programmed heads, however geometrically
programmed louvers have limited applications since they can only restrict
horizontal visibility, whereas optically programmed traffic signal heads can
restrict both horizontal and longitudinal distance visibility. The decision on
whether to use visibility limiting signal devices and which type to use should be
determined using engineering judgment on a site-by-site basis.

9.2.13 Use of Signs at Signalized Intersections

The MUTCD Section 4D.34 and the sections listed below provide standards and
guidelines regarding the use of signs at signalized intersections.
 Section 2B.18 – Movement prohibition signs;
 Sections 2B.19 to 2B.22 – Lane control signs;
 Section 2B.51 – Pedestrian crossing signs;
 Section 2B.52 – Pedestrian and bicycle actuation signs;
 Section 2B.53 and 2C.48 – Traffic signal signs;
 Section 2C.36 – Signal ahead warning signs;
 Section 2D.43 – Street name signs;
 Section 2D.44 – Advanced street name signs.

9.2.14 Use of Stop Signs at Signalized Intersections

The MUTCD Section 4D.34 mentions that STOP signs shall not be used in
conjunction with any traffic signal operation, except when:
 The signal indication for an approach is a flashing red at all times;
 A minor street or driveway is located within or adjacent to the area
controlled by the traffic signal, but does not require separate traffic signal
control because an extremely low potential for conflict exists.

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9.2.15 Pedestrian Signal Indications

Pedestrian signal indications consist of illuminated symbols of a WALKING
PERSON (symbolizing WALK) and an UPRAISED HAND (symbolizing DON’T
WALK when steady). When the UPRAISED HAND pedestrian signal indication is
flashing it means that a pedestrian shall not start to cross the roadway, but any
pedestrian who has already started to cross shall proceed to the other side of the
traveled way or to the median. The MUTCD Chapter 4E provides standards and
guidelines regarding pedestrian control features. All new pedestrian signal
indications shall be displayed within a rectangular background and shall consist
of symbolized messages. TDOT requires the use of a one-section integrated
pedestrian head on new signal installations with the countdown display. Symbol
designs shall follow the Standard Highway Signs and Markings and colors shall
be consistent with the Pedestrian Traffic Control Signal Indications. TDOT
requires the symbols on the pedestrian signal indication to be a minimum of
twelve inches high. A pedestrian change interval countdown display (MUTCD
Section 4E.07) shall be used where the calculated pedestrian change interval is
more than seven seconds to inform pedestrians of the number of seconds
remaining in the pedestrian change interval. The countdown display shall be
displayed simultaneously with the flashing UPRAISED HAND signal indication.
TDOT requires the numbers (digits) on the countdown display to be a minimum
of nine inches. The bottom of the pedestrian signal housing (including brackets)
shall be mounted between eight and ten feet above the sidewalk level. See
TDOT Standard Drawing T-SG-6 for typical pedestrian signal indication design
guidelines.

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CHAPTER 10
TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN –
PULL BOXES, CONDUITS, AND WIRING
10.1 Pull Boxes
A pull box is an underground compartment made of various materials, such as pre-cast
concrete or polymer concrete (composite). When possible, pull boxes should be located
adjacent to the sidewalk rather than in the sidewalk. Pull boxes used in traffic signal
installations shall meet current TDOT standards and specifications (See TDOT
Standard Drawing T-SG-2). The purpose of pull boxes is:
 To provide access to underground detectors and interconnect cables;
 To provide locations to consolidate separate runs of signal and detector cables;
 To provide locations to facilitate the pulling of long runs of detector or
interconnect cables;
 To provide locations to store spare lengths of signal detector or interconnect
cables.

10.1.1 Type/Size/Use of Pull Boxes

TDOT Standard Drawing T-SG-2 shows the various pull box sizes and their
normal application or use. Type A Pull Boxes should be used exclusively for
splicing loop wires to shielded cable only. Type B Pull Boxes should be used for
all other traffic signal cable applications. To eliminate multiple types of pull box
quantities, Type B Pull Boxes can be used in lieu of Type A Pull Boxes. Pull
boxes for fiber optic cable should be larger than standard pull boxes due to the
large bending requirements of fiber optic cable (See TDOT Fiber Optic Standard
Drawings).

10.1.2 Spacing of Pull Boxes

Pull boxes shall be located at 150-foot intervals for signal cable and detector
cable runs. Pull boxes for interconnect cable runs shall be located at 300-foot
intervals. Pull boxes for fiber optic cable runs shall be placed every 1,000 feet.

10.1.3 Pull Box Material

Pull boxes and covers are to be of load-bearing design in accordance with
current TDOT standards and specifications.

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10.2 Traffic Signal Conduits

All underground signal wiring shall be encased in conduit to protect the cables or
conductors and facilitate maintenance. All signal wiring above ground shall be installed
in conduit (e.g. risers), unless the wiring is inside of a pole or attached to a span wire or
a messenger cable. Traffic signal conduits shall be in accordance with current TDOT
standards and specifications (See TDOT Standard Drawing T-SG-2), the NEC and the
NESC. Conduit used for traffic signal installation shall have the following characteristics:

10.2.1 Conduit Material Type

 Underground: In general, typical conduit placed below ground should be
PVC Schedule 40 conduit except for the following locations:
• Under Roadways and Public Driveways: When conduit is shown
on the plans in areas which are subjected to heavier vehicular
traffic, such as under roadways and public driveways, RGS conduit
should be used;
• Under Private Driveways: When conduit is shown on the plans in
areas which are subjected to lighter vehicular traffic, such as under
private driveways, PVC Schedule 80 conduit should be used.
However, HDPE conduit can be substituted in lieu of the PVC
Schedule 80 conduit.
PVC Schedule 40 and Schedule 80 conduits shall not be used together on
the same conduit run (different inside diameter).
 Risers: All risers shall be RGS conduits. When transitioning from
overhead to underground or vice versa on a utility pole, a 2-inch diameter
RGS riser must be specified for signal and interconnect cables.

10.2.2 Conduit Installation Methods

There are three typical construction techniques used to install underground
conduits for traffic signals. The standard technique used by contractors is the
open cutting (or trenching) method. When there are restrictions to using the open
cut method, the conduit must be installed by either the directional bore method or
the jacking method.
 Open Cut Method: The open cut method is generally permitted when the
conduit is being installed in areas that will not affect traffic, such as grass
medians, or within existing roadways when the existing pavement will be
replaced upon project completion;

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 Directional Bore Method: The directional bore method is generally used

when the open cut method is not feasible. The directional bore method
installs conduits by boring along a prescribed route under the roadway,
driveway, or railroad track. The directional bore method requires an 8-foot
by 8-foot staging area to install conduits less than six inches in diameter;
 Jacking Method: The jacking method pushes a pipe sleeve that is two
inches larger in diameter than the conduit(s) that it will be conveying under
a roadway, driveway, or railroad track. This method requires a jacking pit,
which must be within the right-of-way. For 20-foot pipe sleeve sections,
the jacking pit is typically 32-foot long and 6-foot wide. For 10-foot pipe
sleeve sections, the jacking pit is typically 22-foot long and 6-foot wide.

10.2.3 Depth Installed Underground

Conduit is placed 18 inches to 50 inches below the finished grade, typically as
follows:
 Conduit Underground (Sidewalks, Medians, etc.): Minimum of 18
inches between the top of the conduit and the finished grade;
 Conduit under any Roadway Surface: Minimum of 24 inches between
the top of the conduit and the driving surface;
 Conduit under Ditches: Minimum of 24 inches of cover;
 Conduit under Railroad Tracks: Minimum of 50 inches between the top
of the conduit and the top of the rails, or as required by the railroad
company;
 Communication/Interconnect Cables: Minimum of 30 inches of cover
between the top of the conduit and the finished grade.

10.2.4 Conduit Sizing

The maximum size conduit to be used on traffic signal installations shall be three
inches. Where larger conduit capacity is required, multiple conduit runs will be
used. The sizing of conduit(s) should be such as to not fill over 40% of the
internal area of the conduit, as shown in Table 10.1. Typical traffic signal conduit
shall be 2-inch diameter and detector loop conduit shall be 1-inch diameter,
unless otherwise indicated. Conduits smaller than 1-inch diameter shall not be
used. The only exception being that grounding conductors at service points shall
be enclosed in 3/4-inch diameter conduit. No reducing couplings will be
permitted. The conduit between a saw cut and a pull box for loop lead-ins shall
be minimum 1-inch diameter. To determine the proper number and size of the
conduits needed for the traffic signal layout, combine the number and wire size
requirements for each conduit run using the cable/wire size requirements listed in
Table 10.2.

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Table 10.1 – Conduit Size Requirements

Conduit Area
Conduit Diameter
(Inches) Maximum Usable Area, 40% of
Area (Square Inches)
Total Area (Square Inches)
0.75 0.44 0.176
1.00 0.77 0.308
1.50 1.77 0.708
2.00 3.14 1.256
2.50 4.91 1.964
3.00 7.07 2.828

10.2.5 Communications Cable Conduit

All communications cables shall be run in a separate conduit from shielded
cable, signal cable, and power cable. Conduit for communications interconnect
cable should be 2-inch diameter.

10.2.6 Power Cable Conduit

Conduit for power supply shall be run in a separate, 1-inch diameter conduit.

10.2.7 Jacked and Bored Conduit

All jacked and bored conduit shall be RGS or HDPE. The estimation of the
amount of boring is critical. Care should be taken for a realistic estimate.

10.2.8 Conduit Radii

All conduit bends shall be large radius to facilitate cable pulling (6” minimum
radius).

10.2.9 Spare Conduit

Spare conduit stubs for future use shall always be installed in all new controller
cabinet bases and pole foundations.

10.2.10 Conduit for Road Widening Projects

Conduit and pull boxes should be considered for installation on collector and
arterial street widening projects where there is a potential for future interconnect
needs.

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10.3 Traffic Signal Wiring

All conductors shall be run inside conduit, except loop conductors in the pavement,
cables run along messenger or span wire, or cables run inside poles. All new cable
runs shall be continuous and free of splices. All signal cables shall be in accordance
with current TDOT standards and specifications (See TDOT Standard Drawing T-SG-2),
and shall meet the applicable requirements of IMSA, AWG, and NEC.

10.3.1 Signal Control Cable

All signal control cables shall conform to applicable IMSA Specification No. 19-1
or 20-1. Stranded cable color-coded AWG No. 14 shall be used for all signal and
accessory circuits. All signal control cables shall be labeled in the cabinet.

10.3.2 Inductive Loop Wire

Conductors for traffic loops and home runs shall be continuous cross-linked
polyethylene-insulated AWG No. 14 wire, conforming to IMSA Specification
No. 51-1, 51-3, or 51-7, connected to the detector terminals or spliced with
shielded detector cable within a pull box, conduit, or pole base (See TDOT
Standard Drawing T-SG-3).

10.3.3 Loop Detector Lead-In Cable Wire

Loop detector lead-in cable wire shall be continuous AWG No. 14 wire
conforming to the requirements of IMSA Specification No. 50-2, polyethylene-
insulated, polyethylene-jacketed shielded cable (See TDOT Standard Drawing
T-SG-2).

10.3.4 Preformed Loop Detector Wire

Preformed loop assemblies are suitable for placement under new asphalt or
concrete pavement. Preformed loop detector wire shall consist of a minimum of
four turns of No. 18 AWG wire or larger, not to exceed No. 14 AWG wire. The
loop wires shall be installed in protective tubing with a diameter of less than 5/8
inch. The home run cable shall be installed inside conduit or the manufacturer’s
recommended enclosure between the pavement and the pull box to prevent
damage in the ground (See TDOT Standard Drawing T-SG-3A).

10.3.5 Coordinated Systems Communications

The following are typical guidelines for coordinated systems communication:
 Copper Communications Cable (Hard Wire): Copper communications
cable shall be 6-pair, AWG No. 19 polyethylene-insulated, polyethylene-
jacketed cable with electrical shielding meeting the requirements of IMSA
Specification No. 40-2;

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 Fiber Optic Communications Cable: Fiber optic communications cable

shall be specifically selected to meet the individual needs of a specific
project. All fiber optic cables should be designed with spare fibers for
future use. A rule of thumb is to double the fibers that are needed today
and round up to the nearest six (fiber optic cable is manufactured in
multiples of six);
 Spread Spectrum Radio: Communication using spread spectrum radio
may be carried between units in master and local controller cabinets.
Omni-directional antennas are used at master cabinet locations and uni-
directional (Yagi) antennas are used at local cabinet locations.

10.3.6 Cable Lashing

Cables shall be attached to span or messenger cable by means of non-corrosive
lashing rods or stainless steel wire lashings (one 360-degree spiral of lashing
wire per foot).

10.3.7 Cable/Wire Sizing and Measurements

After the signal face and signal detector arrangements/placements have been
determined, the necessary signal wiring required involves the following steps:
 Signal Face Requirements: The typical wiring requirement of each
individual signal face may be determined by using TDOT Standard
Drawing T-SG-12;
 Mast Arm/Span Wire Runs: Determine the length of wiring required for
the signal faces depending on whether span wire or mast arms are used.
In addition to horizontal distances shown on the construction plans, the
designer must account for the height of the signal poles and five feet extra
inside each pull box;
 Detectors, Power and Interconnect Cable: Determine the wiring
required for detectors, power, and interconnect cables where applicable.
In addition to horizontal distances shown on the construction plans, the
designer must account for the height of the signal poles and five feet extra
inside each pull box;
 Cable/Wire Sizes: The typical cable/wire sizes are shown in Table 10.2.

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Table 10.2 – Typical Cable/Wire Sizes

AWG 10 AWG 12
Outside Area Outside Area
Number of Diameter Number of Diameter
Conductors (Square Conductors (Square
(Inches) Inches) (Inches) Inches)
1 - - 1 - -
2 0.511 0.205 2 0.466 0.171
3 0.542 0.231 3 0.492 0.190
4 0.623 0.305 4 0.552 0.239
5 0.695 0.379 5 0.590 0.273
6 - - 6 - -
7 0.756 0.449 7 0.677 0.360
8 - - 8 - -
9 N/A N/A 9 0.834 0.546
10 N/A N/A 10 0.854 0.573
11 - - 11 - -
12 0.946 0.703 12 0.881 0.610

AWG 14 AWG 16
Outside Area Outside Area
Number of Diameter Number of Diameter
Conductors (Square Conductors (Square
(Inches) Inches) (Inches) Inches)
1 - - 1 - -
2 0.399 0.125 2 0.358 0.101
3 0.421 0.139 3 0.382 0.115
4 0.458 0.165 4 0.419 0.138
5 0.500 0.196 5 0.460 0.166
6 - - 6 - -
7 0.543 0.232 7 0.499 0.196
8 - - 8 - -
9 0.707 0.393 9 0.572 0.257
10 0.721 0.408 10 0.606 0.288
11 - - 11 - -
12 0.731 0.420 12 0.669 0.352
Note: 1, 6, 8, and 11 conductor cables are not recommended for installation.

Other Communication Cables

Outside Area
Type Diameter (Square
(Inches) Inches)
6 Pair / 19 0.644 0.326

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CHAPTER 11
TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN –
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION
11.1 Signal Control for Private Driveways within Signalized Intersections
Traffic signal control for a private driveway should be considered if the private driveway
is located within signalized intersections. When a traffic signal is installed based on the
pedestrian or school crossing warrant (Warrants 4 or 5), pedestrian signals should
control the private driveway. Split-phase operation for low-volume driveways should be
considered and detection should always be provided for the approach to avoid
unnecessary delays on other approaches. Engineering judgment should be used in all
cases.

11.2 Utilities
The Tennessee One-Call System (also known as 811) should be contacted before work
starts on any traffic signal installation. The following is relevant information regarding
work with utility companies:
 Utility companies should expose/mark/relocate utilities;
 Check for any additional underground and overhead utilities;
 Check for required permits;
 Keep utility company’s contact information onsite for any emergencies;
 Keep authorization documents (eg. ticket number) at the worksite;
 Notify utility companies before starting to dig;
 When in doubt, hand dig or Hydro Vacuum should be utilized;
 Uniform color-coding is used to identify underground utilities (See Figure 11.1);
 For overhead utilities, proper insulation should be placed on signal poles and
utility wires.

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Figure 11.1 – Uniform Color Codes for Underground Utilities

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11.3 Street Lighting on Traffic Signal Supports at Intersections

See Chapter 15 in this manual for lighting design information. More specifically, street
lighting may be justified at signalized intersections as follows:
 Urban Locations: In urban areas where street lighting already exists along the
highway;
 Rural Locations: In rural locations where street lighting at the intersection would
have a positive effect on the nighttime safety.

11.3.1 Street Light Support Design

Where used on mast arms or strain poles, the design of the street light support
must be integrated with the traffic signal support. The pole manufacturer must
provide an acceptable design for review by TDOT.

11.3.2 Luminaire Mounting Height

The luminaire for the street lighting is typically mounted a minimum of 30 feet
above the roadway. The actual mounting height shall be determined by the
luminaire photometrics.

11.3.3 Wiring Requirements

The following requirements should be observed:
 Circuit Breaker: A disconnect and fuse shall be located at the power pole
location;
 Wire Type: 1-2 conductor, #6 AWG;
 Conduit Size: One inch diameter RGS;
 Isolation: Street light conductors shall not be routed through the controller
cabinet and shall have separate conduits and pull boxes;
 Pull Boxes: Pull boxes used in lighting applications should be a maximum
of 300 feet apart.

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11.4 Traffic Signal Installation Inspection Guidelines

The primary goal of this section is to assist TDOT with the inspection guidelines of traffic
signal installations by ensuring that construction is performed in accordance with the
plans, specifications, and related contract provisions. Inspectors should be properly
trained and be familiar with all the typical traffic signal construction activities.

11.4.1 Responsibilities of the Inspector

Some of the responsibilities of the inspectors are:
 Work with the contractor to make sure that construction of the traffic signal
installation is completed safely with proper protection of the contractor’s
employees, the traveling public, and pedestrians in or adjacent to the work
area;
 Verify that the items of work are done in accordance with the special
provisions, the plans, Standard Drawings and in conformance with
industry standards;
 Know the scheduling and status of construction activities, including the
coordination of utility work that may affect the progress of construction;
 Coordinate with project engineer any necessary changes in the original
project. Document any changes;
 Maintain a project diary, documenting construction activity, equipment test
results, pay item measurements, etc. Taking pictures is recommended.
These records will be the basis for final inspection and approval;
 Verify that materials installed are approved by the traffic signal owner’s
agency;
 Prior to turn-on, check traffic signal system in conjunction with project
engineer that all components are operating properly according to the
design plans;
 Follow traffic signal activation procedures in Section 11.5.

11.4.2 Preconstruction Activities

A preconstruction conference with the contractor and other interested parties
(e.g. utilities, etc.) is normally conducted on traffic signal installations. The project
engineer and inspector(s) should thoroughly review the plans and specifications
and visit the project site, making special note of any potential conflicts or items
that might require clarification or field modification. During the conference, the
responsibilities of each party are determined as well as the establishment of
safety procedures to be adopted throughout the construction process.

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11.4.3 Sampling and Testing of Materials

Before construction, the contractor should submit a detailed list of suppliers and
anticipated delivery dates for all materials to be used on the job. This list is
commonly supplied and discussed at the preconstruction conference. Typically,
the following materials require approval before installation:
 Traffic signal structural support;
 Traffic signal controllers;
 Flasher units;
 Signal heads (vehicular and pedestrian);
 Detection systems and detection amplifiers;
 Pedestrian pushbuttons and accessible pedestrian signals (APS) (if
applicable);
 Preemption systems (if applicable);
 Wiring.
It is good practice to maintain documentation accepting the materials used in the
project.

11.4.4 General Principles

The inspector should maintain a cooperative and positive attitude with the
contractor while closely adhering to the contract documents. The inspector
should work with the contractor and project engineer to resolve any issues that
arise during the project. Nevertheless, the inspector does not work for the
contractor, and should not direct any of the contractor’s personnel in any facet of
the construction activity. Providing direction or instruction assumes responsibility
for the actions of the contractor and the outcome of the project. The inspector
should maintain professional separation from the contractor and focus on
documentation and reporting.

11.4.5 Inspection Activities

It is recommended for the inspector to regularly visit the project site to assure
that all steps of the traffic signal installation have been closely monitored. The
lack of regular inspection can lead to an agency experiencing operational
problems soon after the work is completed and accepted. A high quality
installation should provide years of reliable service. Moreover, proper
documentation of inspection activities constitutes an essential part of the project
records and may be subject to review during an audit, investigation, or litigation
proceedings. Proper documentation should include project diaries, inspection
and test reports, change orders, meeting notes, etc. There are several steps of
the traffic signal installation process that cannot be simply visually inspected
during a final inspection of the signal system. For example, placement, depth,
slope and bonding of conduits, foundation excavation depth and type of steel

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reinforcement bars, number of turns of a loop detection wire, etc. Basically, the
inspector should check and document all steps of the traffic signal installation,
including the construction of underground facilities, according to the project
design and standard specifications. Before the traffic signal system can be turned
on, a final and thorough inspection of the installation should be performed. The
use of the following checklist(s) is recommended for the inspection of traffic
signal installations in the State of Tennessee:
 Preliminary Hardware Inspection: It is recommended that the inspector
carefully complete this preliminary report before the traffic signal activation
date. A representative of the contractor should be available for any
necessary clarifications;
 Activation Day Inspection: It is recommended that the inspector and the
project/traffic engineer complete this report to check for proper operation
of the traffic signal system. The contractor should give a one week notice
before requesting for signal activation assistance. A representative of the
contractor should be available for any necessary clarifications.
The checklists may be tailored according to agency needs. Each item on the list
should be checked with the plans provided. Consideration should be given to
overall workmanship and quality of equipment installation. Notes should be
specific, dated, and initialed. Appendix C provides additional guidelines and
forms on inspection activities.

11.4.6 Final Acceptance and Notification

Upon satisfactory completion of the inspection activities, the contractor should be
formally notified of final acceptance in writing.

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11.5 Traffic Signal Activation Procedures

Activation of a new traffic signal is a critical part of the signal installation process. The
traffic signal designer should consider the possible consequences of a change in traffic
control and add any notes and items which may improve the safety of the transition
period. When signalization is introduced at locations where a multi-way stop, flashing
beacon operation exists, special measures may be required.
The following steps are recommended for the activation of a new traffic signal:
 Advance Flash Period: To make motorists aware of its presence, a new traffic
signal installation should be put on flash operation for a minimum of seven
calendar days up to a maximum of 14 calendar days prior to the activation of
normal traffic signal operation. Other flash operation time periods can be
considered upon written approval from the Regional Traffic Engineer;
 Publicity: The date and time of the activation of stop and go operation should be
advertised in the local newspaper and on local radio stations both, prior to and on
the date of activation;
 Activation: The actual activation of normal stop and go operation should be
made during an off-peak traffic period (not on Fridays or before holidays);
 Technical Support: The contractor shall be on-hand for all new traffic signal
activations to immediately troubleshoot or fix any problems that arise;
 Signing Adjustments: Once the traffic signal is turned on normal traffic signal
operation, remove the stop signs that the traffic signal replaces;
 Police Assistance: Police assistance should be requested and be on site at the
time of traffic signal activation to provide emergency traffic control in case of a
malfunction and to help emphasize the new traffic control change to the
motorists;
 School Crossing: Should the intersection include a school crossing with a
crossing guard, the crossing guard should be familiarized with the operation of
the new traffic signal;
 Fine-Tuning: Shortly after the traffic signal is turned on, the engineer should
observe the signal’s operation during both peak and off-peak periods (AM and
PM) to assure the adequacy of the signal’s timing parameters. Late night
operation should also be checked.

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CHAPTER 12
TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN –
POST-INSTALLATION
12.1 Traffic Signal Maintenance Guidelines
The primary goal of this section is to provide effective maintenance guidelines to
transportation agencies responsible for the operation of traffic signals in Tennessee.
After activation, it is recommended that signalized intersections be routinely inspected
by trained personnel in order to reduce agency exposure to liability and to provide safe
operations to the public. Preventive Maintenance and Response Maintenance
guidelines are detailed in the following sections. The ITE/IMSA Traffic Signal
Maintenance Handbook was used as a Standard Reference in the development of
these guidelines.

12.1.1 Reducing Agency Exposure to Liability

Most tort liability claims originate from negligent traffic signal installation and
maintenance. In regards to maintenance, negligence is the failure to comply with
the duty to maintain traffic signal equipment in a reasonably safe condition,
through some act or omission on the part of the agency or its employees.
Therefore, an agency should observe the following to reduce its exposure to
liability:
 Temporary Traffic Control Plans: Agencies should conform to the
specifications of the MUTCD when performing traffic signal maintenance
tasks. Agencies should also inform local law enforcement and emergency
services agencies of all lane closures, detours, and other changes in traffic
control. Appropriate training should be provided for agency employees.
Appendix D provides a table with recommended MUTCD temporary traffic
control plans for typical maintenance tasks.
 Routine Inspection: Agencies should perform preventive maintenance
and signal timing maintenance as described in these guidelines. In
addition, maintenance records should be regularly reviewed to identify
recurring problems with the signal equipment and appropriate actions
should be taken. Crash records should also be reviewed to identify
potential defects or hazards. Furthermore, it is recommended that all
agency employees, such as police, roadway maintenance, utility,
sanitation, etc. who regularly work on the street system be trained to look
for and properly report any damaged or apparently defective traffic signal
equipment to a pre-determined notification system.
 Maintenance Practices: Maintenance personnel should be trained in the
proper actions to take in the case of traffic control system malfunction or
loss of control. Temporary control by police should be sought in potentially
dangerous situations until repairs can be completed or until adequate

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interim warning measures can be implemented. Maintenance work should

be performed by qualified personnel. Agencies should perform response
maintenance as described in these guidelines.
 Maintenance Records: Adequate maintenance records are essential.
Records may be in hardcopy or electronic format. Duplicate records
should be stored at an offsite location.

12.1.2 Preventive Maintenance

The objective of preventive maintenance is to prevent the failure of traffic signal
equipment before it actually occurs. Replacing worn components before they fail
has the potential to preserve and enhance equipment reliability. Furthermore, a
good preventive maintenance program can reduce agency liability, extend the life
of the installation, reduce the frequency and severity of malfunctions, and make
better use of manpower and resources. TDOT recommends that signal timing
directives be checked during preventive maintenance for safe and efficient traffic
signal operations.
 Recommended Documentation: The following documents should be
available at each signalized intersection for reference by the technician
(typically kept in the cabinet):
• Actual drawings: A set of traffic signal plans with a record of
necessary changes approved during construction.
• Approved timing directives: Timing directives should contain the
address of the intersection, date the directive was approved, name
and signature of the person approving the directive, and all the
parameter settings necessary for the designed operation. The
parameters include, but are not limited to, phasing sequence,
timing, signals displayed during each interval, signal head
numbering, coordinated and non-coordinated phases, splits,
cycles, offsets, pedestrian timings, preemption, volume density,
detector plans, TOD operation, etc.
• Logbooks: The logbook should contain the address of the
intersection, make, model, and serial number of the controller
components and the communication equipment. Technicians
should, at a minimum, include their name, date, and time of the visit
to the intersection, work performed (including parts that were
replaced), condition on arrival, and condition when the technician
left.
A copy of actual drawings, approved timing directives, and logbooks
should be stored in the agency office in a safe location. It is also
recommended that user manuals for all of the equipment used at
signalized intersections be available to technicians.

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 Frequency: TDOT recommends that preventive maintenance be performed

every six months, with a minimum of once a year. Agencies should review
maintenance records and service calls, determine trends, and determine its
appropriate preventive maintenance scheduling. TDOT also recommends that
agencies inspect signals after severe weather to determine potential damage and
ensure proper operation.
 Recommended Tools, Equipment, and Supplies: Agencies performing traffic
signal maintenance should have the means of testing its traffic signal equipment
routinely, using its own testing equipment or contracting it out. Typically, the
following equipment is used for testing:
• A certified CMU or MMU tester (printouts of system timing tests, voltage
tests, power conflict, red fail conflict, short yellow indicator, AC power
failure transfer, restore, power fluctuation, etc);
• Loop detector analyzer and tester for testing loops and detector amplifiers
(signal strength, inductance and change of inductance, resistance);
• Video monitor to observe video detection operation;
• Suitcase tester or test box for controller;
• Load switch tester (verify current outputs);
• BIU tester;
• Earth ground clamp;
• Power quality meter;
• Digital multi-meter;
• Test kits for communication.
It is also recommended for agencies to have readily available spare parts for the
proper maintenance of traffic signals. Examples of commonly used spare parts
are the following:
• Pushbuttons and accompanying signs;
• Spare cabinet fans and thermostats;
• Spare controller;
• Signal and flash load switches;
• Flash transfer relays;
• Replacement air filters;
• Spare controller cabinet bulbs;
• Spare circuit breakers;
• Spare ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) receptacles;
• Spare detector panel relay sockets and relays;

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• Spare preemption relay sockets and relays;

• Spare communication equipment;
• Spare gasket material for cabinets;
• Replacement LED modules;
• Spare UPS batteries;
• Spare loop detector amplifiers;
• Spare video detection card and camera interface panel;
• Spare power supply for detector cards.
 Deficiencies Requiring Immediate Action: Once a deficiency is found
during an inspection of a traffic signal, agencies should take appropriate
actions to preserve the safe and efficient operation of the intersection. The
documentation of the problem and proper servicing action or
communication to a supervisor is necessary. The following are examples
of deficiencies requiring immediate action:
• A CMU or MMU that fails any of the tests performed by the tester;
• Bad load switches;
• Damaged signal heads;
• Damaged or missing traffic signal hardware;
• Broken or damaged doors for pole base or handhole access;
• Nonfunctioning pushbuttons;
• Missing ground wire, bushings or connectors;
• Damaged, frayed, or faulty cables;
• Non-functioning preemption;
• Faulty circuit breakers, GFCIs, or mercury switches;
• Missing junction or splice box covers;
• Bad controller.
 Preventive Maintenance Checklists: Appendix D contains
recommended TDOT Traffic Signal Preventive Maintenance Checklist
Forms. Technicians should initial all pages of the form once a job is
finished.

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12.1.3 Response Maintenance

Response maintenance is the type of maintenance required when one or more
components of a traffic signal system fails, causing the traffic signal to
malfunction or operate in a way that is not intended. Response maintenance will
be required, for example, during knockdowns, when the signal is operating in
flash mode due to faulty equipment, when wrong indications or multiple
indications are displayed, when indications are dark, when signal heads are out
of proper alignment, when the intersection is not resetting after a power loss, etc.
Agencies with good preventive maintenance programs will significantly reduce
the number of response calls.
 Standard Operating Procedure: Agencies should have a SOP to notify
personnel when traffic signal response maintenance is required. A clear
understanding of the actions to properly respond to service calls is
necessary. Response maintenance may be performed by in-house staff or
may be outsourced to a contractor. Response times may be established to
different tasks, based on the urgency of the service to be performed. A
two-hour response time is a widely accepted standard, but agencies
should consider the geographic area that needs to be covered (larger
cities may need additional time), traffic conditions (peak and off-peak
periods), and weather-related conditions. Agencies should develop a plan
to determine how the initial call will be serviced. First, a list of intersections
that the agency will be servicing needs to be determined. The list should
then be shared with authorities (police, 911 dispatchers, etc), signal
technicians, and contractors (if necessary). Next, determine the number to
be called in case a traffic signal needs to be serviced. It is important to
recognize the potential need for a call tree (in-house and contractors) and
also plan for off-hours, holidays, and weekends.
 Recommended Documentation: The following information should be
included in the service call by the person receiving the complaint:
• Name of caller;
• Date and time the complaint was received;
• Location and apparent problem as reported;
• Name of receiver.
The following information should be added to the initial service call by the
person sent to the field:
• Maintenance personnel, time dispatched, and time of arrival;
• Trouble found (as reported by the maintenance crew), action taken,
and time cleared.
Once on location, the technician should assess the site conditions and
confirm that the trouble reported represents what is being observed. A
determination should be done if additional staff or equipment will be

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necessary to address the problem. It is highly recommended to take

photos to document the time and date, site conditions upon arrival (include
street name signs), temporary traffic control implemented, and conditions
once service is restored to the traffic signal. It is also recommended for
technicians not to direct traffic, asking for law enforcement assistance if
necessary. Lastly, technicians should complete the traffic signal service
call report immediately after the work is finished. Appendix D provides a
recommended Traffic Signal Service Call Report.

12.2 Automated Traffic Signal Performance Measures

TDOT encourages maintaining agencies to collect performance measures, or MOE, to
enhance traffic signal system operations. ATSPMs can easily be used to manage and
optimize all modes of traffic signal operations. They can be monitored and/or reported
via email alerts, and can be reported independent of central system software. The basic
performance measures are proactive in monitoring traffic signals for impacts to the
traffic signal operations, such as malfunctioning detection and troubleshooting
complaints. Performance measures also allow a maintaining agency to be more efficient
when creating work orders, such as:
 Diagnosing a problem and describing it to the technicians;
 Making sure the right technician is dispatched to the field;
 Correcting the problem remotely without having to dispatch a technician;
 Making sure the complaint is observed at the right time of day, if applicable.
Travel time, delay, and average speeds are also commonly used performance
measures to evaluate the quality of traffic movements along a corridor. Current traffic
signal technology provides the opportunity for practitioners to collect detailed
information that could be used to fine-tune traffic signal timings and improve operational
efficiency. In order to collect ATSPMs, traffic signal controllers must be able to meet the
following requirements:
 Be able to collect high-resolution traffic data that is recording events at a rate of
0.1 seconds;
 Be compatible with the Indiana Traffic Signal Hi-Resolution Data Logger
Enumeration software capabilities;
 The ATSPM source codes are free and available from the Utah DOT.
 Be able transfer data remotely to a server. This data transfer can be achieved
using a variety of means, including wireless modems, Internet Protocol (IP) over
radio, and fiber optic cable. One connection is needed at each isolated
intersection or interconnected corridor.
The Indiana Traffic Signal Hi-Resolution Data Logger Enumeration software is free and
is provided at no cost to maintaining agencies. Information Technology (IT) support will
also be needed to set up the ATSPMs since they involve the transfer of data. Most
ATCs are capable of reporting ATSPMs, but it is important for the designer to verify
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traffic signal controller requirements to ensure its compatibility for reporting these types
of performance measures. There are currently more than 30 types of ATSPMs that can
be reported from the traffic signal controllers: Table 12.1 shows some ATSPMs with the
controller and detection requirements needed for each ATSPM.

Table 12.1 – Types of ATSPMs and Controller/Detection Requirements

Type of Detection Needed(1)

High-Resolution
Data Capability
Controller with

Advanced Count

Speed Detection

Lane-by-Lane

Lane-by-Lane

Time (GPS or
Probe Travel
(Radar Only)

Bluetooth)
Advanced
Detection

Detection

Detection
Presence
Automated Traffic Signal

Count
Performance Metric

Purdue Phase Termination X

Split Monitor X
Pedestrian Delay X
Preemption Details X
(2)
Transit Signal Priority Details X
Purdue Coordination Diagram X X
Approach Volume X X
Platoon Ratio X X
Arrivals on Red X X
Approach Delay X X
Approach Speed X X
Turning Movement Counts X X
Yellow and Red Actuations X X
Purdue Split Failure X X
Purdue Travel Time Diagram X X
 Any type of detectors (loops, radar, video, pucks, etc.) can be used to collect traffic data
except for the Approach Speed metric which requires radar detection.
 The Transit Signal Priority Details ATSPM is currently under development.

The ATSPM reports are dependent upon adequate vehicle detection in the field. As
shown in Table 12.1, many different types of detectors and configurations can be used.
A couple of before and after examples using ATSPMs are shown in Figures 12.1 and
12.2, respectively. For additional information on ATSPM’s, the designer should
reference the Traffic Signal Timing Manual, the FHWA Traffic Analysis Toolbox, the
Performance Measurement Fundamentals, and the Indiana Joint Research Program
Performance Measures for Traffic Signal Systems.

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Figure 12.1 – Automated Traffic Signal Performance Measure Before Example

(Purdue Phase Termination and Split Monitor)
Source: Utah DOT

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Figure 12.2 – Automated Traffic Signal Performance Measure After Example

(Purdue Phase Termination and Split Monitor)
Source: Utah DOT

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12.3 Removal of Traffic Signals

Although the original installation of a traffic signal may be based on the satisfaction of
one or more traffic signal warrants and other factors, changes in traffic flow over time
may reduce the effectiveness of traffic signal control. When this occurs, it may be
appropriate to remove a traffic signal. The MUTCD does not contain specific traffic
signal warrants for the removal of traffic signals. A general rule of thumb is that if a
traffic signal does not meet at least 50% of the values of any of the traffic signal
warrants, the traffic signal should be analyzed for removal. Even though traffic volumes
may have decreased, the removal of a traffic signal requires engineering judgment,
because removal of the traffic signal may or may not be appropriate. If the engineering
study indicates that the traffic control signal is no longer justified, removal should be
accomplished using the following steps:
 Determine the appropriate traffic control to be used after removal of the traffic
signal;
 Remove any sight-distance restrictions as necessary;
 Flash or cover the traffic signal heads for a minimum of 90 days, and install the
appropriate stop control or other traffic control devices;
 Remove the signal if the engineering data collected during the removal study
period confirms that the traffic signal is no longer needed.
As a step down, replace the traffic signal with an all-way stop. If an all-way stop is not
warranted, then remove the stop signs on the major approaches. Instead of total
removal of the traffic control signal, the poles and cables may remain in place after
removal of the signal heads for continued analysis. Remove all traffic signal equipment
if the continued analysis finds that the traffic signal is no longer needed. See Appendix
B for an example traffic signal removal form.

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CHAPTER 13
OTHER TYPES OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS
13.1 Highway Traffic Signals
The primary type of traffic signal device in use is the traditional traffic control signal at
an intersection (See Chapters 5-12 in this manual for details on traditional traffic control
signals). However, a traffic signal can be a device other than a traditional traffic control
signal. The following are additional types of traffic signals:
 Pedestrian Hybrid Beacons (MUTCD Chapter 4F): A pedestrian hybrid beacon
is a special type of hybrid beacon used to warn and control traffic at an
unsignalized location, in order to assist pedestrians in crossing a street or
highway at a marked crosswalk. Pedestrian hybrid beacons are also known as
“HAWK Signals”.
 Emergency Vehicle Traffic Control Signals (MUTCD Chapter 4G): A special
traffic control signal that assigns the right-of-way to an authorized emergency
vehicle.
 Traffic Control Signal for One-Lane, Two-Way Facilities (MUTCD
Chapter 4H): A traffic control signal for one-lane, two-way facilities, such as a
narrow bridge, tunnel, or roadway section, and is a special signal that assigns the
right-of-way for vehicles passing over a bridge or through a tunnel or roadway
section that is not of sufficient width for two opposing vehicles to pass.
 Ramp Control Signal (MUTCD Chapter 4I): A highway traffic signal installed to
control the flow of traffic entering the freeway facility. This is often referred to as
“ramp metering”.
 Traffic Control for Movable Bridges (MUTCD Chapter 4J): A special type of
highway traffic signal installed at movable bridges to notify road users to stop
because of a road closure rather than alternately giving the right-of-way to
conflicting traffic movements.
 Traffic Signals at Toll Plazas (MUTCD, Chapter 4K): Traffic control signals
used at toll booth plazas.
 Flashing Beacons (MUTCD Chapter 4L): A highway traffic signal with one or
more signal sections that operates in a flashing mode.
 Lane-Use Control Signals (MUTCD Chapter 4M): A signal face displaying
signal indications to permit or prohibit the use of specific lanes of a roadway or to
indicate the impending prohibition of such use.
 In-Roadway Lights (MUTCD Chapter 4N): In-roadway lights are special types
of highway traffic signals installed in the roadway surface to warn road users that
they are approaching a condition on or adjacent to the roadway that might not be
readily apparent and might require the road users to slow down and/or come to a
stop. This includes situations warning of marked school crosswalks, marked
midblock crosswalks, marked crosswalks on uncontrolled approaches, marked

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crosswalks in advance of roundabouts, and other roadway situations involving

pedestrian crossings.
The next sections summarize important information on the other types of traffic signals
listed above that are relevant in Tennessee.

13.2 Pedestrian Hybrid Beacons

Generally, a pedestrian hybrid beacon is considered for installation to facilitate
pedestrian crossings at a location that does not meet traffic signal warrants. When an
engineering study finds that installation of a pedestrian hybrid beacon is justified, then:
 At least two pedestrian hybrid beacon faces shall be installed for each approach
of the major street;
 A stop line shall be installed for each approach to the crosswalk;
 A pedestrian signal head conforming to the provisions set forth in the MUTCD
Chapter 4E shall be installed at each end of the marked crosswalk; and
 The pedestrian hybrid beacon shall be pedestrian actuated and shall conform to
the provisions set forth in the MUTCD Chapter 4F.
Figure 13.1 presents a pedestrian hybrid beacon sequence display.

Figure 13.1 – Pedestrian Hybrid Beacon Sequence Display

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13.3 Emergency Vehicle Traffic Control Signals

An emergency vehicle traffic control signal may be installed at a location that does not
meet other traffic signal warrants, such as at an intersection or other location to permit
direct access from a building housing the emergency vehicle (e.g. fire station).

13.3.1 Displays
The emergency signal shall display either steady green or flashing yellow to the
public street approaches when not activated. If the flashing yellow signal
indication is used instead of the steady green signal indication, it shall be
displayed in the normal position of the steady green signal indication; while the
red and steady yellow signal indications shall be displayed in their normal
positions. When an emergency vehicle actuation occurs, a steady yellow change
interval followed by a steady red interval shall be displayed to traffic on the public
street. An emergency vehicle hybrid beacon may be installed instead of an
emergency traffic control signal under specific conditions (MUTCD Section
4G.04). Figure 13.2 presents an emergency hybrid beacon sequence display.

13.3.2 Control
An emergency vehicle traffic control signal sequence may be initiated manually
from a local control point, such as a fire station or police headquarters, or from an
emergency vehicle equipped for remote operation of the signal.

13.3.3 Signing
If an emergency signal is used, the following signs shall be installed:
 An Emergency Vehicle (W11-8) sign with an Emergency Signal Ahead
(W11-12P) supplemental plaque shall be placed in advance of an
emergency vehicle signal. A warning beacon may be installed to
supplement the Emergency Vehicle sign; and
 An Emergency Signal (R10-13) sign shall be mounted adjacent to a signal
face on each street approach.

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Figure 13.2 – Emergency Vehicle Traffic Signals

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13.4 Flashing Beacons

A flashing beacon is composed of one or more traffic signal sections operating in a
flashing mode. A flashing beacon can provide traffic control when used as an
intersection control beacon, or it can provide warning, as described below. An automatic
dimming feature may be used to reduce the nighttime brightness.

13.4.1 Intersection Control Beacons

Intersection control beacons consist of two signal faces per intersection
approach, each with one signal section having a 12-inch lens (See Figure 13.3).
Normally, flashing yellow signal indications will be displayed to the major street
and flashing red signal indications to the minor street. At the intersection of two
streets of equal importance, flashing red signal indications may be displayed to
both streets. A Stop sign shall be used on approaches to which a flashing red
signal indication on an intersection control beacon is shown. If two horizontally
aligned red signal indications are used on an approach for an intersection control
beacon, they shall be flashed simultaneously to avoid being confused with grade
crossing flashing-light signals. If two vertically aligned red signal indications are
used on an approach for an intersection control beacon, they shall be flashed
alternately. Intersection control beacons are intended to be used as a
supplement to and not a replacement for other traffic control devices at the
intersection. An intersection beacon may be installed when conditions do not
justify the installation of a conventional traffic signal, but crash rates indicate the
possibility of a special need. The most common application for these beacons is
at intersections with minor approach stop control, where some approaching
vehicles on the controlled legs have failed to stop.

13.4.2 Stop Beacons (Red)

A stop beacon shall be used only to supplement a Stop sign, a Do Not Enter
sign, or a Wrong Way sign. Stop sign beacons consist of one or more signal
sections having flashing red 12-inch signal indications mounted on a Stop sign
(See Figure 13.3). If two flashers are used on one sign, they shall flash
simultaneously if mounted horizontally and alternately if mounted vertically. Stop
beacons can be justified for Stop signs subject to the following considerations:
 Violations: A significant number of vehicles violate the stop condition.
 Crashes: A crash rate exists that indicates the presence of a special
need.

13.4.3 Speed Limit Sign Beacons

A speed limit sign beacon consists of one or more signal sections with a flashing
circular yellow signal indication in each section. It is used to supplement a Speed
Limit sign. It may be installed with a fixed or variable Speed Limit sign (R2-1)
where studies show a need to emphasize that a speed limit is in effect. Signal
indications may be either 8-inch or 12-inch and they shall flash alternately.

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Figure 13.3 – Intersection Control Beacons and Stop Beacons (Red)

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13.4.4 School Zone Speed Limit Sign Beacons

A school zone flashing beacon consists of two signal sections with a flashing
circular yellow signal indication in each section and is used in conjunction with
the standard School Zone sign (S5-1) (See TDOT Standard Drawing T-SG-13).
Figure 13.4 displays the typical layout. Eight-inch lenses may be used and
installed within the borders of the sign. When 12-inch signal heads are used, they
must be mounted on the outside of the sign. The two indications in a school zone
speed limit beacon shall flash alternately. A school zone beacon may be installed
and maintained by a school board or local government at an established school
zone under a Traffic Control Device Permit. School zone beacons on State
highways must be coordinated through the TDOT Regional Traffic Engineer.

13.4.5 Warning Beacons (Yellow)

Warning beacons are used only to supplement an appropriate warning or
regulatory sign or marker (See Figure 13.5). Warning beacons consist of one or
more signal sections, each having flashing yellow signal indications which flash
alternately. Warning beacons may be justified by either of the following:
 Obstruction Identification: Warning beacons may be used to help
identify obstructions in or immediately adjacent to the roadway where
crash experience indicates that additional emphasis is needed to
supplement existing signing and pavement markings. Such obstructions
could include guardrail at T-intersections, bridge supports in or near the
roadway, etc.
 Supplement to Advance Warning Signs: A flashing beacon may be
used to supplement advance warning signs for a variety of conditions,
where crash experience or field observation reveals that the warning signs
alone are not effective. Such conditions could include sharp curves,
obscured stop conditions, weather-related hazards such as fog and ice,
obscured railroad crossings, truck crossings, plant entrances, etc.
Warning beacons are also applicable to emphasize midblock crosswalks.

13.4.6 Traffic Signal Ahead Beacons

Traffic signal ahead beacons consist of one or more signal sections, each having
alternately flashing yellow signal indications (See Figure 13.5). They are used in
conjunction with the standard Signal Ahead warning sign (W3-3). Signal ahead
beacons may be justified under either of the following conditions:
 First Signal: On highways with a posted speed limit 45 mph or greater
that is approaching the first signalized intersection of a community or
town, and the intersection experiences a crash rate that indicates the
presence of a special need.
 Sight Distance: On highways with a posted speed limit 45 mph or greater
that is approaching a traffic signal whose signal visibility is less than that
called for in Table 9.2 (Minimum Sight Distance for Signal Visibility).

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Figure 13.4 – School Zone Speed Limit Sign Beacons

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Figure 13.5 – Warning Beacons (Yellow) and Traffic Signal Ahead Beacons

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CHAPTER 14
SIGNING AND PAVEMENT MARKINGS
14.1 General Information
The designer is responsible for ensuring signing and/or pavement marking projects
comply with the following documents:
 Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD), 2009 Edition: The
MUTCD is the obligatory guide for signing and pavement marking and is
published by FHWA in conjunction with the ITE, ATSSA, and AASHTO. The
designer should review the FHWA MUTCD website for the latest edition of the
MUTCD along with any interim updates and compliance dates.
 Standard Highway Signs, FHWA: This document contains detailed drawings of
all standard highway signs in addition to standard alphabets, symbols, and
arrows. Each sign is identified by a unique designation. Signs not included in
the Standard Highway Signs or in the TDOT Tennessee Supplement to Standard
Highway Signs must be detailed in the plans.
 TDOT Supplement to Standard Highway Signs: This document provides
detailed drawings for signs and symbols that are applicable to Tennessee, but
are not addressed in the MUTCD.
 Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs,
Luminaires and Traffic Signals, AASHTO: This document provides the design
criteria for the structural design of highway sign supports, luminaires, and traffic
signals.
 Roadway and Traffic Operations Standard Drawings: These standards are
composed of a number of standard drawings or indexes that address specific
situations that occur on a large majority of construction projects.
 TDOT Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction (Standard
Specifications): The standard specifications are the requirements adopted by
TDOT for work methods, materials, and basis of payment used in construction.
The standard specifications are intended for general and repetitive use. They
provide TDOT criteria for the scope of work, control of work, control of materials,
legal regulations and responsibilities to the public, contract prosecution and
progress, and measurement and payment of contract items.
 TDOT Roadway and Traffic Design Guidelines: These guidelines establish
uniform procedures for roadway and traffic design activities within TDOT and
provide guidance in the preparation of construction plans and estimates.

14.2 Signing
All regulatory and warning signs shall meet the design and installation requirements of
the MUTCD. Effective signing provides clear information and instruction to motor vehicle

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operators, pedestrians, and bicyclists. Properly installed signing facilitates legal, safe,
and orderly progress on public roadways.

14.2.1 MUTCD
The guidance provided in the MUTCD is divided into four categories:
 Standard;
 Guidance;
 Option; and
 Support.
These categories are used to determine the appropriate application for the
various traffic control devices. Where applicable, the designer is required to meet
the criteria presented in the Standard category. Where applicable, the designer is
recommended to meet the criteria presented in the Guidance category. If the
designer decides to deviate from the guidance based on engineering judgment or
engineering study, the designer should document why the guidance is not being
followed. Where applicable, the designer is permitted to meet the criteria
presented in the option category.

14.2.2 Application
Signs should be used only where required by the MUTCD and justified by
engineering judgment or studies. Results from traffic engineering studies of
physical and traffic factors should indicate the locations where signs are deemed
necessary or desirable. Roadway geometric design and sign application should
be coordinated so that signing can be effectively placed to give the road user any
necessary regulatory, warning, guidance, and other information.

14.2.3 Sign Layouts

The MUTCD, TDOT Supplement to Standard Highway Signs, and TDOT
Roadway and Traffic Operations Standard Drawings provide guidance on the
placement of regulatory signs, warning signs, guide signs, information signs,
service signs, and other signs used in Tennessee.

14.2.4 Conventional Highways (Non-Access Controlled) Signs

 Directional and Route Signing at Intersections: The following figures
illustrate typical sign assemblies for directional assemblies and route
signing at intersections:
• Figure 14.1 – Intersection of Two Major Routes (4-Way
Intersection)
• Figure 14.2 – Intersection of Two Major Routes (3-Way
Intersection)

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• Figure 14.3 – Intersection of Two Major Routes with Overlapping

Route Numbers
• Figure 14.4 – 4-Way Intersection Route Signing with Scenic (Bird)
Route
• Figure 14.5 – 3-Way Intersection Route Signing with Scenic (Bird)
Route
• Figure 14.6 – 3-Way Intersection Route Signing with Scenic (Bird)
Route with Overlapping Route Numbers
 One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing at Median Crossovers: ONE-WAY
signs shall be used to denote streets where only one direction of traffic is
allowed. When installed, they should be placed on the near right and far
left corners of the intersection. ONE-WAY signs are not required for
divided streets with a median width of less than 30 feet. The following
figures illustrate typical ONE-WAY and WRONG-WAY signing at median
crossovers:
• Figure 14.7 – Crossroad Signing, Medians less than 30 feet, One-
Way and Wrong-Way Signing
• Figure 14.8 – Signalized Intersection, Medians less than 30 feet,
One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing
• Figure 14.9 – “T” Intersection Right, Medians less than 30 feet,
One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing
• Figure 14.10 – “T” Intersection Left, Medians less than 30 feet,
One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing
• Figure 14.11 – Median Crossover, Medians less than 30 feet, One-
Way and Wrong-Way Signing
• Figure 14.12 – Crossroad Signing, Medians 30 feet or greater,
One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing
• Figure 14.13 – Signalized Intersection, Medians 30 feet or greater,
One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing
• Figure 14.14 – “T” Intersection Right, Medians 30 feet or greater,
One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing
• Figure 14.15 – “T” Intersection Left, Medians 30 feet or greater,
One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing
• Figure 14.16 – Median Crossover, Medians 30 feet or greater, One-
Way and Wrong-Way Signing

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Figure 14.1 – Intersection of Two Major Routes (4-Way Intersection)

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Figure 14.2 – Intersection of Two Major Routes (3-Way Intersection)

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Figure 14.3 – Intersection of Two Major Routes with Overlapping Route Numbers

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Figure 14.4 – 4-Way Intersection Route Signing with Scenic (Bird) Route

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Figure 14.5 – 3-Way Intersection Route Signing with Scenic (Bird) Route

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Figure 14.6 – 3-Way Intersection Route Signing with Scenic (Bird) Route
with Overlapping Route Numbers

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Figure 14.7 – Crossroad Signing, Medians less than 30 feet,

One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing

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Figure 14.8 – Signalized Intersection, Medians less than 30 feet,

One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing

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Figure 14.9 – “T” Intersection Right, Medians less than 30 feet,

One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing

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Figure 14.10 – “T” Intersection Left, Medians less than 30 feet,

One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing

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Figure 14.11 – Median Crossover, Medians less than 30 feet,

One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing

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Figure 14.12 – Crossroad Signing, Medians 30 feet or greater,

One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing

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Figure 14.13 – Signalized Intersection, Medians 30 feet or greater,

One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing

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Figure 14.14 – “T” Intersection Right, Medians 30 feet or greater,

One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing

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Figure 14.15 – “T” Intersection Left, Medians 30 feet or greater,

One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing

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Figure 14.16 – Median Crossover, Medians 30 feet or greater,

One-Way and Wrong-Way Signing

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 Roadside Sign Supports: For roadside signs on two-lane, four-lane, and

five-lane non-access controlled, conventional highways, U-post and
P-post sign supports are most commonly used. Table 14.1 provides
guidance on the selection of the appropriate post types based on the
support length and sign assembly. For design purposes and quantity
calculations, only use P-posts or U-posts, as applicable. When noted on
the Sign Schedule Sheet, the Contractor may substitute the post type
used in the design with an alternative post type (i.e., MU-post or R-posts).
Figure 14.17 illustrates how to estimate the length of the sign supports for
rural and urban roadside signs. Note the support lengths shown in
Table 14.1 do not include the stub length in the ground. For P-posts, add
three feet for the stub. For U-Posts, add 3.5 feet for the stub. For guidance
on larger sign supports including breakaway supports, see
Sections 14.2.5 and 14.2.6. Supply and installation of U-posts and P-posts
are measured for payment by the pound. Compute the weight of U-posts
using the weight per foot of the support multiplied by the combined length
of the main post and stub post. Compute the weight of P-Posts using the
weight per foot multiplied by the length of the support (excluding the stub)
and then add the weight of the stub to the total. Table 14.2 provides the
nominal weight per foot for the U-post and P-posts supports used by
TDOT.
 Strain Poles: Certain overhead signs (e.g., street name signs, exclusive
lane signs) are commonly attached to a cable wire over the roadway. The
cable is then attached to a steel strain pole. Where steel strain poles are
included in the design, the designer is responsible for including the strain
pole foundation design in the Signing Detail Sheets. Figure 14.18
illustrates a typical foundation design and cable connection details for a
strain pole. The strain pole itself is to be designed by the Contractor and is
to meet the criteria in the latest version of the AASHTO’s Standard
Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and
Traffic Signals.

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Table 14.1 – Post Selection for Various Sign Assemblies (1 of 5)

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Table 14.1 – Post Selection for Various Sign Assemblies (2 of 5)

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Table 14.1 – Post Selection for Various Sign Assemblies (3 of 5)

31.18”

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Table 14.1 – Post Selection for Various Sign Assemblies (4 of 5)

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Table 14.1 – Post Selection for Various Sign Assemblies (5 of 5)

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Figure 14.17 – Estimating Length of Sign Support

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Table 14.2 – Determining Weight of Sign Supports

Perforated Tube (P-Post) U-Post
Unit Post Stub Below Unit Post Stub Below
Member Weight Ground(1) Member Weight Ground(2)
Designation Designation
(lbs/ft) (lbs) (lbs/ft) (lbs)
1.702
P1 11.09 U1 2.00 2.00
1½″
2.060
P2 12.96 U2 2.25 2.25
1¾″
2.416
P3 14.84 U3 2.50 2.50
2″
2.773
P4 14.84 U4 2.75 2.75
2¼″
3.141
P5 23.72 U5 2.75 2.75
2½″
4.006
P6 24.59 U6 3.00 3.00
2½″
1.882
P7 8.66 U7 4.00 4.00
1¾″
2.164
P8 9.94
2″
To determine the weight of the post, multiply the length of the support (above ground) by the
unit weight in the table and then add the weight of the stub.
Add the length of stub (3.5 feet) to the post length as determined from Figure 14.17 and
multiply the total length by the unit weight shown in the table.

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Figure 14.18 – Strain Pole Foundation and Cable Connection Details

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14.2.5 Freeway and Expressway Signs (Access Controlled)

 Overhead Signing: For overhead signs on access-controlled facilities, the
designer is responsible for including the necessary information on the
Signing Detail Sheets to allow the Contractor to adequately design the
overhead sign bridge or cantilever sign support. The cross-sectional view
should include the following:
• The overall span length of the overhead structure;
• Width and height dimensions of the overhead sign, including the
dimension for any auxiliary plaques;
• Distance from each structural support to the overhead sign,
width of the sign, and spacing between signs (if applicable);
• The traveled way width and the distance from edge of the
traveled way to each structural support;
• Signs centered vertically on the truss and centered over the
appropriate lane of traffic;
• The location and distance of the minimum clearance between
the roadway surface and the bottom of the tallest overhead sign;
• The sign number and station of the sign;
• The sign structure ID number (Note: The designer must submit
a print of the detail sheet to the TDOT Structures Division to
obtain the ID number.);
• Sign design data includes the design area of the sign, the
minimum wind velocity, and applicable soil data parameters
(See TDOT Standard Drawing STD-8-4 for guidance); and
• Other sign details and notes to the Contractor.
Figure 14.19 illustrates an example of an Overhead Sign Detail Sheet.
The design area of the sign is determined by multiplying the width of the
traveled way, auxiliary lanes, and ramp width by the height of the tallest
sign. Typically, the sign area for auxiliary plaques is not included in the
overall design area of the sign. The minimum wind velocity for overhead
signs is 90 mph. See the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural
Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals for guidance.
 Structural Support Foundations: If a sign is mounted on a CMB, the
designer is responsible for ensuring the applicable standard drawings are
noted in the contract plans.

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Figure 14.19 – Example of Overhead Sign Detail Sheet

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 Roadside Supports: The following supports are commonly used for

roadside signs on four-lane, six-lane and eight-lane access-controlled
freeways and expressways:
• 2, 2½, and 3-inch square posts (TDOT Standard Drawing T-S-12);
• S3x5.7 to S7x15.3 steel posts (TDOT Standard Drawing T-S-13);
• W6x15 to W10x30 I-beam steel posts (TDOT Standard Drawing
T-S-14).

14.2.6 Sign Vertical Clearances

Sign vertical clearances are as follows:
 Rural: The minimum height of signs installed at the side of the road in
rural areas shall be five feet, measured vertically from the bottom of the
sign to the elevation of the near edge of the pavement (See Figure 14.20).
The height to the bottom of a secondary sign mounted below another sign
may be one foot less.
 Urban: The minimum height of signs installed at the side of the road in
business, commercial, or residential areas where parking or pedestrian
movements are likely to occur, or where the view of the sign might be
obstructed, shall be seven feet, measured vertically from the bottom of the
sign to the top of the curb (See Figure 14.20). In the absence of curb, the
minimum height is measured vertically from the bottom of the sign to the
elevation of the near edge of the traveled way. The height to the bottom of
a secondary sign mounted below another sign may be one foot less than
the height specified above. The minimum height of signs installed above
sidewalks shall be seven feet, measured vertically from the bottom of the
sign to the sidewalk. If the bottom of a secondary sign that is mounted
below another sign is mounted lower than seven feet above a pedestrian
sidewalk or pathway, the secondary sign shall not project more than four
inches into the pedestrian facility. Signs that are placed 30 feet or more
from the edge of the traveled way may be installed with a minimum height
of five feet, measured vertically from the bottom of the sign to the
elevation of the near edge of the pavement.
 Freeways and Expressways: Directional signs on freeways and
expressways shall be installed with a minimum height of seven feet,
measured vertically from the bottom of the sign to the elevation of the near
edge of the pavement. All route signs, warning signs, and regulatory signs
on freeways and expressways shall be installed with a minimum height of
seven feet, measured vertically from the bottom of the sign to the
elevation of the near edge of the pavement. If a secondary sign is
mounted below another sign on a freeway or expressway, the major sign
shall be installed with a minimum height of eight feet and the secondary
sign shall be installed with a minimum height of five feet, measured
vertically from the bottom of the sign to the elevation of the near edge of

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the pavement. Where large signs having an area exceeding 50 square

feet are installed on multiple breakaway posts, the clearance from the
ground to the bottom of the sign shall be at least seven feet.
 Route Signs: A route sign assembly consisting of a route sign and
auxiliary signs may be treated as a single sign for the purposes of this
Section.
 Steep Backslopes: The mounting height may be adjusted when supports
are located near the edge of the right-of-way on a steep backslope in
order to avoid the sometimes less desirable alternative of placing the sign
closer to the roadway.
 Overhead Signs/Structures: Overhead signs shall provide a minimum
vertical clearance of not less than 17 feet to the sign, light fixture, sign
bridge, or walkway over the entire width of the pavement and shoulders,
except where the structure on which the overhead signs are to be
mounted or other structures along the roadway near the sign structure
have a lesser vertical clearance. If the vertical clearance of other
structures along the roadway near the sign structure is less than 16 feet,
the vertical clearance to an overhead sign structure or support may be as
low as 1-foot higher than the vertical clearance of the other structures in
order to improve the visibility of the overhead signs.

14.2.7 Traffic Signal Signs

The following guidance is provided for traffic control signs at or in advance of
signalized intersections. Figure 14.21 illustrates some of the traffic signs
associated with traffic signals.
 Span Wire/Mast Arm Mounted: Where overhead signs are provided, the
minimum vertical clearance over the entire roadway is 19.5 feet.
• LEFT TURN SIGNAL Signs (R10-10, R10-12)
o LEFT TURN SIGNAL Sign (R10-10): This sign is normally
installed for a protected only left turn phase. The R10-10
sign is required when a Red Ball indication is used (R, Y,
G). Install the sign directly adjacent to and left of the signal
head. Additionally, install this sign to the left of each left turn
signal (R, Y, G) in a dual left turn situation.
o LEFT TURN YIELD ON GREEN BALL Signs (R10-12):
This optional sign may be installed with a protected–
permissive left turn phase adjacent to and to the left of the
five-section left turn signal head (R, Y, G, Y, G).

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Figure 14.20 – Sign Vertical Clearances

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Figure 14.21 – Typical Signal Related Signs

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 Shared Lanes: Where there are two or more movements from a specific
lane and one of those movements is not normally expected, install an
Optional Movement Lane Control Sign (R3-6).
• Lane Control Signs (R3-5 and R3-8): Lane use control signs
should be used to alert drivers of unexpected or unusual turn
requirements for a lane. Where needed, mount these signs
overhead in the center of the lane to which they apply. The use of
an overhead sign for one lane does not require the installation of
signs for the other lanes. The R3-5 and R3-8 series signs are
intended for overhead use. Install these signs directly over a lane
for which they apply in order to convey the proper message to a
driver. They should not be used for side of road installations. See
the MUTCD for guidance on post mounted lane use control signs.
• Turn Prohibition Signs (Signs R3-1, R3-2, R3-3, R3-4): In
general, where turns are prohibited, install the appropriate turn
prohibition signs (R3-1 through R3-4), unless one-way signs are
used.
o The NO RIGHT TURN sign (R3-1) may be installed adjacent
to the signal face for the right lane;
o The NO LEFT TURN (R3-2) or NO U-TURN (R3-4) signs
may be installed adjacent to a signal face viewed by road
users in the left lane;
o A NO TURNS (R3-3) sign may be placed adjacent to a
signal face for all lanes on that approach or two signs should
be used;
o Where ONE-WAY signs are used, turn prohibition signs may
be omitted.
• LEFT or RIGHT ON GREEN ARROW ONLY Sign (R10-5): Where
needed, install the R10-5 sign adjacent to the applicable turn signal
head. The R10-5 sign is used where it is unsafe to turn left or right
except when protected by the green arrow display. The R10-5 sign
or a modified R-10-11a sign shall be used if an all-arrow turn signal
(Type 130A3) is installed (See TDOT Standard Drawing T-SG-7).
• NO TURN ON RED Sign (R10-11a): Where needed, install the
R10-11a sign near the appropriate signal head. A No Turn on Red
sign should be considered when an engineering study finds that
one or more of the following conditions exists:
o Where there is inadequate sight distance to vehicles
approaching from the left (or right, if applicable);
o Where there are geometrics or operational characteristics of
the intersection that might result in unexpected conflicts;

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o Where there is an exclusive pedestrian phase;

o Where there are an unacceptable number of pedestrian
conflicts with RTOR maneuvers, especially involving
children, older pedestrians, or persons with disabilities;
o Where there are more than three RTOR crashes reported in
a 12-month period for the particular approach;
o Where the skew angle of the intersecting roadways creates
difficulty for drivers to see traffic approaching from their left;
o At railroad crossings where the design vehicle cannot be
safely stored in the clear storage distance between the
railroad crossing and the adjacent traffic signal (i.e., to
prevent trapping a vehicle) (See Section 7.10.2 for further
guidance);
o For multi-lane applications, the use of R10-11c or R10-11d
may be used to restrict the RTOR from a specific lane.
• Blank Out Signs: Blank Out Signs are internally illuminated signs
that are blanked out (show no message) when not illuminated.
They are often used when a turn prohibition is in effect only at
certain times of the day or during one or more portion(s) of a
particular cycle of the traffic signal. Another application of blank out
signs is where a traffic signal has a railroad preemption sequence
and the left-turns and right-turns towards the tracks are prohibited
once an approaching train is detected. In this turn prohibition
application, the blank sign would be located to the right of the right-
most signal if the right-turn is prohibited, and to the left of the left-
most signal if the left-turn is prohibited.
• Street Name Sign (D3-1): For overhead mounted street name
signs, ensure the support poles are designed to accommodate
loadings for street name signs if they will be installed during or after
the project. For proposed overhead street name sign layouts, see
Section 14.2.9.
 Ground Mounted Signs: The following discusses ground-mounted signs
to be used at or in advance of signalized intersections.
• Turn Lane Supplemental Signs (R3-7): Ground mounted
mandatory lane control signs should be used to alert drivers of
unexpected or unusual turn requirements for a lane or if turning
movement traffic frequently fills the turn lane to capacity. The R3-7
signs, LEFT (RIGHT) LANE MUST TURN LEFT (RIGHT) can be
installed to alert the driver, but is not required for all turn lanes.
Simply having a dedicated right turn lane does not automatically
require the installation of RIGHT LANE MUST TURN RIGHT signs.
However, if a through lane ends as a right turn only lane, then

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install the appropriate R3-5 overhead sign and/or R3-7 ground

mounted sign.
• SIGNAL AHEAD Sign (W3-3): The installation of this sign is
appropriate under the following conditions:
o Signal Visibility: Where visibility of the traffic signal heads
on any approach is less than the distances shown in
MUTCD Table 4D-2, install an advance Signal Ahead sign
(W3-3) to warn approaching traffic of the signal.
o Speed: On high-speed rural approaches, approaching the
first signal in an urbanized area, the W3-3 sign may be
justified.
o Engineering Judgment: In other situations where
engineering judgment reveals the need for and the location
of the W3-3 sign (e.g. for additional emphasis even where
the visibility distance to the device is sufficient).
A warning beacon may be used to provide additional emphasis to a
Signal Ahead sign (see Section 13.4.6).
• Street Name Signs (D3-1): Ground mounted street name signs are
typically installed by the local jurisdiction. The minimum lettering
heights are six inches for initial upper-case letters and 4.5 inches
for lower-case letters. For multi-lane facilities where the speed limit
is greater than 40 mph, the minimum lettering heights are eight
inches for initial upper-case letters and six inches for lower-case
letters.
14.2.8 Other Traffic Control Signs:
The following discusses other traffic control signs to be used at or in advance of
signalized intersections.
 SPEED LIMIT Signs (R-2 series): SPEED LIMIT signs shall be posted at
the points where the speed limit changes. Ensure that both directions are
consistent. Additional signs should be installed beyond major
intersections to inform traffic of the posted speed limit.
 Two-Way Left-Turn Lane Signs (R3-9 series): Two-Way Left-Turn Lane
signs are installed to inform drivers of the required use of a center turn
lane. They are installed as a supplement to the standard pavement
markings and should be located as often as the speed limit signs.
 School Signs (S Series): School signs shall have a fluorescent yellow-
green background with a black legend and border.

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14.2.9 Proposed Overhead Street Name Sign Layouts

For traffic signal design projects, the size of the proposed overhead street name
sign should be as follows:
 Height: 24 inches.
 Width: Varies depending on the legend required (6-foot minimum, 8-foot
maximum except as noted below).
To determine the width of the proposed overhead street name sign, the
recommended procedure to follow is:
1. Using Series "D" lettering style (12-inch upper-case, 9-inch lower-case),
calculate the length of the legend required and include the design criteria
listed in the following section to determine the overall sign width. Round
up to the nearest six inch increment (e.g. 7-foot, 6-inch). Supplementary
lettering to indicate the type of street (i.e. Street, Avenue, or Road, etc.) or
the section of the city (i.e. NE, NW, SE, SW, etc.) can be downsized to
8-inch upper-case, 6-inch lower-case.
2. If the Series "D" calculated sign width distance exceeds eight feet, then
use Series "C" lettering style (12-inch upper-case, 9-inch lower-case).
Supplementary lettering downsizing as described previously is still
applicable.
3. If the Series "C" calculated sign width distance exceeds eight feet, then
use Series "B" lettering style (12-inch upper-case, 9-inch lower-case).
Supplementary lettering downsizing as described previously is still
applicable.
4. If the Series "B" calculated sign width distance exceeds eight feet, then
the maximum sign width can be increased up to ten feet. Supplementary
lettering downsizing as described previously is still applicable.
5. If the Series "B" calculated sign width distance still exceeds ten feet, then
contact the Traffic Operations Division for further guidance.
Other proposed overhead street name sign design criteria includes:
 Color: White on green background.
 Sheeting: Retro-reflective.
 Corner Radii: 2.25 inches.
 Border Color: White.
 Border Width: One inch.
 Minimum distance between the Sign Border and the Legend: Six
inches.

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14.3 Pavement Markings

All pavement markings shall meet the design and installation requirements of the
MUTCD. Pavement markings are constantly degrading and must be replaced at regular
intervals to be effective.

14.3.1 Stop Lines

 Guidance: Stop lines should be used to indicate the point behind which
vehicles are required to stop to be in compliance with a stop sign, traffic
signal, or other traffic control devices. Stop lines have the following
characteristics:
• Line Type: Solid.
• Line Width: 24 Inches.
• Color: White.
• Orientation: Generally parallel to cross street curb line (See
Figures 14.22 and 14.23).
 Placement: When determining the placement of the stop line, consider
the following:
• Sight Distance: Position the stop line to allow the motorist
adequate sight distance of the cross street traffic.
• Staggered: Stop lines may be staggered longitudinally on a lane-
by-lane basis (See Figure 14.22). Check turning paths of the design
vehicles from the cross street to ensure there are no conflicts. For
most intersections, use the turning path of a single-unit (SU) design
vehicle to determine the location of the stop line.
• Crosswalks: Where crosswalks are used, place the stop line a
minimum of four feet in advance of the nearest crosswalk line at
controlled intersections, except at midblock crosswalks (See
Figure 14.23).
• No Crosswalk: In the absence of a marked crosswalk, place the
stop line at the desired stopping point, but not more than 30 feet or
less than four feet from the nearest edge of the intersecting
traveled way (See Figure 14.23).
• Mid-block Crossings: Stop lines at midblock signalized locations
should be placed at least 40 feet in advance of the nearest signal
indication.
• Uncontrolled Multi-lane Approaches: If stop lines are used at a
crosswalk that crosses an uncontrolled multi-lane approach, the
stop lines should be placed 20 feet to 50 feet in advance of the
nearest crosswalk line, and parking should be prohibited in the area
between the stop line and the crosswalk.

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Figure 14.22 – Stop Line Placement

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Figure 14.23 – Stop Line Locations

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14.3.2 Yield Lines

 Guidance: Yield lines may be used to indicate the point behind which
vehicles are required to yield in compliance with a YIELD (R1-2) sign or a
Yield Here To Pedestrians (R1-5 or R1-5a) sign. Yield lines have the
following characteristics:
• Symbol: Solid triangle.
• Base Width: Twelve inches to 24 inches.
• Height: 1.5 times the base width.
• Color: White.
• Orientation: Generally parallel to cross street curb line.
• Spacing between Triangles: Three inches to twelve inches.
 Placement: When determining the placement of the yield line, consider
the following:
• Sight Distance: Position the yield line to allow the motorist
adequate sight distance of the cross street traffic.
• Staggered: Yield lines may be staggered longitudinally on a lane-
by-lane basis. Check turning paths of the design vehicles from the
cross street to ensure there are no conflicts. For most
intersections, use the turning path of a single-unit (SU) design
vehicle to determine the location of the yield line.
• Crosswalks: Where crosswalks are used, place the yield line a
minimum of four feet in advance of the nearest crosswalk line at
controlled intersections or roundabouts, except at midblock
crosswalks.
• No Crosswalk: In the absence of a marked crosswalk, place the
yield line at the desired yield point, but not more than 30 feet or less
than four feet from the nearest edge of the intersecting traveled
way.
• Uncontrolled Multi-lane Approaches: If yield lines are used at a
crosswalk that crosses an uncontrolled multi-lane approach, the
yield line should be placed 20 feet to 50 feet in advance of the
nearest crosswalk line, and parking should be prohibited in the area
between the yield line and the crosswalk. If yield lines are used at a
crosswalk that crosses an uncontrolled multi-lane approach,
Pedestrians (R1-5 series) signs shall be used.
• Roundabouts: A yield line may be used to indicate the point
behind which vehicles are required to yield at the entrance to a
roundabout.

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14.3.3 Crosswalks
 Guidance: Crosswalks are used to define a location where pedestrians
are to cross a roadway and to alert motorists as to the crossing location.
Crosswalks should be installed at locations controlled by traffic control
signals or on approaches controlled by STOP or YIELD signs, or where
engineering judgment indicates they are needed to direct pedestrians to
the proper crossing path(s). Crosswalks have the following characteristics:
• Type lines: Solid.
• Line width: Eight inches or twelve inches.
• Color: White.
• Crosswalk Width: Six feet minimum.
 Engineering Study: Crosswalk lines should not be used indiscriminately.
An engineering study should be performed before a marked crosswalk is
installed at a location away from a traffic control signal or an approach
controlled by a STOP or YIELD sign. The engineering study should
consider:
• Number of lanes;
• Presence of a median;
• Distance from adjacent signalized intersections;
• Pedestrian volumes and delays;
• Average Daily Traffic (ADT);
• Posted or statutory speed limit (i.e. 85th-percentile speed);
• Geometry of the location;
• Possible consolidation of multiple crossing points;
• Availability of street lighting; and
• Other appropriate factors.
 Placement: When determining the placement of crosswalks, consider the
following:
• Location: Crosswalks should be in line with the sidewalk
approaches. Crosswalk lines should extend across the full width of
pavement or to the edge of the intersecting crosswalk to discourage
diagonal walking between crosswalks.
• Type: Normally, transverse lines are used. Where additional
crosswalk visibility is required, diagonal or longitudinal lines should
be used.
• Orientation: The crosswalk should be oriented parallel to the cross
street.

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• Accessibility: A pedestrian access route shall be provided within

pedestrian street crossings, including medians and pedestrian
refuge islands, and pedestrian at-grade rail crossings. The
pedestrian access route shall connect departure and arrival
sidewalks. All pedestrian street crossings must be accessible to
pedestrians with disabilities. If pedestrian crossing is prohibited at
certain locations, No Pedestrian Crossing signs (R9-3) should be
provided, along with detectable features (e.g. grass strips,
landscaping, planters, chains, fencing, and railings).
• Curb Ramps: The curb ramp, excluding any flared sides, or
blended transition shall be contained wholly within the width of the
pedestrian street crossing served.
• Roundabouts: Pedestrian crosswalks shall not be marked to or
from the central island of roundabouts. If pedestrian facilities are
provided, crosswalks should be marked across roundabout
entrances and exits to indicate where pedestrians are intended to
cross. Crosswalks should be a minimum of 20 feet from the edge of
the circulatory roadway.

14.3.4 Turn Arrows

Pavement marking arrows should be used for specific turn lanes. The turn arrow
marking will suffice and the word ONLY is optional. Where a through lane
approaching an intersection becomes a mandatory turn lane, the word ONLY
used with the turn arrow is required (See TDOT Standard Drawing T-M-4 for
guidance).

14.3.5 Materials
All stop lines, crosswalks, and arrows shall be constructed of reflectorized
thermoplastic or pre-formed plastic pavement marking material. The material
used shall be in accordance with the TDOT Standard Specifications.

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CHAPTER 15
ROADWAY AND INTERSECTION LIGHTING
15.1 General Information
The primary objective of roadway lighting is to enhance roadway safety. Properly
designed roadway lighting should provide a level of visibility that enables the motorist
and pedestrian to quickly discern significant details of the roadway. Those details
include the roadway alignment, the surrounding environment, obstacles on or near the
roadway, and vehicles, people or animals that are about to enter the roadway. In
summary, lighting:
 Enables the driver to determine the geometry and condition of the roadway at
extended distances;
 Promotes safety at night by enhancing visibility so that drivers and pedestrians
can comfortably make decisions;
 Delineates the roadway and its surroundings and alerts motorists to potential
obstructions and other hazards;
 Assists the motorists in orienting themselves to the roadway’s geometry;
 Illuminates long underpasses and tunnels during the day to permit adequate
visibility while entering, traveling through, and exiting such corridors;
 Discourages street crime at night or in other dark situations;
 Enhances commercial and other activity zones to attract users.
The criteria found in this standard when used in conjunction with TDOT Standard
Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction and the TDOT Standard Drawings
provides the engineer with minimum requirements for roadway lighting in the state of
Tennessee.

15.1.1 Need for Engineering Expertise

Most states require that final design documents be signed and sealed by a
registered professional engineer. The registrant is normally required to only sign
and seal documents that the registrant prepared or documents where the
registrant was responsible for the direction and control of the work. Lighting
designs, as described in this guide, meet the criteria for the requirements of an
engineering seal. The required expertise is in the area of roadway lighting and
associated electrical systems. The expertise required for TDOT lighting designs
includes:
 Lamp types and characteristics, including depreciation factors;
 Ballast types and characteristics;
 Fixture mechanical characteristics;
 Lens types;

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 Photometric performance of luminaires and factors impacting such

performance;
 Fixture mounting types;
 Pole mechanical and electrical characteristics;
 Breakaway device options and when appropriate to use;
 Clear zone criteria;
 Pole types, mounting options, and loading considerations;
 Foundation and support details;
 Pavement reflection factors;
 Mounting height and spacing options;
 Light trespass and sky glow (Light Pollution) issues including laws and
ordinances;
 Lighting quality requirements, such as illuminance, luminance, veiling
luminance, and visibility;
 Electrical system requirements such as circuitry, voltage drop, and
equipment sizing;
 Maintenance considerations for individual components and the lighting
system as a whole;
 Energy and life-cycle costs;
 Coordination with master lighting plans.
Designers for the lighting system should exercise engineering judgment when
balancing all of the above.

15.1.2 Priorities and Funding Guidelines

TDOT recognizes that under certain conditions, the installation of roadway
lighting can improve the safety of a road or intersection. Consequently, TDOT
includes roadway lighting in State highway projects when certain conditions are
met.
 Interstate Highway System: TDOT will typically prepare plans and
assume all costs for installation of new roadway lighting as part of the
related Interstate highway construction project when:
• Freeway lighting is determined to be warranted by the Traffic
Engineering Office and as prescribed by IES, the AASHTO
Roadway Lighting Design Guide, and the FHWA Lighting
Handbook;
• Roadway construction requires the replacement or relocation of the
existing lighting, and the local governing agency agrees to maintain
the installation.

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 Interstate Interchange Lighting: Interchanges not under construction or

not eligible for other funding may be approved and lighting installed
provided the local governing agency submits a request for the interchange
lighting to the TDOT Commissioner in writing. The local governing agency
must also submit funding to cover 50% of the costs for interchange lighting
to TDOT when the project is programmed.
 Non-Interstate Highways: TDOT generally does not replace or install
new lighting on non-Interstate system highways. Installation or relocation
of lighting on non-Interstate system highways or related projects occurs
only under the following specific circumstances:
• Replacement of existing lighting impacted by construction on a
State roadway project shall first be considered a utility relocation
issue. The local agency shall prepare relocation plans and submit
through TDOT Utilities Office. The TDOT Utilities Office will
determine reimbursement eligibility. Relocation shall be
accomplished by the local agency upon additional review and
approval of plans by the Traffic Operations Division;
• Installation or relocation of roadway lighting in a State project
occurs only at the local agency’s request. The Design Division
Director shall approve the installation or relocation of roadway
lighting projects. The project must be constructed under specific
funding allowing such usage;
• The local governing agency may request relocation be installed
under the State project as a non-participating item when, the local
agency working through the TDOT Utilities Office prepares
relocation plans and submits funds to cover relocation costs prior to
letting;
• All requests for roadway lighting installations on non-interstate
highways will be reviewed and approved by the TDOT Traffic
Engineering Office.
 Bridges: On new or widened bridges in urbanized areas, TDOT will
provide conduit, pull boxes and foundations in the parapet wall for the
future installation of lighting. Where there is existing lighting on a bridge
project, TDOT will replace the lighting.

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15.2 Analyzing Roadway Lighting Needs

Driver visibility should be considered when analyzing roadway lighting needs. Principal
considerations for the lighting needs analysis are:
 Vehicular traffic volume;
 Interchange spacing;
 Relative frequency of vehicular traffic maneuvers;
 Land development;
 Artificial lighting conditions of the surrounding area;
 Night-to-day crash ratio.

15.2.1 Freeways
Use the criteria presented in the following sections when analyzing the lighting
needs for freeway facilities.
 Continuous Freeway Lighting: CFL should be considered under the
following conditions:
• Freeway Volume: On those freeway sections in and near cities
where the current ADT is 30,000 or more, CFL should be
considered.
• Interchange Spacing: CFL should be considered where three or
more successive interchanges are located with an average spacing
of 1.5 miles or less, and adjacent areas outside the right-of-way are
substantially urban in character.
• Land Development/Lighting Conditions: Consider providing CFL
where, for a length of two miles or more, the freeway passes
through a substantially developed suburban or urban area in which
one or more of the following conditions exist:
o Local traffic operates on a complete street grid having some
form of street lighting, parts of which are visible from the
freeway;
o The freeway passes through a series of residential,
commercial or industrial areas which include roads, parking
areas or yards that are lighted;
o Separate cross streets, both with and without connecting
ramps, occur with an average spacing of 0.5 miles or less,
some of which are lighted as part of the local street system;
or
o Freeway cross-section elements (e.g. median, shoulders),
are substantially reduced in width below desirable criteria in
relatively open country.

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• Night-To-Day Crash Ratio: CFL should be considered where the

night-to-day ratio of crash rates is at least 2.0 or higher than the
statewide average for all unlighted similar sections, and a study
indicates that lighting may be expected to result in a significant
reduction in the night crash rate. The number of nighttime crashes
also should be evaluated.
• Local Agency Needs: CFL should be provided where the Local
Agency finds sufficient benefit in the forms of convenience, safety,
policing, community promotion or public relations; and the local
maintaining agency agrees to pay an appreciable percentage of, or
wholly finance, the installation, maintenance and operation of the
lighting facilities.
 Complete Interchange Lighting: CIL is defined as a lighting system that
provides relative uniform lighting within the limits of the interchange,
including:
• Main lanes;
• Direct connections;
• Ramp terminals;
• Frontage road or crossroad intersections.
CIL should be considered under the following conditions:
• Ramp Volume: CIL should be considered where the total current
ADT ramp traffic entering and exiting the freeway within the
interchange area exceeds 10,000 for urban conditions, 8,000 for
suburban conditions, or 5,000 for rural conditions.
• Crossroad Volume: CIL should be considered where the current
ADT on the crossroad exceeds 10,000 for urban conditions, 8,000
for suburban conditions, or 5,000 for rural conditions.
• Land Development/Lighting Conditions: CIL should be
considered at locations where there is substantial commercial or
industrial development which is lighted during hours of darkness,
and is located in the vicinity of the interchange; or where the
crossroad approach legs are lighted for 0.5 miles or more on each
side of the interchange.
• Night-To-Day Crash Ratio: CIL should be considered where the
night-to-day ratio of crash rates within the interchange area is at
least 1.5 or higher than the statewide average for all unlighted
similar sections, and a study indicates that lighting may be
expected to result in a significant reduction in the night crash rate.
The number of nighttime crashes also should be evaluated.
• Local Agency Needs: CIL should be considered where the Local
Agency finds sufficient benefit in the forms of convenience, safety,
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policing, community promotion or public relations; and the local

maintaining agency agrees to pay an appreciable percentage of, or
wholly finance, the installation, maintenance and operation of the
lighting facilities.
• Continuous Freeway Lighting: CIL should be considered at
interchanges where continuous freeway lighting is provided.
 Partial Interchange Lighting: PIL is defined as a lighting system that
provides illumination only of decision making areas of roadways including:
• Acceleration and deceleration lanes;
• Ramp terminals;
• Crossroads at frontage road or ramp intersections;
• Other areas of nighttime hazard.
Where partial interchange lighting is provided, luminaires should be
located to best light the through lanes and speed change lanes at
diverging and merging locations (decision-making areas). Figure 15.1
shows examples of partial interchange lighting with separate illustrations
for different ramp conditions for crossing types A and B. The lighting
engineer should display sound engineering judgment in determining
whether the number of fixtures shown is sufficient. Recommendations
provided shall consider light level uniformity to whatever extent is possible
keeping in mind that the primary concern is safety. In conjunction with
lighting the gore/nose areas at the interchange, PIL should also include
lighting at complex ramp terminals and simple ramp terminals as shown
below. For crossing types C and D, the engineer shall provide roadway
illumination consistent with design criteria as shown in Figure 15.2. In an
effort to provide affordable solutions to the local agencies growing desire
to provide lighting in more locations and under more affordable conditions,
PIL may be considered at interchanges under the following conditions:
• Ramp Volume: PIL should be considered where the total current
ADT ramp traffic entering and exiting the freeway within the
interchange area exceeds 5,000 for urban conditions, 3,000 for
suburban conditions, or 1,000 for rural conditions.
• Freeway Volume: PIL should be considered where the current
ADT on the freeway through traffic lanes exceeds 25,000 for urban
condition, 20,000 for suburban conditions, or 10,000 for rural
conditions.

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Figure 15.1 – Partial Interchange Lighting (Crossing Types A and B)

Figure 15.2 – Partial Interchange Lighting (Crossing Types C and D)

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• Night-To-Day Crash Ratio: PIL should be considered where the

night-to-day ratio of crash rates within the interchange area is at
least 1.25 or higher than statewide average for all unlighted similar
sections, and a study indicates that lighting may be expected to
result in significant reduction in the night crash rate. The number of
nighttime crashes also should be evaluated.
• Local Agency Needs: PIL should be considered where the Local
Agency finds sufficient benefit in the forms of convenience, safety,
policing, community promotion or public relations; and the local
maintaining agency agrees to pay an appreciable percentage of, or
wholly finance, the installation, maintenance and operation of the
lighting facilities.
• Continuous Freeway Lighting: PIL should be considered where
continuous freeway lighting is justified, but not initially installed. The
freeway section should be in or near a city where the current ADT
is 30,000 or more, or the interchange should be among three or
more successive interchanges located with an average spacing of
1.5 miles or less with adjacent areas outside of right-of-way being
substantially urban in character.
• Complete Interchange Lighting: PIL should be considered where
complete interchange lighting is justified, but not initially fully
installed, a partial lighting system which exceeds the normal partial
installation in number of lighting units is considered to be justified.
 Crossroad Ramp Terminal Lighting: Crossroad ramp terminal lighting
should be considered, regardless of traffic volumes, where the crossroad
ramp terminal of freeway interchanges incorporates raised channelizing or
divisional islands or where there is poor sight distance.

15.2.2 Streets and Highways Other Than Freeways

Use the criteria presented in the following sections when analyzing the lighting
needs for Streets and Highways Other Than Freeways.
 General Considerations: Urban and rural conditions, traffic volumes
(both vehicular and pedestrian), intersections, turning movements,
signalization, channelization, and varying geometrics are factors that
should be considered when determining the lighting needs of streets and
highways other than freeways. Generally, the following are considered
when assessing the lighting needs of such facilities (e.g. streets):
• Facilities with Raised Medians: Consider highway lighting along
facilities that have raised medians.
• Major Urban Arterials: Consider highway lighting along major
arterials that are located in urban areas.

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• Intersections: Consider intersection lighting at rural intersections

that meet any one of the following conditions:
o There are 2.4 or more crashes per million vehicles in each of
three consecutive years;
o There are 2.0 or more crashes per million vehicles per year
and 4.0 or more crashes per year in each of three
consecutive years;
o There are 3.0 or more crashes per million vehicles per year
and 7.0 or more crashes per year in each of two consecutive
years;
o The intersection is signalized and there have been, in the
past year, 5.0 or more reported nighttime crashes and a day-
to-night crash ratio of less than 2.0;
o Substantial nighttime pedestrian volume exists;
o Less than desirable alignment exists on any of the
intersection approaches;
o The intersection is an unusual type requiring complex turning
maneuvers;
o Commercial development exists in the vicinity which causes
high nighttime traffic peaks;
o Distracting illumination exists from adjacent land
development; and/or
o There exists recurrent fog or industrial smog in the area.
o For roundabouts, see IES Design Guide for Roundabout
Lighting. Publication DG-19-08 for guidance.
• Isolated Intersections: Consider providing lighting along isolated
intersections located within the fringe of corporate limits which are
suburban or rural in character provided they meet the above criteria
and the Local Agency assumes all ownership responsibility,
installation, operational and maintenance costs.
• High Conflict Locations: Consider providing lighting along
roadway sections with high vehicle-to-vehicle interactions (e.g.,
sections with numerous driveways, significant commercial or
residential development, high percentage of trucks). Lighting
generally improves traffic safety and efficiency at such locations.
• Complex Roadway Geometry: Consider providing lighting at spot
locations in rural areas where the driver is required to pass through
a roadway section with complex geometry.

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• Night-to-Day Crash Ratio: Lighting should be considered at

locations or sections of streets and highways where the night-to-
day ratio of crash rates is higher than the statewide average for
similar locations, and a study indicates that lighting may be
expected to significantly reduce the night crash rate. The number of
nighttime crashes also should be evaluated.
• Local Agency Needs: Lighting should be considered where the
Local Agency finds sufficient benefit in the forms of convenience,
safety, policing, community promotion or public relations; and the
local maintaining agency agrees to wholly finance, the installation,
maintenance and operation of the lighting facilities.
 TDOT Requirements:
• Lighting on Streets and Highways Other Than Interstates:
TDOT provides lighting for interstate highways and bridges. New
lighting installations on the State highway system will be reviewed
by TDOT using breakaway, non-breakaway and utility distribution
poles (joint usage). The following are prime considerations when
installing lighting on state highways:
o Providing adequate levels of illumination;
o Minimizing the amount of glare;
o Reducing the number of poles required.
• Submittal of Street Lighting Designs: Street lighting plans
submitted to the TDOT Traffic Engineering Office for approval must
provide photometric calculations and the type of lighting equipment
to be installed. Poles that will be used for street lights must be
shown on the lighting design. In order to reduce the time involved to
review and approve lighting designs, the agency or their designee
should contact TDOT to discuss and resolve problems or concerns
prior to the lighting plans submittal. If questions arise in the
interpretations of the rules and regulations regarding roadway
lighting, the TDOT Traffic Operations Division Director will make the
final administrative and engineering determinations.
 Other Design Considerations:
• The recommended mounting height is 45 feet. In the relocation of
utility poles on State highway Right-of-Way, every effort shall be
taken to relocate these poles to provide for their use for roadway
lighting. This will provide an economical system, allowing utility
poles to be used for street lighting as well as electrical distribution.
It will also reduce the number of the fixed objects most frequently
involved in motor vehicle accidents. Where electrical distribution or
communication lines are in existence, mounting heights less than
45 feet may be approved in order to utilize existing poles to the full

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extent; however, the effectiveness of a satisfactory lighting job

should not be jeopardized just to use existing poles. All installation
must meet the minimum requirements set by the Illuminating
Engineering Society (RP-8-14 & other related Publications);
• Pole setback from the edge of the pavement shall be 20 feet
minimum, or at the right-or-way line if located less than 20 feet from
the edge of pavement. In urban areas, poles shall be located as
near to the right-of-way line as possible, but in no case shall they
be less than two feet from the face of the curb;
• Where a utility strip or grass plot is located between the face of
curb and the sidewalk, poles may be allowed in this area if they can
be set at least two feet from the face of the curb;
• Poles shall not be set in the median of the roadway, except where a
20 foot minimum setback can be obtained, or where protected by
guardrail already existing for other safety considerations;
• Mast arm length shall be no greater than six feet, except as
approved for the lighting design;
• Foot-candle levels shall be used as recommended in Tables 15.3
and 15.4;
• Concrete pole bases should be flush but shall not extend over four
inches above ground level;
• Lighting standard mountings shall be of an approved AASHTO
breakaway type. Consider non-breakaway mountings in highly
developed areas with high pedestrian activity, where there is
eminent danger of an impacted support striking a pedestrian,
private property or other traffic. Where sidewalk and curb and gutter
are present, non-breakaway poles shall be used in the installation.
All poles must be installed a minimum of four feet behind the face
of the guardrail. Poles to be located behind existing guardrail, rock
bluffs, embankments or ditches are not required to be the
breakaway type. The breakaway poles that are used for street
lighting installation must meet AASHTO’s breakaway requirements.
Non-breakaway poles recommended specifically for street lighting
installations must be located outside of the clear zone. If the right-
of-way is limited and sidewalk, curb and gutter are not provided
along highways, then poles equipped with AASHTO approved
breakaway bases must be installed;
• Non-breakaway poles may be used where joint use of utility poles
for roadway lighting and electrical distribution is practical, and the
effectiveness of a satisfactory lighting job would not be jeopardized.
Joint use of utility poles is an economical system, which reduces
the number of fixed objects along the roadway. The luminaire

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mounting height for joint usage installations may be approved for

less than 45 feet but should not be less than 25 feet;
• Offset lighting may be used in a lighting system required to be
located 20 feet or greater from the edge of the highway. Offset
lighting may be considered if the design parameters cannot be met
due to geometric constraints;
• Rapid changes in levels of illumination may be compensated by
using transition lighting or Adaptation Lighting. When transition
lighting (See Page 15.21) is provided the roadway sector requiring
transition lighting should be illuminated so as to allow the motorist’s
eyes to adjust to a different level of illumination. Equation 15.1 is a
practical formula for calculating the required roadway length for
transition lighting.
L= S x C x T
Equation 15.1 – Roadway Length for Transition Lighting
Where,
L = Length of Transition Lighting
S = Speed Along Roadway Section in MPH (design speed)
C = 1.47 (Converts MPH to feet per Second)
T = 15 Seconds (Recommended exposure time to allow motorist’s
eyes to adjust to different level of illumination).

 Ornamental Lighting: There is a growing desire for Ornamental and

Pedestrian scaled lighting on state roadways and bridges. Decorative
street lighting that replaces an existing conventional street lighting
installation must provide uniform illumination along the State’s highways.
Since the use of higher wattage luminaires on shorter poles and shorter
spacing could contribute to disability glare, special attention should be
paid when using higher wattage luminaires, shorter spacing or shorter
poles. However, the use of shorter poles in roadway lighting does not
inherently produce glare. There are some ornamental luminaires with
distribution patterns that will control the light and meet ANSI/IES RP-8-14
and AASHTO requirements. At the request of a Local Agency, ornamental
lighting may be permitted by TDOT on a State facility if TDOT’s minimum
requirements are met and the Local Agency is responsible for
construction, funding, ownership, and maintenance of such lighting both
during and after construction. All requests for special or ornamental
lighting shall be reviewed and approved by the TDOT manager before
design begins.
 Lighting on Bridges: All street lighting designs submitted for luminaires
to be mounted on bridges must be approved by the TDOT Structures
Division. This portion of the lighting plan layout must show how the conduit
is to be routed on the structure of the bridges. When the TDOT’s bridge
projects are in the early phase of development, the local agencies should

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contact TDOT Structures Division so that proposed changes needed to

support future lighting can be incorporated into the designs for new
bridges. TDOT may provide the conduit for the future street lighting during
the construction of the bridges.
 Median Street Lighting: Street lighting installed in depressed medians
may be considered on a case by case basis, because this type of
installation is a variance to TDOT’s street lighting policies. Light standards
may be installed in depressed medians that have a minimum width of
48 feet provided minimum clear zone requirements are met. The light
standards are to be located four feet on either side of the drainage ditch.
Light standards may be installed in depressed medians behind existing or
proposed guardrail or barriers.
 Lighting at Isolated Intersections: Where an isolated intersection
requires lighting, consideration should be given to providing additional
lighting before and beyond the intersection. AASHTO guidelines refer to a
light barrier created when glare from an isolated light source causes
visibility to be restricted to the beginning of the light bubble. To extend
visibility into the bubble; additional fixtures may be required for at least the
required stopping sight distance. The engineer should use his or her
judgment and experience to determine if such measures are needed.
 Roadway Lighting Plans Exceptions: If questions arise in the
interpretations of the rules and regulations regarding roadway lighting, the
TDOT Traffic Operations Division Director will make the final
administrative and engineering determinations. Requests for street lighting
that is to be installed with TDOT Local Programs Office funding should be
submitted to the TDOT Commissioner’s Office.

15.2.3 Other Locations

The following categories are areas where TDOT may install lighting on a limited
and case-by-case basis.
 Highway Sign Illumination: TDOT does not generally light highway
signs.
 Rest areas: For lighting at rest areas, there is typically no involvement by
TDOT in the design, installation or maintenance. The following general
guidelines are noted:
• Lighting is typically provided at rest areas that offer complete rest
facilities (e.g. comfort station, information kiosk, picnic areas);
• Illuminate all areas within the facility that have pedestrian activities
(e.g. parking areas, immediate area of building);
• Provide lighting at rest area ramps, gore areas, and other decision
points.

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 Weigh stations: For lighting at weigh stations, there is typically no

involvement by TDOT in the design, installation or maintenance. Lighting
is typically provided at all permanent truck weigh stations where weighing
occurs after daylight hours. Illuminate the weighing area, parking area,
speed change lanes, ramps, and gore areas.
 Tunnels: A tunnel is defined as a structure over a roadway, which
restricts the normal daytime illumination of a roadway section such that
the driver’s visibility is substantially diminished. Daytime tunnel lighting is
justified when driver visibility requirements are not satisfied without the
use of a lighting system to supplement natural sunlight. Visibility
requirements vary considerably with such items as:
• Portal to portal tunnel length (i.e., short or long);
• Tunnel portal design;
• Geometry of tunnel and its approaches;
• Vehicular and pedestrian traffic characteristics;
• Treatment of pavement, portal, interior, and environmental
reflective surfaces;
• Climate and orientation of tunnel; and
• Visibility objectives to provide for safe and efficient tunnel
operation.
For tunnel lighting use the requirements in the ANSI/IESNA PR-22-05
publication IESNA Recommended Practice for Tunnel Lighting.
 Navigation and Obstruction Lighting: Highway structures over
navigable waterways require waterway obstruction warning luminaires in
accordance with U.S. Coast Guard requirements. The TDOT Structures
Office will coordinate with the Coast Guard. Any need for aviation
obstruction warning luminaires on highway structures will be coordinated
with the Federal Aviation Administration by the Traffic Design Office. For
information on navigable airspace obstructions, consult the FAA Advisory
Circular AC 70/7460-2J Proposed Construction or Alteration of Objects
that May Affect the Navigable Airspace.
 Temporary and Replacement Lighting: The need to provide temporary
highway lighting will be considered on a case-by-case basis. For example,
construction zones requiring complex traffic maneuvers (e.g. crossovers)
may justify the provision of temporary lighting. In addition, if existing
lighting is affected or relocated during construction, temporary
replacement lighting should be provided in like kind and quality during the
construction phase.

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15.3 New Lighting Projects

The information in this section pertains to new lighting projects.

15.3.1 Lighting Design Process Flow Chart

A lighting design process flow chart is provided in Figure 15.3.

Figure 15.3 – Lighting Design Process Flow Chart

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15.3.2 Design Process

 Establish Contact with Utility Owner/Maintaining Agency: Typically,
the maintaining agency for a lighting system is the local government. The
local government often contracts the local power company for
maintenance operations. First contact should be with the governmental
agency through involvement of the TDOT Traffic Operations Design
Manager, to determine proper protocol for contact with the local power
company. This will enable the lighting designer to prepare a lighting
design that will satisfy both the TDOT Traffic Engineering Office’s lighting
design criteria and the Utility Owner/Maintaining Agency’s specifications.
The lighting designer should obtain the following information from the
Utility Owner/Maintaining Agency:
• Determine the specific light fixtures recommended for use;
• Determine the service voltage available;
• Determine the local specifications for wire size used;
• Determine the maximum allowable circuit breaker size;
• Determine acceptable locations for proposed control centers and
service points;
• Determine any special mounting height requirements.
 Conventional Photometric Design Overview: The following briefly
describes the steps used in any conventional highway lighting photometric
design:
1. Select Lighting Equipment: Select the lighting equipment and
associated design parameters that will be used for the project. This
will include items such as luminaire mounting height, pole setback,
light source, lamp wattage, etc. It will be necessary to make some
initial assumptions during preliminary design. Design parameters
then may be iteratively changed to meet the highway lighting
criteria. It will be necessary to contact the municipality slated to
take possessions of the lighting system. It may also be necessary
to coordinate design efforts with that municipality’s agent hired to
perform maintenance operations for the system.
2. Select Luminaire Arrangement: Select an appropriate luminaire
arrangement for the project. This will depend on local site
conditions and engineering judgment. Alternative arrangements
may need to be considered.
3. Luminaire Spacing: Typically, luminaire spacing will be
determined by computer software. The Department recommends
that the designer use AGI32 computer software for lighting design
layouts. Foot-candle (fc) is a unit of illuminance expressed in
lumens per square foot (lm/ft2). Therefore, the average horizontal

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foot-candle on a highway is equal to the total lumens cast on the

highway by a single unit divided by the spacing between units times
the width of the roadway. Total lumens that a luminaire will cast on
the roadway equals lamp lumens at replacement time times the
coefficient of utilization times the luminaire maintenance factor. This
relationship can be rearranged to solve for luminaire spacing as
shown in Equation 15.2.

LL • CU • MF
S=
Eh • W
Equation 15.2 – Luminaire Spacing
Where:
S = Luminaire Spacing (feet)
LL = Initial Lamp Lumens (lm)
CU = Coefficient of Utilization
MF = Maintenance Factor (i.e., LLD • LDD)
Eh = Average Maintained Horizontal Illumination (foot-candle)
W = Width of Lighted Roadway (feet)

4. Check Uniformity: Once luminaire spacing has been determined,

check the uniformity of light distribution and compare this value to
the lighting criteria selected in Step 1. Adjust design parameters
and recalculate as necessary to meet criteria. Use Equation 15.3 to
determine the uniformity ratio.

Eh
UR =
Emin
Equation 15.3 – Uniformity Ratio
Where:
UR = Uniformity Ratio
Eh = Average Maintained Horizontal Illuminance
Emin = Maintained Horizontal Illuminance at the Point of Minimum
Illumination on the Pavement

5. Select Optimum Design: Because computerized design is

relatively quick and easy, consider developing and testing several
alternative designs. It generally is not good engineering practice to
consider only one design, even if found to satisfy the lighting
criteria. There often are several alternatives that will work. Optimize
and select the most cost-effective and maintenance-free design.
Notes: A uniform spacing may not always be possible to maintain
because of variation in roadway widths and alignment. Formulas
shown above were extracted from ANSI/IES RP-8-14.

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15.3.3 Design Considerations

When selecting design criteria for a lighting project, it is necessary to determine
classifications for the roadway facility, the area the roadway traverses, and the
pavement type. The following sections discuss these classifications for the
purpose of highway lighting design only.

15.3.4 Determine Classifications

Determine the roadway classification, area classification, pavement classification,
and environmental conditions. Verify with the TDOT Traffic Engineering Office
the classification of any interchange or freeways as urban, suburban, or rural.
 Roadway Classification: Use the following definitions to classify roadway
facilities for TDOT highway lighting projects:
• Freeway: A divided major highway with full control of access and
with no crossings at grade.
o Freeway Class A: Roadways with greater visual
complexity and highway traffic volumes. Usually this type of
freeway will be found in major metropolitan areas in or near
the central core, and will operate through some of the early
evening hours of darkness at or near design capacity;
o Freeway Class B: All other divided roadways with full
control of access
• Expressway: A divided major arterial highway for through traffic
with full or partial control of access and generally with interchanges
at major crossroads. Expressways for non-commercial traffic within
parks and park-like areas generally are known as parkways.
• Major: The part of the roadway system that serves as the principle
network for through traffic flow. The routes connect areas of
principle traffic generation and important rural highways entering
the city.
• Collector: The distributor and collector roadways serving traffic
between major and local roadways. These are roadways used
mainly for traffic movements within residential, commercial, and
industrial areas.
• Local: Roadways used primarily for direct access to residential,
commercial, industrial, or other abutting property. They do not
include roadways carrying through traffic. Long local roadways
generally will be divided into short sections by the collector roadway
system.
• Isolated interchange: A grade-separated roadway crossing, which
is not part of a continuously lighted system, with one or more ramp
connections with the crossroad.

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• Isolated Intersection: The general area where two or more non-

continuously lighted roadways join or cross at the same level. This
area includes the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic
movement in that area. A special type is the channelized
intersection, in which traffic is directed into definite paths by islands
with raised curbing.
• Isolated Traffic Conflict Area: A traffic conflict area is an area on
a road system where an increased potential exists for collisions
between vehicles, vehicles and pedestrians, or vehicles and fixed
objects. Examples include intersections, crosswalks and merge
areas. When this area occurs on a roadway without a fixed lighting
system (or separated from one by 20 seconds or more of driving
time), it is considered an isolated traffic conflict area.
 Ancillary Classifications:
• Alley: A narrow public way within a block, generally used for
vehicular access to the rear of abutting properties.
• Sidewalk: Paved or otherwise improved areas for pedestrian use,
located within public street right-of-way which also contains
roadways for vehicular traffic.
• Pedestrian Way: Public sidewalks for pedestrian traffic generally
not within right-of-way for vehicular traffic. Included are skywalks
(pedestrian overpasses), subwalks (pedestrian tunnels), walkways
giving access to park or block interiors, and crossings near centers
of long blocks.
• Bikeway: Any road, street, path, or way that is specifically
designated as being open to bicycle travel, regardless of whether
such facilities are designed for the exclusive use of bicycles or are
to be shared with other transportation modes. Five basic types of
facilities are used to accommodate bicyclists:
o Shared Lane: Shared motor vehicle/bicycle use of a
standard width travel lane.
o Wide Outside Lane: An outside travel lane with a width of at
least 13.8 feet.
o Bike Lane: A portion of the roadway designated by striping,
signing, and/or pavement markings for preferential or
exclusive use of bicycles.
o Shoulder: A paved portion of the roadway to the right of the
edge stripe designed to serve bicyclists.

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o Separate Bike Path: A facility physically separated from the

roadway and intended for bicycle use (See IESNA DG-5-94,
Lighting for Walkways and Class 1 Bikeways for
requirements in these areas).
• Median: The portion of a divided roadway physically separating the
traveled ways for traffic in opposite directions. TDOT discourages
lighting poles mounted in the median or on median barrier walls.
 Area Classification: For TDOT lighting projects, use the following
definitions to classify the area in which the roadway traverses:
• Commercial: That portion of a municipality in a business
development where ordinarily there are large numbers of
pedestrians and a heavy demand for parking space during periods
of peak traffic or a sustained high pedestrian volume and a
continuously heavy demand for off-street parking space during
business hours. This definition applies to densely developed
business areas outside of, as well as those that are within, the
central part of a municipality.
• Intermediate: That portion of a municipality which is outside of a
downtown area but generally within the zone of influence of a
business or industrial development, often characterized by a
moderately heavy nighttime pedestrian volume and a somewhat
lower parking turnover than is found in a commercial area. This
definition includes densely developed apartment areas, hospitals,
public libraries, and neighborhood recreational centers.
• Residential: A residential development, or mixture of residential
and commercial establishments, characterized by few pedestrians
and a low parking demand or turnover at night. This definition
includes areas with single family homes, townhouses, and/or small
apartments. Regional parks, cemeteries, and vacant lands also are
included.
 Pavement Classification: Table 15.1 shows pavement type
classifications of the roadway facility:

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Table 15.1 – Pavement Classification

Mode of
Class Qo* Description
Reflectance
Portland cement concrete road surface. Asphalt
road surface with a minimum of 12 percent of the
R1 0.10 Mostly diffuse
aggregates composed of artificial brightener (e.g.,
Synopal) aggregates (e.g., labradorite, quartzite).
Asphalt road surface with an aggregate composed
of minimum 60 percent gravel [size greater than
0.4 inches] Mixed (diffuse
R2 0.07
Asphalt road surface with 10 to 15 percent and specular)
artificial brightener in aggregate mix. (Not
normally used in North America).
Asphalt road surface (regular and carpet seal)
with dark aggregates (e.g., trap rock, blast furnace
R3 0.07 Slightly specular
slag); rough texture after some months of use
(typical highways).
R4 0.08 Asphalt road surface with very smooth texture. Mostly specular
*Qo = Representative mean luminance coefficient. Because the R tables also provides
considerations for the pavement’s reflectance, it is recommended not to make
any adjustments to the Qo values given for computer design calculations.

 Lighting Design Levels

• Crossroads at Interchanges: Lighting levels on crossroad
approaches should not be reduced through an interchange area. If
existing crossroad lighting currently is deemed inadequate, it
should be considered for upgrading to ensure safe and efficient
traffic operation.
• Partial Interchange Lighting: Where partial interchange lighting is
provided, luminaires should be located to best light the speed
change lanes at diverging and merging locations. The design
controls of basic levels of lighting and uniformity should be
subordinate to overall lighting of the roadway area at these
locations. The designer should use engineering judgment when
considering the light levels on the through lanes.
• Bridge Structures and Underpasses: Where justified, underpass
lighting level and uniformity ratios should duplicate, to the extent
practical, the lighting levels on the adjacent facility. On continuously
lighted freeways and lighted interchanges, the lighting of bridges
and overpasses should be at the same level and uniformity as the
roadway.
• Transition Lighting: Transition lighting is a technique intended to
provide the driver with a gradual reduction in lighting levels and
glare when leaving an illuminated area. Several implementation
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methods exist. The designer also may consider extending

delineation 1000 feet beyond the last luminaire for traffic lanes
emerging from a lighted area (e.g. ambient light). This will provide
an additional measure of effectiveness. Vision adjustment when
approaching a lighted area is not impacted greatly and therefore
requires no special consideration. For more information on
transition lighting, refer to Section 15.2.2.
• Navigation and Obstruction Lighting: The lumen output for
waterway and aviation obstruction luminaires will be based on the
requirements of the U.S. Coast Guard and the Federal Aviation
Administration, respectively.
• Other Locations: Where lighting is justified for tunnels, overhead
signing, and other facilities not covered under this section, contact
the Traffic Design Office for further information.
 Luminaire Considerations: Design issues related to luminaires are
discussed as follows:
• Light Distribution: Light distribution is a major factor in highway
lighting design. It affects the selection of luminaire mounting height,
placement, and arrangement. Specific photometric data and light
distribution sheets are available from each luminaire manufacturer.
Manufacturers typically classify their luminaire products based on
the IES luminaire classification system. The following briefly
describes the IES classification system:
o Vertical Light Distribution: There are three IES
classifications of vertical light distribution – short, medium,
and long. The selection of a particular vertical light
distribution is dependent upon the luminaire mounting height
and application. The following defines each type:
- Short Distribution: The maximum candlepower
strikes the roadway surface between one and 2.25
mounting heights from the luminaire. The theoretical
maximum luminaire spacing, using the short
distribution, is 4.5 mounting heights.
- Medium Distribution: The maximum candlepower is
between 2.25 and 3.75 mounting heights from the
luminaire. The theoretical maximum luminaire spacing
is 7.5 mounting heights. Medium distribution is
commonly used in highway applications.
- Long Distribution: The maximum candlepower is
between 3.75 and 6.0 mounting heights from the
luminaire. The theoretical maximum luminaire spacing
is 12 mounting heights. From a practical standpoint,
the medium distribution is predominantly used in

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highway practice, and the spacing of luminaires

normally does not exceed five to six mounting
heights. Short distributions are not used extensively
for reasons of economy, because extremely short
spacing is required. At the other extreme, the long
distribution is not used to any great extent because
the high beam angle of maximum candlepower often
produces excessive glare.
o Lateral Light Distribution: IES has developed seven
classifications for lateral light distribution. The following
provides application guidelines for each luminaire type:
- Type I: The Type I luminaire is placed in the center of
the roadway or area where lighting is required. It
produces a long, narrow, oval-shaped lighted area.
Some types of high-mast lighting are considered a
modified form of Type I.
- Type I – 4-Way: This luminaire type is located over
the center of the intersection and distributes the
lighting along the four legs of the intersection.
- Type II: The Type II luminaire is placed on the side of
the roadway or edge of the area to be lighted. It
produces a long, narrow, oval-shaped lighted area
which is usually applicable to narrower roadways.
- Type II – 4-Way: This luminaire type is placed at one
corner of the intersection and distributes the light
along the four legs of the intersection.
- Type III: The Type III luminaire is placed on the side
of the roadway or edge of the area to be lighted. It
produces an oval-shaped lighted area and is usually
applicable to medium width roadways.
- Type IV: The Type IV luminaire is placed on the side
of the roadway or the edge of area to be lighted. It
produces a wider, oval-shaped lighted area and is
usually applicable to wide roadways.
- Type V: The Type V luminaire is located over the
center of the roadway, intersection, or area to be
lighted. It produces a circular, lighted area. Type V
often is used in high-mast lighting applications.
o Control of Distribution: As the vertical light angle
increases, disability and discomfort glare also increase. To
distinguish the glare effects on the driver created by the light
source, IES has defined the vertical control of light
distribution as follows:
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- Cutoff (C): A luminaire light distribution is designated

as C when the candlepower per 1000 lamp lumens
does not numerically exceed 25 (2.5%) at an angle of
90° above nadir (i.e., horizontally), and 100 (10%) at a
vertical angle 80° above nadir. This applies to any
lateral angle around the luminaire.
- Semi-Cutoff (SC): A luminaire light distribution is
designated as SC when the candlepower per 1000
lamp lumens does not numerically exceed 50 (5%) at
an angle of 90° above nadir (i.e., horizontally), and
200 (20%) at a vertical angle of 80° above nadir. This
applies to any lateral angle around the luminaire.
- Non-Cutoff (NC): A luminaire light distribution is
designated as NC where there is no limitation on the
zone above the maximum candlepower.
A plan view of the theoretical light distribution (i.e., roadway
coverage) and schematics of the intended application of each type
of IES luminaire are illustrated in Figure 15.4.
• Mounting Heights: Higher mounting heights used in conjunction
with higher wattage luminaires enhances lighting uniformity and
typically reduces the number of light poles needed to produce the
same illumination level. In general, higher mounting heights tend to
produce a more cost-effective design. For practical and aesthetic
reasons, the mounting height should remain constant throughout
the system. The manufacturer's photometric data is required to
determine an appropriate mounting height. Typical mounting
heights used by TDOT for conventional highway lighting purposes
range from 35 feet to 55 feet. Mounting heights for light towers
typically are greater than 80 feet.
• Coefficient of Utilization: A utilization curve is used to obtain a
luminaire’s CU. Manufacturers typically provide utilization curves
and Isolux diagrams with each of their respective luminaire
products. Figure 15.5 illustrates a sample utilization curve. The
utilization curve relates to the luminaire rather than to the light
source. It provides the percentage of bare lamp lumens which are
utilized to light the pavement surface. If the luminaire is placed over
the traveled way (i.e. out from the curb or edge of pavement), the
total lumen utilization is determined by adding the street-side and
curb-side (i.e. house-side) light. In essence, the utilization curve
defines how much of the total lumen output reaches the area being
lighted.

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Figure 15.4 – Plan View of Roadway Coverage from IES Luminaires

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Figure 15.5 – Sample Utilization Curve

Note: The utilization curve will vary with each manufacturer and luminaire type.

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• Light Loss Factors: The efficiency of a luminaire depreciates over

time. The designer must estimate this depreciation to properly
estimate the light available at the end of the lamp’s serviceable life.
The following briefly discusses these factors:
o Lamp Lumen Depreciation Factor: As the lamp
progresses through its serviceable life, the lumen output of
the lamp decreases. This is an inherent characteristic of all
lamps. The initial lamp lumen value is adjusted by a lumen
depreciation factor to compensate for the anticipated lumen
reduction. This assures that a minimum level of illumination
will be available at the end of the assumed lamp life. This
information is usually provided by the manufacturer.
o Luminaire Dirt Depreciation Factor: Dirt on the exterior
and interior of the luminaire, and to some extent on the lamp
itself, reduces the amount of light reaching the pavement.
Various degrees of dirt accumulation may occur depending
upon the area in which the luminaire is located. Industrial
areas, automobile exhaust, diesel trucks, dust and other
environs all affect the dirt accumulation on the luminaire.
Higher mounting heights, however, tend to reduce the
vehicle-related dirt accumulation. The relationship between
the ambient environment and the expected level of dirt
accumulation is shown in Figure 15.6.
o Equipment Factor: Equipment factor is a general factor
encompassing luminaire losses due to all other factors such
as ballast factor, manufacturing tolerances, voltage drop,
lamp position, ambient temperature, and luminaire
component depreciation.
o Light Loss Factor: The reduction factor, referred to as the
total LLF (Light Loss Factor is a combination of LDDF, LLDF,
and EF including voltage drop. Values in the range of 60 to
80 percent (of initial design value) are used for high-pressure
sodium (45 to 65 percent for MH) general application such
as regularly maintained outdoor luminaires installed on
lighting poles. The use of realistic luminaire depreciation,
dirt, and equipment factors, is essential in lighting design to
achieve the expected lighting levels on the roadway after the
lighting system is installed. Values for these factors are
obtained from manufacturers’ product data.

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Figure 15.6 – Roadway Luminaire Dirt Depreciation Curve

Notes:
 Very Clean: No nearby smoke or dust-generating activities and a low ambient
contaminant level. Light traffic. Generally limited to residential or rural areas. The
ambient particulate level is not more than 150 micrograms per cubic meter.
 Clean: No nearby smoke or dust-generating activities. Moderate to heavy traffic.
The ambient particulate level is not more than 300 micrograms per cubic meter.
 Moderate: Moderate smoke or dust-generating activities nearby. The ambient
particulate level is not more than 600 micrograms per cubic meter.
 Dirty: Smoke or dust plumes generated by nearby activities may occasionally
envelope the luminaires.
 Very Dirty: Similar to Dirty, but the luminaires are commonly enveloped by
smoke or dust plumes.

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• Luminaire Arrangement: Figure 15.7 illustrates typical luminaire

arrangements for conventional highway lighting designs and the
recommended illuminance calculation points for the various
arrangements.

Figure 15.7 – Typical Luminaire Arrangements for Conventional

Highway Lighting Design

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15.3.5 Other Design Considerations

In addition to the items discussed in the previous sections, consider the following
when designing the highway lighting system:
 Signs: Place light poles to minimize interference with the driver's view of
the roadway and any highway signs. Do not permit luminaire brightness to
seriously detract from the legibility of signs at night.
 Structures: Place light poles sufficiently away from overhead bridges and
sign structures to minimize glare and distracting shadows on the roadway
surface.
 Trees: Insufficiently pruned trees can cause shadows on the roadway
surface and reduce the luminaire's effectiveness. Place the light standard
and/or design the luminaire with a height and mast-arm length to negate
such adverse effects.
 Location: Typically, lighting standards should be placed a minimum of
50 feet from overhead sign structures, and a minimum of 50 feet from
overhead bridges.

15.3.6 Roadside Safety Considerations

Light poles should be installed so that they will not present a roadside hazard to
the motoring public. However, the physical roadside conditions often dictate their
placement. It is important to recognize this limitation. Overpasses, sign
structures, guardrail, roadway curvature, right-of-way, gore clearances, proximity
to roadside obstacles, and lighting equipment limitations are all physical factors
that can limit the placement of light poles. The designer also must consider
factors such as roadway and area classification, design speed, posted speed,
safety, aesthetics, economics, and environmental impacts. In addition, there
should be adequate right-of-way, driveway control, and utility clearance.
Consider the following when determining the location of light poles:
 Clear Zone: Where practical, place light poles outside the roadside clear
zone. See the TDOT Roadway Design Guidelines and TDOT Standard
Drawing RD01-S-12 for additional information on roadside clear zone.
 Breakaway Supports: Unless located behind a roadside barrier or crash
cushion which is necessary for other safety-related reasons, conventional
light poles placed within the roadside clear zone shall be mounted on
breakaway supports. Poles outside the clear zone also should be mounted
on breakaway supports where there is a possibility of them being struck by
errant vehicles. Be aware that falling poles and mast arms may endanger
bystanders (e.g., pedestrians, bicyclist, motorists). Consider the following
during design:
• Pedestrians: In areas where pedestrians, bicyclists, or building
structures and windows may be struck by falling poles or mast arms
after a crash, evaluate the relative risks of mounting the light pole

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on a breakaway support. Examples of locations where the hazard

potential of providing a breakaway support to pedestrian traffic
would be greater than a non-breakaway support would be to
vehicular traffic include transportation terminals, sports stadiums
and associated parking areas, tourist attractions, school zones,
central business districts, and local residential neighborhoods
where the posted speed limit is 30 mph or less. In these locations,
non-breakaway supports will be used. Other locations which require
the use of non-breakaway supports, regardless of the amount of
pedestrian traffic, are rest area and weigh station parking lots and
combination luminaire and traffic signal poles.
• Breakaway Bases: All breakaway devices will comply with the
applicable AASHTO requirements for breakaway structural
supports.
• Breakaway Support Stub: Any substantial portion of the
breakaway support that will remain after the light pole has been
struck will have a maximum projection of four inches above the
finished grade within a 5-foot chord above the foundation in
accordance with AASHTO criteria.
• Wiring: All light poles that require breakaway supports will be
served by underground wiring and designed with quick disconnect
splices.
• Light Towers: Light Towers used in high-mast lighting applications
will not be mounted on breakaway supports. Also, they will not be
located within the roadside clear zone unless shielded by guardrail
or crash cushions.
• Bridge Parapets and Concrete Barriers: Where poles are
mounted atop bridge parapets and concrete barriers, they will be
mounted on non-breakaway supports.
 Gore Areas: Where practical, locate light poles outside the gore areas of
exit and entrance ramps. No lighting support should be placed within the
clear zone of a gore area.
 Horizontal Curves: Place light poles on the inside of sharp curves and
loops. Where poles are located on the inside radius of superelevated
roadways, provide sufficient clearance to avoid being struck by trucks.
 Maintenance: When determining pole locations, consider the hazards
which will be encountered while performing maintenance on the lighting
equipment.
 Barriers: Use the criteria provided in chapters 1-305.25, 3.1, 2-135.00,
and 2-135.05 in the TDOT Roadway Design Guidelines and TDOT
Standard Drawing RD01-S-12 for additional information on roadside clear

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zone to design and place light poles in conjunction with roadside barriers.
Consider the following additional guidelines:
• Placement: Where a roadside barrier is provided, place all light
poles behind the barrier.
• Deflection: Light poles placed behind a roadside barrier should be
offset by at least the deflection distance of the barrier. This will
allow the railing to deflect without hitting the pole. If this clearance
distance is not available, such as in extreme side slope conditions,
designate the stiffening of the rail.
• Concrete Barriers: Light poles that are shielded by a rigid or non-
yielding barrier do not require a breakaway support.
• Impact Attenuators: Locate light poles, either with or without a
breakaway support, such that they will not interfere with the
functional operation of any impact attenuator or other safety device.
 Protection Features: Do not use protection features, such as barriers, for
the primary purpose of protecting a light pole.
 Longitudinal Adjustments: Locate light poles to balance both safety and
lighting needs. Adjustments on the order of five feet are permissible in the
field to accommodate utilities or drainage facilities provided the new
location does not constitute a roadside hazard. Larger adjustments need
approval by the Traffic Design Office.
 ADA Requirements: Contact the local agency for their specific ADA
requirements.

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15.4 Lighting Design

When designing a highway lighting system, there are numerous factors to consider.
This section presents design considerations commonly encountered in highway lighting
designs and presents TDOT’s criteria, policies, and procedures on these issues. Table
15.2 presents typical highway lighting design parameters used by TDOT.

Table 15.2 – Typical TDOT Highway Lighting Design Parameters

Typical TDOT Highway Lighting Design Parameters
(TDOT Recommends The Illuminance Method Of Design)
Light Loss Factor (i.e., LLD • LDD) 0.70 – 0.81 (1)
Percent of Voltage Drop Allowed 3%
Aluminum or Steel Pole,
Single (or Twin) Tenon Mounting,
Typical Parameters for Conventional
45-foot Mounting Height,
Lighting (Interstate — Rural)
250W or 400W HPS Multi-Mount Luminaire,
Breakaway Base where Justified
Aluminum Pole,
Off-set (or Mast Arm) Mounting,
Typical Parameters for Conventional
45-foot Mounting Height, 250W or
Lighting (Interstate — Urban)
400W HPS Horizontal-Mount Luminaire, IES
Classification: Cutoff or Semi-Cutoff
Typical Pavement Classification Class R1 (Concrete), Class R3 (Asphalt)
Typical IES Luminaire Classification for Type II, Type III, or Type IV Medium
Conventional Highway Lighting Distribution (M) Cutoff (C) or Semi-Cutoff (SC)
Typical Luminaire Pole Arrangement Staggered, Opposite, or Same Side
(1)
The Light Loss Factor may vary as the Dirt Depreciation Factor varies. In urban areas with
higher pollution and/or smog, the designer should use the higher range of values. In remote
areas the lower range of the Dirt Depreciation Factor may be used. When calculating the
light loss factor, the designer should consider the location of the system (e.g. urban, rural
areas, remote locations, etc.).

15.4.1 Methodologies
There are three lighting design methodologies available for use in highway
lighting design, Illuminance, Luminance, and Small-Target-Visibility. The IES has
been a leader in developing these methodologies (see the publication American
National Standard Practice for Roadway Lighting, ANSI/IES RP-8-14).
Calculations for both the Illuminance and Luminance methodologies along with
consideration for Veiling Luminance should be used for all TDOT lighting
projects. Both the Illuminance and Luminance methodologies require the
designer to consider veiling luminance and limit the ratio to the values listed in
Tables 15.3 and 15.4. The following sections briefly describe each of the
available design methodologies.
 Illuminance: The Illuminance Methodology is the oldest and simplest to
use of the three methodologies. Illuminance in roadway lighting is a

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measure of the light incident on the pavement surface. It is measured in

foot-candles (Lux). The illuminance methodology is used to determine the
combined amount of light reaching critical pavement locations from
contributing luminaires (i.e. a measure of light quantity). This methodology
also assesses how uniformly the luminaires’ combined luminous flux is
horizontally distributed over the pavement surface (i.e., a measure of light
quality). An inherent disadvantage of the Illuminance Methodology is that it
only accounts for incident light and does not assess the effect on visibility
due to reflected light from an object or surface. This sensation is known as
“brightness”. Components of illuminance design include the average
maintained horizontal illumination (Eh), or quantity of light, and the
uniformity ratio (Eh/Emin), or quality of light, maximum veiling luminance
(Lv), and veiling luminance ratio (Lv to Lave).
 Luminance: Luminance in roadway lighting is a measure of the reflected
light from the pavement surface that is visible to the motorist’s eye.
Reflected light from an object or surface is known as brightness. Objects
are distinguished by contrast from their difference in brightness.
Brightness is expressed mathematically as luminance: the luminous
intensity per unit area directed towards the eye. The Luminance
Methodology is used to simulate driver visibility by assessing the quantity
and quality of light reflected by the pavement surface to the motorist’s eye
from contributing luminaires. In theory, luminance is a good measure of
visibility. However, the results of using the Luminance Methodology in
highway lighting applications are greatly affected by one’s ability to
accurately estimate the reflectance characteristics of the pavement
surface, both now and in the future. As such, a computer program is
required in TDOT lighting designs to aid and provide consistency in some
of these estimations. Factors affecting pavement reflectivity include initial
surface type, pavement deterioration, resurfacing material type,
assumptions regarding weather conditions, etc. It is difficult to predict or
control such factors. Compared to Illuminance, the Luminance
methodology is considerably more complicated to understand and use.
Components of luminance design include average maintained luminance
(Lave), minimum luminance (Lmin), maximum luminance (Lmax),
maximum veiling luminance (Lv), and ratios of Lave to Lmin, Lmax to
Lmin, and veiling luminance ratio (Lv to Lave).
 Veiling Luminance Ratio: In conjunction with the luminance method, the
evaluation of glare from the fixed lighting system is relevant and included
with the luminance criteria. The disability glare (veiling luminance) has
been quantified to give the designer the information to identify the veiling
effect of glare as a percent of average overall luminance. A calculation of
reflected light toward the eye of the observer is made for each roadway
point 272 feet from the observer, summing the luminance from each
luminaire. The distance between points should not exceed 15 feet.
Calculations should include a minimum of three luminaire cycles
downstream and one luminaire cycle upstream from reference (0.0) REF.
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Luminance calculations place the observer’s (motorist’s) eye height at 4.8

feet above grade. The 4.8 feet is a design figure used internationally and
does not affect the driver eye height of 3.5 feet. The observer’s line of
sight is downward at one degree below horizontal and parallel to the edge
of the roadway along lines one-quarter roadway lane width from the edge
of each lane. As shown in Figure 15.8, the observer is positioned at a
point 272 feet before the first point in the cycle to be evaluated. Because
of the geometric configuration for analysis, the veiling luminance
calculation is only typically required on straight roadways with clear
visibility. This is not to say that the veiling luminance calculation is to be
eliminated altogether, rather it should be eliminated only for:
 Short roadway sections and Isolated intersections;
 Curved roadway sections where the points of analysis are
unachievable; or
 Where visibility of the calculation points are for any reason
obstructed.
Veiling luminance ratio requirements are considered using both the
luminance and illuminance design criteria. Criteria for veiling luminance
ratio can be obtained from Tables 15.3 and 15.4.

Figure 15.8 – Calculation Points for Luminance and Illuminance Design Methods

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Table 15.3 – TDOT Illuminance Design Criteria

Average Maintained Horizontal
Area Illuminance
(4) Uniformity Veiling
Roadway Classification (Eh) Foot-candle (lux) Ratio
(6)
Luminance
Facility (Pedestrian Ratio
(3)
Pavement Classification (Avg/Min.)
Classification Conflict LVmax/Lavg
Areas)
(2) Max
R2 & R3
R1 (Min) R4 (Min)
(Min)
Freeway Class A 0.6 (6) 0.9 (9) 0.8 (8)
(Interstate) Class B 0.4 (4) 0.6 (6) 0.5 (5)
Low 0.6 (6) 0.8 (8) 0.8 (8) 3:1 to 4:1
Expressway Medium 0.8 (8) 0.9 (9) 0.9 (9)
High 1.0 (10) 1.1 (11) 1.1 (11)
Low 0.6 (6) 0.8 (8) 0.8 (8) 0.3
Major Arterial Medium 0.8 (8) 1.2 (12) 1.0 (10) 3:1
High 1.1 (11) 1.6 (16) 1.4 (14)
Low 0.5 (5) 0.7 (7) 0.7 (7)
Minor Arterial Medium 0.8 (8) 1.0 (10) 0.9 (9)
High 0.9 (9) 1.4 (14) 1.0 (10)
4:1
Low 0.4 (4) 0.6 (6) 0.5 (5)
Collector Medium 0.6 (6) 0.8 (8) 0.8 (8)
High 0.8 (8) 1.1 (11) 0.9 (9)
Low 0.3 (3) 0.4 (4) 0.4 (4)
Local Medium 0.5 (5) 0.7 (7) 0.6 (6)
High 0.6 (6) 0.8 (8) 0.8 (8)
6:1
Low 0.2 (2) 0.3 (3) 0.3 (3)
0.4
Alleys Medium 0.3 (3) 0.4 (4) 0.4 (4)
High 0.4 (4) 0.6 (6) 0.5 (5)
Low 0.3 (3) 0.4 (4) 0.4 (4) 6:1
Sidewalks Medium 0.6 (6) 0.8 (8) 0.8 (8) 4:1
High 0.9 (9) 1.3 (13) 1.2 (12) 3:1
Walkways and
(2) All 1.4 (14) 2.0 (20) 1.8 (18) 3:1
Bikeways
Rest Areas And Weigh Stations
Ramp Gores and
All 0.4 (4) 0.6 (6)
Interior Roadways
Parking and 3:1 to 4:1
Major Activity All 0.8 (8) 1.1 (11) 0.4
Areas
Minor Activity
All 0.4 (4) 0.5 (5) 6:1
Areas

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Table 15.4 – TDOT Luminance Design Criteria

Uniformity Uniformity Veiling

Road and Pedestrian Conflict Area Average Luminance
Ratio Ratio
Luminance Lavg/Lmin Lmax/Lmin Ratio
Pedestrian Lave LVmax/Lmin
(Maximum (Maximum
Road Conflict (cd/m2) (Maximum
Allowed) Allowed)
Area
(2) (Min) Allowed)
(Max) (Max) (Max)
(3)

Freeway Class A N/A 0.6

Freeway Class B N/A 0.4
Low 0.6 3.5 6.0
Expressway Medium 0.8
High 1.0
Low 0.6 3.5 6.0 0.3
Major Arterial Medium 0.9 3.0 5.0
High 1.2 3.0 5.0
Low 0.6 3.5 6.0
Minor Arterial Medium 0.9 3.0 5.0
High 1.2 3.0 5.0
Low 0.4 4.0 8.0
Collector Medium 0.6 3.5 6.0
High 0.8 3.0 5.0
0.4
Low 0.3
Local Medium 0.5 6.0 10.0
High 0.6
Note: Use Illuminance requirements for sidewalks, walkways and bikeways.
The following notes may apply to the Illuminance Method and the Luminance Method:
1. Meet the Illuminance design method requirements and the Luminance design method
requirements and meet veiling luminance requirements for both Illuminance and the Luminance
design methods.
2. Assumes a separate facility. For Pedestrian Ways and Bicycle Ways adjacent to roadway, use
roadway design values. Use R3 requirements for walkway/bikeway surface materials other than
the pavement types shown. Other design guidelines such as IESNA or CIE may be used for
pedestrian ways and bikeways when deemed appropriate.
3. LV(max) refers to the maximum point along the pavement, not the maximum in lamp life. The
Maintenance Factor applies to both the LV term and the Lavg term.
4. There may be situations when a higher level of illuminance is justified. The higher values for
freeways may be justified when deemed advantageous by the agency to mitigate off-roadway
sources.
5. Physical roadway conditions may require adjustment of spacing determined from the base levels
of illuminance indicted above.
6. Higher uniformity ratios are acceptable for elevated ramps near high-mast poles.
7. See AASHTO publication entitled, “A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets” for
roadway and walkway classifications.

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 Small-Target-Visibility: STV has been proposed as an alternative lighting

design methodology to better define actual driver visibility requirements.
Both luminance and STV are considerably more complex than
illuminance. Luminance designs depend on pavement reflectance
characteristics, observer position, and luminaire location and performance.
STV designs depend on identical parameters and add the complexity of
an array of seven-inch, flat targets placed perpendicularly to the pavement
surface. The STV methodology is used to calculate the collective visibility
of the targets, expressed as a weighted average, for a given design.
Theoretically, STV should closely approximate actual driver visibility;
however, there is not yet sufficient field experience to calibrate the STV
model. The STV method has not been adopted by AASHTO because it
does not adequately describe visibility in the roadway scene.
 TDOT Design Methodology: The Illuminance methodology shall be used
in roadway lighting design on all TDOT lighting projects. This shall also
include the calculations necessary to obtain the veiling luminance ratio.
Due to the complexity and the repetitive nature of these calculations,
TDOT will require the designer to use computerized design techniques.

15.4.2 Computerized Design

The highway lighting design process is an iterative process that is quite
effectively implemented by computer. If criteria are not initially satisfied, it will be
necessary to change design parameters (e.g. pole spacing, mounting height,
luminaire wattage) until an acceptable alternative is found. This process will be
repeated until the design is optimized to meet the selected criteria. For
computerized designs prepared by outside consultants, the consultant will
provide the program’s name and version and the input data and output reports in
either printed, or electronic format, or both.

15.4.3 Electrical Design

Roadway lighting is generally bundled with roadway transportation projects which
are characterized or defined as civil engineering designs. Often a civil engineer
would place emphasis on the photometric portion of the lighting design while the
electrical engineer may place chief focus on the electrical components of the
design. It is important to note that a sound engineering lighting design consists of
two equally important components, the photometric design and the electrical
design. The methodology for selecting and designing to a specific photometric
design criteria is defined in Section 15.4.1. Upon completion of the photometric
design, the electrical design can be initiated.
 Electrical Design Steps:
1. Determine the service voltage provided for the lighting design:
It is the responsibility of the lighting designer to verify, with the
Utility Owner/Maintaining Agency (See Section 15.3.2), the service
voltage that shall be provided for the lighting design. The designer

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should indicate that the contractor coordinate with the power

company to set the service transformer to the proper tap to ensure
that the nominal service voltage is achieved. Typically, the single
phase, service voltage may be 120 V, 240 V, or 480 V. If
requested, the designer might be able to obtain a higher service
voltage from the Utility Owner/Maintaining Agency.
2. Determine the wire size to be used: It is the responsibility of the
lighting designer to verify, with the Utility Owner/Maintaining
Agency, the wire size that may be used throughout the project. If no
specific wire size is required to meet the specifications of a Utility
Owner/Maintaining Agency, the lighting designer shall use sound
engineering judgment to select adequate wire sizes for the lighting
design.
3. Circuit breakers: It is the responsibility of the lighting designer to
verify, with the utility owner/maintaining agency, the maximum
allowable main circuit breaker size that may be utilized. Maintain
standard sized circuit breakers in the control center. A spare circuit
breaker should be included in each control center. When
determining the size of the breakers an appropriate safety factor
should be used.
4. Establish location for control centers: The lighting designer shall
establish a safe location for the control centers. These locations
shall be verified and approved by the Utility Owner/Maintaining
Agency and the TDOT Project Manager.
5. Voltage Drop Calculations: Items 1 through 4 above are essential
in the determination of the voltage drop calculation. The maximum
voltage drop should not exceed 3%. However, with consent from
the TDOT manager, voltage drop of up to 5% might be considered.
The lighting designer should follow the voltage drop calculations as
detailed below.
6. Equipment Selection and Sizing: The lighting designer shall use
recommended safety factors and industry standards when selecting
and sizing the electrical equipment.
7. Wiring Schematic: The lighting designer shall detail the wire
routing for the lighting system.
8. Inappropriate Equipment Sizing: It is important to note, that
inappropriate equipment sizing can result in major cost overrun.
The lighting designer’s design shall comply with the latest edition of
the National Electric Code.

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9. Electrical Design Quantities: Once the electrical design is

finalized, the electrical design quantities shall be tabulated. The
lighting designer shall be responsible for ensuring that the tabulated
quantities mirror the final electrical design.
 Voltage Drop Determination: The typical highway lighting distribution
circuit is 120/240 V or 240/480 V, single phase, 60-cycle alternating
current service. The power supply to the lighting system generally consists
of two conductors (line to line) and an insulated ground wire. Typically, the
lights are connected using both legs of the circuit to obtain 240 V or 480 V
at the luminaires. This shall be verified by the Utility Owner/Maintaining
Agency. Voltage drop should be determined as follows:
1. Determine the service voltage (VL) provided by the electrical
company.
2. Determine the lamp amperes (I) from Table 15.5 based on the lamp
wattage and service voltage.
3. Determine the resistance (R) of the wire size to be used from
Table 15.6.
4. Determine the distances (L) from each luminaire to the circuit
breaker.
5. Use the equations below in determining the percentage voltage
drop for a luminaire in a two-wire single phase circuit,
6. Or, use Equation 15.4 in determining the percentage voltage drop
between outside conductors and neutral in three-wire single phase
circuits. (See Note 3 in Equation 15.4).
7. Use Equation 15.5 to determine the voltage drop for all of the
luminaires being connected to the branch circuit breaker.
8. Voltage drop should not exceed 3% as defined in this section.
9. Calculating voltage drop, will determine the total number of
luminaires that may be connected to each branch circuit breaker
(See Circuit Breaker Size Determination on Page 15-42).

Table 15.5 – Lamp Amperes (HPS Mag Regular Ballast)

Lamp Amperes (l) Lamp Amperes (l) Lamp Amperes (l)
Watts
120 Volts 240 Volts 480 Volts
150 1.7 1.0 0.6
250 2.7 1.4 0.8
400 3.9 2.1 1.1
1000 9.1 4.6 2.3

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Table 15.6 – Conductor Properties

Circuit Resistance (R) Circuit Resistance (R)
Wire Size AWG Wire Size AWG
(Ohms/Foot) (Ohms/Foot)
14 0.0032614 2 0.0002009
12 0.0020498 1 0.0001600
10 0.0012899 1/0 0.0001271
8 0.0008089 2/0 0.0001009
6 0.0005099 3/0 0.0000796
4 0.0003210 4/0 0.0000625

Vd = ( 2 • L • I • R) / VL
Equation 15.4 – Percentage Voltage Drop for One Luminaire
Where:
Vd = percentage voltage drop for one luminaire in circuit
L = distance of luminaire to circuit breaker (ft)
I = current in conductor (lamp amperes) (See Note 1 below)
R = resistance per foot of conductor (ohms/foot) (See Note 2
below)
VL = service voltage (120 V, 240 V, or 480 V)

Notes:
1. Consult manufacturer’s data for ampere for ballasts being
considered.
2. Resistances listed in the table below are based on stranded
copper conductor at 167°F operating temperature with an
insulated covering and located in conduit (resistance in
ohms/feet)
3. Voltage drop between one outside conductor and neutral
equals one-half of voltage drop calculated by formula above
for two-wire circuits.

Total Vd = Σ Vd
Equation 15.5 –Voltage Drop for Each Luminaire
Where:
Total Vd = total percentage voltage drop in one branch circuit

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 Circuit Breaker Size Determination: The branch circuit breaker size and
main circuit breaker size can be determined after the total voltage drop
has been calculated. Once the total voltage drop criteria has been
satisfied, then the branch circuit breaker and main circuit breaker sizes
can be determined as follows:
1. Determine the total number of luminaires that can be supported on
one branch circuit breaker.
2. Equation 15.6 shows the calculation to determine the size for a
branch circuit breaker:
3. Branch Circuit breaker size should be rounded to the nearest whole
number. Standard size circuit breakers of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 60
amperes should be specified. Control Center Cabinets typically use
four branch circuit breakers and one spare circuit breaker.
However, if more circuits are required and can be supported, the
Control Center Cabinet could have up to six branch circuit breakers
and a spare circuit breaker.
4. Equation 15.7 shows the calculation to determine the size for the
main circuit breaker.
5. Typically, the main circuit breaker size may be 60, 100 or 125
Amps. Larger sizes may be used if approved by the Utility
Owner/Maintaining Agency.

BCB = (Total No. of Luminaires x I) / 80%

Equation 15.6 – Branch Circuit Breaker Size
Where:
BCB = Branch Circuit Breaker
I = Current in Conductor (Lamp Amperes) (See Table 15.5)

MCB = (Σ BCB) / 80%

Equation 15.7 – Main Circuit Breaker Size
Where:
MCB = Main Circuit Breaker
BCB = Branch Circuit Breaker

15.4.4 Foundation, Pole Mounting, and Structural Considerations

The TDOT Standard Specifications and TDOT Standard Drawings provide pole
mounting details and details for foundation materials, depth, width, reinforcing,
etc. When designing a lighting system, also consider the following:
 Foundation Height Relative to Final Grade: For other than high mast
(light towers), design pole foundations flush with the high edge of the
surrounding grade. This permits drainage necessary to protect the

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foundation and reduces the likelihood of the foundation intensifying a

collision. The foundation also is less likely to be destroyed during a
collision. When located within the clear zone, ensure that the foundation
and fractured breakaway device does not protrude more than four inches
above the finished grade within a five-foot chord.
 Steel Foundations: The steel (i.e. helix screw-in type) foundation is one
that is commonly used by TDOT for conventional light poles. This
foundation is placed in undisturbed earth using a clockwise rotation similar
to a common screw. The diameter of the steel tube ranges from eight
inches to ten inches and is typically six feet long. Shorter lengths may be
appropriate for foundations in areas with shallow bedrock. The steel
foundation will accommodate poles with 11.5 inches and 15 inches bolt
circles for luminaire mounting heights ranging from 40 feet to 50 feet.
 Foundations for Temporary Lighting: Foundations for temporary
lighting will be determined on a case-by-case basis. This may include
direct embedment of wood poles to a depth of from 5.5 feet, for 30-foot
poles, to 12 feet, for 65-foot poles. The use of butt base anchors also may
be considered.
 Pole Mounting on Parapets: Poles for bridge lighting typically are
mounted on specially designed concrete parapet sections. Ensure that the
mounting design includes the necessary non-breakaway, high-strength
bolts, leveling plate, and vibration pad.
 Center Median Barriers: TDOT strongly discourages the installation of
light poles on center median barriers. Any installation that requires lane
closures on a freeway should be eliminated if at all possible. Lane
closures by local power companies are extremely hazardous to both the
maintenance worker and the motorist. Consult the TDOT manager before
beginning such a layout.
 Structural Design: Poles will be designed and fabricated to meet or
exceed AASHTO requirements as documented in AASHTO Standard
Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and
Traffic Signals and NCHRP Report 411. See the TDOT Standard
Specifications for the appropriate design criteria (e.g. wind loading, gust
factor, luminaire mass and effective area).
 High Mast (Light Tower) Foundations: Foundations for light towers
used in high-mast lighting applications typically require specialized
designs and soil surveys to ensure adequate support. A 4-foot diameter
reinforced concrete foundation, to a depth as required by the soils
analysis, usually is adequate for towers accommodating 80-foot luminaire
mounting heights.

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15.4.5 TDOT Foundation Design

When high mast interchange lighting is installed, the foundation design at each
pole location shall be based on a soil test conducted and certified by a qualified,
professional engineer. This certification shall be submitted along with the final
construction plans to the TDOT Traffic Design Office for their records.
Information from the soils testing may be also included in the plans. TDOT
Standard Drawing T-L-1 tabulates estimated foundation depths as a function of
pole height. When an outside consultant is used, the consultant will be charged
with determining the necessary soils properties required to develop the
foundation design. This information will be required at each tentative high mast
pole location, as determined by an appropriate lighting design. Boring log
information, extending from the surface of the ground to the minimum depth
noted on TDOT Standard Drawing T-L-1 plus ten feet or to solid rock, whichever
comes first, will be presented in the final design plans for the interchange lighting
project. Critical soil parameters will be documented for use in the foundation
design. Minimum information required at each boring site are types and depths of
each soil strata, ‘N’ values (numbers of blows per foot using a split spoon
sampler), and PP embankment, soil analysis shall be performed after compaction
of the embankment. The foundation design will be performed in accordance with
the latest version of AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for
Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals. As a secondary check,
Equations 15.8 and 15.9 (presented in the Civil Engineering magazine, May
1969) may also be used:

Equation 15.8 – Length of Foundation

Equation 15.9 – Lateral Movement of Foundation at Ground Line

Where:
L = Length of Foundation, feet
F = Resultant of all Horizontal External Loads, kips
Pp = Passive Pressure, ksf
D = Diameter of Foundation, feet (typically four feet)
M = Moment at Ground Line or Top of Footing, = F x H, feet-kips
Δ = Lateral Movement of Foundation at Ground Line, inches
K = Coefficient of Passive Subgrade Reaction, kcf
H = Distance from Ground Line to Resultant of Horizontal Loads, feet

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The consultant will be charged with providing the most cost efficient design,
whether it be drilled shaft, rock socket, or spread footing. The consultant shall
determine the potential lateral movement of the foundation, and shall design to
restrain the lateral movement to no more than 0.5 inches. Manday proposals and
costs for the soils study will be reviewed and approved by the TDOT
Geotechnical Engineering Office. Manday proposals and costs for the structural
design of high mast foundations will be reviewed and approved by the TDOT
Structures Division. Final foundation designs will be reviewed by the TDOT
Structures Division. These reviews and approvals will be coordinated by the
TDOT Traffic Engineering Office.

15.4.6 High-Mast Lighting Design

In general, the design of high-mast lighting systems follows the same design
procedures as discussed in Section 15.3 and other sections of Section 15.4. In
addition, consider the following:
 Mounting Heights: Mounting heights in high-mast lighting applications
range from 60 feet to 180 feet. In general, heights of 100 feet to 150 feet
have exhibited the most practical designs. Greater mounting heights
require more luminaires to maintain illumination levels. However, greater
heights allow for fewer poles and provide better light uniformity.
 Light Source: LED or HID are to be used for the lamps. The number of
luminaires required will be determined by the area to be lighted. As a
general starting point, it can be assumed that mounting heights of
approximately 100 feet will require a minimum of 400,000 lumens,
600,000 lumens for mounting heights of approximately 120 feet to 130
feet, and 800,000 to 1,000,000 lumens for mounting heights of
approximately 150 feet. The number of luminaires per pole typically
ranges from four to six luminaires. Luminaires are typically installed in
multiples of two in order to balance the lowering device ring.
 Location: In determining the location of light towers, review the plan view
of the area to determine the more critical areas requiring lighting. In
selecting tower locations, consider the following:
• Critical Areas: Locate light towers so that the highest localized
levels of illumination fall within the critical traffic areas (e.g.
freeway/ramp junctions, ramp terminals, merge points).
• Roadside Safety: Locate light towers outside the roadside clear
zone and a sufficient distance from the roadway so that the
probability of a collision is virtually eliminated. Do not place light
towers on the end of long tangents.
• Signs: Locate light towers so that they are not within the driver's
direct line of sight to highway signs.

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• Avoidance Issues: Special attention should be made to avoid

underground utilities, drainage structures, overhead utility lines, and
clusters of trees.
 Design: There are generally two methodologies for checking the
adequacy of light uniformity: 1) the point-by-point method; and 2) the
template method. The point-by-point method checks illumination by using
the manufacturer's isolux diagram. The total illumination at a point is
determined by the sum of the contributions of illumination from all mast
assemblies within the effective range of the point. Due to the numerous
calculations, computer software may be used to make these
determinations. The template methodology uses isolux templates to
determine the appropriate locations for light towers. The templates may be
moved around to ensure that the minimum maintained illumination is
provided and the uniformity ratio has been satisfied. TDOT recommends
the use of the point-by-point method. Consideration should be given to
adjacent land use during the design analysis.
 Navigable Airspace: Where lighting projects are being considered in
close proximity to an active airfield or airport, consider the impact the
height of the light tower has on navigable airspace. For additional
information, consult the FAA Advisory Circular AC 70/7460-2J Proposed
Construction or Alteration of Objects that May Affect the Navigable
Airspace. Consult the federal regulatory agency for design requirements
and coordinate this effort with the TDOT Traffic Engineering Office.

15.4.7 Underpass Lighting

Because of their typical configuration and length-to-height ratio, underpasses
generally have good daylight penetration and do not require supplemental
daytime lighting. Underpass lighting generally is installed to enhance driver
visibility after daylight hours. When the length-to-height ratio of the underpass
exceeds approximately 10:1, it usually is necessary to analyze specific geometry
and roadway conditions, including vehicular and pedestrian activity, to determine
the need for supplemental daytime lighting. TDOT recommends analyzing the
need to provide underpass lighting on all highways that are continuously lighted.
Favorable positioning of conventional highway luminaires adjacent to a relatively
short underpass often can provide adequate illumination within the underpass
without a need to provide supplemental lighting. If this action is considered,
ensure that shadows cast by the conventional luminaires do not become a
visibility problem within the underpass.

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15.4.8 TDOT Bridge Lighting Plan

 General Information: Luminaires mounted on the bridge supports and
bridge piers shall be approved by the TDOT Structures Division to verify
that the roadway lighting installations can be adequately supported by the
bridge structure. Luminaires mounted 45 feet above the pavement on
bridges often become inoperable because of excessive vibration from
traffic. Therefore, the mounting height for bridge lighting may vary. The
light standards may be installed 30 or 35 feet above the pavement if
appropriate uniformity ratios can be achieved for that portion of the design.
However, if the lighting design warrants, mountings of 40 to 45 feet may
be considered. A Bridge Layout Sheet must be prepared for inclusion in
the bridge plans when lighting elements either cross or are installed on a
bridge. The information may be provided in electronic format or marked up
on a bridge layout sheet and given to the appropriate structural designer
for his use in completing the bridge plans. Bridge Lighting should:
• Be installed near piers where possible to prevent vibration;
• Show conduit and junction boxes installed in parapet walls;
• Show details for crossing joints.
All items to be installed as a part of the construction of the bridge are to be
included in the Lump Sum Item 714-01 (Structural Lighting). The quantity
of individual materials is to be footnoted on the sheet along with
instructions to seal any open conduit to prevent moisture from entering.
Pole foundation locations are to be noted in the bridge plan. The cost of
the foundations will be included in other bridge items and described by a
Bridge Standard Drawing. Elements such as supports, wiring and
luminaries will be installed later by the lighting contractor and are included
in the lighting plans in the appropriate item for each.
 Bridge Lighting for Structures Submittal: For overpass and underpass
bridge lighting, the lighting designer shall submit the following to structures
for inclusion in the bridge plans (See Figures 15.9 and 15.10 for details):
• Bridge name, site location, and log mile;
• Structural lighting quantities for each bridge;
• Locations of all conduit, junction boxes, footings, etc.

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 Bridge Lighting for Lighting Plans: For overpass and underpass bridge
lighting, bridge lighting detail sheets shall be included in the lighting plans.
Overpass and underpass lighting is detailed in separate formats as
described below:
• Overpass Lighting: For overpass lighting, the lighting plans shall
include the following in the “lighting layout” (See Figure 15.11 for
details):
o Pole number and light pole location;
o Junction box location in parapet wall;
o Conduit location in parapet wall.
• Underpass Lighting: For underpass lighting, the lighting plans
shall show the bridge lighting as part of the lighting layout. In
addition, a detail sheet shall be included for the underpass lighting.
The detail sheet shall include the following (See Figure 15.12 for
details):
o 1” = 50‘ scale;
o Number and luminaire location on bridge;
o Junction box location in parapet wall;
o Roadside junction box locations;
o Conduit location in parapet wall;
o Strapped conduit location on existing bridge;
o Electrical connection detailed.

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Figure 15.9 – Detail of Overpass Bridge Lighting for Submittal to Structures

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Figure 15.10 – Detail of Underpass Bridge Lighting for Submittal to Structures

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Figure 15.11 – Detail of Proposed Lighting Layout at Bridge Overpass (NTS)

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Figure 15.12 – Detail of Proposed Lighting Layout at Bridge Underpass (NTS)

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15.5 Materials and Equipment

Because luminaires, electrical devices, and support structures change rapidly with new
developments, this section presents an overview rather than an absolute requirement
for lighting equipment and materials. See the TDOT Standard Specifications for Road
and Bridge Construction and TDOT Standard Drawings for details on lighting equipment
and materials that may be used on projects. This section provides specific design
guidance for luminaires, electrical devices, and support structures used by TDOT.
Figure 15.13 illustrates the various components of a typical highway lighting structure.

Figure 15.13 – Typical Highway Lighting Structure

Note: Single mast arm/multi-mount luminaire shown for illustrative

purposes. For other luminaire mounting types, see the TDOT electric detail
sheets, highway standards, and the standard specification.

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15.5.1 Foundations and Mounting

In conventional highway lighting applications, luminaire assemblies generally are
attached to poles mounted along the roadway either on ground foundations or
atop bridge parapets. Supports for conventional light poles may be either
reinforced concrete or steel helix foundations and are constructed from typical
designs. However, concrete foundations for light towers in high-mast lighting
applications require special designs and soil analyses to determine adequate
depth and support. Depending on factors such as roadside location, most
conventional light poles will be mounted on breakaway devices. Light poles that
are mounted atop parapets and barriers are attached using high-strength, non-
breakaway bolts. Special vibration isolating materials are used to mount light
poles on bridges. At signalized intersections, a roadway luminaire also may be
mounted on a combination mast-arm assembly and pole. Luminaires mounted in
underpasses and tunnels are either attached directly to the wall adjacent to or
hung from vibration-dampening pendants above the travel lanes. Light sources
that are used to externally illuminate overhead sign panels typically are fastened
to the truss or cantilever support structure. Waterway and aviation obstruction
warning luminaires are attached directly to the structures representing the
hazard.

15.5.2 Pole Bases

Light poles may be mounted on one of several types of bases (e.g. stainless
steel flair base, transformer base, breakaway coupling base, anchor base, butt
base). Selection is governed by project need. A very important distinguishing
characteristic of the pole base is whether or not it is classified by AASHTO and
FHWA as an acceptable breakaway device. If the pole represents a roadside
hazard, it will be mounted on a breakaway device (See Section 15.3.5). The
following briefly describes the pole bases used by TDOT:
 Breakaway Bolt Coupling: Breakaway bolt couplings are connectors or
sleeves that are designed to shear when the pole is hit by an errant
vehicle. The bottom of each coupling is threaded onto a foundation anchor
bolt, and the pole is attached to the top of the coupling. Four couplings are
used with each pole. All wiring at the pole base will have quick disconnect
splices.
 Frangible Transformer Base: The frangible transformer base consists of
a cast aluminum apron between the foundation and the base of the pole. It
is designed to deform and break away when hit by an errant vehicle. All
wiring inside the base will have quick disconnect splices.
 Anchor Base: The anchor base consists primarily of a metal plate that is
welded to the bottom of the pole. The plate allows the pole to be bolted
directly to the foundation using high-strength anchor bolts without an
intermediate breakaway connection. The anchor base is not a breakaway
device.

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15.5.3 Poles
Light poles for conventional highway lighting applications support luminaire
mounting heights ranging from approximately 30 feet to 65 feet. They may be
fabricated as tapered or straight, single-section poles from materials such as
aluminum, galvanized steel, stainless steel, weathering steel, fiberglass, and
wood. Light towers for high-mast lighting applications generally range from 80
feet to 160 feet and are designed in multiple sections.

15.5.4 Luminaires
A luminaire is a complete lighting unit consisting of a lamp, or lamps, together
with the parts necessary to regulate and distribute the light. The following
sections provide some general information on the basic components of the
luminaire.
 Optical System: The optical system of the luminaire consists of a light
source, a reflector, and usually a refractor. The following provides a
general discussion on the optical system components:
• Light Sources: There are numerous light sources for highway
lighting applications. However, there are only a few practical
choices when considering availability, size, power requirements,
and cost effectiveness. LED and HID types are used in highway
lighting applications. However, fluorescent lamps have been used
to illuminate signs. The following provides information on some of
the high-intensity light sources used in highway applications:
o LED: LEDs have longer life, saves energy, requires less
maintenance, and is environmentally friendly. LED can last
for 10 years and longer. Currently, the Department requires
a 10 year warranty for all LED luminaires (See Appendix E
for LED specifications).
o High Pressure Sodium: HPS lamps have excellent
luminous efficiency, power usage, and long life. The HPS
lamp produces a soft, pinkish-yellow light by passing an
electric current through a combination of sodium and
mercury vapors.
o Low Pressure Sodium: LPS lamps are considered one of
the most efficient light sources on the market. However, the
LPS lamp is very long and produces a very pronounced
yellow light. Light is produced by passing an electrical
current through a sodium vapor.
o Metal Halide: MH lamps produce better color at higher
efficiency than MV lamps. However, life expectancy for MH
lamps is shorter than for HPS or MV lamps. They also are
more sensitive to lamp orientation (i.e. horizontal vs. vertical)
than other light sources. MH lamps produce good color

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rendition. Light is produced by passing a current through a

combination of metallic vapors.MH can be comprised of
either probe start or pulse start technologies.
• Reflector: The reflector is used to redirect the light rays emitted by
the lamp. Its primary purpose is to redirect that portion of light
emitted by the lamp that would otherwise be lost or poorly utilized.
Reflectors are designed to function alone or, more commonly, with
a refractor to redirect the poorly utilized portion of light to a more
desirable distribution pattern. Reflectors are classified as either
specular or diffused. Specular reflectors are made from a glossy
material that provides a mirror-like surface. Diffuse reflectors are
used where there is a need to spread light over a wider area.
• Refractor: The refractor is another means of optical control to
change the direction of the light. Refractors are made of a
transparent, clear material, usually high-strength glass or plastic.
The refractor, through its prismatic construction, controls and
redirects both the light emitted by the lamp and the light redirected
by the reflector. It also can be used to control the brightness of the
lamp source.
 Ballasts: Some luminaires used in highway lighting applications have a
built-in ballast. Ballasts are used to regulate the voltage to the lamp and to
ensure that the lamp is operating within its design parameters. It also
provides the proper open circuit voltage for starting the lamp. LED has a
voltage regulator or driver (See Appendix E for LED specifications).
 Housing Units: The housing integrates the lamp, reflector, refractor, and
ballast into a self-contained unit. The housing is sealed to prevent dust,
moisture, and insects from entering. Air entering the housing for thermal
breathing will typically pass through a filter to eliminate contaminates.
Housing units are designed to accommodate access for lamp
maintenance and adjustment (i.e., light direction and distribution).

15.5.5 Other Materials and Equipment

There are numerous other materials and equipment that are used in a highway
lighting system such as quick disconnect fuse holders, controllers, photocells,
surge arresters, raceways, ground rods, cabling, transformers, conduit, hand
holes, and pull boxes. The use and specification of such ancillary items will
depend on the particular highway lighting application and will vary on a project-
by-project basis.

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15.6 TDOT Lighting Plans Layouts

15.6.1 Plans Preparation

Photometric Plans, Right-Of-Way/Utility Plans, and Construction Plans shall be
prepared for all roadway lighting designs. Lighting plans are most often prepared
in support of a larger roadway project. It is desirable to have the location of light
poles and control centers included in the Roadway Right-Of-Way/Utility Plans
submittal. Where it is not feasible, the lighting plans shall be submitted separately
through the TDOT Traffic Engineering Office. The lighting designer shall
coordinate efforts with the primary roadway designer. The designers shall work
together with project scheduling, sheet numbering, review submittals and shall
exchange roadway geometric updates throughout all stages of the lighting plans
design. All sheets prepared by the lighting designer shall be signed and sealed
exclusively by the lighting designer. The following includes sheets that constitute
a complete roadway lighting plan and are listed in the order that they should
appear in the plans:
 Title Sheet: This sheet shall include a reduced scale layout of the overall
project showing various circuits, control centers, location of sensitive
areas including environmental (streams and wetlands), residential, military
and airport facilities.
 Estimated Roadway Quantities, Notes and Standard Drawings: For
lighting projects prepared in conjunction with a roadway project, the
tabulation of quantities, notes and footnotes to quantities, and the listing of
standard drawings the shall be included on one sheet. This sheet shall be
submitted for inclusion with the roadway plan as a second sheet. For
standalone lighting projects, the standard drawings, tabulated quantities,
and notes shall be prepared on separate sheets.
 Special Notes: Special notes for standard lighting designs may be
included on the general notes sheet. Special notes for high mast lighting
shall be included on a separate sheet in the second sheet series.
 Control Center Details: This sheet shall include details for the wiring
schematic, notes, and control center mounting detail (pad or pole
mounted).
 Lighting Details: This mandatory sheet shall include a separate table for
the light pole schedule and wire/conduit schedule. The light pole schedule
shall include the pole location, mounting height, number and fixture type,
control center number and circuit number. The wire/conduit schedule shall
include the quantity and size of each cable running through each conduit.
Spare conduit shall also be included in this table.
 Special Lighting Details: This sheet shall include details of special
fixtures or other non-standard TDOT items clearly identified and detailed.
 Lighting Layout Sheets: For large projects, a lighting layout sheet shall
be included. This sheet shall show coverage of the entire project with each

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proposed lighting layout sheet and the corresponding sheet number

identified.
 Proposed Lighting Layout Sheets: These sheets should be developed
as follows:
• The plans should be designed for 1 inch = 50 feet scale for straight
and curved roadway lengths and 1 inch = 100 feet scale for
interchanges;
• A separate plan sheet with tables showing, but not limited to: the
pole mounting height, luminaire type and wattage, conduits, and
circuitry shall be provided;
• The location of lighting standards in relation to the proposed
roadway. Each standard shall be flagged to note the pole number,
station, coordinates, offset, and pole height if it varies;
• All conduits and wiring shall be shown and labeled as per the
wire/conduit schedule. Special conduit for jack and bore, stream
crossings, under road rigid conduit and otherwise shall be clearly
identified;
• All control centers shall be located and numbered, and the power
source location shall be identified. A separate plan sheet detailing
the control center and its circuitry, wire/conductor size, and the
electric feed point shall be provided;
• Under bridge lighting shall be shown with location of circuitry. A
special detail sheet at a larger scale may be required to clarify the
under bridge lighting system;
• North arrow, legend and road names shall be on all layout sheets.
 Underpass Lighting Details: This sheet shall be done at a larger scale to
clearly depict the underpass lighting system. The detail shall label the
underpass fixture and number, conduit and junction boxes in bridge
parapet, and the service connection. Refer to Figure 15.12 for under
bridge lighting details.
 Bridge Layout Sheets: It shall be the responsibility of the structural
designer to include the lighting information provided by the lighting
designer in the bridge layout sheets. The lighting designer shall provide
the lighting design information to the TDOT Structures Division as
depicted in Figure 15.9 and Figure 15.10. The bridge layout sheets shall
be signed and sealed exclusively by the structural designer
 Bore Locations and Geotechnical Notes: For lighting designs that
include high mast lighting, a bore location and geotechnical notes sheet
shall be included in the lighting plans. This sheet shall depict the bore
locations and numbers, geotechnical notes, and parameters used for the
design of the high mast foundation.

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 Bore Log Details: For lighting designs that include high mast lighting, a
bore log details sheet shall be included in the lighting plans. This sheet
shall show information obtained from each bore log, and includes, but is
not limited to, bore depth, sample number, blow counts, N-value, soil
description, SPT N-value, water levels and any other information pertinent
to the design of the high mast pole foundation.
 Foundation Details: For lighting designs that include high mast lighting, a
foundation details sheet shall be included in the lighting plans. This sheet
shall include, but is not limited to, foundation design information such as
footing dimensions, notes, materials description, and design criteria used
for a complete foundation design. If the foundation can be constructed as
per the standard drawings, this sheet may be eliminated.

15.6.2 Photometric/Preliminary Plans Preparation

The Designer shall prepare all components necessary for photometric/
preliminary plan submittal. The Designer shall submit, to the TDOT Design
Manager, the plan sheets showing the overall project. Ensure that the
photometric/preliminary plans include:
 Stationing at appropriate intervals and stationing of noses and tangent
points of ramps which are formed by the roadway proper and not by the
shoulder;
 Pavement, shoulder, and median widths at frequent intervals;
 All roadway features which may affect the stationing or setback of poles
(e.g., guardrail, barrier median, barrier curb, signs exceeding 50 feet,
driveways, culverts, railroads, pipelines);
 The approximate height of any power and telephone lines over the
roadway;
 The location of power poles from which service may be obtained;
 If signals are present or proposed, the location of the signal pole, power
pole and control cabinet;
 Point-by-point photometric values shown on a layout sheet shall be clearly
legible for the reviewer;
• For conventional lighting, the point-by-point grid size should be a
maximum of half the distance of the lane width by ten to 20 feet
along the roadway length (e.g. for a 12-foot lane, the grid size
should be six feet x ten feet);
• For high mast lighting, the point-by-point grid size should be a
maximum of the lane width by 20 feet along the roadway length
(e.g. for a 12-foot lane, the grid size should be 12 feet x 20 feet);

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 The photometric/preliminary plans shall be designed to TDOT Survey and

Design CADD Standards. Section 15.6.4 describes additional drafting
standards;
 Plan preparation checklists are listed in Section 15.6.7;
 Plans and Work File submittals are discussed in Section 15.6.6.

15.6.3 Photometric/Preliminary Plan Review

Upon receipt of the photometric/preliminary plans, the TDOT Design Manager
shall verify the location of poles and luminaires. This will include cross-
referencing results from the photometric design Input and output work files to the
preliminary design work files (MicroStation) and verifying that they match the
layout sheets submitted. Once the working files are reviewed and the lighting
design is found to meet the lighting design criteria, the TDOT Design Manager
shall approve the photometric/preliminary plans. The TDOT Design Manager
shall have up to one month to review, evaluate and provide comments on the
existing lighting conditions (when applicable) and the proposed lighting design
prior to commencement of the right-of-way/utility plans.

15.6.4 Lighting Computer-Aided Design Drafting Standards

Lighting plans shall follow the TDOT Survey and CADD Standards. The following
details additional lighting design criteria that will aid to maintain uniformity in all
lighting plans submitted to TDOT:
 Lighting plans layout sheets shall be scaled to 1 inch = 50 feet for straight
and curved roadway lengths and 1 inch = 100 feet for interchanges;
 Conventional light poles shall be numbered as 1, 2, etc.;
 High mast poles (i.e. tower poles) shall be numbered as HM1, HM2, etc.;
 Control centers shall be numbered as CC1, CC2, etc.

15.6.5 Site and Field Reviews

 Site Reviews: A very necessary, but sometimes overlooked, part of a
complete lighting design is the need for site reviews. The number of site
reviews will be dependent on the complexity of the project. It is prudent
that the lighting designer have at least one site review. The following
benefits may be obtained through site reviews:
• Site reviews can provide information that is not always visible from
the survey, e.g., structures such as large trees, clusters of trees,
ditches and steep slopes. The lighting designer should be aware of
the location of these obstacles to avoid pole placement in their
vicinity. Removal of vegetation and trees should be considered only
as a last resort;

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• The lighting designer can get a better idea of the magnitude and
proximity of overhead obstructions, hazards or structures to the
roadway;
• Site reviews can provide a better understanding of the
neighborhood and other environmental issues that may factor into
pole/fixture selection and placement;
• Site reviews clearly show the roadway configuration. This will
enable the designer to determine the lighting design criteria specific
to the roadway configuration;
• Site reviews will enable the lighting designer to select potential
service point locations by identifying power sources throughout the
immediate project area;
• Site reviews will enable the lighting designer to verify that the
locations of proposed poles are not in conflict with existing or
proposed utilities, and at-grade and aerial roadway structures.
 Field Review: Prior to finalizing plans, the lighting designer should
conduct a field review to determine if proposed pole and luminaire
locations will interfere with existing or proposed underground utilities, and
at-grade and aerial roadway structures.
 High Mast Lighting: On high mast lighting design projects, it may be
necessary for both the lighting designer and the geotechnical engineer to
simultaneously conduct a field review to finalize pole locations. This will
ensure that the lighting designer and geotechnical engineer are in
agreement with the location at which the bores will be performed.

15.6.6 Photometric Plans and Work Files Submittal

For Photometric/Preliminary Plan, Utility Plan, Right-of-Way Plan, and
Construction Plan submittal, the lighting designer is required to provide specific
files such as the AGI32 and Visual electronic files to the TDOT Traffic
Engineering Office. These files shall follow the naming convention set forth in the
Survey and Design Computer-Aided Drafting Standards. In addition, the working
units for all files shall coincide with the working units set forth in the Survey and
Design Computer Aided Drafting Standards.

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15.6.7 Lighting Design Checklists

In order to reduce plan revisions, errors, and standardize the preparation, format
and content of plans, Lighting Design Checklists (See Appendix E) should be
used by all designers, consultants, and personnel checking plans. These forms
should be used on all lighting projects. The procedure for use of the form is as
follows:
 Fill in the heading information on each sheet;
 The designer or project supervisor will check off each blank with their
initials (legible) when sure that each item is completed on the plans. N/A
may be used if an item is not required in a project;
 Before submitting plans for a field review, the checklist shall be completed
down to that particular stage of plans development; and
 These checklists are intended as a design aid.

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APPENDICES

Traffic Operations Division

Traffic Engineering Office

August 2018
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TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL

APPENDIX A

Traffic Impact Study Forms

Traffic Operations Division

Traffic Engineering Office

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Traffic Study Report Recommended Outline

 Title Page
 Table of Contents
 Executive Summary
 Introduction
• Figure with Study and Development Location
 Study Analysis Considerations
• Figure Showing Study Area Limits
 Existing Traffic Conditions
• Figures Showing Geometrics
• Figures Showing Peak Hour Traffic Volumes
• Figures Showing LOS Results
 Background Traffic Development and Growth Calculations
• Figures Showing Background Traffic Volumes (Optional)
 Future Traffic Conditions Without Project
• Figure Showing Future Traffic Volumes Without Development
• Figures Showing Los Results
 Site Traffic Conditions
• Table Presenting Trip Generation Methodology
• Figures Showing Trip Distribution and Assignment Methodology
 Future Traffic Conditions with Development
• Figures Showing Traffic Volumes with Development
• Figures Showing LOS Results
 Summary Of Findings
• Table Presenting the Comparison Results Between Future Traffic Results
• Table Presenting Mitigation Measures
 Recommendations
• Table Presenting Mitigation Methods with Percentage Responsibility
 Typical Appendices
• Appendix A - Traffic Study Screening Evaluation Form
• Appendix B - Traffic Study Scoping Meeting Minutes
• Appendix C - Existing Traffic Counts
• Appendix D - Proposed Development Support Information
• Appendix E - Multi-Way Stop Control Warrants Analyses (if Applicable)
• Appendix F - Traffic Signal Warrants Analyses (if Applicable)
• Appendix G - Other Traffic Analyses (if Applicable)
• Appendix H – Software Analysis Results

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TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL

APPENDIX B

Traffic Signal Forms

Traffic Operations Division

Traffic Engineering Office

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At Least 50% Volume Warrants Satisfied?

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TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL

APPENDIX C

Traffic Signal Installation

Inspection Forms

Traffic Operations Division

Traffic Engineering Office

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SHEET 1 OF 3

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SHEET 2 OF 3

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SHEET 3 OF 3

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SHEET 1 OF 2

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SHEET 2 OF 2

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TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL

APPENDIX D

Traffic Signal Maintenance Forms

Traffic Operations Division

Traffic Engineering Office

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SHEET 1 OF 3

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SHEET 2 OF 3

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SHEET 3 OF 3

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TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL

APPENDIX E

TDOT LED Specifications/

Roadway and Intersection
Lighting Forms

Traffic Operations Division

Traffic Engineering Office

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SECTION 714-10 [Excerpt] – TDOT HIGHWAY LIGHTING LED SPECIFICATIONS

714-10-B Light Emitting Diode (LED) Luminaires:
A. Description:
LED (Light Emitting Diode) is an evolving technology and can change very
rapidly in terms of luminous efficacy, color quality, optical design, thermal
management and cost. Light Emitting Diode (LED) luminaire consists of two
components: mechanical and the electrical. Additional materials (i.e. warranty) to
support the operation of the luminaire will be discussed in these pages.
1. Mechanical parts:
a. Housing: LED luminaire shall be furnished as a complete unit
manufactured according to ANSI C136.37-2011 (or recent version). All
luminaires shall utilized LED’s from well know and reputable LED
manufacturers. As part of the submittal package, the designer shall
supply all testing and data sheets for the proposed LED’s and these
should include-but not limited to- the following: Illuminating Engineering
Society of North America (IESNA): LM-79-08, LM-80-08, RP-8-00, TM-3-
95 and TM-15-07 (all should be up-to-date versions). LM-79-xx deals with
Electrical and Photometric Measurements of Solid-State Lighting
Products. LM-80-xx deals with Measuring Lumen Maintenance of LED
Light Sources.
1) All internal components shall be assembled and pre-wired using
modular electrical connections. Luminaires shall accept a designated
voltage range as specified in the plans and operate normally with an
input voltage that is within 10 percent of the specified voltage. The
luminaires must have a Calculated L70 life at a minimum range of not
less than 90,000 but can be more than 100,000 hours. All highway
luminaires must be equipped with a “Bird Spike” option to deter nesting
on the fixtures.
2) Finished surface: Furnish luminaires with the color mentioned in the
plans. The surface of luminaire housing shall meet UL-1598 listed for
wet locations, ASTM B117 for salt chamber exposure, and ASTM
D1654 for rust creepage.
3) Thermal Management: the luminaire shall start and operate in the
ambient temperature range of -40C to +40C.
4) Optical Assembly: The LED optical assembly-consisting of LED
packages-shall have a minimum Ingress Protection rating of IP 66
according to ANSI/IEC 60529. The luminaire shall have a standardized
refractor/reflector to meet the required optical distribution as required
by the plans. The optical assembly shall utilize high brightness, long
life, minimum 70 color rendering index (CRI), (3000 K-4000 K) color
temperature LEDs binned according to ANSI C78.377. Lenses shall be
UV-stabilized acrylic or glass. Provisions for house-side shielding shall
be provided when specified.

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5) Prevent the entrance of wildlife by limiting openings around the pipe

tenon mounting area.

2. Electrical Parts and Safety Testing:

a. Luminaires shall comply with an ANSI C136.41 with 7-pin receptacle that
is fully pre-wire for LED driver’s control. Furnish and install photo control
unit with the specified driver on each LED luminaire. Decorative, wall
mounted, and recessed luminaire may be exempted from these
requirements.
b. LED Driver Requirements: The driver shall meet the following
requirements:
1) Rated to operate in -40 degrees C to 40 degrees C ambient.
2) Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) to be less than 20 percent.
3) Have minimum power factor of 90 percent.
4) Comply with the FCC regulations in 47 CRF Part 15.
5) Rated for outdoor operations with a rating of IP66.
6) If a dimmable driver is requested then it shall be compatible with IEC
60929.
c. Surge Protection: If required per plans then it shall comply with FCC
regulations in 47 CFR Part 15, Subpart B for the emission of electronic
noise.
Documents for the materials submitted need a certification from a National
Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program (NVLAP) and that lab must be
recognized by the U.S. Department of Energy.

3. Warranty:
The entire luminaire and all of its component parts shall be covered by a 10
year written warranty. The warranty should cover materials, fixture finish,
and workmanship. Failure is when one or more of the following occur:
a. Negligible light output from more than 10 percent of the LED packages.
b. Condensed moisture inside the optical assembly.
c. Driver that continues to operate at a reduced output below 15% of the
rated nominal output.
The warranty period shall begin on the date of final acceptance of the lighting
work. The signed warranty certificate shall be submitted prior to final
payment.

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LIGHTING DESIGN CHECKLIST COVER PAGE

(FOR ALL LIGHTING PLANS SUBMITTALS)

COUNTY:

FEDERAL PROJECT NO.:

STATE PROJECT NO.:

STATE PROJECT IDENTIFICATION NO.:

ROUTE:

PROJECT DESCRIPTION:

DESIGNER:

TDOT DESIGN MANAGER:

PROJECTED TURN-IN DATE:

PROJECTED LETTING DATE:

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PHOTOMETRIC/PRELIMINARY LIGHTING PLANS CHECKLIST

PIN: SHEET 1 OF 1

DESIGNER:

A. LIGHTING CALCULATION SUBMITTALS

___Photometric input File ___Preliminary lighting design work file
___Photometric output file (results) ___GPK file
___Survey work file ___Tin File

B. PHOTOMETRIC DESIGN CALCULATIONS SHEET

Luminaire schedule table: Photometric criteria/design table:
___Legend, ___Quantity ___Avg, ___Max, ___Min
___Description, ___Catalogue ___Max:Min, ___Avg.:Min
___Number, ___Lamp wattage ___R value, ___Lavg, ___Lmin, ___Lmax
___IES file, ___Light loss factor ___LVmax, ___Lmax:Lmin, ___Lavg:Lmin
___Pole location table, ___Pole ___LVmax:Lavg, ___Zone symbol
___Numbers, ___Legend, ___Location ___Utility project number
___Mounting height, ___Tilt angle

C. LIGHTING LAYOUT SHEETS (FOR LARGE PROJECTS ONLY)

___Plans layout sheet with sheet ___Legend
number identified ___Utility project number
___North arrow and scale

D. PHOTOMETRIC LAYOUT SHEET

___North arrow and scale ___Legend
___Existing topography and existing ___Utilities (Existing)
___ROW dimensions ___Existing light poles to remain
___Location diagram or coordinates ___Existing light poles to be removed
for reference points ___Proposed light poles and numbers
___Reference points table ___Utility project number
___Property owner(s) ___Visual/AGi32 pole locations match
___Cross-drains proposed pole location in plans
___All side roads properly labeled ___Photometric calculation zone and
___Proposed horizontal alignment with zone symbol
curve data ___Utility project number
___Point by point photometric values

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UTILITY/RIGHT-OF-WAY LIGHTING PLANS CHECKLIST

PIN: SHEET 1 OF 2

DESIGNER:

A. TITLE SHEET
___Location map showing route to be ___Scale
improved, local roads, streams, ___Design traffic and design speed
railroads and towns ___Designer’s name
___County, state route and description ___Index of sheets (Utility)
(include log mile) ___Manager 1 name
___P.E. project number ___Equations and exclusions
___North arrow ___Type of work (Utility)
___Project location identified ___Project county identified on state
___Roadway, bridge, box bridge map
and project length ___Signatures in signature block

B. CONTROL CENTER DETAILS SHEET

___Preliminary wiring schematic for ___Preliminary pole mounted
each control center controller construction detail
___Preliminary breaker sizes ___Preliminary pad mounted controller
___Preliminary main breaker size construction detail
___Service voltage ___Proposed control center location
___Utility/R.O.W. project number and layout referenced

C. LIGHTING DETAILS SHEET

Pole schedule table: Wire/conduit schedule table:
___Pole number, ___Lamp type ___Wire number
___Wattage, ___Voltage, ___Cable number and size
___Number of heads, ___Conduit number and size
___Control center number ___Spare conduit
___Circuit number, ___Mounting height ___Utility/R.O.W. project number
station, ___Offset/side

D. LIGHTING LAYOUT SHEETS (FOR LARGE PROJECTS ONLY)

___North arrow and scale ___Utility list/owner
___Plans layout sheet with sheet ___Legend
number identified ___Utility/R.O.W. project number

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UTILITY/RIGHT-OF-WAY LIGHTING PLANS CHECKLIST

PIN: SHEET 2 OF 2

DESIGNER:

E. PRESENT AND PROPOSED LAYOUT SHEET

___North arrow and scale ___Utilities (Existing)

___Existing topography and existing ___Utility list/owner
___ROW dimensions ___Existing light poles to remain
___Location diagram or coordinates ___Existing light poles to be removed
for reference points ___Proposed light poles and numbers
___Reference points table ___Proposed lighting conduits and
___Property owner(s) numbers
___Cross-drains ___Control center
___All side roads properly labeled ___Proposed jack and bore
___Proposed horizontal alignment with ___Proposed power source
curve data ___Notes
___Breaks in proposed ROW flagged ___Utility/R.O.W. project number
___Legend

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CONSTRUCTION LIGHTING PLANS CHECKLIST

PIN: SHEET 1 OF 4

DESIGNER:

A. TITLE SHEET
___New title sheet for Construction ___Design traffic and Design speed
plans showing location map with ___Designer’s name
route to be improved, local roads, ___"See sheet no. 1A for index" added
streams, railroads, and towns to index area
___County, state route and description ___Manager 1 name
(include log mile) ___Equations and exclusions
___P.E. project number ___Type of work (construction)
___North arrow ___Project county identified on state
___Project location identified map
___Roadway, bridge, box bridge ___Signatures in signature block
and project length ___Adjacent construction projects
___Scale labeled

B. INDEX AND STANDARD DRAWINGS SHEET

___Title sheet ___Bore locations and geotechnical
___Roadway index sheets notes sheet (high mast only)
___Estimated roadway quantities sheet ___Bore log details (high mast only)
___General notes sheet ___Foundation details sheet (high
___Special notes sheet (high mast mast only)
only) ___Utility index, utility owner, and
___Control center details sheet utility sheets
___Lighting details sheet ___Standard roadway drawings
___Lighting layout sheet (for large drawing number, current revision
projects only) date and title from roadway design
___Present and proposed layout standards index for: traffic control
sheets appurtenances; erosion control
and landscaping
___Construction project number

C. ESTIMATED ROADWAY QUANTITIES SHEET

___Roadway quantity block with all ___Lighting quantities
items of construction to bid, ___Quantities on this sheet checked
including, ___Item numbers, ___ against other tabulation blocks
Description, ___Units, ___Quantity ___Quantities checked and item
___Footnotes and miscellaneous numbers agree with cost estimate
removal items form
___Sign quantities tabulation block ___Construction project number

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TDOT TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL – APPENDICES AUGUST 2018

CONSTRUCTION LIGHTING PLANS CHECKLIST

PIN: SHEET 2 OF 4

DESIGNER:

D. GENERAL NOTES SHEET

___Grading ___Lighting
___Utilities ___Special Notes
___Construction work zone & traffic ___Construction project number
control

E. SPECIAL NOTES SHEET (FOR HIGH MAST PROJECTS ONLY)

___Special notes (for high mast) ___Step down transformer size
___High mast service voltage (lowering device)
___Construction project number

F. CONTROL CENTER DETAILS SHEET

___Final wiring schematic for each ___Final pole mounted controller
control center construction detail
___Final breaker sizes ___Final pad mounted controller
___Final main breaker size construction detail
___Service voltage ___Proposed control center location
___Construction project number and layout referenced

G. LIGHTING DETAILS SHEET

Pole schedule table: Wire/conduit schedule table:
___Pole number, ___Lamp type ___Wire number
___Wattage, ___Number of heads ___Cable number and size
___Control center number ___Conduit number and size
___Circuit number, ___Mounting height ___Spare conduit
station, ___Offset/side ___Construction project number

H. SPECIAL LIGHTING DETAILS SHEET

___Details of non-standard TDOT ___Dimensions
lighting items ___Construction project number
___Notes

I. LIGHTING LAYOUT SHEETS (FOR LARGE PROJECTS ONLY)

___North arrow and scale ___Utility list/owner
___Plans layout sheet with sheet ___Legend
number identified ___Construction project number

E-9
TDOT TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL – APPENDICES AUGUST 2018

CONSTRUCTION LIGHTING PLANS CHECKLIST

PIN: SHEET 3 OF 4

DESIGNER:

J. PRESENT AND PROPOSED LAYOUT SHEET

___North arrow and scale ___Legend
___Existing topography and existing ___Utilities
___ROW dimensions ___Utility list/owner
___Location diagram or coordinates ___Existing light poles to remain
for reference points ___Existing light poles to be removed
___Reference points table ___Proposed light poles and numbers
___Property owner(s) ___Proposed lighting conduits and
___Cross-drains numbers
___All side roads properly labeled ___Proposed jack and bore
___Proposed horizontal alignment with ___Proposed power source
curve data ___Notes
___Breaks in proposed ROW flagged ___Construction project number

K. UNDERPASS LIGHTING DETAILS SHEET

___North arrow and scale ___Road side pull box
___Underpass/bridge labeled ___Pull box at top of bank
___Existing light poles to remain ___Electrical connection
___Existing light poles to be removed ___Utilities
___Proposed light poles and numbers ___Legend
___Proposed lighting conduits and ___Control center and number
numbers ___Proposed jack and bore
___Underpass lighting fixture and ___Proposed power source
number ___Notes
___Conduit size ___Construction project number
___Junction box size

L. BORE LOCATIONS AND GEOTECHNICAL NOTES (FOR HIGH MAST ONLY)

___North arrow and scale ___Legend
___Existing topography and existing ___Bore location and number
___ROW dimensions ___Geotechnical notes
___Location diagram or coordinates ___Geotechnical parameters
for reference points ___Construction project number
___Proposed horizontal alignment with
curve data

E - 10
TDOT TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL – APPENDICES AUGUST 2018

CONSTRUCTION LIGHTING PLANS CHECKLIST

PIN: SHEET 4 OF 4

DESIGNER:

M. BORE LOG DETAILS SHEET (FOR HIGH MAST ONLY)

___Bore log number ___Soil description
___Bore depth ___SPT N- value (standard
___Sample number penetration test)
___N-value (blow counts) ___Water levels
___Graphic Log ___Construction project number

N. FOUNDATION DETAILS SHEET (FOR HIGH MAST ONLY)

___Foundation details ___Foundation notes
___Foundation dimensions ___Materials description
___Design wind speed ___Construction project number

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TDOT TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL – APPENDICES AUGUST 2018

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TDOT TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL – APPENDICES AUGUST 2018

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL

APPENDIX F

Traffic Operations
Standard Drawings List
and Current Memorandums

Traffic Operations Division

Traffic Engineering Office

F-1
TDOT TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL – APPENDICES AUGUST 2018

TRAFFIC OPERATIONS STANDARD DRAWINGS LIST

Utility Poles/Fiber Optic Standard Drawings:

CURRENT/
DRAWING REVISION
NUMBER DATE DESCRIPTION

T-FO-1 07-29-04 FIBER OPTIC AERIAL ENTRANCE DETAILS

T-FO-2 07-29-04 FIBER OPTIC UNDERGROUND ENTRANCE

DETAILS

T-FO-3 07-29-04 FIBER OPTIC AERIAL CONNECTION

DETAILS

T-FO-4 07-29-04 FIBER OPTIC PULL BOX, CABINET & POLE

DETAILS

Roadway Lighting Standard Drawings:

CURRENT/
DRAWING REVISION
NUMBER DATE DESCRIPTION

T-L-1 12-04-13 STANDARD LIGHTING FOUNDATION

DETAILS

T-L-1SA 09-11-13 STANDARD LIGHTING DETAILS FOR

SINGLE ARM SUPPORTS

T-L-1TM 07-29-04 STANDARD LIGHTING DETAILS TENON

MOUNTED OFFSET LIGHTING SUPPORTS

T-L-2 12-04-13 FOUNDATION DETAIL FOR LUMINAIRE

MOUNTED ON A CONCRETE MEDIAN
BARRIER

T-L-3 04-15-96 STANDARD LIGHTING DETAILS PULL

BOXES

T-L-4 05-25-11 STANDARD LIGHTING DETAILS CONDUIT,

CABLE INSTALLATION

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TDOT TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL – APPENDICES AUGUST 2018

Railroad Crossings Standard Drawings:

CURRENT/
DRAWING REVISION
NUMBER DATE DESCRIPTION

T-RR-1 11-01-11 TYPICAL PAVEMENT MARKING AT

RAILROAD-HIGHWAY GRADE CROSSINGS
AND RAILROAD ADVANCE WARNING SIGN

T-RR-2 11-01-11 STANDARD DRAWING FOR RAILROAD AND

HIGHWAY CROSSING SIGNAL WITH GATE

T-RR-3 11-01-11 STANDARD DRAWING FOR RAILROAD-

HIGHWAY CROSSING SIGNAL

T-RR-4 11-01-11 STANDARD DRAWING FOR TYPICAL CURB

& GUTTER PLAN FOR RAILROAD-HIGHWAY
CROSSING WITH OR WITHOUT GATES

T-RR-5 11-01-11 STANDARD DRAWING FOR RAILROAD-

HIGHWAY CROSSING SIGNAL TYPICAL
CANTILEVER SIGN

T-RR-6 10-25-13 TYPICAL SIGNING AND MARKING AT

PASSIVE RAILROAD-HIGHWAY GRADE
CROSSINGS

Sign Standard Drawings:

CURRENT/
DRAWING REVISION
NUMBER DATE DESCRIPTION

T-S-6 02-12-91 STANDARD MOUNTING DETAILS- BOLTED

EXTRUDED PANELS

T-S-7 02-12-91 HIGHWAY SHIELDS USED ON INTERSTATE

AND U.S. NUMBERED ROUTES

T-S-8 07-15-91 HIGHWAY SHIELDS USED ON STATE

NUMBERED ROUTES AND ARROWS

T-S-9 06-10-14 STANDARD LAYOUT GROUND MOUNTED

SIGNS

F-3
TDOT TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL – APPENDICES AUGUST 2018

CURRENT/
DRAWING REVISION
NUMBER DATE DESCRIPTION

T-S-10 04-04-12 STANDARD MOUNTING DETAILS FLAT

SHEET SIGNS ALUMINUM-STEEL DESIGN

T-S-11 06-06-11 DELINEATOR AND MILEPOST DETAILS

T-S-12 07-10-17 STANDARD STEEL GROUND MOUNTED

SIGNS, BREAK-AWAY TYPE POST
FOOTING DETAILS, SQUARE TUBES

T-S-13 07-20-12 STANDARD STEEL GROUND MOUNTED

SIGNS, BREAK-AWAY TYPE POST
FOOTING DETAILS, I-BEAMS

T-S-14 08-17-12 STANDARD STEEL GROUND MOUNTED

SIGNS, BREAK-AWAY TYPE POST
FOOTING DETAILS, WF-BEAMS

T-S-15 12-07-90 STANDARD CONDUIT & GROUND DETAILS

FOR OVERHEAD & CANTILEVER SIGN
STRUCTURES

T-S-16 07-02-15 GROUND MOUNTED ROADSIDE SIGN AND

DETAILS

T-S-16A 07-02-15 GROUND MOUNTED ROADSIDE SIGN

PLACEMENT DETAILS

T-S-17 07-11-17 STANDARD GROUND MOUNTED SIGN

USING PERFORATED/KNOCKOUT SQUARE
TUBE

T-S-18 02-14-14 END OF ROADWAY AND DEAD END SIGNS,

METAL BARRICADES (TYPE III) & WORK
ZONE SPEED SIGNS

T-S-19 07-11-17 STANDARD STEEL SIGN SUPPORTS

T-S-20 07-11-17 SIGN DETAILS

T-S-21 07-02-15 DETAILS FOR SIGNS MOUNTED ON

CONCRETE MEDIAN BARRIERS

F-4
TDOT TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL – APPENDICES AUGUST 2018

CURRENT/
DRAWING REVISION
NUMBER DATE DESCRIPTION

T-S-22 09-12-13 SIGN LAYOUT FOR HOV LANES

T-S-23A 07-11-17 MULTI-DIRECTIONAL SLIP BASE

BREAKAWAY SQUARE TUBE SIGN
SUPPORT

T-S-23B 07-19-13 MULTI-DIRECTIONAL SLIP BASE

BREAKAWAY STRUCTURAL PIPE SIGN
SUPPORT

T-S-23C 07-02-15 BREAKAWAY U-POST SIGN SUPPORTS

T-S-24 08-02-13 DETAILS OF SIGN WITH SOLAR FLASHING

ASSEMBLY

Signal Standard Drawings:

CURRENT/
DRAWING REVISION
NUMBER DATE DESCRIPTION

T-SG-1 06-27-16 WOOD POLE DETAILS FOR SPAN

MOUNTED SIGNALS

T-SG-2 06-27-16 LOOP LEAD-INS, CONDUIT, AND PULL

BOXES

T-SG-3 07-11-17 STANDARD NOTES AND DETAILS OF

INDUCTIVE LOOPS

T-SG-3A 06-27-16 ALTERNATE DETECTION DETAILS

T-SG-4 06-27-16 SPAN WIRE AND MESSENGER CABLE

DETAILS

T-SG-5 06-27-16 CONTROLLER CABINET DETAILS

T-SG-6 06-27-16 PEDESTRIAN SIGNAL DETAILS

T-SG-7 07-11-17 SIGNAL HEAD ASSEMBLIES

F-5
TDOT TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL – APPENDICES AUGUST 2018

CURRENT/
DRAWING REVISION
NUMBER DATE DESCRIPTION

T-SG-7A 06-27-16 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

APPROACHES WITH NO THROUGH
MOVEMENTS

T-SG-7B 06-27-16 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

APPROACHES WITH NO THROUGH
MOVEMENTS

T-SG-7C 06-27-16 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

ONE-LANE AND TWO-LANE APPROACHES

T-SG-7D 06-27-16 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

TWO-LANE APPROACHES

T-SG-7E 06-27-16 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

THREE-LANE APPROACHES

T-SG-7F 07-11-17 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

THREE-LANE APPROACHES

T-SG-7G 06-27-16 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

THREE-LANE APPROACHES

T-SG-7H 06-27-16 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

THREE-LANE AND FOUR-LANE
APPROACHES

T-SG-7HH 07-13-17 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

FOUR-LANE APPROACHES

T-SG-7J 06-27-16 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

FOUR-LANE APPROACHES

T-SG-7K 06-27-16 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

FOUR-LANE APPROACHES

T-SG-7L 06-27-16 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

FOUR-LANE APPROACHES

T-SG-7M 06-27-16 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

FIVE-LANE APPROACHES

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TDOT TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL – APPENDICES AUGUST 2018

CURRENT/
DRAWING REVISION
NUMBER DATE DESCRIPTION

T-SG-7N 06-27-16 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

FIVE-LANE APPROACHES

T-SG-7NN 07-13-17 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

FIVE-LANE APPROACHES

T-SG-7P 06-27-16 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

FIVE-LANE APPROACHES

T-SG-7PP 07-13-17 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

FIVE-LANE APPROACHES

T-SG-7R 06-27-16 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

SIX-LANE APPROACHES

T-SG-7S 06-27-16 TYPICAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT:

SIX-LANE AND SEVEN-LANE APPROACHES

T-SG-8 06-27-16 STRAIN POLE DETAILS FOR SPAN

MOUNTED SIGNALS

T-SG-9 07-11-17 DETAILS OF CANTILEVER SIGNAL

SUPPORT

T-SG-9A 07-12-17 MISCELLANEOUS SIGNAL DETAILS

T-SG-10 07-11-17 MAST ARM POLE AND STRAIN POLES

FOUNDATION DETAILS

T-SG-11 07-12-17 MAINTENANCE OF EXISTING SIGNALS

DURING HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

T-SG-12 07-12-17 TYPICAL WIRING FOR SIGNAL HEADS AND

DETECTION LOOPS

T-SG-13 06-27-16 FLASHING BEACON DETAIL

F-7