UNIT 1

SOCIOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVES
Chapter 1
An Invitation to
Sociology
Chapter 2
Sociologists Doing
Research

Enrichment Readings
Chapter 1 – Peter L. Berger
“Invitation to Sociology,”
page 35
Chapter 2 – Donna Eder
“School Talk,”
page 66

3
CHAPTER 1
An Invitation to
Sociology

4
 U
S Your Sections
I Sociological
N Imagination 1. The Sociological
G Perspective
“Study shows juvenile delinquency
2. The Origins of Sociology
increases as church attendance decreases”
3. Theoretical Perspectives

I f you saw this headline in your local

paper, you might be tempted to think
“Well, duh . . . .” After all, applying a
little common sense to this topic would
probably lead you to draw exactly the same
conclusion. If you assumed, however, that
lower church attendance causes delinquency, Learning Objectives
you would be making a common mistake.
Research shows that delinquency increases
After reading this chapter, you will be able to
as church attendance decreases because of a
third factor—age. Older adolescents go to ❖ define sociology.
church less often and they are also more
likely than younger teens to be delinquents.
❖ describe two uses of the sociological
What may seem to be a relationship between perspective.
church attendance and delinquency is actu- ❖ distinguish sociology from other social
ally caused by a third factor—age—that sciences.
affects both of the other two factors. ❖ outline the contributions of the major
Questioning and researching assumptions
pioneers of sociology.
is an important aspect of sociology. By
learning to question conventional wisdom ❖ summarize the development of sociology
(what most people believe to be true) you in the United States.
will be in a better position to make deci- ❖ identify the three major theoretical per-
sions or judgments. Your decisions will be spectives in sociology today.
based on reality rather than on socially
accepted false beliefs. (This does not mean
that all conventional wisdom is false, of
course. But it is important to know that the
facts are accurate when policies affecting
people’s lives are being made.) Chapter Overview
Sociological research is relatively new. In Visit the Sociology and You Web site at
fact, sociology is the “infant of the social soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 1—
sciences.” You will see this as you become Chapter Overviews to preview chapter
acquainted with the founders of sociology. information.
Before turning to these pioneers, however,
you need an introduction to the unique
perspective of sociology.
5
6 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

Section
The Sociological Perspective
1 K e y

• perspective
• sociology
T e r m s

• social structure
• sociological imagination
• sociological perspective

Section The Nature of Sociology

Preview
A perspective is a particular point of view. Babies are usually brighter
and better looking to their parents than they are to others.

S ociology studies human

social behavior. It as-
sumes a group, rather than
Newlyweds nearly always find their spouses much more attractive than do
their friends. We all see what is happening around us through our own per-
spectives—our own points of view.
an individual, perspective. We normally do not realize how much of our attitudes and beliefs are de-
Sociologists look for the pat- termined by our perspectives. Sometimes, though, when our outlook is chal-
terns in social relationships. lenged, we may be jarred into realizing how much we take it for granted. As
you will see, sociology has its own perspective. To understand it, you must
Individuals can benefit by
have an idea of just what sociology is.
using their sociological imag-
inations to look at events in What is sociology? As a newcomer to the field, you may at first view
their personal lives. sociology as the study of human social behavior. As you go along, however,
you will acquire a more precise understanding of sociology as the scientific
study of social structure. (Social structure is discussed later in this section.)
What is unique about sociology? Sociology, as stated earlier, has its
own perspective. The sociological perspective never focuses on the indi-
perspective vidual. Psychologists may study the individual, but not sociologists. The view
a particular point of view through the lens of sociology always remains at the social, or group, level.

sociology
the scientific study of social
structure (human social
behavior)

sociological perspective
a view that looks at behavior
of groups, not individuals

These elephant tusks were burned to

discourage trade in ivory. Whether
you support this action depends
upon your beliefs about conservation
and national sovereignty.
 Chapter 1 An Invitation to Sociology 7

The Social Sciences

Social science is a branch of learning that deals with human society. It includes a number of disciplines, which
we generally refer to as the social sciences. These disciplines differ, but they share enough in common to over-
lap. Descriptions of the major social sciences are presented in this table.

Social Science Description Example

Sociology Sociology investigates human social behavior from a group rather than an Relationship between the employment of
individual perspective. It concentrates on patterns of social relationships, women and family size
primarily in modern societies.

Anthropology Anthropology investigates culture, the customary be- Nature of the family in preliterate
liefs and material traits of groups. It is the social sci- societies
ence most closely related to sociology. Anthropolo-
gists, however, concentrate on the study of preliterate
societies (societies that do not use writing). Sociolo-
gists focus on modern, industrial societies.

Psychology Psychology investigates human mental and emotional Effects of birth order on emotional
processes. While sociologists concentrate on the group, development
psychologists also study the development and function-
ing of the individual.

Economics Economics is the study of the production, distribution, and consumption of Annual income levels of American
goods and services. families

Political science Political science investigates the

organization, administration, his- Relationship between a family's social
tory, and theory of government. class and voting behavior
Political scientists are con-
cerned, for example, with voting
patterns and participation in po-
litical parties.

History History examines past events in human Nature of family life in colonial
societies. Historians generally rely on society
newspapers, historical documents, and
oral histories as sources of information.
8 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

Industrial Revolution

American Revolution

George Washington Herbert Spencer publishes

is president Social Statics
1850

French Revolution
Charles Darwin publishes
Louisiana Purchase On the Origin of Species
1803 1859
Francis Lowell’s
company opens
1814
Indian Removal Act
1830

Harriet Martineau publishes

Society in America
1837

Auguste Comte begins publishing

Time Line of Positive Philosophy, which identifies
science of sociology
1830
Early Sociologists Karl Marx publishes
The Communist Manifesto,
promoting a classless society
1848

1770 1780 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860

Sociologists do not focus on the behavior of individuals but on the pat-

terns of behavior shared by members of a group or society.
The person on the street might explain human behavior in
individualistic or personal terms—a young man joins a gang
to prove his toughness; a woman divorces her husband to
develop her potential; a teen commits suicide to escape
depression.
Sociologists attempt to explain these same events with-
out relying on personal factors. They look for social rather
than personal explanations when they examine delinquency,
divorce, or suicide. Sociologists might explain the events
in the following ways:
❖ Young men join gangs because they have been
taught by their society to be “masculine.”
❖ More women divorce because of the social trend
toward sexual equality.
❖ Teens commit suicide because of peer group
expectations of performance, material possessions, and
physical appearance.
Sociologists do not speak of a young man, a married
woman, or a teenager. They concentrate on categories of
Joining a gang provides some young people—young men, married women, and teenagers.
men—and women— with a sense of
security and belonging they haven’t
found elsewhere.
 Chapter 1 An Invitation to Sociology 9

Industrial Revolution World War I Worldwide depression

Lincoln issues the World War II

W.E.B. Du Bois publishes
Emancipation Proclamation The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study
1863 1899
U.S. population passes 40 million First U.S. scenic highway opens
1871 Max Weber publishes 1923
The Protestant Ethic
Alexander G. Bell patents telephone and the Spirit of Capitalism
1876 1904
Mickey Mouse is “born”
Haymarket Square Riot 1928
1886

Jane Addams awarded

Nobel Peace Prize
George Eastman Model T Ford mass produced 1931
introduces Kodak 1909
box camera
1888

Titanic sinks
First department of 1912
sociology is established
at the University of Chicago
1892 19th Amendment gives
women the right to vote in U.S.
1920
Emile Durkheim
publishes Suicide
1897

1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950

This time line shows when important

The Importance of Patterns developments in sociology occurred
in relation to well-known events in
As you well know, high school students in a classroom behave in differ-
American history. Entries marked
ent ways. Some students listen to everything their teacher says. Some tune in with a blue dot indicate important
and out, and others spend much of the time daydreaming. Yet, if you visit sociology landmarks (The sociolo-
almost any high school, you will find patterned relationships. Teachers walk gists on this time line are discussed
around the room, work with students, lecture, and give tests. Students follow in the next sections of this chapter.)
the teacher’s lesson plan, make notes, and take tests. Although the personal How might the development of the
characteristics of students and teachers may vary from school to school, stu- box camera in 1888 have influ-
dents and teachers relate in similar patterned ways. It is the patterned inter- enced the growth of sociology as a
action of people in social relationships—what sociologists call social field of study?
structure—that captures the attention of sociologists.
How do group behavior and individual behavior differ? Sociologists
assume that social relationships are not determined by the particular charac- social structure
teristics of the individuals involved. Emile Durkheim, a pioneering nineteenth- the patterned interaction of
century sociologist, helped develop the sociological perspective. He argued, people in social relationships
for example, that we do not attempt to explain bronze in terms of its sepa-
rate parts (lead, copper, and tin). Instead, we consider bronze a
totally new metal created by the combination of several other metals. We can-
not even predict the characteristics of bronze from the traits of its parts. For
example, bronze is hard, while lead, copper, and tin are soft and pliable. The
mixing of the individual parts creates a new whole with new characteristics.
Durkheim reasoned that a similar process happens with groups of people.
Indeed, people’s behavior within a group setting cannot be predicted from
their personal characteristics. Something new is created when individuals
10 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

come together. For example, in 1999 the Denver Broncos won the Super Bowl
championship. Following the game, a few otherwise law-abiding Bronco fans,
as a group, disrupted the peace and challenged the police in ways they would
not have done as individuals.
Student Web Activity Tragedy, as well as joy, can change group behavior. The intense rivalry be-
Visit the Sociology and tween the Texas A&M Aggies and the University of Texas Longhorns was ban-
You Web site at ished the year twelve Aggie students died while preparing for the traditional
soc.glencoe.com and click on football pregame bonfire. During the halftime, the Longhorn band played the
Chapter 1—Student Web song “Amazing Grace” and taps, and saluted the victims and their families by re-
Activities for an activity on moving their hats. At a joint Aggie-Longhorn candlelight vigil two nights before
social patterns. the football game, the A&M student body president said that the communal shar-
ing of the grief changed the relationship between the two schools forever.
Why do people conform? Groups range in size from a family to an en-
tire society. Regardless of size, all groups encourage conformity. We will
study conformity in more detail later. For now, you need to know only that
members of a group think, feel, and behave in similar ways. For example,
Americans, Russians, and Nigerians have eating habits, dress, religious be-
liefs, and attitudes toward family life that reflect their group.

Another A Native

Time American’s
Speech
Virginia colonists had offered to “properly edu- We are however
cate” some young Indian boys at the College of not the less obligated
William and Mary in Williamsburg.To the surprise by your kind offer,
of the colonists, the benefits of a white gentle- though we decline
man’s education were not highly valued by the
accepting it; and, to
tribal elders. Below is a Native American’s reply to
the white men’s offer.
show our grateful
sense of it, if the gen-
tlemen of Virginia will
W e know that you highly esteem the kind
of learning taught in . . . [your] colleges.
. . . But you, who are wise, must know that dif-
send us a dozen of their sons, we will take care of
their education, instruct them in all we know, and
ferent nations have different conceptions of make men of them.
things; and you will not therefore take it amiss, if
our ideas of this kind of education happen not to Thinking It Over
be the same with yours. We have had some expe-
1. Describe your reaction to this passage. What
rience of it; several of our young people were for-
does it tell you about the importance of per-
merly brought up at the colleges of the northern
spective in interpreting the social world?
provinces; they were instructed in all your sci-
ences; but, when they came back to us, they were 2. Describe a social encounter where you per-
bad runners, ignorant of every means of living in sonally experienced a “clash of perspectives”
the woods, unable to bear either cold or hunger, with someone from another culture.
knew neither how to build a cabin, take a deer, 3. Do you think your education is preparing
nor kill an enemy, spoke our language imper- you to succeed in the world outside school?
fectly, were therefore neither fit for hunters, war-
riors, nor councellors; they were totally good for
nothing.
 Chapter 1 An Invitation to Sociology 11
Conformity within a group occurs, in part, because
members have been taught to value the group’s ways.
Members generally tend to conform even when their
personal preferences are not the same as the group’s.
Some teens, for example, start smoking only to gain
group acceptance.
Behavior within a group cannot be predicted
simply from knowledge about its individual
members. This could be because members truly
value their group’s ways or because they give in
to social pressures. Like bronze, the group is
more than the sum of its parts.

Acquiring the Sociological

Imagination
The sociological perspective enables us to
develop a sociological imagination. That is,
knowing how social forces affect our lives can
prevent us from being prisoners of those
forces. C. Wright Mills (1959), an American
sociologist, called this personal use of soci-
ology the sociological imagination—the
ability of individuals to see the relation-
ship between events in their personal lives
and events in their society.
What is gained by using our sociological imagination? People do To the outsider, these teenagers seem
to be dressed alike. How does this
not make decisions, big or small, in isolation. Historically, for example,
photo show that a group is more
American society has shown a strong bias against childless and one-child than the sum of its parts?
marriages. Couples without children have been considered selfish, and an
only child has often been labeled “spoiled” (Benokraitis, 1999). These values
date back to a time when large families were needed for survival. Most peo-
ple lived on family farms, where children were needed to help with the
work. Furthermore, many children died at birth or in infancy. People re- sociological imagination
sponded to society’s needs by having large families. Now, as the need for the ability to see the link
large families is disappearing, we are beginning to read about benefits of between society and self
one-child families—to the child, to the family, and to society. This change in
attitude is reflected in the decrease in family size.
The sociological imagination helps us understand the effects of events,
such as the social pressures just discussed, on our daily lives. With this un-
derstanding, we are in a better position to make our own decisions rather
than merely conform (Erikson, 1997; Game and Metcalfe, 1996).
This social awareness permits us to read the newspaper with a fuller un-
derstanding of the events. Instead of interpreting a letter opposing welfare as
an expression of someone with no compassion, we might instead see the
writer as a person who places great importance on independence and self-
help. The sociological imagination questions common interpretations of
human social behavior. It challenges conventional social wisdom—ideas peo-
ple assume are true.
12 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

Sociology Job Opportunities

Today in Sociology
In general, all employers are interested in four types of skills regardless of what specific career
path you choose. These skills are:

❖ the ability to work with others ❖ the ability to solve problems

❖ the ability to write and speak well ❖ the ability to analyze information

Because computers have revolutionized the office, for example, information analysis skills are be-
coming much more important to managers in all types of organizations. The increasing complexity of
work demands greater critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Knowledge is of limited use if you
can’t convey what you know to others.
The study of sociology helps students to develop these general skills, so it is a solid base for
many career paths. For sociology majors, the following list of possibilities is only the beginning—
many other paths are open to you.
❖ Social services—in rehabilitation, case management, group work with youth or the elderly,
recreation, or administration
❖ Community work—in fund-raising for social service organizations, nonprofits, child-care or
community development agencies, or environmental groups
❖ Corrections—in probation, parole, or other criminal justice work
❖ Business—in advertising, marketing and consumer research, insurance, real estate, personnel
work, training, or sales
❖ College settings—in admissions, alumni relations, or placement offices
❖ Health services—in family planning, substance abuse, rehabilitation counseling, health
planning, hospital admissions, and insurance companies
❖ Publishing, journalism, and public relations—in writing, research, and editing
❖ Government services—in federal, state, and local government jobs in such areas as
transportation, housing, agriculture, and labor
❖ Teaching—in elementary and secondary schools, in conjunction with appropriate teacher
certification; also in universities, with research opportunities.

Doing Sociology
1. Which of the above career paths is most interesting to you? What is it about this area that you
find interesting?
2. Evaluate your current strengths and weaknesses in the four primary skill areas.
3. Look at the employment opportunities in the Sunday edition of your local paper. Clip out ads for
jobs that you might qualify for with a sociology degree.
Adapted from Careers in Sociology, 4th ed., American Sociological Association, 1995.
 Chapter 1 An Invitation to Sociology 13

Illiteracy Rates
One of the assumptions of conventional
wisdom is that nearly all American adults
know how to read and write. Research
has shown, however, that a large per-
Percentage of Americans Over
centage of adults are illiterate. Literacy is 20 Who Are Illiterate
defined as the ability to read at a fourth- > 15%
grade level. This map shows, by state, > 13%
the percentage of Americans over twenty > 11%
> 9%
years old who are illiterate. ≤ 9%

Interpreting the Map

1. List the states with highest and lowest literacy rates.
2. How does your state rate on literacy?
3. What might be some reasons for adult illiteracy?

Adapted from Doug Henwood. The State of the U.S.A. Atlas.

Section 1 Assessment
1. Define sociology.
2. Explain the significance of patterns for sociologists.
“It is doubtless impossible
to approach any human
problem with a mind free
3. Give an example from your life that illustrates conformity within a
group. of bias.
4. How does the sociological imagination help people to understand the Simone de Beauvoir
effects of society on their personal lives?

Critical Thinking
“
feminist author

5. Making Comparisons Examine the idea of perspectives by

identifying an issue that you look at in one way and your parent(s) or
other adults look at in a different way. Write about the issue from both
perspectives.
14 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

Section
The Origins of Sociology
2 K e y

•
•
T e r m s

positivism
social statics
•
•
class conflict
mechanical solidarity
• social dynamics • organic solidarity
• bourgeoisie • verstehen
• capitalist • rationalization
• proletariat

Section European Origins

Preview
S ociology is a relatively new science. It began in late nineteenth-century
Europe during a time of great social upheaval. The social and eco-

S ociology is a young sci-

ence. It started with the
writings of European scholars
nomic effects of the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution were
touching all aspects of life. People were moving from farms to factory life,
losing a sense of community.
like Auguste Comte, Harriet Some intellectuals were fascinated and troubled by the sudden changes.
Martineau, Herbert Spencer, Auguste Comte, Harriet Martineau, and others began to
Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, grapple with ideas for bringing back a sense of com-
and Max Weber. Jane munity and for restoring order. These ideas led to
Addams and W.E.B. DuBois the rise of the science of sociology. Examining the
helped to focus America’s at- central ideas of the major pioneers of sociology
will help you better understand what sociology is
tention on social issues. After
today.
World War II, America took
the lead in developing the What were Auguste Comte’s major ideas?
field of sociology. Auguste Comte (1798–1857), a Frenchman, is
recognized as the father of sociology. As a child
he was often ill, but he proved early to be an ex-
cellent student. He had difficulty balancing his
genuine interest in school and his rebellious and
stubborn nature. In fact, he was expelled for
protesting against the examination procedures at the
positivism elite Ecole Polytechnique.
the belief that knowledge As an adult, Comte’s main concern was the Auguste Comte is considered to be
should be derived from improvement of society. If societies were to ad- the founder of sociology. He was
scientific observation vance, Comte believed, social behavior had to be the first to advocate the scientific
studied scientifically. Because no science of soci- study of society.
social statics
ety existed, Comte attempted to create one him-
the study of social stability self. He coined the term sociology to describe this science.
and order Comte wanted to use scientific observation in the study of social behav-
ior. He called this positivism. He meant that sociology should be a science
based on knowledge of which we can be “positive,” or sure. Comte also dis-
social dynamics tinguished between social statics, the study of social stability and order, and
the study of social change social dynamics, the study of social change. This distinction between social
stability and social change remains at the center of modern sociology.
 Chapter 1 An Invitation to Sociology 15
Comte published his theories in a book titled Positive Philosophy, but he
died before people generally came to appreciate his work. His belief that so-

“
ciology could use scientific procedures and promote social progress, how-
ever, was widely adopted by other European scholars.

What were Harriet Martineau’s contributions? An unexamined idea, to

Harriet Martineau (1802–1876), an Englishwoman, is an-
other important figure in the founding of sociology. paraphrase Socrates, is
She was born into a solidly middle-class home. not worth having.
Never in good health, Martineau had lost her
sense of taste, smell, and hearing before reach- Mark Van Doren
ing adulthood. Her writing career, which in-
cluded fiction as well as sociological work,
began in 1825 after the Martineau’s family textile
“
American poet

mill was lost to a business depression. Without

the family income, and following a broken en-
gagement, Martineau was forced to seek a de-
pendable source of income to support herself.
She became a popular writer of celebrity status,
whose work initially outsold Charles Dickens’s.
Martineau is best known today for her transla-
Harriet Martineau emphasized tion of Comte’s great book. Her English transla-
sociology as a science and
tion remains even today the most readable one.
introduced feminism. Her
Despite being severely hearing impaired, she also
profound deafness prevented her
earning a living as a teacher so made original contributions in the areas of re-
she became an author. search methods, political economy, and feminist
theory.
In Society in America, Martineau established
herself as a pioneering feminist theorist. Because she saw a link between
slavery and the oppression of women, she was a strong and outspoken sup-
porter of the emancipation of both women and slaves. Martineau believed
women’s lack of economic power helped keep them dependent. By
writing about the inferior position of women in society, she helped
inspire future feminist theorists.
Why did Herbert Spencer oppose social reform? Herbert
Spencer (1820–1903), the sole survivor of nine children, was
born to an English schoolteacher. Spencer was taught exclu-
sively by his father and uncle, mostly in mathematics and the
natural sciences. He did not enjoy scholarly work or the study
of Latin, Greek, English, or history, and therefore he decided
not to apply to Cambridge University, his uncle’s alma mater.
As a result, his higher education was largely the result of his
own reading. Spencer’s career became a mixture of engineering,
drafting, inventing, journalism, and writing.
To explain social stability, Herbert Spencer compared society
to the human body. He explained that, like a body, a society is
Herbert Spencer was an early
composed of parts working together to promote its well-being proponent of Social Darwinism
and survival. People have brains, stomachs, nervous systems, and evolutionary social change.
limbs. Societies have economies, religions, governments, fami-
lies. Just as the eyes and the heart make essential contributions
to the functioning of the human body, religious and educational institutions
are crucial for a society’s functioning.
16 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

Spencer also introduced a theory of social change called Social Darwinism,

based on Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. Spencer thought that evolu-
tionary social change led to progress—provided people did not interfere. If left
alone, natural social selection would ensure the survival of the fittest society.
On these grounds, Spencer opposed social reform because it interfered with
the selection process. The poor, he wrote, deserve to be poor and the rich to
be rich. Society profits from allowing individuals to find their own social-class
level without outside help or hindrance. To interfere with the existence of
poverty—or the result of any other natural process—is harmful to society.
When Spencer visited America in 1882, he was warmly greeted, particularly
by corporate leaders. After all, his ideas provided moral justification for their
competitive actions. Later, public support for government intervention in-
creased, and Spencer’s ideas began to slip out of fashion. He
reportedly died with a sense of having failed. His contri-
bution in sociology was a discussion of how societies
should be structured.
Who was Karl Marx? Karl Marx (1818–
1883), a German scholar, did not consider him-
self a sociologist, but his ideas have had a major
effect on the field. Marx felt great concern for
the poverty and inequality suffered by the work-
ing class of his day. His life was guided by the
bourgeoisie principle that social scientists should try to
class owning the means for change the world rather than merely study it.
producing wealth Marx’s friend and coauthor Friedrich Engels
helped put his ideas into writing.
Marx identified several social classes in nine-
teenth-century industrial society. Among them were Karl Marx was the social scientist
capitalist
farmers, servants, factory workers, craftspeople, who underscored the importance
person who owns or controls
the means for producing
owners of small businesses, and moneyed capital- of conflict in social change. Parts
of his writings were later used as a
wealth ists. He predicted that at some point all industrial basis for communism.
societies would contain only two social classes: the
bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The bourgeoisie
(burzh-wa-zee) are those who own the means for producing wealth in industrial
proletariat
society (for example, factories and equipment). The means for producing wealth
working class; those who
labor for the bourgeoisie
are called capital. Thus, those who own them are also called capitalists. The
proletariat work for the bourgeoisie and are paid just enough to stay alive.
For Marx, the key to the unfolding of history was class conflict—a clash
between the bourgeoisie, who controlled the means for producing wealth,
class conflict and the proletariat, who labored for them. Just as slaves overthrew slave
the ongoing struggle owners, wage workers would overtake capitalists. Out of this conflict would
between the bourgeoisie
come a classless (communistic) society—one in which there would be no
(owners) and the proletariat
(working) classes
powerless proletariat.
Planned revolution, Marx was convinced, could speed up the change
from capitalism to communism. His political objective was to explain the
workings of capitalism in order to hasten its fall through revolution. He be-
lieved, though, that capitalism would eventually self-destruct anyway.
What were Emile Durkheim’s greatest contributions? Emile
Durkheim (1858–1917) was the son of a French rabbi. Durkheim was a bril-
liant student even during his early school years. In college, he was so intensely
studious that his schoolmates nicknamed him “the metaphysician.”
 Chapter 1 An Invitation to Sociology 17
According to Durkheim, society exists because of broad consensus,
or agreement, among members of a society. In preindustrial times,
societies were based on what sociologists call mechanical
solidarity. With these societies, there was widespread consensus
of values and beliefs, strong social pressures for conformity, and
dependence on tradition and family. In contrast, industrial soci-
eties are based on organic solidarity—social interdependency
based on a web of highly specialized roles. These specialized
roles make members of a society dependent on one another
for goods and services. For example, instead of being self-
sufficient, people need bankers and bankers need customers.
Although early sociologists emphasized the need to make so-
ciology scientific, they did not have the research tools that are
available today. Later sociologists developed the methods to re-
place speculation with observation, to collect and classify data, Emile Durkheim was the first
and to use data for testing social theories. sociologist to use statistical methods
Durkheim was the most prominent of these later sociologists. in the study of human groups. He
He first introduced the use of statistical techniques in his ground- was also the first to teach a
university sociology course.
breaking research on suicide, which we will discuss in Chapter 2.
In that study, Durkheim demonstrated that suicide involves more
than individuals acting alone and that suicide rates vary ac-
cording to group characteristics. Durkheim showed that mechanical solidarity
human social behavior must be explained by social fac- social dependency based
tors rather than psychological ones. on a widespread consensus of
values and beliefs, enforced
Who was Max Weber? Max Weber (1864–1920) conformity, and dependence
was the eldest son of a father who was a well-to-do on tradition and family
German lawyer and politician. His mother, in stark
contrast, was a strongly devout Calvinist who re-
jected the worldly lifestyle of her husband. Weber organic solidarity
was affected psychologically by the conflicting val- social interdependency based
ues of his parents. Weber eventually suffered a on a high degree of
complete mental breakdown from which he recov- specialization in roles
ered to do some of his best work. As a university
professor trained in law and economics, Weber wrote
on a wide variety of topics, including the nature of
Max Weber’s model of a power, the religions of the world, the nature of so-
bureaucracy reflected greatly cial classes, and the development and nature of bu-
increased efficiency in business reaucracy. His most famous book is The Protestant
and government. Today, however, Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, published in 1906.
bureaucratic is often used as a
Through the quality of his work and the diver-
synonym for unimaginative,
plodding, or despotic.
sity of his interests, Weber has had the single most
important influence on the development of socio- verstehen
logical theory. Human beings act on the basis of their own understanding of understanding social behavior
a situation, Weber said. Thus, sociologists must discover the personal mean- by putting yourself in the
ings, values, beliefs, and attitudes underlying human social behavior. Weber place of others
believed that an understanding of the personal intentions of people in groups
can be best accomplished through the method of verstehen—understand-
ing the social behavior of others by putting yourself mentally in their places.
rationalization
Putting yourself in someone else’s “shoes” allows you to temporarily shed the mind-set emphasizing
your values and see things from a different point of view. knowledge, reason, and
Weber also identified rationalization as a key influence in the change planning
from a preindustrial to an industrial society. Rationalization is the mind-set
18 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives
that emphasizes the use of knowledge, reason, and planning. It marked a
change from the tradition, emotion, and superstition of preindustrial society.
For example, agriculture became grounded in science rather than belief in
luck, fate, or magic. In stressing rationality and objectivity, Weber pioneered
research techniques that helped prevent personal biases from unduly affecting
the results of sociological investigations.

Sociology in America

“
What is not good for
the hive is not good for
Although the early development of sociology occurred in Europe, the great-
est development of sociology has taken place in the United States. Because
sociology has become a science largely through the efforts of American sociol-
ogists, it is not surprising that the majority of all sociologists are from the United
States. Sociological writings in English are used by sociologists throughout the
the bee. world, reflecting the global influence of American sociologists.
In 1892, the first department of sociology was established at the University
Marcus Aurelius
“
Roman emperor
of Chicago. From its founding up to World War II, the sociology department
at the University of Chicago stood at the forefront of American sociology.
After World War II, sociology departments at eastern universities such as
Harvard and Columbia, midwestern universities such as Wisconsin and
Michigan, and western universities such as Stanford and the University of
California at Berkeley emerged as leaders.
In later chapters we will be studying the works of major American soci-
ologists. Two early contributors, however, who are often left out of the his-
tory of American sociology are Jane Addams and W.E.B. DuBois. Although

Everyone manages his or her behavior to create a

desired impression. What face have you put on
today?
 Chapter 1 An Invitation to Sociology 19

Jane Addams was a social

reformer who spent her life
working on the social problems
created by the imbalance of power
among social classes.

neither of these remarkable people were researchers or scientists, both were

greatly concerned with social problems in America.
Why should we remember Jane Addams? The best known of the
early women social reformers in the United States was Jane Addams
(1860–1935). Although her mother died when she was two years old,
Addams’s wealthy father provided a loving and comfortable home for her and
her eight brothers and sisters. Addams was an excellent student. Her early ed-
ucation emphasized practical knowledge and the improvement of “the orga-
nizations of human society.” She attended the Women’s Medical College of
Philadelphia but was compelled to drop out of the school because of illness.
When she was a child, Addams saw many examples of government cor-
ruption and business practices that harmed workers. She never forgot their
suffering. While on one of her European trips, she saw the work being done
to help the poor in London. With this example of social action, Addams
began her life’s work seeking social justice. She co-founded Hull House in
Chicago’s slums. Here, people who needed refuge—immigrants, the sick, the
poor, the aged—could find help.
Addams focused on the problems caused by the imbalance of power
among the social classes. She invited sociologists from the University of
Chicago to Hull House to witness firsthand the effects of industrialism on the
lower class. In addition to her work with the underclass, Addams was active
in the woman suffrage and peace movements. As a result of her tireless work
for social reform, Addams was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931—the
only sociologist to receive this honor. The irony is that Addams herself suf-
fered a sort of class discrimination. She was not considered a sociologist dur-
ing her lifetime because she did not teach at a university. She was considered
a social worker (then considered a less prestigious career) because she was
a woman and because she worked directly with the poor.
20 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

Secondary Analysis:
The McDonaldization of
Higher Education
Research is to sociology what lab experiments are to chemists.
Through the research process sociologists gather information, or data,
to help them understand how people behave in social settings. (In the
next chapter, you will learn more about how sociologists do research.)
The research project described below will give you some idea of how
sociologists use already-collected data to study human social behavior.
In this study, George Ritzer investigated how Max Weber’s process
According to George Ritzer, of rationalization (see pages 17–18) is being used by a popular fast-
universities share some of food company. Like Weber, Ritzer was interested in the movement of
the organizational organizations toward ever-increasing efficiency, predictability, calcula-
characteristics of popular bility, and control. After explaining each of these characteristics, Ritzer
fast-food restaurants. applies rationalization to the field of education in what he calls the
“McDonaldization” of higher education.
Efficiency refers to the relationship between
effort and result. An organization is
most efficient when the maxi-
mum results are achieved with
minimum effort. For example,
fast-food restaurants are effi-
cient in part because they
transfer work usually done by
employees to customers. For
example, self-service drink
centers allow customers to
get refills on drinks while dis-
guising the fact they are waiting on
themselves. Calculability involves estima-
tion based on probabilities. High calculabil-
ity exists when the output, cost, and effort
associated with products can be pre-
dicted. A McDonald’s manager trains
employees to make each Big Mac
within a rigid time limit. Predictabilty
pertains to consistency of results.
Predictability exists when products turn
out as planned. Big Macs are the same
everywhere. Control is increased by re-
 Chapter 1 An Invitation to Sociology 21
placing human activity with technology. McDonald’s drink machines stop
after a cup has been filled to its prescribed limit.
Because Ritzer believes that McDonald’s restaurants reflect the ra-
tionalization process, he refers to the “McDonaldization” of society
(1998). His sources of information include newspapers, books, maga-
zines, and industry publications. Since many of you are now thinking
about attending college, Ritzer’s findings on the “McUniversity” should
be of interest.
Increasingly, students and parents view a college degree as a ne-
cessity to compete successfully in the job market. “Shopping” for the
right college requires many of the consumer skills used in making any
major purchase. This consumer orientation, Ritzer asserts, can be seen
on most college campuses in the United States. For example, students
want education to be conveniently located and they want it open as
long as possible each day. They seek inexpensive parking, efficient ser-
vice, and short waiting lines. Students want high-quality service at the
lowest cost. A “best buy” label in national academic rankings catches
the attention of parents and students.
Public colleges and universities, Ritzer contends, are responding to
this consumer orientation. They are doing so in part because govern-
ment funding for higher education is becoming more scarce. To meet
reduced funding, colleges and universities are cutting costs and paying
more attention to “customers.” For example, Ritzer points to student
unions. Many of them are being transformed into mini-malls with fast-
food restaurants, video games, and ATMs.
Ritzer predicts that a far-reaching, customer-oriented tactic will be
to “McDonaldize” through new technology. The “McUniversity” will still
have a central campus, but it will also have convenient satellite loca-
tions in community colleges, high schools, businesses, and malls. Working with
“Students will ‘drop by’ for a course or two. Parking lots will be adja-
cent to McUniversity’s satellites (as they are to fast-food restaurants) to the Research
make access easy” (Ritzer, 1998: 156). 1. Do you think the bene-
McDonaldization, Ritzer contends, will dehumanize the process of fits of the
education. Most instructors at satellites will be part-timers hired to teach “McUniversity” out-
one or more courses. They will come and go quickly, so students will weigh the disadvan-
not have the opportunity to form relationships as with more permanent tages? Why or why not?
faculty members. In order to make the courses alike from satellite to
2. What other industries or
satellite, course content, requirements, and materials will be highly
professions are being
standardized, losing the flavor individual professors bring to their
affected by
classes. Students will not be able to choose a particular instructor for a
McDonaldization? Give
course because there will be only one per satellite. Often, there may
examples.
be no teacher physically present at all. More courses will be delivered
by professors televised from distant places.
In spite of these predictions, colleges and universities will not be a
chain of fast-food restaurants or a shopping mall, Ritzer concludes.
Institutions of higher education will retain many traditional aspects, but
there will undoubtedly be a significant degree of McDonaldization.
22 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

DuBois used science and sociology

to disprove racist assumptions about
African Americans.

What were the contributions of W.E.B. DuBois? W.E.B.

DuBois (1868–1963), an African American educator and social ac-
tivist, also influenced the early development of sociology in the
United States. DuBois attended an integrated high school in
W.E.B. DuBois focused on the
question of race inside and outside
Great Barrington, Massachusetts, and was the first black to re-
the United States. ceive a diploma there. He earned a doctorate degree from
Harvard University in 1895 and taught at a number of predomi-
nantly black universities during his career.
DuBois learned firsthand about racial discrimination and segregation
when he attended Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee, as an undergrad-
uate student. Partly from this experience, and from teaching in rural, all-black
schools around Nashville, DuBois decided to attack the “Negro problem.”
This racist policy was based on the assumption that blacks were an inferior
race. DuBois analyzed the sophisticated social structure of black communi-
ties, first in Philadelphia and later in many other places.
DuBois’s concern for his race did not stop at the borders of the United
States—he was also active in the Pan African movement, which was concerned
with the rights of all African descendants, no matter where they lived. While
documenting the experience and contributions of African people throughout the
world, DuBois died in the African country of Ghana, at the age of ninety-five.

Section 2 Assessment
1. Define the term positivism.
2. Name and explain the theory of social change proposed by Herbert
Spencer.
3. Give an example to illustrate Emile Durkheim’s idea of organic solidarity.

Critical Thinking
4. Evaluating Information Max Weber introduced the concept of
verstehen. How would you use this approach to social research if you
wanted to investigate the importance of money to your peers? Explain.
 Chapter 1 An Invitation to Sociology 23

Section
Theoretical Perspectives
3 K e y

•
T e r m s

theoretical perspective • conflict perspective

• functionalism • power
• manifest functions • symbol
• latent functions • symbolic interactionism
• dysfunction • dramaturgy

The Role of Theoretical Perspectives Section

Preview
P erception is the way the brain interprets an image or event. Similarly,
perspective is the way you interpret the meaning of an image or
event. Your perspective is influenced by beliefs or values you hold. It draws
your attention to some things and blinds you to others. This is demonstrated S ociology includes three
major theoretical per-
spectives. Functionalism
in two drawings psychologists often use to illustrate the concept of percep-
tion. (See Figure 1.1.) If you stare at the old woman long enough, she be- views society as an inte-
comes a beautiful young woman with a feather boa around her neck. If you grated whole. Conflict theory
stare at Figure 1.1b, it alternates between two facing profiles and a vase. You looks at class, race, and gen-
cannot, however, see the old woman and the young woman or the faces and der struggles. Symbolic inter-
the vase at the same time. actionism examines how
Which image is real depends on your focus—your perspective influences group members use shared
what you see. One perspective emphasizes certain aspects of an event, while symbols as they interact.
another perspective accents different aspects of the same event. When a per-
spective highlights certain parts of something, it must place other parts in the
background.
What is a theoretical perspective? A theoretical perspective is a
set of assumptions about an area of study—in this case, about the workings theoretical perspective
a set of assumptions accepted
as true

a. b.
Fig. 1.1 These two famous images are used by psychologists to illustrate perception and
perspective. What did you see first in Figure 1.1a—an old woman or a beautiful young
lady? What did you see first in Figure 1.1b—a vase or two human faces?
24 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

World View A World Turned Upside Down

Without turning this book upside down, try to locate
the United States. If you find this view of the world
disorienting because you are used to conventional
maps, you may reject this new worldview. So it is
with any perspective. In this book you will be asked
to abandon the conventional or psychological per-
spective in favor of the sociological perspective.

Interpreting the Map

1. What does your reaction to this map tell you about the power of the perspective you bring to a
situation?
2. Look at world maps in your various social studies classes as you progress through the day.
Where are North America and Europe located on these maps? What does that tell you about
the perspective of these map publishers and their customers?

of society. A theoretical perspective is viewed as true by its supporters and

it helps them organize their research.
Competing, even conflicting, theories in science usually exist at the same
time. Perhaps not enough evidence exists to determine which theory is ac-
curate, or different theories may explain different aspects of the problem.
This is even true in the so-called “hard” sciences like modern physics.
Einstein’s theory of general relativity, for example, contradicts the widely ac-
cepted Big Bang theory of the origin of the physical universe. Einstein him-
self never accepted the quantum theory. Nonetheless, this theory has become
the foundation of modern developments in such fields as chemistry and mol-
ecular biology (Hawking, 1998). Today theories are being put forth that hold
promise for combining relativity and quantum theory. If theories still com-
pete in physics, it should not be surprising that several major theoretical per-
spectives exist in sociology.
 Chapter 1 An Invitation to Sociology 25
Sociology has three overarching theoretical perspectives: functionalism,
conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Each of these perspectives pro-
vides a different slant on human social behavior. The exclusive use of any
one of them prevents our seeing other aspects of social behavior, just as one
cannot see the old woman and the young woman at the same time. All three
perspectives together, however, allow us to see most of the important di-
mensions of human social behavior.

Functionalism
Functionalism emphasizes the contributions (functions) of each part functionalism
of a society. For example, family, economy, and religion are “parts” of a approach that emphasizes
society. The family contributes to society by providing for the reproduc- the contributions made by
tion and care of its new members. The economy contributes by dealing each part of society
with production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
Religion contributes by emphasizing beliefs and practices related to sacred
things.
How does functionalism explain social change? Functionalists see
the parts of a society as an integrated whole. A change in one part of a so-
ciety leads to changes in other parts. A major change in the economy, for
example, may change the family—which is precisely what happened as a
result of the Industrial Revolution. Before the Industrial Revolution, when
most people made their living by farming, a large farm labor force was
needed. Families fulfilled this need by having many children. The need
disappeared as industrialization proceeded, and smaller families became
the norm.
Functionalism assumes that societies tend to return to a state of sta-
bility after some upheaval has occurred. A society may change over
time, but functionalists believe that it will return to a stable state. It will
do this by changing in such a way that society will be similar to what
it was before. Student unrest and other protests during
the late 1960s illustrate this. The activities of protesters
helped bring about some changes:
❖ Many Americans became suspicious of the
federal government’s foreign policy.
❖ Schools and universities became more
responsive to students’ needs and
goals.
❖ Environmental protection became
an important political issue to
Because of social and economic
many Americans. changes, norms that dictate
These changes, however, have not rev- women’s roles have changed greatly
olutionized American society. They over the years. Functionalists study
how a change in one part of a
have been absorbed into it. As a result,
society affects other parts.
our society is only somewhat different
from the way it was before the student
unrest. In fact, most of the stu-
dent radicals are now part of the
middle-class society they once
rejected.
26 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

Do all functions have a positive effect? Most aspects of a society

exist to promote a society’s survival and welfare. It is for this reason that all
complex societies have economies, families, governments, and religions. If
these elements did not contribute to a society’s well-being and survival, they
would disappear.
Recall that a function is a contribution made by some part of a society.
According to Robert Merton (1996), there are two kinds of functions.
manifest functions Manifest functions are intended and recognized. Latent functions are un-
intended and recognized intended and unrecognized. One of the manifest functions of school, for ex-
consequences of an aspect ample, is to teach math skills. A latent (and positive) function of schools is
of society the development of close friendships.
Not all elements of a society make a positive contribution. Elements that
have negative consequences result in dysfunction. Dysfunctions of bureau-
latent functions cracies, for example, include rigidity, inefficiency, and impersonality. When
unintended and unrecognized you go to the division of motor vehicles to register your car or get your driv-
consequences of an aspect of er’s license, the clerk may treat you like a “number” rather than as an indi-
society vidual. You don’t like his bureaucratic inflexibility and impersonality.
How does functionalism view values? Finally, according to function-
alism, there is a consensus on values. Most Americans, for example, agree on
dysfunction the desirability of democracy, success, and equal opportunity. This consen-
negative consequence of an
sus of values, say the functionalists, accounts for the high degree of cooper-
aspect of society
ation found in any society.

How does this photo emphasize the

approach to studying society that is
taken by the conflict perspective?
 Chapter 1 An Invitation to Sociology 27

Figure 1.2 Focus on Theoretical Perspectives

Assumptions of the Major Theoretical Perspectives. This table compares the most important assumptions
of the functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist perspectives. Do you believe, as the functionalists do,
that society is relatively well integrated? Or do you support the conflict theorists’ assumption that society ex-
periences conflict on all levels?

Symbolic
Functionalism Conflict Perspective Interactionism
1. A society is a relatively inte- 1. A society expe- 1. People’s interpretations of
grated whole. riences incon- symbols are based on the
2. A society tends to seek relative sistency and meanings they learn from
stability. conflict others.
every- 2. People base their interaction
3. Most aspects of a society
where. on their interpretations of
contribute to the soci-
ety’s well-being and 2. A soci- symbols.
survival. ety is 3. Symbols permit people to have
continu- internal conversations. Thus,
4. A society rests on
ally sub- they can gear their interaction
the consensus of its
jected to to the behavior that they think
members.
change. others expect of them and the
3. A society involves behavior they expect of others.
the constraint and coercion
of some members by others.

Conflict Perspective
The conflict perspective emphasizes conflict, competition, change, and conflict perspective
constraint within a society (Giddens, 1987, 1997). Understanding the conflict approach emphasizing the
perspective is easier when you understand functionalism, because the as- role of conflict, competition,
sumptions behind these two perspectives are the reverse of each other. This and constraint within a society
is shown in Figure 1.2 above.
What is the role of conflict and constraint? Functionalists see a basic
agreement on values within a society. This leads them to emphasize the ways
people cooperate to reach common goals. The conflict perspective, in con-
trast, focuses on the disagreements among various groups in a society or be-
tween societies. Groups and societies compete as they attempt to preserve
and promote their own special values and interests. power
Supporters of the conflict perspective, then, see social living as a contest. the ability to control the
Their central question is “Who gets what?” It is those with the most power— behavior of others
the ability to control the behavior of others—who get the largest share of
28 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

T he number of Americans paying for an on-line Internet service is

skyrocketing. The Internet began as a way for military and scientific
users to share information after a nuclear war. ARPAnet (the Internet’s
forerunner) was formed in 1969 with only four connected computers. By
2000, an estimated 55 percent of Americans had access to the Internet.
According to some estimates, there will be more than 500 million users
worldwide by the year 2003.
Because of its rapid spread through American society, cyberspace
technology is a timely example for showcasing the usefulness of the
Sociology three theoretical perspectives. The viewpoints of functionalism, conflict
theory, and symbolic interactionism contribute to an understanding of
the social implications of this new technology in very different ways.
Looks Functionalism. Functionalists see cyberspace technology as hav-
ing both positive and negative consequences. On the one hand, com-

at the puter links bring advantages. Parents can work at home and spend
more time with their children. Individuals with disabilities can do jobs
at home that would be denied them otherwise, thus becoming more

Internet fully integrated into society. On the other hand, there are dysfunctions.
Young people may have easy access to pornographic material, which
can distort their view of the opposite sex. Hate groups can be formed
by strangers who live hundreds or thousands of miles apart. Their
anonymity may encourage them to engage in antisocial or violent be-
havior that they would otherwise avoid.
Conflict Theory. The Internet is clearly changing American soci-
ety. The Internet, conflict theorists point out, is contributing to the in-
creasing speed of technological change. An advocate of conflict
theory might investigate the social instability created by this rapid
change. Workers may be let go by corporations in increasing numbers
as more tasks are performed by computers.
Conflict theory could guide an investigation comparing the num-
bers of computers used in school districts of varying socioeconomic
levels. Computer literacy is becoming an essential skill for obtaining a
well-paying job. Thus, students who attend wealthy schools with

whatever is considered valuable in a society. Those with the most power have
the most wealth, prestige, and privileges. Because some groups have more
power than others, they are able to constrain, or limit, the less powerful.
How does the conflict perspective explain social change? Many
conflicting groups exist in a society. As the balance of power among these
groups shifts, change occurs. For example, the women’s movement is at-
tempting to change the balance of power between men and women. As this
movement progresses, we see larger numbers of women in occupations once
limited to men. More women are either making or influencing decisions in
business, politics, medicine, and law. Gender relations are changing in other
ways as well. More women are choosing to remain single, to marry later in
life, to have fewer children, and to divide household tasks with their hus-
bands. According to the conflict perspective, these changes are the result of
increasing power among women.
 Chapter 1 An Invitation to Sociology 29

access to computers have an advan- 100%

tage over students in poorer

94%
schools. Internet
Home telephones
Symbolic Interactionism. Sym- 75% Cell phones

Percentage of homes
bolic interactionists are interested in Personal computers
how the Internet can affect a child’s
social development. The popularity
50%
of cartoon characters on television is A major interest of sociologists today
reinforced by web pages that allow is how the use of technology affects
children to join fan clubs, interact

40%
and reflects society. One apparent change
with other fans, and view video clips is the speed in which new technology
25% is accepted and integrated into everyday
of their favorite cartoon characters

25%

25%
living. This graph compares how quickly
whenever they want. The popular different inventions and technologies have
cartoons The Simpsons and South become part of American households.
Park feature children behaving in 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
ways unacceptable in nearly all
Years from first appearance of technology
American homes. Television pro-
vides limited exposure to these
characters, but the Internet allows them to become an important part of a
child’s daily life. What children come to accept as desirable behavior is
being based increasingly on their interpretations of the symbols and be-
haviors represented by these characters. Symbolic interactionists might
conclude that to the extent this occurs, the Internet lessens adult influence
on children.

Analyzing the Trends

1. Which perspective would you choose to conduct an in-depth study of
the Internet’s effect on society? Explain why you chose this perspective.
2. Do you think that the Internet has some dysfunctions that Americans
should consider? Consider the advantages and disadvantages of the
Internet on society.

Which perspective is better? There is no “better” theoretical perspec-

tive. Each perspective highlights certain areas of social life. The advantages
of one perspective are the disadvantages of the other. Functionalism explains
much of the consensus, stability, and cooperation within a society. The con-
flict perspective explains much of the constraint, conflict, and change. Each
chapter, throughout the text, will illustrate both perspectives, as well as the
perspective discussed next—symbolic interactionism.

Symbolic Interactionism
Both functionalism and conflict theory deal with large social units, such
as the economy, and broad social processes, such as conflict among social
classes. At the close of the nineteenth century, some sociologists began to
30 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

According to conflict theory, the interests of groups will clash at times. If questioned, the men
around the water cooler may offer a functionalist interpretation of their pastime—talking sports
brings them together. Women who are not “sports savvy” may see their exclusion from such office
talk more from a conflict perspective.

change their approach to the study of society. Instead of concentrating on

large social structures, they began to recognize the importance of the ways
people interact. Two sociologists, Charles Horton Cooley and George
Herbert Mead, developed the insight that groups exist only because their
members influence each other’s behavior. These early American sociologists,
in short, created symbolic interactionism, a perspective that focuses on the
actual interaction among people.
What is the significance of symbols in symbolic interactionism? To
symbol understand social interactionism, we need to talk first about symbols. A
anything that stands for symbol is something chosen to represent something else. It may be an ob-
something else and has an ject, a word, a gesture, a facial expression, a sound. A symbol is something
agreed-upon meaning observable that often represents something not observable, something that is
attached to it abstract. For example, your school’s team mascot is often used as a symbol of
school loyalty. The American flag is used as a symbol of the United States.
The meaning of a symbol is not determined by its own physical character-
istics. Those who create and use the symbols assign the meanings to them. If
people in a group do not share the same meanings for a given symbol, confu-
sion results. For example, if some people interpreted the red light of a traffic
signal to mean go, while others interpreted it to mean stop, chaos would result.
The importance of shared symbols is reflected in the formal definition of
symbolic interactionism symbolic interactionism. It is the theoretical perspective that focuses on in-
approach that focuses on teraction among people—interaction based on mutually understood symbols.
the interactions among
people based on mutually What are the basic assumptions of symbolic interactionism?
understood symbols Herbert Blumer (1969a, 1969b), who coined the term symbolic interaction-
ism, outlined three assumptions central to this perspective. (Refer to Figure
1.2 on page 27.)
First, according to symbolic interactionism, we learn the meaning of a
symbol from the way we see others reacting to it. For example, American
musicians in Latin America soon learn that when audience members whistle
at the end of a performance, they are expressing disapproval. In other words,
their whistling is a symbol of disapproval, as booing is in the United States.
 Chapter 1 An Invitation to Sociology 31
Second, once we learn the meanings of symbols, we base our behavior dramaturgy
(interaction) on them. Now that the musicians have learned that whistling approach that depicts human
symbolizes a negative response, they will definitely avoid an encore if the interaction as theatrical
crowd begins whistling. (They would likely have the opposite response in the performances
United States, where the symbol of whistling has a very different meaning.)
Finally, we use the meanings of symbols to imagine how others will re-
spond to our behavior. Through this capability, we can have “internal con-
versations” with ourselves. These conversations enable us to visualize how
others will respond to us before we act. This is crucial because we guide our
interactions with people according to the behavior we think others expect
of us and we expect of others. Meanwhile, these others are also hav-
ing internal conversations. The interaction (acting on each other) that
follows is therefore symbolic interaction.
In an attempt to better understand human interaction, Erving
Goffman introduced dramaturgy, which depicts human interaction
as theatrical performance (Goffman, 1961a, 1963, 1974, 1979, 1983;
Lemert and Branaman, 1997). Like actors on a stage, people present
themselves through dress, gestures, tone of voice. Teenagers some-
times act in a particular way in order to attract the attention of some-
one they want to like them. Goffman calls this presentation of self
or impression management.

Section 3 Assessment
1. What is a theoretical perspective? According to symbolic
2. Indicate whether the following statements represent functionalism (F), interactionism, social life can be
the conflict perspective (C), or symbolic interactionism (S). likened to a theatrical performance.
Don’t we convey as much about
a. Societies are in relative balance. ourselves in the way we dress as do
b. Power is one of the most important elements in social life. the actors above?
c. Religion helps hold a society together morally.
d. Symbols are crucial to social life.
e. Many elements of a society exist to benefit the powerful.

“
f. Different segments of a society compete to achieve their own self-
interest rather than cooperate to benefit others.
g. Social life should be understood from the viewpoint of the
individuals involved. A person gets from a
h. Social change is constantly occurring. symbol the meaning he
i. Conflict is harmful and disruptive to society. puts into it, and what is
3. Does dramaturgy explain human interaction in a way that is meaningful one man’s comfort and
to you? Why or why not?
inspiration is another’s
Critical Thinking jest and scorn.
4. Analyzing Information Think of an aspect of human social behavior William Shakespeare
(for example, dating or team sports) that you would like to know more
about. Which of the three theoretical perspectives would you use to
help you understand this aspect of behavior? Explain your choice.
“
English playwright
CHAPTER 1 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Vocabulary
Summary
Complete each sentence using each term once.
Section 1: The Sociological Perspective a. mechanical f. symbol
Main Idea: Sociology studies human social be- solidarity g. latent function
havior. It assumes a group, rather than an indi- b. positivism h. conflict perspective
vidual perspective. Sociologists look for the c. social structure i. presentation of self
patterns in social relationships. Individuals can d. bourgeoisie j. theoretical
benefit by using their sociological imaginations to e. sociology perspective
look at events in their personal lives.
1. is a set of assumptions ac-
Section 2: The Origins of Sociology
cepted as true by supporters.
Main Idea: Sociology is a young science. It 2. The perspective that emphasizes conflict is
started with the writings of European scholars like called .
Auguste Comte, Harriet Martineau, Herbert 3. is an unintended and unrecog-
Spencer, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max nized consequence of some element of a society.
Weber. Jane Addams and W.E.B. DuBois helped
4. is the way that people attempt
to focus America’s attention on social issues. After
to make a favorable impression of themselves
World War II, America took the lead in develop-
in the minds of others.
ing the field of sociology.
5. The patterned interaction of people in social re-
Section 3: Theoretical Perspectives lationships is called .
6. is the study of social structure
Main Idea: Sociology includes three major theo- from a scientific perspective.
retical perspectives. Functionalism views society
7. The use of observation, experimentation and
as an integrated whole. Conflict theory looks at
other methods to study social life is known as
class, race, and gender struggles. Symbolic inter-
.
actionism examines how group members use
shared symbols as they interact. 8. A is something that stands for
or represents something else.
9. is social unity based on a con-
sensus of values and norms, strong social pres-
sure to conform and a dependence on family
and tradition.
10. The are members of an indus-
trial society who own the means for producing
wealth.

Self-Check Quiz Reviewing the Facts

Visit the Sociology and You Web
site at soc.glencoe.com and
1. According to C. Wright Mills, what is the socio-
click on Chapter 1—Self-
logical imagination?
Check Quizzes to prepare for
the chapter test. 2. Explain “sociology” as defined in this chapter.

32
3. What did Herbert Spencer believe about the re- Panel Member Aspects of Interest
lationship between people, progress and social
Sociologist (you)
change?
Economist
4. List and explain the three sociological perspec-
tives. Psychologist

5. What are manifest functions and latent func- Anthropologist

tions? Provide an example of each.
6. Using the chart below, give a major idea ex- 5. Making Comparisons Both a sociologist and a
pressed by each of the sociologists listed. psychologist would be interested in the ACT
Briefly explain each idea. The first one has (achievement) and SAT (assessment) test scores
been completed. Use this as your model and of high school students. Consider how the sci-
complete the chart. entific interest of the sociologist would differ
from that of the psychologist. Compare the sim-
Sociologist Major Idea Brief Explanation
ilarities and contrast the differences.
Karl Marx class conflict Struggle between
6. Categorizing Information Merton’s theory of
bourgeoisie class manifest and latent functions (see page 26)
(owners) and the could be easily applied to high schools. Using
proletariat class (workers) your particular school as a model, identify three
Max Weber manifest functions of high schools and three la-
Auguste Comte tent functions of high schools.
Emile Durkheim 7. Evaluating Information You must select one
of the job opportunities in sociology listed on
page 12 for your career. Which one would you
Thinking Critically choose? Suggest ways in which the job fits your
personality, abilities, interests, and ambitions.
8. Analyzing Information Spitting in public is
1. Applying Concepts Give three examples of not an appropriate behavior, but people “spit”
how the sociological perspective can be applied all the time. When we drink soda, we usually
to your life. leave a little spit in the can. When we kiss
2. Analyzing Information Using your own someone, we are transmitting spit. We don’t
words, define the term sociology imagination. think of it in these terms, because in some
What is the relationship to the sociological per- cases we call spit by a more scientific term—
spective? saliva. How would the sociologist perspective
3. Making Inferences Select two early sociolo- help to understand and explain why we flip
gists discussed in your text and construct a dia- back and forth between the two terms?
logue between them about the current social
issue of homelessness.
4. Summarizing Information You have been se- Sociology Projects
lected to be on a panel to discuss illiteracy in
your community. The panel also includes an 1. Theoretical Perspectives Based on what you
economist, a psychologist, and an anthropolo- read about the Internet from the functionalist,
gist. As a sociologist, what areas of this topic conflict, and symbolic interactionist perspec-
would be of most interest to you? Consider tives, how is each perspective useful in under-
what aspects would be of interest to each of standing the popularity of the Internet? Write a
the other panel members. Complete the chart to brief statement describing how each perspective
summarize the aspects of interest to you and would approach this issue. You might see
the other panel members.
33
CHAPTER 1 ASSESSMENT
positive or negative effects, depending upon and management opportunities. Write a short
your interpretation. (For instance, the conflict report on the advantages and disadvantages of
perspective may focus on the fact that the un- that particular career in sociology.
derprivileged classes would not have full access
because of the cost of the hardware and there-
fore decreased power.) Technology Activities
2. Developing a Commercial Develop a com-
mercial for sociology using a video camera. 1. In this chapter, you learned about several of the
Think of the field of sociology as a product to founders of sociology and their contributions to
sell. Market it as “a way to improve your under- the field. To learn more about these sociologists
standing of the world around you.” and others, go to the Dead Sociologists web
3. Observations Go to a public place (such as a page at http://raven.jmu.edu/~ridenelr/DSS.
mass, school cafeteria, or restaurant) and dis- Select three sociologists named on the web site
creetly observe people there for 15 minutes. It who were not included in the textbook and cre-
is important that you do not appear to be spy- ate a database including their year of birth,
ing on individuals, both because it may be in- place of birth, and primary contributions they
terpreted as being rude and also because it made to sociology.
would probably affect their normal behaviors. 2. Use the Internet to do further research on the
Write down your observations, noting such de- pioneers of sociology. Design a poster repre-
tails as the type of dress, general interactions, senting the pioneers in sociology. Describe
and level of activity. Do not assume any value each one’s basic ideas, including their theories
judgments about your subjects; just make fac- and information attained through research. You
tual observations. may want to start your research at the Dead
When you return home, rewrite your observa- Sociologists web page listed above.
tions applying the sociological concepts in this 3. Write or use the Internet to contact the
chapter. Consider and list the ways your second American Sociological Association and request
analysis is different from the first. Compare and the booklet “Majoring in Sociology.” Using stan-
contrast them. How does sociology help to de- dard grammar, spelling, sentence structure, and
scribe what you observed? What might you punctuation, prepare a report for your class
want to study from your observation? from the information. (The address is American
4. Sociology and Careers Research one of the Sociological Association, 1722 N. Street NW,
career options for sociology majors that interest Washington, DC 20036. For Internet access, the
you. Look for such important information as the URL is www.asanet.org.)
education requirements, income expectations,

34
 Chapter 1 An Invitation to Sociology 35

Chapter 1

Enrichment Reading
Invitation to Sociology by Peter L. Berger

is suddenly brought What Does It Mean

T he sociologist . . . is a person inten-

sively, endlessly, shamelessly interested
in the doings of men. His natural habi-
tat is all the human gathering places of the world,
wherever men come together. The sociologist
up against an insight
that radically ques-
tions everything one
had previously as-
conceptual construction
personal idea of reality
degradation
may be interested in many other things. But his sumed about this fa-
miliar scene. This is low esteem, corruption
consuming interest remains in the world of men,
their institutions, their history, their passions. And the point at which demarcation
since he is interested in men, nothing that men do one begins to sense setting apart, separation
can be altogether tedious for him. He will natu- the excitement of
rally be interested in the events that engage men’s sociology.
ultimate beliefs, their moments of tragedy and It can be said that the first wisdom of sociology
grandeur and ecstasy. But he will also be fasci- is this—things are not what they seem. This . . . is
nated by the commonplace, the everyday. He will a deceptively simple statement. It ceases to be sim-
know reverence, but this reverence will not pre- ple after a while. Social reality turns out to have
vent him from wanting to see and to understand. many layers of meaning. The discovery of each
He may sometimes feel revulsion or contempt. new layer changes the perception of the whole.
But this also will not deter him from wanting to People who feel no temptation before closed
have his questions answered. The sociologist, in doors, who have no curiosity about human be-
his quest for understanding, moves through the ings, who are content to admire scenery without
world of men without respect for the usual lines of wondering about the people who live in those
demarcation. Nobility and degradation, power houses on the other side of that river, should
and obscurity, intelligence and folly—these are probably . . . stay away from sociology. And
equally interesting to him, however unequal they people whose interest is mainly in their own
may be in his personal values or tastes. Thus his conceptual constructions will do just as well
questions may lead him to all possible levels of so- to turn to the study of little white mice.
ciety, the best and the least known places, the Sociology will be satisfying, in the long run, only
most respected and the most despised. And, if he to those who can think of nothing more en-
is a good sociologist, he will find himself in all trancing than to watch men and to understand
these places because his own questions have so things human.
taken possession of him that he has little choice Source: Excerpted from Invitation to Sociology. New
but to seek for answers. . . . York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1963.
The sociologist moves in the common world
of men, close to what most of them would call
real. As a result, there is a deceptive simplicity Read and React
and obviousness about some sociological investi-
How is this excerpt different in style from
gations. One reads them, nods at the familiar
most articles by scientists? Why do you think
scene, remarks that one has heard all this before
the author chose this style to describe his field
and concludes that people have better things to
of study?
do than to waste their time on truisms—until one
CHAPTER 2
Sociologists Doing
Research

36
 U
S Your Sections
I Sociological
N Imagination 1. Research Methods
G 2. Causation in Science
3. Procedures and Ethics
T wo headlines appear on the front
page of two different papers in the
newsstand. The first reads “Cure for
Alzheimer’s disease just around the corner.”
The second, while more accurate, is less ex-
in Research

citing. It reads “Scientists cautiously declare

Learning Objectives
that a promising—but as yet unduplicated—
test result may lead to some small progress
in the long-term effort to prevent Alzheimer’s After reading this chapter, you will be able to
disease.”
Which paper do you think would sell ❖ describe the basic quantitative and qualita-
more copies? Like savvy news editors, you tive research methods used by sociologists.
probably know that both fear and hope are
❖ discuss basic research concepts, including
emotions that sell papers. For this reason,
variables and correlations.
research results, especially on social and
health studies, are often exaggerated by the ❖ list the standards for proving cause-and-
media. effect relationships.
We routinely read that tomato sauce can ❖ explain the steps sociologists use to guide
prevent prostate cancer, that tea prevents their research.
heart disease, and that eating blueberries
can reduce the effects of aging and improve
❖ discuss ethics in sociological research.
short-term memory. On the other hand,
milk, eggs, anger, too-strict parenting, too-
lax parenting, and marrying before age
thirty have all been blamed for various
deadly diseases and social disorders. To fur-
ther complicate matters, stories often contra-
dict each other from week to week.
Chapter Overview
Caffeine, fish, milk, and butter are only Visit the Sociology and You Web site at
some of the products that can heal or harm, soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 2—
depending on the date. Chapter Overviews to preview chapter
People who know what questions to ask information.
about research reports can better protect
themselves from acting on inaccurate infor-
mation. Chapter 2 will look at some of the
basic research methods used by sociologists
and explore the area of ethics in social
research. 37
38 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

Section
Research Methods
1 K e y

•
•
survey
T e r m s

population
•
•
closed-ended questions
open-ended questions
• sample • secondary analysis
• representative sample • field research
• questionnaire • case study
• interview • participant observation

Section Doing Research in the Social Sciences

Preview
L ike all scientists, sociologists gain their knowledge by doing research.
The goal of sociological research is to test common sense assumptions

W hen sociologists do
quantitative research,
they generally use either sur-
and replace false ideas with facts and evidence. Part of the sociological per-
spective is to ask “why” and “how” questions and then to form hypotheses
to arrive at accurate understandings.
veys or precollected data. Social scientists differ from other scientists, however, in how they conduct
Each has its own advantages much of their research. Unlike chemists, biologists, or physicists, sociologists
and disadvantages. Qualita-
(and often psychologists) are very limited in their ability to set up laboratory
experiments to replicate real-life conditions. Even if they reproduce condi-
tive research uses descriptive
tions as they are in the outside world, the ethical issues involved in manipu-
rather than numerical data. lating people and controlling events would prevent most sociologists from
Field studies are best used pursuing this kind of research. For sociologists, the world is their laboratory.
when interaction needs to be How then do sociologists do research? The methods that sociologists rely
observed in a natural setting, on are described below. These methods are classified as either quantitative
and when in-depth analysis is or qualitative. Quantitative research uses numerical data, while qualitative
needed. The case study is research rests on narrative and descriptive data. Quantitative research tools
the most popular approach include surveys and precollected data. About 90 percent of the research pub-
to field research. lished in major sociological jour-
nals is based on surveys, so this
approach is discussed first.

Survey Research
survey
research method in which The survey, in which people
people respond to questions are asked to answer a series of
questions, is the most widely
used research method among so-
ciologists. It is ideal for studying
large numbers of people.

The survey is the most widely used

research method for collecting data in
sociology.
 Chapter 2 Sociologists Doing Research 39

Survey researchers must guard against affecting a respondent’s answer.

How are effective surveys conducted? In survey research, care must

be taken that surveys are sent to the right number and type of people (Black,
1998). Researchers describe the people surveyed in terms of populations and
samples.
A population is all those people with the characteristics a researcher population
wants to study. A population could be all high school seniors in the United a group of people with certain
States, all retired postal workers living in Connecticut, or the number of fresh- specified characteristics
men who buy school yearbooks.
Sociologists would like to collect information on all members of a popula-
tion, but most populations are too large. Surveys including the entire popula- sample
tion would cost too much and take too long for most research projects. Instead, a group of people that
a sample is drawn. A sample is a limited number of cases drawn from the larger represents a larger population
population. A sample must be selected carefully if it is to have the same basic
characteristics as the general population—that is, if it is to be a representative
sample. If a sample is not representative of the population from which it is
representative sample
drawn, the survey findings cannot be used to make generalizations about the en- a sample that accurately
tire population. For example, if you were to conduct a survey using ten students reflects the characteristics of
from an advanced biology class, this sample would not be representative of your the population as a whole
school. On the other hand, if you randomly selected ten students who walked
into the school cafeteria for your survey, these students would probably be more
representative of the student body. The sample would probably be too small,
however, to give accurate results. The United States Census Bureau regularly
uses sample surveys in its highly accurate work. The Gallup Poll and Harris Poll
are recognized all over the country as reliable indicators of national trends and
public opinion because they use representative samples in their surveys. Student Web Activity
How are representative samples selected? The standard way of get- Visit the Sociology and
ting a representative sample is by random, or chance, selection. A random You Web site at
sample can be selected by assigning each member of the population a num- soc.glencoe.com and click on
ber and then drawing numbers from a container after they have been thor- Chapter 2—Student Web
oughly scrambled. An easier and more practical method uses a table of Activities for an activity on
random numbers. After each member of the population has been assigned a survey research.
number, the researcher begins with any number in the table and goes down
the list until enough subjects have been selected.
40 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

questionnaire How is survey information gathered? In surveys,

a written set of questions to information is obtained through either a questionnaire or
be answered by a research an interview. A questionnaire is a written set of ques-
participant tions that survey participants answer by themselves. In
an interview, a trained interviewer asks questions and
interview records the answers. Questionnaires and interviews may
a survey method in which a contain closed-ended or open-ended questions.
trained researcher asks Closed-ended questions are those that a person an-
questions and records the swers by choosing from a limited, predetermined set of
answers responses. Multiple choice questions are closed ended,
for example. Because participants are limited to certain
closed-ended questions responses, closed-ended questions sometimes fail to un-
questions a person must cover underlying attitudes and opinions. On the positive
answer by choosing from a side, closed-ended questions make answers easier to
limited, predetermined set of
tabulate and compare.
responses

Figure 2.1 Closed-ended and Open-ended Questions

Examples of Closed-Ended Questions
Strongly Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

a. Most schoolteachers really don’t know

what they are talking about. 1 2 3 4
b. To get ahead in life, you have to get a
good education. 1 2 3 4

c. My parents encouraged me to get a

good education. 1 2 3 4

d. School is a lonely place. 1 2 3 4

e. Too much emphasis is put on

education these days. 1 2 3 4

f. Most students cheat on tests. 1 2 3 4

Examples of Open-Ended Questions

1. In your own words, please describe your views on the education you have
received so far.

2. Do you think school adequately prepares you for employment? Why or

why not?
 Chapter 2 Sociologists Doing Research 41

Figure 2.2 Closed-ended Survey Research

Advantages Disadvantages

❖ Closed-ended answers can be more precisely ❖ Surveys are expensive to produce and
measured. distribute.
❖ Responses can be easily compared. ❖ Responses are limited to preset answers.

❖ Statistical techniques can be used to make sense ❖ Many people don’t respond to surveys, resulting
of the data. in low cost effectiveness.
❖ A large number of responses can be collected. ❖ The way a question is stated may influence the
answer given. (Negatively phrased questions are
more likely to get a negative answer.)

Open-ended questions ask the person to answer in his or her own open-ended questions
words. Answers to open-ended questions can reveal many attitudes. questions a person is to
However, these answers are not easy to quantify or compare. Another prob- answer in his or her own
lem may arise if an interviewer changes the meaning of questions by rephras- words
ing them. The same question phrased in different ways can place the
emphasis on different issues and evoke different responses.

Secondary Analysis
Using precollected information—that is, information someone else has al-
ready gathered—is known as secondary analysis. It is a well-respected secondary analysis
method of collecting data in sociology. In fact, the first sociologist to use sta- using precollected information
tistics in a sociological study—Emile Durkheim—relied on precollected data. for data collection and
(See Focus on Research on page 56.) research purposes

What are some sources for secondary analysis? Types of precol-

“
lected data include government reports, company records, voting lists, prison
records, and reports of research done by other social scientists.
The United States Census Bureau is one of the most important sources of
precollected data for American sociologists. The Census Bureau collects in- Science is the refusal to
formation on the total population every ten years and conducts countless believe on the basis
specific surveys every year. The census contains detailed information on such
topics as income, education, race, sex, age, marital status, occupation, and of hope.
death and birth rates. C.P. Snow
Other government agencies also collect information that is of great value “
to sociologists. The U.S. Department of Labor regularly collects information English physicist
on the nation’s income and unemployment levels across a variety of jobs.
The U.S. Department of Commerce issues monthly reports on various aspects
of the economy.
42 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

Figure 2.3 Secondary Analysis

Advantages Disadvantages
❖ Precollected data provide sociologists with ❖ The existing information may not exactly suit
inexpensive, high-quality information. the researcher’s needs because it was gathered
for a different reason.
❖ Existing sources of information permit the study ❖ Sometimes precollected data are outdated.
of a topic over a long period of time. (With
census data, for example, we can trace the
changes in the relative income levels of African
Americans and whites.)
❖ The researcher cannot influence answers ❖ Little may be known about collection methods.
because the data have been collected by others. The people who first collected the data or the
collection methods may have been biased.

Field Research
Qualitative research uses narrative or descriptive data rather than quantita-
tive, numerical data. Some aspects of society can best be revealed by qualita-
tive methods. Most of these methods fall under the heading of field research.
field research Field research looks closely at aspects of social life that cannot be measured
research that takes place in a quantitatively and that are best understood within a natural setting. High school
natural (nonlaboratory) setting cliques and “jock” culture are examples of topics best studied by field research.
When do sociologists use case studies? The most often used ap-
case study proach to field research is the case study—a thorough investigation of a sin-
intensive study of a single gle group, incident, or community. This method assumes that the findings in
group, incident, or community one case can be generalized to similar situations. The conclusions of a study
on drug use in Chicago, for example, should apply to other large cities as
well. It is the researcher’s responsibility to point out the factors in the study
that are unique and that would not apply to other situations.
participant observation When do case studies involve participant observation? In participant
a case study where the observation, a researcher becomes a member of the group being studied. A
researcher becomes a member researcher may join a group with or without informing its members that he or
of the group being studied she is a sociologist.
A compelling account of undercover participant observation appears in
Black Like Me, a book written by John Howard Griffin (1961). Griffin, a white
journalist, dyed his skin to study the life of African Americans in the South.
Although he had previously visited the South as a white man, his experiences
while posing as an African American were quite different.
Participant researchers sometimes do not keep their identities secret. Elliot
Liebow studied disadvantaged African American males. Even though he was
a white outsider, Liebow was allowed to participate in the daily activities of
the men. He said, “The people I was observing knew that I was observing
them, yet they allowed me to participate in their activities and take part in
their lives to a degree that continues to surprise me” (Liebow, 1967:253).
 Chapter 2 Sociologists Doing Research 43
Every ten years the Constitution of
the United States requires a count of
the nation’s population. The Census
Bureau uses survey research
techniques to create this statistical
picture. Why do you think the
Census Bureau asked Congress to
authorize the use of sampling
techniques?

Figure 2.4 Focus on Theoretical Perspectives

Investigating School Violence and School Funding. This table illustrates the research method a sociolo-
gist of a particular theoretical persuasion would most likely choose to investigate school violence and school
funding. Any of the three sociologists, of course, could use any of the three research methods.

Theoretical Research
Perspective Method Approach to the Research Question

Functionalism Survey A questionnaire on violence in high schools is sent to a

national, random sample of principals. The survey examines
a possible relationship between incidence of school
violence and level of school funding.

Conflict Theory Case Study A particular high school with low funding is studied with
respect to a relationship between school violence and
school funding. Researchers interview administrators,
teachers, and students.

Symbolic Participant Concealing her identity, a researcher takes a temporary job

Interactionism Observation at a high school with low funding. She attempts to observe
covertly a possible link between school violence and
school funding.
44 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives
Sometimes field research requires
going undercover, something that
occurred in the movie Never Been
Kissed (starring Drew Barrymore,
pictured here with fans of the
movie). When this happens in real
life, however, sociologists have a
responsibility to make sure they meet
the standards of the Code of Ethics.

Section 1 Assessment
Match terms a–e with statements 1–5.
1. selected on the basis of chance, so that a. population
each member of a population has an b. representative
equal opportunity of being selected sample
2. all those people with the characteristics the c. random
researcher wants to study within the context sample
of a particular research question d. sample
3. a limited number of cases drawn from the e. survey
larger population
4. a sample that has basically the same
relevant characteristics as the population
5. the research method in which people are asked to answer a series of
questions
6. Provide an example of using precollected data.
7. For what reasons would you use participant observation instead of a
survey?

Critical Thinking
8. Analyzing Information Do you think that selecting a sample of
three thousand individuals could yield an accurate picture of the
eating habits of Americans? Why or why not?
9. Drawing Conclusions You are a sociologist who wants to see if
receiving welfare benefits affects long-term job commitment. Describe
the research method you would use. Why is the method you chose
the best for this topic?
10. Synthesizing Information Suggest several areas in your own school
or community where field research could be used for a research
project.
 Chapter 2 Sociologists Doing Research 45

Figure 2.5 Summary of Research Methods

Research
Method Definition Advantages Disadvantages

Quantitative Methods
Survey Research People answer a se- ❖ Precision and ❖ Expensive due to large
ries of questions, usu- comparability of answers numbers
ally predetermined. ❖ Use of statistical ❖ Low response rate
techniques ❖ Phrasing of questions
❖ Information on large introduces bias in favor of
numbers of people certain answers
❖ Detailed analysis ❖ Researchers’ behavior can
affect answers given

Secondary Information gathered ❖ Inexpensive ❖ Information collected for a

Analysis by one researcher is ❖ Can study a topic over a different reason may not
used by another re- long period of time suit another researcher’s
searcher for a differ- ❖ Researcher’s influence on needs
ent purpose. subjects avoided ❖ Original researcher may
have already introduced
biases
❖ Information may be
outdated

Experiment Research occurs in a ❖ Can be replicated with ❖ Laboratory environment is

laboratory setting precision artificial
with a minimum of ❖ Variables can be ❖ Not suited to most
contaminating influ- manipulated sociological research
ences (not often used ❖ Can be relatively ❖ Number of variables
in social research). inexpensive studied is limited
❖ Permits the establishment
of causation (rather than
just correlation)

Qualitative Methods
Case Study Thorough investiga- ❖ Provides depth of ❖ Difficult to generalize
tion is done of a understanding from group findings from one group to
small group, incident, members’ viewpoint another group
or community. ❖ Unexpected discoveries ❖ Presence of researcher can
and new insights can be influence results
incorporated into the ❖ Hard to duplicate
research ❖ Takes lots of time
❖ Permits the study of social ❖ Difficult to be accepted as
behavior not feasible with a group member (in case
quantitative methods of participant observation)
46 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

Skills at a Glance Using Basic Statistical Measures

Statistics are methods used for tabulating, analyzing, and presenting
quantitative data. Sociologists, like all scientists, use statistical measures.
You will encounter certain statistical measures in this textbook and in peri-
odicals such as Time, Newsweek, or The Economist. Among the basic statis-
tical measures are averages—including modes, means, and medians.
An average is a single number representing the distribution of several
figures. For example, suppose the following figures are the salaries of the
nine highest-paid major league baseball players:
$3,300,000 (catcher) $4,200,000 (center field)
$4,900,000 (starting pitcher)
$3,600,000 (second base) $4,300,000 (shortstop)
$5,300,000 (left field)
$3,600,000 (third base) $4,500,000 (first base)
$6,100,000 (right field)
There are three kinds of averages that will make
these numerical values more meaningful. Each
gives a slightly different picture.
❖ The mode is the number that
occurs most frequently. In
this case, it is $3,600,000,
which occurs twice.
The mode is
appropriate only
when the objective is
to indicate the most
popular number.
Suppose a researcher
investigating these
major league baseball
salaries reported the
mode alone. Readers
would be misled, because the
mode would give them no hint
of the wide range of salaries
($3,300,000 to $6,100,000).
❖ The mean is the measure closest to the
everyday meaning of the term average. It lies somewhere in the
middle of a range. The mean of the salary figures above—
$4,422,222—is calculated by adding all of the salaries together
($39,800,000) and dividing by the number of salaries (9). The
mean, unlike the mode, takes all of the figures into account. It is
distorted, however, by the highest figure, $6,100,000. Although one
player earns $6,100,000, most players make considerably less—the
highest-paid player earns nearly twice as much as the lowest-paid
 Chapter 2 Sociologists Doing Research 47

player. The mean is distorted when there are

extreme values at either the high or the low
end of a scale. The mean is more accurate
when the high and low values are not widely
separated.
❖ The median is the number that divides a
series of values in half. Half of the values lie
above the median, half below. In this
example, the median is $4,300,000. Half of
the salaries are above $4,300,000, and half
are below it. The advantage here is that the
median is not distorted by extremes at
either end. If the median falls between two
numbers, the average of those two
numbers becomes the median.

Working with Statistics

1. Cassie collected newspapers for a recycling plant at the rate of $2.30 The World Champion New York
per pound of paper. On consecutive days she turned in the following Yankees celebrate after winning the
weights: 12 lbs., 13 lbs., 8 lbs., 22 lbs., 8.5 lbs., 13 lbs., and 19 lbs. World Series. This win might result in
What was her average pay per day? What was the median pay? salary increases for next year.
2. The grades on a student’s sociology quizzes for a six-week period
were 99 percent, 99 percent, 68 percent, 99 percent, 75 percent, and
80 percent. Determine the mean score, the mode, and the median
score for that student.

Evaluating Internet Resources

The Internet is one of the most exciting research tools
developed in the last century. It can put a
library of the most current information at
your fingertips. Like every tool, however,
it is only as good as its operator.
Reading the “instruction manual” and
following a few basic “safely rules” will
ensure that you get the best
results from your online research ef-
forts.
To determine if the site is a valid
one, consider the source material. The
questions on the following page will
help you evaluate the reliability of
the information. They will also let
you deselect those sources (or arti-
cles) that are not particularly relevant to
your needs.
48 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

WHO WHERE
❖ Who maintains the site? An established ❖ From where was the information derived?
authority? An organization? A government? ❖ Is the information based on personal opinion,
❖ Who produced the information? Is he or she experience, interviews, library research,
qualified, a noted authority? Are you sure? questionnaires or laboratory experiments?
❖ Has the site been reviewed, recommended, or ❖ How did you access the information on the
given an award? By whom? Internet (for example, web, ftp, telnet, listserv,
❖ Are there standards or selection criteria that must newsgroup, e-mail)?
be met for information to be on this site?
❖ Can the webmaster be contacted by e-mail? HOW
❖ How is the information presented? Is it
WHAT presented clearly, accurately, and objectively?
❖ Is the information reliable? ❖ Is there distortion or bias in meaning?
❖ Is the information original? ❖ Is more than one viewpoint represented?
❖ Is the information scholarly, professional, ❖ Is the information modified in any way?
popular? Is there documentation?
❖ Is the site comprehensive? Are other sites more WHY
comprehensive? ❖ Why is the information being presented?
❖ Does the site contain information, links to other ❖ What is the purpose/motive? Is it easy to
sites, or both? determine the purpose?
❖ Who is the intended audience?
WHEN ❖ Does a sponsoring organization influence what
❖ Is the information up-to-date? Are other sites is published here? Is there an e-mail or “snail
more current? mail” address to contact the organization?
❖ When was the site last updated? How often is ❖ Does the information suit your purpose?
the site updated?
❖ Do the links work? Applying Skills
Select a sociology-related Internet site. Evaluate it
based on the criteria above.

Reading Tables and Graphs

Tables and graphs present information concisely. Figures 2.6 and 2.7 on
the following page show the same information in two different formats.
Use these figures to complete these steps for decoding tables and graphs.
1. Begin by reading the title of the table or graph carefully. It will tell
you what information is being presented. What information is being
presented in Figure 2.6?
2. Find out the source of information. You will want to know whether
the source is reliable and whether its techniques for gathering and
presenting data are sound. What is the source of the information in
these figures? Is it a reliable source?
 Chapter 2 Sociologists Doing Research 49

3. Read any notes accompanying the table or

Overall Median income in dollars as compared
graph. Not all tables and graphs have notes, with years of schoolinga
Demographic median
but if notes are present, they offer further in- group income in Less 16 or
formation about the data. The notes in Figure dollars than 9 9–11 12 13–15 more
2.6 and in Figure 2.7 explain that the data
refer to the total money income of full-time White males 30,409 13,995 18,403 28,843 36,474 51,985
and part-time workers, aged 18 and over, in
a March 2000 survey. Why is the note in this African American
table important? males 21,531 11,791 16,323 22,124 26,912 39,441

4. Examine any footnotes (marked with a su-

perscript a). Footnotes in Figure 2.6 and White females 17,784 9,338 9,883 16,426 22,983 32,102
Figure 2.7 indicate that the data are catego-
rized by the highest grade actually com- African American
females 16,754 9,730 9,416 15,293 23,759 32,595
pleted. What other interpretation could be
made from the term years of schooling?
Note: These figures include the total money income of full-time and part-time workers, ages 18 and
5. Look at the headings across the top and over, surveyed as of March 2000.
down the left-hand side of the table or a In terms of highest grade completed.
graph. To observe any pattern in the data, it
is usually necessary to keep both types of Figure 2.6 Median Income in Dollars
headings in mind. Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7
show the median annual income of African
Overall median income
American and white males and females for Less than 9
several levels of education. 9–11 Median income
12 as compared with
6. Find out what units are being used. Data can years of schoolinga
$50 13–15
be expressed in percentages, hundreds, thou- 16 or more
Income in thousands of dollars

sands, millions, billions, means, and so forth.

Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7 use two different 40
units. What are they? When making compari-
son, it is important that you compare like 30
units.
7. Check for trends in the data. For tables, look 20
down the columns (vertically) and across the
rows (horizontally) for the highest figures, low- 10
est figures, repeat numbers, irregularities, and
sudden shifts. If you read Figure 2.6 vertically, 0
you can see how income varies by race and White African White African
males American females American
sex within each level of education. If you read males females
the table horizontally, you can see how in-
come varies with educational attainment for Note: These figures include the total money income of full-time and part-time workers,
ages 18 and over, surveyed as of March 2000.
white males, African American males, white fe- a In terms of highest grade completed.
males, and African American females. What is
the advantage of presenting this information as Figure 2.7 Median Annual Income by
a graph, as in Figure 2.7? What is the disadvan- Gender, Race, and Education
tage of using a graph?
8. Draw conclusions from your own observa- Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census.
tions. Looking carefully at these figures, write
a narrative paragraph that summarizes your
conclusions based on the data presented in
these figures.
50 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

Section
Causation in Science
2 K e y

• causation
T e r m s

• independent variable
• multiple causation • dependent variable
• variable • intervening variable
• quantitative variable • correlation
• qualitative variable • spurious correlation

Section The Nature of Causation

Preview
S cientists assume that an event occurs for a reason. According to the
concept of causation, events occur in predictable, nonrandom ways.

C ausation in science is the

idea that one event leads
to another event. Scientists
One event leads to another. Why does this book remain sitting on your desk
rather than rising slowly, going past your eyes, and resting against the ceil-
ing? Why does a ball thrown into the air return to the ground? Why do the
assume that all events have planets stay in orbit around the sun? Today, the main goal of scientists is to
causes, or determinants. discover the factors that cause events to happen. Social scientists look for the
Social events are so complex, factors that cause social events to happen.
however, that many factors Why do sociologists look for multiple causes? Leo Rosten, a
may be identified as causes. twentieth-century novelist, once wrote “If an explanation relies on a single
Three standards must be met cause, it is surely wrong.” Social events are generally
before causation can be too complex to be explained by any single factor.
proved. The concept of multiple causation states that
an event occurs as a result of several fac-
tors working in combination. What,
for example, causes crime? Cesare
Lombroso, a nineteenth-century
Italian criminologist, mistakenly
causation believed that the tendency to
the belief that events occur in commit crimes was inherited.
predictable ways and that one Criminals, he thought, could be
event leads to another identified by certain physical traits
such as large jaws or receding
foreheads. Modern criminolo-
gists have shown that many
multiple causation
factors contribute to crime, in-
the belief that an event occurs
as a result of several factors
cluding peer pressure, the use
working in combination of drugs, hopeless poverty,
and poor parenting. Each of
these single factors is
called a variable.

What is the cause and effect in this

interaction?
 Chapter 2 Sociologists Doing Research 51

World View The Wired World

This world map shows the number of telephone
mainlines per one hundred people for the year 2000.
It illustrates the creation of a quantitative variable
that could be used in social research.

Projected Number of
Telephone Mainlines
North
Nor th Europe
Europe per 100 People
America Over 70
Asia 51–70
31–50
11–30
Under 11
No data

Africa
South
America

Australia

Interpreting the Map

1. Explain why the data in this map constitutes a quantitative variable.
2. What would need to be done with the data to make it a qualitative variable?
3. If you were to use the number of telephone mainlines per 100 people as a research variable, to
which sociological variable would you most likely relate it? Would it be a dependent or inde-
pendent variable? Explain.

Adapted from the Macmillan Atlas of the Future. New York: Macmillan, 1998.

Variables and Correlations

A variable is a characteristic—such as age, education, or occupation— variable
that is subject to change.Variables can be quantitative or qualitative, inde- a characteristic that is subject
pendent or dependent. to change
How do variables differ? Some materials have greater density than
others. Some people have higher incomes than others. The literacy rate is quantitative variable
higher in developed countries than in developing countries. Each of these a characteristic that can be
characteristics is a quantitative variable, a variable that can be measured measured numerically
and given a numerical value.
In contrast, a qualitative variable is identified by membership in a cat-
egory. It is an “either/or” or a “yes/no” variable. Sex, marital status, and qualitative variable
a characteristic that is defined
group membership are three qualitative variables often used by sociologists.
by its presence or absence in a
People are either male or female; they are married or unmarried; they are
category
band members, football players, sophomores—or they are not.
52 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives
When they conduct studies, sociologists and other scientists identify the qual-
itative and quantitative variables to investigate. They then define these variables
independent variable as either independent or dependent. The independent variable in a study is
a characteristic that causes the variable that causes something to occur. The researcher changes, or looks
something to occur for changes, in this variable. The dependent variable is what results from the
change in the independent variable. For example, you might look at the time
spent studying for a test as an independent variable that could cause a change
dependent variable in a grade—a dependent variable. The independent variable of poverty is one
a characteristic that reflects a of several independent variables that can produce a change in the dependent
change variable of hunger. Whether a variable is dependent or independent can change
depending on the situation. The extent of hunger may be a dependent variable
in a study of poverty; it may be an independent variable in a study of crime.
intervening variable An intervening variable influences the relationship between an indepen-
a variable that changes the dent and a dependent variable. The existence of a government support pro-
relationship between an gram, for example, may intervene between poverty and hunger. If a strong
independent and a dependent safety net exists, for instance, very poor parents and their children may experi-
variable ence no more hunger than those in the working class. Poverty is the cause of
hunger but does not have to be if government intervention in the form of in-
come and food exists. The poor without a safety net will experience more
hunger. The poor with a safety net will not.
correlation What is a correlation? A correlation is simply a measure of how
a measure of the relationship things are related to one another. When a change in a trait, behavior, or an
between two variables event (independent variable) is tied to a change in another trait, behavior, or
event (dependent variable), a correlation exists. The correlation may be pos-
itive or negative.
A positive correlation exists if both the independent variable and the de-
pendent variable change in the same direction. A positive correlation exists
if we find that grades (dependent variable) improve as study time increases
(independent variable). (See Figure 2.8.)

Positive Negative
Correlation Correlation
H H
(independent variable)

(independent variable)
Time spent studying

watching television
Time spent

L L
L H L H
Grades Grades
(dependent variable) (dependent variable)

Figure 2.8 Positive and Negative Correlations

In a positive correlation, increases in the independent In a negative correlation, increases in the independent
variable are associated with increases in the dependent variable are associated with decreases in the dependent
variable. Grades improve with time spent studying. variable. Grades decrease as time spent watching televi-
sion increases.
 Chapter 2 Sociologists Doing Research 53

“In the social sciences we hardly use numbers, but

we can write long, complicated sentences.”

The man in this cartoon believes social science research is not very
scientific. What do you think?

In a negative correlation, the variables change in opposite directions. An in-

crease in the independent variable is linked to a decrease in the dependent vari-
able. A negative correlation exists if we find that grades (dependent variable)
go down as time spent watching television (independent variable) increases.
It is very important to remember that the existence of a correlation does
not necessarily mean a cause-and-effect relationship exists. People with long
arms often have long legs. However, the length of a person’s arms does not

“
cause the legs to grow longer. Both of these variables are controlled by other
factors. It is much easier to show a correlation between two variables than it
is to show causation.
It is the sample that we
observe, but it is the
Standards for Showing Causation population which we
In a causal relationship, one variable actually causes the other to occur. seek to know.
Three standards are commonly used to determine causal relationships. Let’s
look at the example of church attendance and juvenile delinquency dis- William G. Cochran
cussed on page 5 to illustrate these standards.
❖ Standard 1: Two variables must be correlated. Some researchers found
“
statistician

that juvenile delinquency increases as church attendance declines—a

negative correlation. Does this negative correlation mean that not
attending church causes higher delinquency? To answer this question,
the second standard of causality must be met.
❖ Standard 2: All other possible factors must be taken into account. The
fact that two events are correlated does not mean that one causes the
other. The negative correlation between church attendance and
delinquency occurs because age is related to both church attendance
(older adolescents attend church less frequently) and delinquency (older
adolescents are more likely to be delinquents). In fact, the correlation
54 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

Another
Time Reason and Science

Seventeenth-century Europe was an exciting place ously involved in scientific studies now took up
for those interested in using scientific methods in the telescope and saw for themselves the nature of
the search for truth. Copernicus was an as- the new Copernican universe. Astronomy, by
tronomer who held that the sun was at the center virtue of the telescope and Galileo’s compelling
of the solar system. Traditional belief at the time
writings, became of vital interest to more than
placed the earth at the center. Galileo sought to
replace traditional myths with new knowledge
specialists. Successive generations of late
based on reason and observation. This is one es- Renaissance and post-Renaissance Europeans, in-
sential aspect of the scientific method. creasingly willing to doubt the absolute authority
of traditional doctrines both ancient and ecclesias-

I n 1609, . . . Galileo turned his recently con-

structed telescope to the heavens, and through
his startling observations made available to astron-
tical, were finding the Copernican theory not only
plausible but liberating. A new celestial world was
opening up to the Western mind, just as a new ter-
omy the first qualitatively new evidence it had restrial world was being opened by the global ex-
known since the ancients. And each of his observa- plorers.
tions—the craters and mountains on the surface of
Source: Excerpted from The Passion of the Western Mind.
the Moon, the moving spots on the Sun, the four
Copyright, © 1993 by Richard Tarnas. Reprinted by
moons revolving around Jupiter, the phases of
permission of Ballantine Books, a Division of Random
Venus, the “unbelievably” numerous individual stars
House, Inc.
of the Milky Way—
was interpreted by
Galileo as powerful Thinking It Over
evidence in favor of 1. Can you analyze two important effects that
the Copernican he- the scientific revolution fueled by Galileo has
liocentric [sun-cen- had on individual behavior in the West?
tered] theory. 2. How did Galileo employ the sociological
. . . Many indi- imagination in his work?
viduals not previ-

between lower church attendance and delinquency is known as a

spurious correlation—an apparent relationship between two variables
that is actually caused by a third variable affecting both of the other
variables. Thus, before we can predict that a causal relationship exists
between church attendance and delinquency, we need to take other
factors into consideration. In this instance, the age variable reveals that
the relationship between church attendance and delinquency is not a
causal one. Finding hidden causes and exposing spurious correlations is
one of the greatest challenges in scientific research.
spurious correlation ❖ Standard 3: A change in the independent variable must occur before a
a relationship between two change in the dependent variable can occur. This means that the cause
variables that is actually must occur before the effect. Do people stop attending church before
caused by a third factor they become delinquents? Or does delinquent behavior occur before
people stop attending church? Or do these variables appear at the same
time? Even if age was not a factor in this correlation and no other
factor could be found, causality between these two variables still could
not be established since it cannot be determined which occurs first.
 Chapter 2 Sociologists Doing Research 55
Figure 2.9 A Spurious
Correlation As you read on
page 54, the correlation between
juvenile delinquency and not
attending church is a spurious
correlation.
Less church More
attendance delinquency

Increased
age

Less church More

attendance delinquency

Section 2 Assessment
Match terms a–i with the numbered statements below.
1. something that occurs in a. causation
varying degrees b. multiple causation
2. the variable in which a c. variable
change or effect is observed d. quantitative variable
3. a change in one variable e. qualitative variable
associated with a change f. independent variable
in another variable g. dependent variable
4. the idea that an event occurs h. correlation
as a result of several factors
i. spurious correlation
operating in combination
5. a factor that causes something
to happen
6. the idea that the occurrence of one event leads to the occurrence of
another event
7. a factor consisting of categories
8. when a relationship between two variables is actually the result of a
third variable
9. a variable measured in numerical units

Critical Thinking
10. Making Comparisons In your own words, explain the difference
between correlations and causation. Illustrate each with an example
not found in the text.
56 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

Secondary Analysis:
A Model for Research
Emile Durkheim was the first person to be formally recognized as a
sociologist. (See pp. 16–17 for more on this pioneer.) He was also the
most scientific of the pioneers. Durkheim conducted a study that stands
as a classic research model for sociologists today. His investigation of
suicide was, in fact, the first sociological study to use statistics. In
Suicide (1964, originally published in 1897), Durkheim argued that some
aspects of human behavior—even something as personal as suicide—
can be explained on the societal level, without reference to individuals.
To carry out his secondary analysis, Durkheim used precollected
data from the government population reports of several countries. Much
of it was from the French government statistical office. He collected data
for approximately 26,000 suicides and classified them by age, sex, mar-
ital status, whether there were children in the family, religion, location,
time of year, method of suicide, and other factors. (And all this before
there were computers!) As he gathered his data, he continually refined
and adjusted his hypotheses.
Durkheim wanted to see if suicide rates were related to how socially
involved individuals felt. He identified three suicide types in his study:
egoistic, altruistic, and anomic.
He hypothesized that egoistic suicide increases when individuals do
not have sufficient social ties. For example, he proposed that adults
who never married and were not heavily involved with family life were
more likely to commit suicide than married adults.

Map A—Suicide Rates for the

Year 1997

Deaths per
Source: National Vital 100,000 Population
Statistics Reports, from the Above average: 14.4 or more
Centers for Disease Average: 10.5 to 14.3
Control and Prevention, Below average: 10.4 or fewer
1999.
 Chapter 2 Sociologists Doing Research 57

Map B—People Per

Square Mile
Source: Lisa Thomas, Student Atlas, New York: DK
Publishing, 1998, p. 39.

He also predicted that altruistic suicide was more likely to occur

People per Square Mile
when social ties are too strong. The mass suicides of cult members is Above 1,300
one example. Military personnel trained to lay down their lives for their 260–1,299
countries (such as Japanese kamikaze pilots) is another illustration. 130–259
26–129
Durkheim also thought that anomic suicide increased when existing Below 25
social ties were broken. For example, suicide rates spike during eco-
nomic depressions. People suddenly without jobs are more prone to kill
themselves. Suicide may also increase during periods of prosperity.
People may loosen their social ties by taking new jobs, moving to new
communities, or finding new mates.
Durkheim found strong support for his predictions. Suicide rates
were higher among unmarried than married people and among military
personnel than civilians. They were also higher among people involved
in nationwide economic crises.
As a result of his study, Durkheim drew several important
conclusions. First, social behavior can be explained by social rather
than psychological factors. Second, suicide is affected by the closeness
of social ties. Finally, society can be studied scientifically, and sociology
is worthy of academic recognition (Ritzer, 1996).

Working with the Research

1. Emile Durkheim’s study of suicide suggested that one factor in
the suicide rate is the degree to which the individual has group
ties. One indication of social ties is population density. Based
on Map B, where would you expect to find the highest suicide
rates in the United States? Does Map A agree with your
predictions?
2. Durkheim noted that “psychological explanations are insuffi-
cient when analyzing social behavior.” In your own words, tell
what this statement means.
3. Which perspective do you think Durkheim followed in his study
of suicide: the functionalist, the conflict, or the symbolic inter-
actionist? Give reasons for your answer.
4. Using what you have learned from Durkheim’s research, formu-
late a hypothesis about mass suicide.
58 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

Section Procedures and Ethics

3 in Research
K e y T e r m s

• scientific method • hypothesis

Section Steps for Doing Research

Preview
S cientists use a research model known as the scientific method. It in-
volves the pursuit of knowledge in a systematic way. As shown in

T he research process is
made up of several dis-
tinct steps. These steps rep-
Figure 2.10 on the following page, the steps in the scientific method include
identifying a problem, reviewing the literature, formulating hypotheses, de-
veloping a research design, collecting data, analyzing data, and stating find-
resent an ideal for scientific ings and conclusions.
research. It is not always nec- 1. Identify the Problem. Researchers begin by choosing an object or
essary or even possible that topic for study. Most topics are chosen because they interest the
they always be strictly fol- researcher, address a social problem, test a major theory, or respond to
lowed. Researchers have an a government agency’s or organization’s needs.
ethical obligation to protect 2. Review the Literature. Once the object or topic of study has been
participants’ privacy and to identified, the researcher must find out all he or she can about any earlier
avoid deceiving or harming research. This process is called a literature search. For example, a
them. Preserving the rights of sociologist investigating suicide will probably develop an approach related
subjects must sometimes be to the classic study of suicide by Emile Durkheim, as well as to the work
weighed against the value of of other sociologists who have since researched the topic.
the knowledge to be gained. 3. Formulate Hypotheses. The next step is for a sociologist to develop a
hypothesis based on what is known about the issue so far. A hypothesis
is a testable statement of relationships among well-defined variables. One
hypothesis might be “The longer couples are married, the less likely they
are to divorce.” The independent variable is length of marriage, and the
scientific method dependent variable is divorce.
the recognition and 4. Develop a Research Design. A research design states the procedures the
formulation of a problem, the researcher will follow for collecting and analyzing data. Will the study be a
collection of data through survey or a case study? If it is a survey, will data be collected from a cross-
observation and experiment,
section of an entire population, such as the Harris and Gallup polls, or will
and the formulation and
testing of hypotheses
a sample be selected from only one city? Will simple percentages or more
sophisticated statistical methods be used? These and many other questions
must be answered so the researcher will have a sound plan to follow.
5. Collect Data. There are three basic ways of gathering data in
hypothesis
sociological research—asking people questions, observing behavior, and
testable statement of
relationships among variables
analyzing existing materials and records. Sociologists studying interracial
marriages could question couples about ways they communicate. They
could locate an organization with a large number of interracially married
couples and observe couples’ behavior. Or they could compare the
divorce rate among interracially married couples with the divorce rate of
the population as a whole.
 Chapter 2 Sociologists Doing Research 59
6. Analyze Data. Once the data have been collected and classified, they
can be analyzed to determine whether the hypotheses are supported. It
is not unlike putting together pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. This is not as
easy or automatic as it sounds, because results are not always obvious.
Because the same data can be interpreted in several ways, judgments
have to be made. Guarding against personal preferences for particular
outcomes is especially important in this phase of research.
7. State Findings and Conclusions. After analyzing the data, a
researcher is ready to state the conclusions of the study. It is during STEP 7: Stating findings and conclusions
STEP 6: Analyzing data
this phase that the methods are described (for example, survey, case
STEP 5: Collecting data
study) and hypotheses are formally accepted, rejected, or modified.
STEP 4: Developing a research design
By making the research procedures public, scientists make it
possible for others to duplicate the research, conduct a slightly STEP 3: Formulating hypotheses
modified study, or go in a very different direction. STEP 2: Reviewing the literature

Realistically, do sociologists follow these steps? Some STEP 1: Identifying a problem

sociologists believe that this research model is too rigid to be used
in studying human society. Even though most sociologists do follow the Figure 2.10 Steps in the
model, they do not necessarily follow it mechanically. They may conduct ex- Research Process
ploratory studies prior to stating hypotheses and developing research de-
signs. Or they may change their hypotheses and research designs as their
investigations proceed.

Ethics in Social Research

Research is a distinctly human activity. Although there are
principles for conducting research, such as objectivity and
verifiability, scientists sometimes fail to live up to these prin-
ciples. At times, even the ethics of research is not honored by
researchers.
Unfortunately, there is a long list of examples of ethical
lapses in medical research. During the Nuremberg trials, 16 Nazi
doctors were convicted of conducting sadistic experiments on
concentration camp inmates. From 1932 to 1972, the Public
Health Service of the U.S. government deliberately did not treat
399 syphilitic African American agricultural workers and day la-
borers so that biomedical researchers could study the full evolu-
tion of the disease ( Jones, 1993). For twenty years, researchers at
Germany’s University of Heidelberg used human corpses, those of
adults and children, in high-speed automobile crash tests (Fedarko,
1993). Federal investigators in the United States have documented
over ten years of fraud in some of the most important breast cancer
research ever done (Crewdson, 1994).
Several social scientists, also, have been criticized for conducting research
that many scientists consider unethical. In each case, subjects were placed in
It is generally thought that using
stressful situations without being informed of the true nature of the experi-
human corpses in automobile crash
ments (See pages 144 and 188 for a discussion of two of these studies). tests is unethical. Do you agree?
More often, however, sociologists routinely protect the rights of research sub-
jects and avoid deceiving or harming them. For example, Mario Brajuha, a grad-
uate student at a major American university, kept detailed field notes while doing
a participant observation study of restaurant work (Brajuha and Hallowell, 1986).
60 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

A recent episode of NBC’s Today show featured a segment about a

Louisiana woman whose male neighbor had secretly installed
video cameras in her bedroom and bathroom. Because of the cameras,
the neighbor was able to secretly observe this woman in her most pri-
vate moments. While researchers have been observing subjects for
many years, it is alarming that this immoral and extremely illegal use of
technology is now within the financial range and technical ability of
many people.
Some sociologists and psychologists are concerned about the
Has ethics of videotaping research subjects.
One of the requirements of the Code of Ethics of the American
Sociological Association found in the Appendix is to protect the pri-
Technology vacy of research subjects. Imagine, then, that a sociologist came to
your school to conduct research and asked permission to place video
cameras in the hallways, classrooms, and cafeteria. Do you think that
Made permission from school administrators would be enough to meet this
requirement? How would you respond to this request? What if every
student in the school gave permission for the cameras? How would
Privacy you feel if you gave your permission, but then did something really silly
or wrong in front of one of the cameras?
Lawsuits have been filed in some states by workers after discovering
Obsolete? that their employers had installed hidden cameras in rest rooms or
changing rooms to help reduce high levels of employee theft. Managers
claim that dishonest employees often use these
areas to hide company products in their purses or
bags. Workers argue that they are entitled to ex-
pect a minimum level of privacy and that hidden
cameras violate that expectation. But, objects
management, if workers know the cameras are
there, they won’t be caught. Similarly, if re-
searchers begin videotaping with the consent of
their subjects, will they get a true record of be-
havior? If they do not advise their subjects of the
taping, what happens if a criminal act is
recorded? Do the researchers have an obligation
to release the tape to the authorities? Ethical is-
sues will continue to arise as technology allows in-
vestigators to invade areas where custom and
culture had prevented them from going.

Analyzing the Trends

Develop an argument for or against the use of video equipment in a
sociological research project. Be sure to use logical arguments and
evaluate the issues of maximizing benefits to society while minimizing
the harms sociological work might create.
 Chapter 2 Sociologists Doing Research 61
Because of suspected arson at a restaurant where he was employed as a waiter,
his field notes became an object of interest to the police, the district attorney, the
courts, and some suspects. For two years, Brajuha refused to reveal the contents
of his field notes to the police. He did so in the face of a subpoena, the threat of
imprisonment, and possible harm to himself, his wife, and his children. Brajuha
was protecting the privacy rights of those individuals described in his notes.
What is sociology’s code of ethics? Conducting ethical research
means showing objectivity; using superior research standards; reporting find-
ings and methods truthfully; and protecting the rights, privacy, integrity, dig-
nity, and freedom of research subjects. The American Sociological Association
has published guidelines for conducting research. (This code has been re-
produced in full in the Appendix of this text.) Briefly put, the Code of Ethics
is concerned with getting the greatest possible benefit with the least possible
“
The world has achieved
brilliance without con-
science. Ours is a world
harm.
Can researchers act ethically and still get the information they of nuclear giants and eth-
need? Sometimes acting ethically is difficult. The researcher must some- ical infants.
times make hard decisions about morally questionable issues, such as the sit-
uation in which Mario Brajuha found himself. Moreover, the researcher must Omar Bradley
balance the interests of those being studied against the need for accurate,
timely data. Balance is the key to the issue of ethics. At the least, the people
“
American general
involved in sociological research should be protected from social, financial,
or psychological damage or legal prosecution.

Section 3 Assessment
1. The steps below describe a research project on children without
brothers or sisters (“only” children). Put steps a–g in order of how they
would occur according to the steps in the research process.
a. A researcher reads many articles about theory and research on the
intelligence level of only children.
b. From previous research and existing theory, a researcher states that
only children appear to be more intelligent than children with siblings.
c. A researcher collects data on only children from a high school in a
large city.
d. A researcher writes a report giving evidence that only children are
more intelligent than children with brothers or sisters.
e. A researcher decides to study the intelligence level of only children.
f. A researcher classifies and processes the data collected in order to
test a hypothesis.
g. A researcher decides on the data needed to test a hypothesis, the
methods for data collection, and the techniques for data analysis.

Critical Thinking
2. Drawing Conclusions What issues in studying society might interfere
with following the scientific method precisely?
3. Analyzing Information Can secret observation of people ever be
considered ethical? Why or why not?
62 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

Sociology Should You Believe

Today Everything You Read?
It is sometimes said that we are living in the “age of instant informa-
tion.” One unfortunate side effect is the tendency for studies and re-
search results to be reported in the media without background or
explanation. There are, however, some easy steps you can follow that
will make you a savvy consumer in the information marketplace.
Be Skeptical. Be suspicious of what you read. The media sound-
bite treatment tends to sensationalize and distort information. For exam-
ple, the media may report that $500,000 was spent to find out that love
keeps families together. In fact, this may have been only one small part
of a larger research project. Moreover, chances are the media have over-
simplified even this part of the researcher’s conclusions.
Consider the Source of Information. The credibility of a study may
be affected by who paid for the results. For example, you should know
whether a study on the relationship between cancer and tobacco has been sponsored by the tobacco in-
dustry or by the American Cancer Society. Suppose that representatives of tobacco companies denied
the existence of any research linking throat and mouth cancer with snuff dipping. Further suppose that
an independent medical researcher concluded that putting a “pinch between your cheek and gum” has,
in the long run, led to cancer in humans. The self-interest of the tobacco companies taints their objectiv-
ity and requires further investigation on your part.
At the very least, you want to know the source of information before making a judgment about
scientific conclusions. This caution is especially relevant to the Internet. Because this information
varies widely in its accuracy and reliability, sources must be evaluated with particular care.
Do Not Mistake Correlation for Causation. Remember that a correlation between two vari-
ables does not mean that one caused the other. At one time, the percentage of Americans who
smoked was increasing at the same time that life expectancy was increasing. Did this mean that
smoking caused people to live longer? Actually, a third factor—improved health care—accounted for
the increased life expectancy. Do not assume that two events are related causally just because they
occur together.

Doing Sociology
Bring to class an article reporting on a study. These can be found in periodicals or weekly news
magazines. Be prepared to share with your classmates how these three safeguards can be applied to
the reported study.
 CHAPTER 2 ASSESSMENT
Summary Reviewing Vocabulary

Complete each sentence using each term once.

Section 1: Research Methods
a. causation h. qualitative variable
Main Idea: When sociologists do quantitative re- b. code of ethics i. quantitative
search, they generally use either surveys or pre-
c. correlation variable
collected data. Each has its own advantages and
disadvantages. Qualitative research uses descrip- d. dependent variable j. representative
tive rather than numerical data. Field studies are e. field research sample
best used when interaction needs to be observed f. independent k. scientific method
in a natural setting and when in-depth analysis is variable l. secondary analysis
needed. The case study is the most popular ap- g. multiple causation
proach to field research.
1. A variable that can be measured and given a
Section 2: Causation In Science numerical value is called a .
2. states that an event occurs as a
Main Idea: Causation in science is the idea that result of several factors working in combination.
one event leads to another event. Scientists as-
sume that all events have causes, or determinants. 3. The use of existing information as a method of
Sociologists work to discover these causes. Three collecting data best describes .
standards must be met before causation can be 4. A random sample that accurately reflects the
proved. whole population is called .
5. The is a research principle that
Section 3: Procedures and Ethics In Research is concerned with achieving the greatest possi-
ble benefit with the last possible harm.
Main Idea: The research process is made up of
6. The idea that events occur in predictable ways,
several distinct steps. These steps represent an
with one event leading to another, is called
ideal for scientific research. It is not always nec-
.
essary or even possible that they always be strictly
followed. Researchers have an ethical obligation 7. is a measure of how things are
to protect participants’ privacy and to avoid de- related to one another.
ceiving or harming them. Preserving the rights of 8. is a variable identified by
subjects must sometimes be weighed against the membership in a category.
value of the knowledge to be gained. 9. The steps that include identifying a problem, re-
viewing the literature, and collecting data are
part of the .
10. is used to investigate aspects
of social life that cannot be measured quantita-
tively and are best understood in a natural
Self-Check Quiz setting.
Visit the Sociology and You 11. is a variable in which change
Web site at soc.glencoe.com has occurred.
and click on Chapter 2—Self- 12. A variable that causes something to occur is
Check Quizzes to prepare for called .
the chapter test.

63
CHAPTER 2 ASSESSMENTCHAPTER 2
Reviewing the Facts 2. Identifying Alternatives Identify the methods
of research you would use if you wanted to
study the effects of alcoholism on the work
1. If a sociologist wanted to study high school force. Explain why you would use this method.
cliques, what would be the best method for col- Briefly describe how you might conduct the re-
lecting data? Support your choice by giving two search.
benefits of using this method. 3. Drawing Conclusions Figure 2.6 on page 49
2. Examine Figures 2.6 and 2.7 on page 49 show- indicates that males make more money on aver-
ing median annual income by sex, race and ed- age than females. Some sociologists would tell
ucation. What is the scientific name given for you that pregnancy contributes to the variations
this type of information? in male’s vs. female’s income earnings. What
3. Donna Gaines, a sociologist, studied teen sui- variables might explain this conclusion?
cides and reported her findings in a book, 4. Synthesizing Information Rock musician
Teenage Wasteland: Suburbia’s Dead End Kids. Kurt Cobain, of the band Nirvana, committed
She found several suicides that were committed suicide in 1994. In the years that Cobain was
by teens in a group. How might Emile Durkeim growing up in the state of Washington, the sui-
classify or describe this type of suicide? cide rate there was higher than that of many
4. Sociologist Elijah Anderson studied gangs in other states. (It has since decreased.) What vari-
Philadelphia. In order to do that, he had to ables would you look at to examine a state’s
take off his shirt and tie and dress like the suicide rate?
young men he was going to study. What is the 5. Drawing Conclusions You have been as-
name of the method of research that Anderson signed a research project in a high school.
used here? Using the American Sociological Association’s
5. What are the seven steps in the scientific Code of Ethics (found at the back of the book),
method? what considerations would first have to be
6. Survey research is obtained through the use of made? Using a diagram similar to the one
questionnaires and interviews containing below, list and discuss the steps that you be-
closed-ended questions and/or open-ended lieve would be necessary to ensure the privacy
questions. Using a table like the one below, list of the student participants.
the advantages and disadvantages of open-
ended survey research. STEPS TO ENSURE PRIVACY OF PARTICIPANTS

Advantages Disadvantages

Thinking Critically
1. Applying Concepts In this chapter you read Sociology Projects
about positive and negative correlations. Give
two examples each of relationships that you 1. Qualitative Research In order to strengthen
suspect may be positive and negative correla- your skills in qualitative research, perform the
tions. For example, you may propose that an following activity. Look around your classroom
increase in income is positively correlated to in- and select an object that you see in the room,
creased dining out. such as a blackboard eraser. Imagine that you
have never seen this object before and have no

64
 Chapter 2—galleys Sociologists Doing Research 65

idea what it is or what it is used for. Write a throughs or that publicize results of social stud-
brief description of the object in terms of its ies. Analyze them by asking the following
physical nature, but do not try to determine its questions:
function. In this exercise, you are simply mak-
a. What claims or promises were made in the
ing an observation. Compare your description
article?
with those of your classmates.
b. What actual quotes by the researchers were
2. Conducting a Research Study Write a pro-
included, if any?
posal for a study that you would like to see
conducted at your school. You must decide c. Was the article well documented? Did it
how you will conduct the research. Will it be a provide source information?
survey, interview, or observation? Follow the d. Were there any “disclaimers,” or warnings
standards set out in the textbook on pages about the results not being proven, or more
58–59, indicating variables, research design, hy- testing needing to be done? If so, where
pothesis, and a review of the literature if possi- were these cautionary words placed in the
ble. Include information on how you will article?
identify your sample population. Also include e. What is your opinion about the actions of
sample questions (open or closed). Be prepared the reporter? Do you think he or she was
to present this study to your class “ethics board” journalistically responsible, or do you think
for approval. the article was an attempt to grab headlines?
3. Quantitative Research Try this quantitative re- 6. Filtering Some high schools are concerned
search project at home. Over the next few days about Internet use by high school students and
or nights, watch three television shows, each at are considering filtering, a process that blocks
least thirty minutes long. For the purpose of this access to web sites that have certain words or
activity, the programs you select should be phrases in their text. Some teachers are
prime-time dramas for mature audiences. Record concerned that this imposed censorship will
the number of times a person or animal is sub- hamper student research, since the filtering
jected to physical violence. Remember that process looks for words only and generally
physical violence is everything from shoving to does not evaluate the context in which the
shooting. When you have finished collecting word is used. Choose a partner to debate the
your data, create a graph that illustrates the issue of Internet filtering in high schools.
number of violent acts for the shows that you Develop arguments that support your position
watched. You have just done quantitative re- of being in favor of or against high school
search and you will probably be amazed at the Internet filtering. Support your arguments with
results. research.
4. Observation Find a place in your town or
neighborhood that has a four-way stop sign.
Find a place to observe that is not immediately
Technology Activity
noticeable from the street. Observe how many
people come to a full stop, how long people 1. Visit an Internet site on a current events topic
stop, and how people yield for each other. You that interests you. Using the criteria for
might want to see if women yield more for men determining a valid web resource found on
than other women and if older people yield pages 47–48, determine if your site qualifies. If
more than younger people. Record your obser- not, keep searching for a related site until you
vations and share it with classmates. See if you find one that meets the criteria. Bring your
can determine any patterns from what may ap- recommended URL to class to create a database
parently be random behaviors. of great current events sites.
5. Analyzing Information Collect newspaper ar-
ticles that announce medical or health break-
65
66 Unit 1 Sociological Perspectives

Chapter 2

Enrichment Reading
School Talk
by Donna Eder
This excerpt describes research methods and ethical issues in a well-known study of middle-
school culture.

Collecting data on students’ experiences. three-year period of the study. We were able to
We used a variety of means to collect data on stu- take some notes during these events, since our
dents’ experiences with peers in school. All four roles were more those of observers than partici-
researchers observed lunchtime interaction at least pants. Afterward, we expanded on these notes
twice weekly for periods of time ranging from five and recorded them fully.
months to twelve months. We never took notes Once we had been in the setting for several
openly during the lunch period, but sometimes months, we began doing informal interviews
recorded brief notes in the bathroom or hallway with individuals or groups of students on issues
between lunch sessions. These notes were that arose from our observations. They included
expanded upon and all notes were questions about the meaning of popularity, atti-
recorded fully immediately after tudes toward other students in the school, and
leaving the setting. views on male-female relationships. While some
Donna Eder and Steve were so informal they were simply recorded as
Parker also attended field notes, ten of the more extensive interviews
male and female were tape-recorded and transcribed in full.
extracurricular activities Finally, we tape-recorded conversations in
twice weekly for an entire most of the lunch groups which we observed.
academic year. Given the Typically, we sat with the group members for three
importance of athletic ac- to seven months prior to taping them, so they were
tivities and cheerleading, already used to our presence. We got written per-
we focused primarily on mission from both the students and their parents
them, going to athletic before we made a recording. On the permission
games and practices, forms we assured them that no one who knew
pep rallies, and them would be able to listen to or watch the tapes.
cheerleading prac- We also told them that their real names would not
tices and be used in any written report. To further insure the
tryouts. In addition, participants’ privacy, we have also changed all
we observed choir names of identifying locations and modified dis-
and band practices cussions about particular people or events. Only
and concerts, talent one parent requested that her daughter not partic-
shows, and the one ipate in the study. Since she could not be asked to
school play that was separate from her group, we decided to omit the
performed during the entire group from the study. . . .
 Chapter 2 Sociologists Doing Research 67

Ethical issues. When we first began the such as not participating What Does it Mean
study, we openly informed all of the students themselves, or drawing
that we were from Indiana University and were the attention of others
away from the target of extracurricular
doing a study of middle school students. We as-
sured students of our concern with protecting ridicule to some other after school; beyond the
activity. normal school courses
their privacy by not using their actual names or
revealing private information to others who These incidents raise interventionist
might know them. The only concern expressed challenging questions someone who gets
by a few students was that they not get in trou- about the role of re- involved to make a
ble for swearing. Since we were not aware of a searchers as observers change
no-swearing rule and had not been asked to en- of naturally occurring non-intrusive
force it, they soon lost this concern. Several stu- behavior, as opposed to not obviously noticeable;
dents again expressed a similar concern when interventionists who non-threatening
they were first tape-recorded, asking us who try to change the behav-
transcribed
would be allowed to hear the tapes. We assured ior of others, especially
if it appears to be cruel made a written copy; put
them that the tapes would not be seen or heard
into written form
by anyone who could identify them and that we or abusive. Had we de-
would not use their names in papers or books cided to intervene more
about the study. directly, we would have been seen as authority
We were prepared in advance for these par- figures, and it is likely that students would no
ticular ethical issues and had ready responses longer have acted as naturally in our presence,
that relieved people’s concerns. Other ethical thus limiting the extent to which we could gain
dilemmas arose during the course of the study information about peer interactions. On the other
for which we did not have clear solutions. [Two hand, it was deeply disturbing to the researchers
of the researchers] . . . witnessed several inci- to witness these events without intervening. We
dents of verbal harassment, and Steve witnessed struggled with the question of whether noninter-
one incident that included physical harassment. vention might convey an implicit message that
Since we had tried from the start to minimize our such behavior is acceptable to adults.
roles as authority figures in the school, neither of Source: Donna Eder, School Talk, New Brunswick, N.J.:
them intervened as adults to stop these incidents. Rutgers University Press, 1995, pp. 172–175.
Instead they relied on non-intrusive strategies

Read and React

1. In the first paragraph, the author writes that the observers did not openly take notes. Wouldn’t
it make more sense to take notes while the events were happening? Why would the observers
wait to record their observations?
2. What do you think the author means by the term field notes in the third paragraph?
3. What steps did the research team take to ensure that the students’ privacy rights were not
abused?
4. What ethical problems did the researchers face in the course of their observations? Would you
have taken the same steps as the researchers? What other action could have been taken?
UNIT 2

68
CULTURE AND
SOCIAL STRUCTURES
Chapter 3
Culture
Chapter 4
Socialization
Chapter 5
Social Structure
and Society
Chapter 6
Groups and Formal
Organizations
Chapter 7
Deviance and Social Control

Enrichment Readings
Chapter 3 – James Gilbert
“Cultural Explanations for
Teen Violence,” page 106
Chapter 4 – NCTA Report on
Television Violence, page 136
Chapter 5 – Wayne S. Wooden
“Social Functions of Malls,” page 168
Chapter 6 – George Ritzer
“The McDonaldization of Society,”
page 200
Chapter 7 – Elijah Anderson
“The Police and the Black Male,”
page 236

69
CHAPTER 3
Culture

70
 U
S Your Sections
I Sociological 1. The Basis of Culture
N Imagination
G 2. Language and Culture
Norms and Values
T he crowing rooster wakes Jabu very 3.
early. Her mother has already carried
a bucket of water from the communi- 4. Beliefs and Material
ty tap and put it on the fire to heat. Bread
wrapped in newspaper and lying on the
Culture
ground is ready to cut and spread with jam.
Jabu wraps her crying baby brother in a
5. Cultural Diversity and
blanket and ties him on her back, soothing Similarity
him with a melody as she begins her chores.
The goats must be milked and the cattle
need to be watered and let loose to graze.
After her chores, Jabu quickly washes up and
dons her school uniform. Her friends are Learning Objectives
waiting for her on the dirt path. She gossips
and laughs with the girls as they half-walk, After reading this chapter, you will be able to
half-run the two miles to school. Jabu stops
❖ explain how culture and heredity affect
to greet a village elder who inquires after her
social behavior.
father who is working in the distant diamond
mines. By now she is worried because the ❖ describe how language and culture are
time is late. As she approaches the school, related.
Jabu sees that the daily school assembly has ❖ name the essential components of culture.
already begun. Unluckily, the headmistress
❖ discuss how cultural diversity is promoted
decides to set an example and calls Jabu up
front to slap her hand with a ruler. After
within a society.
singing hymns and the national anthem, Jabu ❖ understand the role of ethnocentrism in
moves quickly to her first class under a large society.
acacia tree in the courtyard. ❖ identify similarities in cultures around the
At first glance, Jabu’s life appears very dif- world.
ferent from yours. If you use your sociologi-
cal imagination to look beyond the surface
differences, though, you will see that both
you and Jabu attend school and church; obey
Chapter Overview
authority figures; and have strong family
Visit the Sociology and You Web site at
bonds, supportive friends, parents who work,
soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 3—
and ties to the larger community. When Chapter Overviews to preview chapter
sociologists look at societies around the information.
world they discover similar patterns in all
cultures. This chapter will look at the com-
mon elements that make up culture.
71
72 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Section
The Basis Of Culture
1 K e y

• culture
• society
T e r m s

• reflexes
• drives
• instincts • sociobiology

Section Culture and Society

Preview
C ulture consists of the knowledge, language, values, customs, and
physical objects that are passed from generation to generation among
C ulture defines how peo-
ple in a society behave
in relation to others and to
members of a group. On the material side, the culture of the United States
includes such physical objects as skyscrapers, fast-food restaurants, cell
phones, and cars. On the nonmaterial side, American culture includes
physical objects. Although beliefs, rules, customs, family systems, and a capitalist economy.
most behavior among ani- Culture helps to explain human social behavior. What people do and
mals is instinctual, human don’t do, what they like and dislike, what they believe and don’t believe, and
behavior is learned. Even what they value and discount are all based on culture. Culture provides the
reflexes and drives do not blueprint that people in a society use to guide their relationships with others.
completely determine how It is because of culture that teenage girls are encouraged to compete for a
humans will behave, because position on the women’s basketball team. It is from culture that teenage boys
come to believe that “pumping iron” is a gateway to masculinity.
people are heavily influenced
by culture.

culture
knowledge, values, customs,
and physical objects that are
shared by members of a
society

Coming from a different culture than that of the other sunbathers doesn't prevent this
Amish family from enjoying a day at the beach.
 Chapter 3 Culture 73
Culture and society are tightly interwoven. One cannot exist without the
other, but they are not identical. A society is a group of people who live in society
a defined territory and participate in a common culture. Culture is that soci- a specific territory inhabited
ety’s total way of life. by people who share a
Human behavior, then, is based on culture. Since people are not born common culture
knowing their culture, human cultural behavior must be learned. In this
section we will examine the relative importance of biology in influencing
behavior.

Culture and Heredity

instincts
Instincts are genetically inherited patterns of behavior. Nonhuman animals,
innate (unlearned) patterns of
especially insects, are highly dependent on instincts for survival. Human behavior
infants, in contrast, cannot go very far on instincts alone. Instincts are not
enough to solve the problems that humans face.
Why is culture more important than instinct in determining
human behavior? If humans were controlled by instincts
alone, they would all behave in the same way with respect to those
instincts. If, for example, women had an instinct for mothering,
then all women would want children, and all women would love
and protect their children. In fact, some women do not want to
have children, and some women who give birth abuse or aban-
don their children.
Without instincts to dictate the type of shelter to build, the
kind of food to eat, the time of year to have children, or when to
mate, humans are forced to create and learn their own ways of
thinking, feeling, and behaving. Even for meeting basic needs such
as those involving reproduction, food, and survival, humans rely on
the culture they have created.
How does heredity affect behavior? Of course, culture is not
the only influence on human behavior. Genetic inheritance plays a
role. For example, you may have heard people argue about how much
of personality is a result of heredity and how much is the product of
the environment. (This is sometimes called the “nature versus nurture”
argument.) Using studies of identical twins, researchers have determined that Studies of identical twins show that
about half of your personality traits are determined by your genetic makeup about half of your personality traits
and about half by environmental factors (Tellegen et al., 1993). are inherited.
In addition, humans have reflexes—simple, biologically inherited, auto-
matic reactions to physical stimuli. A human baby, for example, cries when
pinched; the pupils of the eyes contract in bright light. We also have bio-
logically inherited drives, or impulses, to reduce discomfort. We want to eat,
drink, sleep, and associate with others.
You should realize, however, that genetically inherited personality traits,
reflex
reflexes, and drives do not control human social behavior. Culture channels automatic reaction to physical
the expression of these biological characteristics. Boys in some Native stimulus
American cultures, for example, are taught not to cry in response to pain.
This is very different from boys in Jewish and Italian cultures, who are taught drive
to pay more attention to physical discomfort and express it more openly impulse to reduce discomfort
(Zborowski, 1952, 1969).
74 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Sociobiology
sociobiology Sociobiology is the study of the biological basis of human behavior. It
the study of the biological combines Darwin’s theory of natural selection with modern genetics.
basis of human behavior
How do sociobiologists view human behavior? According to Darwin’s
theory of evolution, organisms evolve through natural selection. The plants
and animals best suited to an environment survive and reproduce, while the
rest perish. Sociobiologists assume that the behav-
iors that best help people are biologically
based and transmitted in the genetic code
(Degler, 1991; Wright, 1996). Behaviors
that would contribute to the survival of
the human species include parental
affection and care, friendship, sexual
reproduction, and the education of
children.
Sociobiologists do not draw a
sharp line between human and
nonhuman animals. They claim that
nonhuman animals also act on
knowledge—as when baboons use
long sticks to pull ants from an
anthill for a meal. Many non-
human animals, claim socio-
biologists, show intelligence
of a kind formerly thought
to be unique to humans,
such as the ability to use lan-
guage (Begley, 1993; Linden,
1993a).
What are some criti-
cisms of sociobiology?
The major criticism of socio-
Folds of skin around the eyelids of biology is that the impor-
this Inuit fisherman protect his eyes tance placed on genetics
from the sun’s glare off the ice and could be used as a justifica-
snow. tion to label specific races as
superior or inferior. Critics of
sociobiology also point out that there is too much variation in societies
around the world for human behavior to be explained on strictly biological
grounds. They believe that the capacity for using language is uniquely
human and that humans have created a social life that goes far beyond what
heredity alone could accomplish.
Is there a middle ground? Some common ground has emerged in this
debate. A growing body of sociologists believe that genes work with culture
in a complex way to shape and limit human nature and social life. They
would like this relationship to be further examined (Lopreato, 1990; Weingart,
1997; Konner, 1999).
A 1998 study found that women look for one set of characteristics in men
they marry while men value different characteristics in women (Buss,
 Chapter 3 Culture 75

DNA, the genetic material in all cells, is the molecular basis of heredity. Sociobiology
focuses on the relationship between heredity and human behavior.

Malamuth, and Windstad, 1998). The researchers believe this behavior is

programmed into the genetic code. Studies have also determined that step-
fathers are more likely than biological fathers to abuse their children (Daly
and Wilson, 1997). Is this because men are more protective of their own bio-
logical offspring? Because of the speed of discoveries in the field of biology,
the relationships between heredity, culture, and behavior are of growing
interest to sociobiologists.
“
Men’s natures are alike; it
is their habits that carry
them apart.
Section 1 Assessment Confucius

1. How is society different from culture?

“
Chinese philosopher

2. About what percentage of personality is determined by genetics?

3. What are two arguments against the theory of sociobiology?
4. Predict which of the following are drives (D), which are reflexes (R),
which are instincts (I), and which are creations of culture (C).
a. eye blinking in dust storm d. socialism
b. need for sleep e. reproduction
c. reaction to a loud noise f. racial inequality

Critical Thinking
5. Synthesizing Information Name three nonmaterial and three mater-
ial elements that represent American culture to you.
6. Making Generalizations Do you think human behavior is more a
result of culture or of heredity? Give reasons to support your answer.
76 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Another The Mysterious Fall

Time of Nacirema

The following reading is excerpted from a There seems to be little doubt that the Cult of
review on a little-known North American culture. the Elibomotua was so fervently embraced by the
general population, and that the daily rituals of the

A lthough the Nacirema left a large num-

ber of documents, our linguists have
been unable to decipher any more than
a few scattered fragments of the Nacirema lan-
guage. Eventually, with the complete translation of
RAC’s care and use were so faithfully performed,
that the minute quantities of [chemicals] thus dis-
tributed may have had a decisive effect on the
chemical characteristics of the air. The elibomotua,
these documents, we will undoubtedly learn a therefore, may have contributed in a major way
great deal about the reasons for the sudden dis- toward the prized objective of a totally man-made
appearance of what . . . must have been an explo- environment.
sive and expansive culture . . . . In summary, our evaluation of . . . the Nacirema’s
When we examine the area occupied by these man-made environmental alterations . . . lead us to
people . . . it is immediately apparent that the advance the hypothesis that they may have been
Nacirema considered it of primary importance to responsible for their own extinction. The Nacirema
completely remake the environment. . . . Trees . . . culture may have been so successful in achieving its
were removed. . . . Most of the land . . . was sowed objectives that . . . its people were unable to cope
each year with a limited variety of plants . . . . with its manufactured environment.
For a period of about 300 solar cycles . . . the
If the Nacirema seem vaguely familiar, it’s
Nacirema devoted a major part of their effort to the
because Nacirema is American spelled backward.
special environmental problem of changing the
Neil Thompson’s description strikes us as strange.
appearance of air and water. Until the last fifty This is because Americans are not used to looking
solar cycles of the culture's existence, they seemed at their culture as others from the outside might
to have had only indiffer- see it. Like fish in water, Americans are so close to
ent success. But during the their own customs and rituals that they are in a
short period before the fall sense unaware of them. Looking at culture from
of the culture, they mas- the sociological perspective will heighten your
tered their art magnificently. awareness of your own culture as well as the cul-
They changed the color of tures of others.
the waters from the cool Source: Neil B. Thompson, “The Mysterious Fall of
end of the spectrum (blues Nacirema.” Natural History (December, 1972). Copyright
and greens) toward the the American Museum of Natural History (1972). Reprinted
warm ends (reds and with permission.
browns). . . .
Early research has dis- Thinking It Over
closed the importance of 1. Describe how your feeling toward the
. . . the presence of the . . . Nacirema changed when you knew their true
Elibomotua [RAC] Cult, identity.
which sought to create an
2. What other items in today’s American
intense sense of individual
culture might be misinterpreted by future
involvement in the com-
anthropologists?
munity effort to complete-
ly control the environment
....
 Chapter 3 Culture 77

Section
Language and Culture
2 K e y
• symbols
T e r m s
• hypothesis of linguistic
relativity

Symbols, Language, and Culture Section

Preview
I f culture is to be transmitted, it must be learned anew by each gener-
ation. Both the creation and the transmission of culture depend heav-
ily on the use of symbols. The most powerful symbols are those that make
up language. H umans can create and
transmit culture. The
symbols of language play a
What are symbols? In Lewis Carroll’s Through the Looking Glass, role in determining people’s
Humpty Dumpty says to Alice, “When I use a word, it means just what I views of reality.
choose it to mean—neither more nor less.” So it is with symbols—things
that stand for or represent something else.
Symbols range from physical objects to sounds, smells, and tastes. As you
read in Chapter 1, the meaning of a symbol is not based on physical char- symbol
acteristics. For example, there is nothing naturally pleasing about the sound a thing that stands for or
created by hands loudly clapping together. Applause warms the heart of an represents something else
entertainer, a politician, or a high school athlete in the United States, but in
Latin America the same sound means disapproval. The ball Mark McGwire
hit for his 70th home run in 1998 is a symbol. The Confederate flag that
represents oppression for many African Americans and a proud
cultural heritage for many white Southerners is a symbol with
different meanings attached.

How are language and culture related? Language

frees humans from the limits of time and place. It allows
us to create culture. The Wright brothers’ successful flight
did not come just from their own personal efforts. They
built their airplane according to principles of flight
already existing in American culture. Through lan-
guage they could read, discuss, and recombine
existing ideas and technology.
Equipped with language, humans can pass
their experiences, ideas, and knowledge to
others. Although it may take time and repeti-
tion, children can be taught the dangers of fire
and heights without being burned or toppling
down stairs. This process of social learning, of Some symbols are recognized and
course, applies to other cultural patterns as well, understood by people all over the
such as eating, showing patriotism, or staying awake world.
in class.
78 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

How to Speak with Your Hands

Figure 3.1 Sign Language. Hand movements in sign language are symbols.

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

hypothesis of linguistic According to Edward Sapir (1929) and Benjamin Whorf (1956), language
relativity is our guide to reality. How we think about a thing relates to the number
theory stating that our idea and complexity of words available to describe that thing. In effect, our per-
of reality depends largely upon ceptions of the world depend in part on the particular language we have
language learned. Since languages differ, perceptions differ as well. This theory
is known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, or the hypothesis of linguistic
relativity.
What can vocabulary tell you about a culture? When something is

“
England and America are
two countries separated
important to a society, its language will have many words to describe it. The
importance of time in American culture is reflected in the many words that
describe time intervals—nanosecond, millisecond, moment, minute, hour,
era, interim, recurrent, century, light-year, afternoon, eternal, annual,
meanwhile, and regularly, just to name a few. When something is unimpor-
by the same language. tant to people, they may not have even one word for it. When Christian mis-
G. B. Shaw sionaries first went to Asia, they were dismayed because the Chinese lan-
“
British playwright guage contained no word for sin. Other missionaries were no less distressed
to learn that Africans and Polynesians had no word to express the idea of a
single, all-powerful God. While English has only a few words that describe
snow, the Inuit (Eskimo) language has over twenty.
 Chapter 3 Culture 79

Does the hypothesis of linguistic relativity mean

we are prisoners of our language?
Even if our view of the world is shaped
largely by language, we are not forever
trapped by our own language. Exposure to anoth-
er language or to new words can alter a person’s
perception of the world. (This is one reason why
it is important to avoid using racist slurs and
stereotypical labels.) People can begin to
view the world differently as they learn a
new language or vocabulary. However,
most people do confine themselves to
the language and vocabulary they
learned from birth. They tend not to
change their views of the world. You can
either expand or limit your outlook,
depending upon how you use language.
What other factors help to shape
our perception of reality? How we
In Japanese culture an emphasis on
perceive the world around us is influenced by more than vocabulary.
politeness has helped people learn to
Cultures may differ in many ways, and these differences influence how their
live harmoniously in close quarters.
members experience the world. The Japanese use paper walls as sound bar-
riers and are not bothered by noise in adjacent rooms. Americans staying at
hotels in Japan complain they are being bombarded with noise because
Westerners have not been conditioned (mentally trained) to screen out
sound.
Privacy is so important to most Germans that German executives gener-
ally have a “closed-door policy.” Problems arise, as you might imagine, in
American firms located in Germany because American executives leave their
doors open.

Section 2 Assessment
1. What are symbols? Student Web Activity
2. How does language affect culture? Visit the Sociology and
You Web site at
Critical Thinking soc.glencoe.com and click on
Chapter 3—Student Web
3. Understanding Cause and Effect Describe some specific ways you
Activities for an activity on
see language affecting social behavior among students in your school.
language.
4. Drawing Conclusions Some experts believe that without language
there is no thought. Do you agree? Why or why not?
80 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Sociology Cultural
Today Relativism
Different behaviors, traditions, and expecta- and the volunteer was told, “Ah yes, the well
tions can often result in misunderstandings would be nice, but what we really need is a
between people of different cultures. Learning bridge across the stream so other villages can
to look at things from a point of view different easily come to play soccer on our field.” Since
from your own, and not making value judg- she couldn’t dig the well alone, the volunteer
ments based on your beliefs and norms, is agreed that some more time and money would
called cultural relativism. Having mutual be used to build a bridge. Unfortunately, the
respect and understanding for other cultures is bridge proved to be more difficult than expect-
sometimes more effective than modern technol- ed, and by the time it was complete, the budget
ogy and money in producing change and good- and schedule were both used up.
will between nations. The volunteer went back to the capital, dis-
Cultural relativism is illustrated in the true appointed and resentful that she had not been
story of a young Peace Corps volunteer who able to improve the village. Some weeks later,
was sent to a remote village to help build a she was invited back by the villagers for a festi-
well. The stream that was near the village was val to celebrate the success of the soccer tour-
used for everything from watering goats to nament they had arranged. When she arrived
bathing to washing clothes to cooking and she was astonished to find a new well in the
drinking. It was obvious that clean drinking very center of the village. She asked the village
water would benefit the village and improve elders for an explanation.
health. Armed with plans, equipment, and bud- “The soccer tournament is important to us,”
get and schedule, the hopeful volunteer arrived she was told, “because it gives us pride and
ready to begin. importance and gives us a reason to meet with
At first, the village people were not very the people of the other villages. We really never
willing to help. After several weeks of lonely wanted a well.”
effort the volunteer met with the council to ask “Then why did you build it?” she asked.
why nobody was helping her with this urgent “We didn’t build it because we wanted it,”
project. “A well would be nice,” the people was the answer. “We built it because YOU
agreed, “but what we really need is a good soc- wanted it.”
cer field where we can play without getting
hurt on the stones and uneven ground.” So the Doing Sociology
volunteer agreed that some of the money and
equipment could be used to build a good soc- 1. What assumptions did the volunteer make
cer field first. about the needs of the villagers? What were
After several weeks of effort, the soccer field the actual needs? Who was more right about
was complete and a village soccer team was what the villagers needed? Why?
formed. Now work was able to start on the 2. Describe a time when you made assump-
well, but once again the villagers seemed reluc- tions that turned out to be culturally based.
tant to help. Another council meeting was held,
 Chapter 3 Culture 81

Section
Norms and Values
3 K e y

• norms
T e r m s

• sanctions
• folkways • formal sanctions
• mores • informal sanctions
• taboo • values
• law

Norms: The Rules We Live By Section

Preview
I f you wanted to describe your culture, what would you look for? How
could you begin to classify the elements of the American way of life?
Sociologists begin with the defining components of a culture: its norms, its
values and beliefs, and its use of material objects.
Norms are rules defining appropriate and inappropriate behavior. A
T wo essential components
of culture are norms and
values. There are several
Hindu peasant in India can be found lying dead of starvation beside per- types of norms—folkways,
fectly healthy cattle. In order to strengthen bonds between clans, a young mores, and laws. Sanctions
Basarwa girl in Africa might become engaged to a man she has not met. are used to encourage
Roman emperors routinely exiled relatives to small isolated islands for “dis- conformity to norms. Values,
gracing” the family. Each of these instances reflects cultural norms—ways of the broadest cultural ideas,
behaving in specific situations. Norms help to explain why people in a soci- form the basis for norms.
ety or group behave similarly in similar circumstances.
William Graham Sumner (1906) was an early sociologist who wrote about
norms. Anything, he stated, can be considered appropriate when norms
approve of it. This is because once norms are learned, members of a society

norms
rules defining appropriate and
inappropriate behavior

All cultures have norms relating to marriage and family life; weddings are always impor-
tant occasions. This Hindu couple is celebrating their marriage with a garland ritual.
82 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Figure 3.2 Cultural Etiquette

It might prevent some embarrassing moments if you were aware of norms and customs before traveling to
foreign places.

Country Custom

England, Scotland, Appointments are essential. You may be ten minutes

and Wales late but not ten minutes early.

Greece Be careful not to praise a specific object too enthusi-

astically or the host may insist on giving it to you.

Libya If you are invited to a Libyan home for dinner, only

men will be present. Take a gift for the host but not for
his wife.

Senegal Never eat food with the left hand, as this is considered offensive.

Zambia Avoid direct eye contact with members of the opposite sex—it may suggest
romantic overtures.

Saudi Arabia It is an insult to sit in such a way as to face

your host with the soles of your shoes show-
ing. Do not place your feet on a desk, table,
or chair.

Oman If an Arab businessman takes your hand

and holds it as you walk, do not be
alarmed. He means it only as a sign of
friendship.

China A visit to a Chinese home is rare—unless

the government has given prior approval.

Japan If you are offered a gift, thank the person and wait for one or two more offers
before accepting it. Receive the gift with both hands.

South Korea Men go through doors first. Women help men with their coats.

Source: Roger E. Axtell, Do’s and Taboos Around the World, 3rd ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1993).
 Chapter 3 Culture 83
Norms help define a culture's per-
ception of beauty for both males
and females. What are some norms
that shape the American ideal of
beauty?

use them to guide their social behavior. Norms are so ingrained they guide
behavior without our awareness. In fact, we may not be consciously aware
of a norm until it has been broken. For instance, you may not think about
standing in line for concert tickets as a norm until someone attempts to step
in front of you. Then it immediately registers that waiting your turn in line
is expected behavior. Cutting in front of someone violates that norm. Norms
range from relatively minor rules, such as the idea that we should applaud
“
A knowledge of one
other culture should
after a performance, to extremely important ones, such as laws against
stealing.
sharpen our ability to
scrutinize more steadily,
to appreciate more
Folkways, Mores, and Laws lovingly, our own.
Sumner identified three basic types of norms: folkways, mores, and laws.
Margaret Mead
These three types of norms vary in their importance within a society.
Accordingly, their violation is tolerated to different degrees.
“
U.S. anthropologist
What are folkways? Rules that cover customary ways of thinking, feel-
ing, and behaving but lack moral overtones are called folkways. For exam-
ple, sleeping in a bed versus sleeping on the floor is not a moral issue; it
qualifies as a folkway. Folkways in the United States include supporting
school activities, speaking to other students in the hall, and, if you are male,
removing your hat in church. folkways
Because folkways are not considered vital to group welfare, disapproval norms that lack moral
of those who break them is not very great. Those who consistently violate significance
folkways—say, by talking loudly in quiet places, wearing shorts with a suit
coat and tie, or wearing a different-colored sock on each foot—may appear
odd. We may avoid these people, but we do not consider them wicked or
immoral.
Some folkways are more important than others, and the social reaction to
their violation is more intense. Failure to offer a woman a seat on a crowd-
ed bus draws little notice today. In contrast, obnoxious behavior at a party
after excessive drinking may bring a strong negative reaction from others.
84 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

mores What are mores? The term mores (pronounced “MOR-ays”) is based
norms that have moral on the word moral. Morality deals with conduct related to right and wrong.
dimensions and that should Mores are norms of great moral significance. They are vital to the well-being
be followed by members of of a society. Conformity to mores draws strong social approval; violation of
the society
this type of norm brings strong disapproval. For example, Americans believe
that able-bodied men should work for a living. Able-bodied men who do not
work are scorned.
Although following folkways is generally a matter of personal choice,
conformity to mores is a social requirement. Still, some mores are more vital
to a society than others. Failure to stand at attention while the national
anthem is being played is not as serious a violation of American mores as
using loud profanity during a religious service.
taboo The most serious mores are taboos. A taboo is a norm so strong that its
a rule of behavior, the violation demands punishment by the group (or, some people think even the
violation of which calls for supernatural). In India, followers of Hinduism have a taboo forbidding the
strong punishment killing of cows. Other taboos are related to sexual behaviors. Although def-
initions of incest vary from society to society, the incest taboo (forbidding
sexual contact with close relatives) is generally regarded as the only taboo
that is present in all societies. The “mother-in-law” taboo existing in some
societies prohibits or severely restricts social contact between a husband and
his wife’s mother.

What folkways, mores, or laws are being demonstrated (or bro-

ken) in these scenes?
 Chapter 3 Culture 85

World View Patterns of Tourism

Although people often want to observe and experi-
ence cultures different from their own, exposure to
cultural diversity can be uncomfortable. Most inter-
national tourist travel occurs among countries shar-
ing common cultural traditions and languages.

North
Nor th Europe
Europe
America
Asia

Africa

South
America
Australia
International Tourist Arrivals Annually
Over 20 million 1–2.5 million
10–20 million 700,000–1 million
5–10 million Under 700,000
2.5–5 million

Interpreting the Map

1. Identify the world regions that receive the highest and lowest number of tourists.
2. Are there any reasons to believe that these travel patterns might change in the near future?
If so, what factors might bring about this change?

Adapted from the Student Atlas: DK Publishing, Inc.

How do laws differ from mores? The third type of norm is law. Laws law
are norms that are formally defined and enforced by officials. Folkways and a norm that is formally defined
mores emerge slowly and are often unconsciously created, while laws are and enforced by officials
consciously created and enforced.
Mores are an important source for laws. At one time, the norm against
murder was not written down. But as civilization advanced, the norm against
murder became formally defined and enforced by public officials.
Folkways can become mores or laws. Smoking, for example, was an
acceptable behavior to most Americans until the late 1970s, when mounting
health concerns convinced many that smoking should be limited or banned in
public places. Today, many states have laws against smoking in airports, gov-
ernment buildings, restaurants, and other places open to the general public.
Not all mores become laws. For example, it is not against the law to cheat
on an exam (although you may be suspended or punished by the teacher).
Furthermore, not all laws started out as mores. Fines for overtime parking
and laws against littering have never been mores.
86 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Figure 3.3 Silly Laws Still on the Books

There are many laws throughout the country whose purposes and existence have long been forgotten. At
the time, they may have been perfectly logical. As society changed, the need for them disappeared.

State Law

Alabama It is illegal for a driver to be blindfolded while

operating a vehicle.

Arizona Hunting camels is prohibited.

Florida If an elephant is left tied to a parking meter,

the fee has to be paid just as it would be
for a vehicle.

Illinois You must contact the police before entering the city in an
automobile.

Iowa Kisses may last for as much as, but no more than, five
minutes.

Maine You must not step out of a plane in flight.

Massachusetts No gorilla is allowed in the back seat of any car.

Minnesota A person may not cross state lines with a

duck atop his or her head.

Vermont Whistling underwater is illegal.

Washington It is illegal to pretend that one’s parents

are rich.
 Chapter 3 Culture 87
Laws often remain on the books for a long time after the mores of a soci-
ety have changed. It is illegal in Minnesota to hang male and female under-
garments on the same clothesline. New York prohibits card playing on trains;
elephants in Natchez, Mississippi, cannot legally drink beer; and it is against
the law to wear roller skates in public bathrooms in Portland, Oregon. (For
additional laws that seem strange to us today, see Figure 3.3.)

Enforcing the Rules

sanctions
People do not automatically conform to norms. Norms must be learned rewards and punishments
and accepted. Groups teach norms, in part, through the use of sanctions. used to encourage people to
Sanctions are rewards and punishments used to encourage conformity to follow norms
norms. They can be formal or informal.
What are formal sanctions? Formal sanctions are sanctions that formal sanctions
may be applied only by officially designated persons, such as judges and sanctions imposed by persons
teachers. Formal sanctions can take the form of positive as well as negative given special authority
rewards. A soldier earns a Congressional Medal of Honor as a positive sanc-
tion for heroism. Teachers reward outstanding students with A’s. Of course,
formal sanctions can also take the form of punishments.
Formal punishments range widely in their severity. From the Middle Ages
to the Protestant Reformation, it was an unpardonable sin for lenders to
charge interest on money. (This practice was called usury and was con-
demned in the Bible.) This crime was punishable on the third offense by
public humiliation and social and economic ruin. More recently, a few courts
across the United States have handed down sentences involving public
shaming. For example, some courts have required child molesters to display,
“
A law’s final justification
is in the good it does or
in front of their homes, signs describing their crimes (El Nasser, 1996). In
fails to do to the society
of a given place and
time.
Albert Camus
French philosopher
“

Formal sanctions often involve

action in the criminal or civil
judicial systems.
88 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

1997, Latrell Sprewell, star basketball player for the Golden State Warriors,
physically attacked his coach, P. J. Carlesimo. The NBA revoked his $32 mil-
lion, four-year contract and suspended him for one year before he joined the
New York Knicks.
informal sanctions What are informal sanctions? Informal sanctions are sanctions that
rewards or punishments that can be applied by most members of a group. They, too, can be positive or
can be applied by most negative. Informal sanctions include thanking someone for pushing a car out
members of a group of a snowbank (positive) or staring at someone who is talking loudly during
a movie (negative).
Sanctions are not used randomly or without reason. Specific sanctions are
associated with specific norms. A high school student who violates his par-
ents’ curfew is not supposed to be locked in a closet, for example.
After we reach a certain age, most of us conform without the threat of
sanctions. We may conform to norms because we believe that the behavior
expected of us is appropriate, because we wish to avoid guilt feelings, or
because we fear social disapproval. In other words, we sanction ourselves
mentally.

Frank seems to have forgotten that “real men” don’t cross their legs.
This informal sanction will probably bring him into line.
 Chapter 3 Culture 89

Values—The Basis for Norms

Norms and sanctions are relatively specific. The next major component
of culture—values—is much more general.
What are values? Values are broad ideas about what most people in values
a society consider to be desirable. Values are so general that they do not dic- broad ideas about what is
tate precise ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Thus, different societies good or desirable shared by
or different groups within the same society can have quite different norms people in a society
based on the same value.
For instance, consider the norms used to express the value of freedom in
America and in the former Soviet Union. Soviet leaders said their people
were free because the leaders claimed to provide full employment, medical
care, and education. Americans have different norms based on the value of
freedom. These norms include the right to free speech and assembly, the
right to engage in private enterprise, and the right to a representative gov-
ernment. Identical values do not result in identical norms.
Why are values important? Values have a tremendous influence on
human social behavior because they form the basis for norms. A society that
values democracy will have norms ensuring personal freedom. A society that
values human welfare will have norms providing for its most unfortunate
members. A society that values hard work will have norms against laziness.
Values are also important because they are so general that they are
involved in most aspects of daily life. In America, for example, the influence
of the value of freedom goes beyond political life. The value of freedom
affects how family relationships are conducted, how people are treated with-
in the legal system, how organizations are run, and how people worship.

Figure 3.4 The Norm Kite. If

a society is to fly, it must have these
basic elements of social structure.
Sanctions (rewards and punish-
ments) are needed to enforce norms
(folkways, mores, laws). Guiding the
Norm Kite are a society’s values, the
basis for norms.

After winning the World Cup, members of the U.S. women’s soccer team became role mod-
els for many girls. What strong cultural values do these young women demonstrate?
90 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Basic Values in the United States

The United States is home to many different groups. No single set of val-
ues is likely to hold across the entire country. Despite this problem, sociol-
ogist Robin Williams (1970) identified important values that guide the daily
lives of most people in the U.S. A partial list includes:
❖ Achievement and success. People emphasize achievement, especially in
the world of work. Success is supposed to be based on effort and
competition and is viewed as a reward for performance. Wealth is
viewed as a symbol of success and personal worth.
❖ Activity and work. People tend to prefer action over inaction in almost
every case. For most Americans, continuous and regular work is a goal
in itself. Promotion should be for merit rather than favoritism. Finally,
all citizens should have the opportunity to perform at their best.
❖ Efficiency and practicality. People pride themselves on getting things
done by the most rational means. We search for better (faster) ways of
doing things, praise good workmanship, and judge performance by the
results. We love to rely on science and technology.
❖ Equality. From the very beginning of our history as a nation, we have
declared a belief in equality for all citizens. As minority groups and
women achieved citizenship, our concept of equality grew. We tend to
treat one another as equals, defend everyone’s legal rights, and favor
equal opportunity—if not equal results—for everyone.
❖ Democracy. People emphasize that all citizens are entitled to equal
rights and equal opportunity under the law. In a democracy, the peo-
ple elect their government officials. Power is not in the hands of an
elite few.
❖ Group superiority. Despite their concern for equality of opportunity,
people in the U.S. tend to place a greater value on people of their
own race, ethnic group, social class, or religious group.
These values are clearly interrelated. Achievement and success affect and
are affected by efficiency and practicality, for example. But we can also see
conflicts among some values. For instance, people in the U.S. value group
superiority while at the same time stressing equality and democracy.
What cultural values are
represented in these photos? Do these values still prevail in the United States today? Williams
identified these major values approximately thirty years ago—about the time
many of your parents were teenagers. Although these values have remained
remarkably stable over the years, some have changed. Today there is less
emphasis on group superiority in America than in the past. This can be seen
in the decline of openly racist attitudes and behaviors (Farley, 1996; Rochen,
1998). In reality, however, it is usually norms and behavior rather than under-
lying values that change radically. It is probably because of the passage of
civil rights laws that many Americans are now less likely to make overt racist
statements. Racism (group superiority) remains part of the fabric of American
culture.
The norms related to hard work and activity have also changed in recent
years. Many Americans now work as hard at their leisure activities (for exam-
ple, long-distance running and mountain climbing) as they do at their jobs.
 Chapter 3 Culture 91

Calvin’s father is trying to transmit the cultural value of competition. As usual, Calvin has his own view.
What is yours?

Although Williams’s analysis of major American values remains basically

sound today, some sociologists believe that his list is incomplete. They
would add, for example, optimism, honesty, and friendliness to the list of
major values in the United States.

Section 3 Assessment
“ No written law has ever
been more binding
1. Indicate whether these statements best reflect a folkway (F), a more
(M), a law (L), or a value (V). than unwritten custom
a. norm against cursing aloud in church supported by popular
b. norm encouraging eating three meals daily opinion.
c. idea of progress
Carrie Chapman Catt
d. norm against burning a national flag
e. norm encouraging sleeping in a bed
f. norm prohibiting murder
“
American reformer

g. norm against overtime parking

h. idea of freedom
2. Sociologists make a distinction between norms and values. How are
these concepts different? Support your answer with examples.

Critical Thinking
3. Analyzing Information Review the partial list of values identified by
Robin Williams on the previous page. Is there a value not listed that
you think should be included? What is it? Why would you include it?
92 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Section
Beliefs and Material Culture
4 K e y T e r m s

• nonmaterial culture
• beliefs
• ideal culture
• real culture
• material culture

Section Beliefs and Physical Objects

Preview
T he nonmaterial culture involves beliefs, ideas, and knowledge.
The material culture is about how we relate to physical objects.

B esides norms and val-

ues, beliefs and physical
objects make up culture.
Values, norms, knowledge, ideas (nonmaterial), and physical objects (mate-
rial) make up a culture.
Why do beliefs matter? Beliefs are ideas about the nature of reality.
Ideal culture includes the
Beliefs can be true or false. The Romans believed Caesar Augustus to be a
guidelines we claim to god; the Tanala, a hill tribe of Madagascar, believed that the souls of their
accept, while real culture kings passed into snakes; and many Germans believed that pictures of Hitler
describes how we actually on their walls would prevent the walls from crumbling during bombing
behave. raids. We would certainly consider these beliefs to be false. In contrast, other
beliefs—such as the belief that the human eye can distinguish over seven
million colors and the belief that no intelligent life exists on Mars—are sup-
ported by factual evidence. We consider these to be true. Beliefs are impor-
tant because people base their behavior on what they believe, regardless of
nonmaterial culture how true or false the beliefs are.
ideas, knowledge and beliefs What is material culture? Material culture consists of the concrete,
that influence people’s tangible objects within a culture—automobiles, basketballs, chairs, high-
behavior
ways, art. These physical objects have no meaning or use apart from the
meanings people give them.
beliefs
ideas about the nature of
reality

material culture
the concrete, tangible objects
of a culture

Acres of discarded cars in a junkyard plainly show that the automobile is one of the
most common objects of America’s material culture.
 Chapter 3 Culture 93
Consider newspaper and pepper as physical objects. Each has some
meaning for you, but can you think of a use for them in combination? Some
Americans have used pepper and newspaper in a process known as “net-
tling.” An elderly medical doctor tells the story of his first encounter with
nettling:
The ink of my medical license was hardly dry, and as I was soon to find
out, my ears would not be dry for some time. I had never delivered a baby
on my own and faced my maiden voyage with some fear.
Upon entering Mrs. Williamson’s house, I found a local midwife and sev-
eral neighbors busily at work preparing for the delivery. My fear caused me
to move rather slowly and my happiness over my reprieve prompted me to
tell the women that they were doing just fine and to proceed without my
services.
Having gotten myself off the hook, I watched the ladies with a fascination
that soon turned to horror.
At the height of Mrs. Williamson’s labor pains, one of the
neighbors rolled a piece of newspaper into a funnel shape.
Holding the bottom end of the cone she poured a liberal
amount of pepper into it. Her next move was to insert the
sharp end of the cone into Mrs. Williamson’s nose. With the
cone in its “proper” place, the neighbor inhaled deeply and
blew the pepper from the cone into the inner recesses of Mrs.
Williamson’s nose—if not her mind.
Suddenly alert, Mrs. Williamson’s eyes widened as her senses
rebelled against the pepper. With a mighty sneeze, I was intro-
duced to nettling. The violence of that sneeze reverberated
through her body to force the baby from her womb in a skit-
tering flight across the bed. An appropriately positioned assis-
tant fielded the baby in midflight and only minor details of
Orville’s rite of birth remained.
Before this doctor was introduced to nettling, this particular For this country doctor, the physical
combination of newspaper and pepper had no meaning for him. And until objects of newspaper and pepper
nettling was devised, the combination was without meaning for anyone, took on new meaning.
even though the separate physical objects existed as part of the culture.

How is material culture related to nonmaterial culture? The uses

and meanings of physical objects can vary among societies. Although it is
conventional to use a 747 jet for traveling, it is possible that a 747 downed
in a remote jungle region of the world could be used as a place of worship,
a storage bin, or a home. In the United States, out-of-service buses, trains,
and trolley cars have been converted to restaurants.
Clearly, the cultural meaning of physical objects is not determined by the
physical characteristics of the objects. The meanings of physical objects are
based on the beliefs, norms, and values people hold with regard to them.
This is obvious when new meanings of a physical object are considered. At
one time, only pianos and organs were used in church services. Guitars,
drums, and trumpets were not “holy” enough to accompany a choir. Yet
many churches today use these “worldly” instruments regularly in their wor-
ship activities. The instruments have not changed, but the cultural meanings
placed on them have.
94 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Though American ideal culture

values natural athletic ability, in
reality, some professional and ama-
teur athletes use drugs or steroids to
improve their performances.

Ideal and Real Culture

A gap sometimes exists between cultural guidelines and actual behavior.
ideal culture This gap is captured in the concepts of ideal and real culture. Ideal culture
cultural guidelines that group refers to cultural guidelines publicly embraced by members of a society.
members claim to accept Real culture refers to actual behavior patterns, which often conflict with
these guidelines.
One value of America’s ideal culture is honesty. Yet in real culture, hon-
real culture
esty is not always practiced. Some taxpayers annually violate both the letter
actual behavior patterns of and spirit of existing tax laws. Some businesspeople engage in dishonest
members of a group business practices. Some students cheat on exams. Some college athletes do
the “high $500” handshake, during which a team booster leaves illegal money
in their palms. These are not isolated instances. They are real cultural patterns
passed on from generation to generation.
It is important to remember that we are not referring here to individuals
whose violations of norms include murder, rape, and robbery. These types
of antisocial behavior violate even real culture.
Does the fact that we sometimes ignore cultural guidelines make ideal
culture meaningless? Absolutely not. In an imperfect world, ideal culture
provides high standards. These ideals are targets that most people attempt
to reach most of the time. Ideal culture also permits the detection of deviant
behavior. Individuals who deviate too far from the ideal pattern are sanc-
tioned. This helps to preserve the ideal culture.

Section 4 Assessment
1. How is the material culture influenced by the nonmaterial culture?
2. How is real culture different from ideal culture?

Critical Thinking
3. Drawing Conclusions Think of an example of real and ideal culture
in your school. Should the aspect of ideal culture be abandoned? Why
or why not?
 Chapter 3 Culture 95

Section
Cultural Diversity and Similarity
5 K e y T e r m s

• social categories
• subculture
• ethnocentrism
• cultural universals
• counterculture • cultural particulars

Cultural Change Section

Preview
S o far we have talked about culture as if it did not change. Actually the
processes that govern cultural change are so important they are dis-
cussed in Chapter 17 on social movements and collective behavior. Briefly,
however, you should realize that all cultures experience change. Norms,
values, and beliefs are relatively stable, but they do change over time. For
C ultures change according
to three major processes.
Cultures contain groups with-
example, many of your grandparents never went to college; as teenagers, in them called subcultures
your parents never e-mailed friends or made last-minute dates on their cell and countercultures that differ
phones. It was not that long ago that middle-class women with young chil- in important ways from the
dren were discouraged from working outside the home. Interracial dating, main culture. People tend to
while still relatively uncommon, is becoming more acceptable in the United
make judgments based on
States. These are aspects of culture that are changing in response to certain
processes. the values of their own cul-
tures. While apparently very
Why does culture change? Culture changes for three reasons. One different on the surface, all
cause is discovery, the process of finding something that already exists. The cultures have common traits
United States is currently discovering the generally unrecognized athletic or elements that sociologists
abilities of females. This is changing the perception of women and the rela-
call cultural universals.
tionship between males and females.
Culture is also changed through invention, the creation of something
new. Science has led to inventions that have
changed the world since the fifteenth century,
from the creation of the steam engine to the
cellular phone. Such inventions have greatly
altered our way of life.
A third cause of cultural change is dif-
fusion, the borrowing of aspects of culture
from other cultures. One aspect of culture
that diffuses rapidly is food. Tacos, pizza,
and hamburgers can be found on menus all
over the world. Christmas trees and piñatas
are part of celebrations in many countries.
Ideas are also diffused. Japanese society
has been fundamentally transformed as a
result of the adoption of democracy and
capitalism after World War II. As stated ear-
lier, these three processes will be examined
more closely in a later chapter. The Scottish kilt is an essential part of this South African traditional
dance that tells the story of a historic battle with the British in the 1800s.
96 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Survey Research:
How Do Schools and
Parents Fail Teens?
Adolescence is often marked with drama and difficulty. Jacquelynne
Eccles (1993) investigated the experience of American teenagers enter-
ing a midwestern junior high school and discovered that some teenage
troubles are more than hormonal—they are cultural as well.
Eccles studied 1,500 early adolescents moving from sixth-grade ele-
mentary schools to seventh-grade junior high schools. The junior high
schools were located in twelve school districts in middle-class Michigan
communities. Students filled out questionnaires at school for two con-
secutive years—the sixth and seventh grades. This procedure
permitted Eccles to document changes the teenagers experi-
enced after the first year of their transition.
The findings were not encouraging. The relationships
between students and teachers tended to worsen over the
year. At the very time when the young adolescents espe-
cially needed supportive relationships outside of their
homes, personal and positive relationships with teach-
ers were strained by cultural and organizational changes
in junior high school.
There was more grouping based on academic
achievement and more comparing of students with one
another. This increased emphasis on student ranking
comes just when young adolescents are most
insecure about their status relative to their peers. In
addition, in the junior high culture, the students
experienced less opportunity to participate in class-
room decision making.
As a result, student motivation and self-
confidence declined. Eccles concluded that junior
high school culture denies adolescents the emotion-
ally supportive environment they need for proper
social development.

Junior high students who are in

supportive environments are more
likely to have higher motivation
and self-esteem than students in
less supportive schools and families.
 Chapter 3 Culture 97
Eccles’s news was no better
on the home front. Changes
in family paralleled those of
the school system. Parental
control over teenagers went up
during the year, often to exces-
sive levels. At the same time,
school motivation and self-
esteem of the junior high stu-
dents went down.
As a check on these general
findings, Eccles compared stu-
dents in more supportive schools
and families with those in less
supportive ones. In both the
school and the family settings,
she found more positive results
in supportive environments.
Students who were able to
participate in school and family
decision making showed higher
levels of academic motivation
and self-esteem than their
peers with less opportunity to
participate.
The solution to this prob-
lem, Eccles concludes, lies in
a change in the norms and val-
ues of the schools and families.
Schools and families need to develop balanced cultural expectations of
young adolescents based on their developmental needs. Adolescents,
Eccles points out, have a growing need for independence that is rarely
encouraged in the culture of the public school system. Neither crack-
ing down on them nor giving up control strikes the proper balance.
The task is for the family and school to provide “an environment that
changes in the right way and at the right pace” (Eccles, 1993:99).

Working with the Research

1. Do you recall your junior high experience? Was your situation
similar to the one described by Eccles? Did you feel the same
pressures?
2. Which of the three theoretical perspectives do you think is most
helpful in understanding the social relationships Eccles describes?
Apply this perspective to explain her findings.
98 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Cultural Diversity
Cultural diversity exists in all societies. Some diversity is a result of social
social categories categories—groups that share a social characteristic such as age, gender, or
groupings of persons who religion. Certain behaviors are associated with particular ages, genders, or reli-
share a social characteristic gions. For example, devout Catholics are expected to attend Mass regularly.
What are subcultures and countercultures? Cultural diversity also
subculture comes from groups that differ in particular ways from the larger culture.
a group that is part of the These groups participate in the larger culture. They may speak the language,
dominant culture but that work regular jobs, eat and dress like most others, and attend recognized
differs from it in some houses of worship. But despite sharing in the broader culture, these groups
important respects have some ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving that set them apart. Such
groups—known as subcultures and countercultures—are usually found in
large, complex societies.
counterculture
a subculture deliberately and
Subculture is part of the dominant culture but differs from it in some
consciously opposed to certain important respects. The subculture of San Francisco’s Chinatown is a good
central beliefs or attitudes of example. Early Chinese immigrants brought much of their native culture with
the dominant culture them to America and have attempted to retain it by passing it from genera-
tion to generation. Although Chinese residents of Chinatown have been
greatly affected by American culture, they have kept many cultural patterns
of their own, such as language, diet, and family structure. Other examples
ethnocentrism of subcultures are those formed by circus people, musicians, and mental
judging others in terms of
patients (Fine, 1996; Redhead, 1997; Kephart and Zellner, 1998).
one’s own cultural standards
Counterculture is a subculture deliberately and consciously opposed to
certain central beliefs or attitudes of the dominant culture. A counterculture
can be understood only within the context of this
opposition.
Examples of primarily teenage countercultures
include the “goth” and the “punk” scenes. Goth is a
shortening of the term gothic, meaning dark, strange-
ly mysterious, and remote. Punk is a philosophy of
rebellion and sexual revolution popularized by the
lyrics and music of punk-rock bands.
Prison counterculture surfaced at the trial of
John King, a man convicted of the gruesome truck-
dragging murder of James Byrd, Jr. During an ear-
lier prison stretch, King had become a member of
a white supremacist gang that promoted many
forms of violence. The gang’s motto was “blood in,
blood out,” meaning that entry into the gang
demanded a violent act, and leaving the gang
would result in violence as well (Galloway, 1999).
The punk movement began in Delinquent gangs, motorcycle gangs, certain types of drug groups, and rev-
Britain and quickly developed into olutionary or religious groups may also form countercultures (Zellner, 1999).
an American counterculture.

Ethnocentrism
Once people learn their culture, they tend to become strongly commit-
ted to it. In fact, they often cannot imagine any other way of life. They may
judge others in terms of their own cultural standards—a practice referred to
as ethnocentrism.
 Chapter 3 Culture 99

W hen Star Wars first appeared in theaters in the late 1970s,

director George Lucas probably did not realize that he had
almost single-handedly created a full-fledged cultural phenomenon.
Virtually everyone in the United States now recognizes Luke Skywalker,
Darth Vader, and Yoda. Most Americans know what “May the Force be
with you” means.
The movies in the Star Wars series have certainly been extremely
popular in their own right, but the Internet has also been important in
their penetration into popular culture. In 1999, Star Wars fans kept in
Star Wars touch over the Internet as they eagerly awaited The Phantom Menace,
the first new Star Wars film in sixteen years. Anticipation of the first
“prequel” was incredibly intense, and pirated footage spread to more
and the than sixty web sites within hours of first being posted. In response,
Lucasfilm’s official web site posted the film’s trailer and was promptly
overwhelmed with 340 “hits” per second. The impact of the Internet
Internet on this bit of American culture is undeniable.
“Everyone said this was the most top-secret movie ever made, that
it was tighter than Fort Knox, no leaks whatsoever,” says Scott Chitwood,
aged twenty-five, who’s the emperor of TheForce.net. “Well, most web
site operators knew the plot a year ago. That’s all
because of the Internet.”
Of course, the cultural effects of Star Wars are not
limited to the box office. Star Wars is much more
than a movie. It is a mini-culture, or subculture, unto
itself. It has its own icons, symbols, and language.
And elements of this subculture have entered the
larger culture. Merchandise related to the first three
Star Wars movies totaled over $4.5 billion in sales
between 1977 and 1999. That alone amounts to
more than four times the revenues generated from
the films themselves. These items include toys,
soundtracks, costumes, and licensing fees. With
the increased popularity of e-commerce, the
Internet has become a cultural force to be reck-
oned with.

Analyzing the Trends

1. What other recent events are now part of popular culture in the
United States? Tell what aspects of these events have made their
way into our thinking, feeling, and behaving.
2. Predict ways in which the increasing popularity of the Internet
may alter our understanding of culture.
100 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

What are some examples of ethnocentrism? Examples of ethnocen-

trism are plentiful. The Olympic Games are much more than an arena of
competition for young men and women. In addition to competition, the
games are an expression of ethnocentrism. Political and nationalistic under-
currents run through the Olympics. A country’s final ranking in this athletic
competition for gold, silver, and bronze medals is frequently taken as a
reflection of the country’s worth and status on the world stage.
Ethnocentrism also exists within societies. Regional rivalries in the United
States are a source of many humorous stories, but these jokes reflect an
underlying ethnocentrism. Boston is said by some (mostly Bostonians)
to be the hub of the universe. Texans often claim to have the
biggest and best of everything. New Yorkers bemoan the lack of
culture in Los Angeles. Finally, members of churches, schools,
and country clubs all over America feel that their particular ways
of living should be adopted by others.
Does ethnocentrism help or hurt society? Ethnocen-
trism has two faces—it offers both advantages and disadvan-
tages. People feel good about themselves and about others in
their group when they believe that what they are doing is right
and superior to what other groups do. Stability is promoted
because traditions and behaviors are highly valued. If a soci-
ety is too rigid, however, it becomes inflexible. Extreme eth-
nocentrism can prevent change for the better. Societies whose
Ethnocentrism is still a divisive members are firmly convinced of their superiority tend not to create anything
force in Germany. A riot erupts new. The ancient Chinese built a wall to keep both invaders and new ideas
when members of the ultraright out. The civil rights movement was born to combat racial ethnocentrism.
National Democratic Party march Hitler’s Final Solution was ethnocentrism at its worst. Today many states are
in support of their racist policies. passing laws that increase the penalties against people who commit violent acts
against others based on their race, origin, or religion. (Civil rights and hate
crimes are discussed in more detail in Chapter 9.)

Cultural Universals
Although it may seem that different cultures have little in common,
researchers have identified more than seventy common cultural traits. These
cultural universals cultural universals are traits that exist in all cultures. They include such
general cultural traits that things as sports, cooking, courtship, division of labor, education, etiquette,
exist in all cultures funeral rites, family, government, hospitality, housing, inheritance rules, jok-
ing, language, medicine, marriage, mourning, music, property rights, reli-
gious rituals, sexual restrictions, status differences, and tool making (Murdock,
1945). Because all societies have these cultural universals, they are more sim-
ilar than you think. (See Figure 3.5 on page 102 for a more detailed list of
cultural universals.)
How are cultural universals expressed? Cultural universals are not
always carried out in the same way. In fact, different cultures have devel-
cultural particulars oped quite different ways to express universals. These are called cultural
the ways in which a culture particulars. One cultural universal is caring for children. In the United
expresses universal traits States, women have traditionally worked within the home caring for chil-
dren, and men have worked outside the home. (Although this is changing,
women in this country are still largely responsible for child care.) Among the
 Chapter 3 Culture 101

R
R R
R R
R L
R R D L
R R
L
L R R
R D D L
L R D R
L D R R District of
D R
R Columbia
R
Gun Control R R R R
R R
R D
R
Some observers believe groups that pro- R R R
mote gun ownership form a subculture. R
For example, the National Rifle
Association (NRA) brings together people L
who share an interest in guns and the Concealed Carry Codes:
R Right-to-carry permitted: Less restrictive
right to own them. The map displays the discretionary permit system.
states that permit citizens to carry con-
cealed guns. L Right-to-carry permitted: Limited by local
authority’s discretion over permit issuance.

D Right-to-carry denied: No permit system

exists; concealed carry is prohibited.
Source: NRA Institute for Legislative Action

Interpreting the Map

1. What code marks the states with the most liberal gun control laws?
2. Can you find a pattern between gun control and regions in the U.S.?
3. How might regional differences in gun control laws reflect variations in socialization patterns?

Manus of New Guinea, in contrast, the man is completely in charge of child

rearing. Among the Mbuti pygmies, the Lovedu of Africa, and the Navajo and
Iroquois Indians, men and women share equally in domestic and economic
tasks (Little, 1975).
Why do cultural universals exist? The biological similarity shared by
all human beings helps to account for many cultural universals. If a society
is to survive, children must be born and cared for, and some type of family
structure must exist. (Groups that deliberately eliminate the family—such as
the Shakers religious sect of New England—disappear.) Because people
become ill, there must be some sort of medical care. Because people die,
there must be funeral rites, mourning, and inheritance rules. Because food
is necessary, cooking must be done.
The physical environment provides another reason why cultural univer-
sals exist. Because humans cannot survive without protection from the envi-
ronment, some form of shelter must be created. Armies were formed to settle
disputes over boundaries and important waterways.
Finally, cultural universals exist because societies face many of the same
social problems. If a society is to survive, new members must be taught the
102 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Trade
Tools
Technology
Goods
Services Art Communities
Jobs Literature Geography Games Values
Business Family Dance Words Geology Toys Traditions
Transportation Government Theater Expressions Habitat Arts Ethnicity
Communications Education Music Pronunciations Wildlife Media Customs
Food, Shelter, Religion Crafts Alphabet Climates Holidays Religions
Clothing Economy Folk tales Symbols Resources Festivals Morals

ECONOMY INSTITUTIONS ARTS LANGUAGE ENVIRONMENT RECREATION BELIEFS

C U L T U R A L U N I V E R S A L S
Figure 3.5 Cultural Universals. Researchers have identified more than seventy traits that appear to one degree or another
in all cultures.

culture. Goods and services must be produced and distributed. Tasks must
be assigned, and work must be accomplished. Cultures develop similar
methods of solving these problems.

Section 5 Assessment

“
1. Identify each of the following as a social category (SC), subculture (S),
or counterculture (C).
a. Chinatown in New York City
If we cannot end now our b. motorcycle gang
differences, at least we c. Catholics
can help make the world d. females
safe for diversity. e. revolutionary political group
f. the super rich
John F. Kennedy 2. Define ethnocentrism.
“
U.S. president 3. What are cultural universals? Why do they exist?

Critical Thinking
4. Analyzing Information Are you and your friends members of a
subculture? If so, describe some specific elements of that subculture.
5. Making Comparisons From the chart above, choose a cultural uni-
versal. Compare or contrast how this cultural universal is addressed by
two different cultures. For example, how do the United States and
Mexico differ in recreational activities?
CHAPTER 3 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Vocabulary
Summary
Complete each sentence using each term once.
Section 1: The Basis Of Culture a. sociobiology f. laws
Main Idea: Culture defines how people in a soci- b. sanctions g. mores
ety behave in relation to others and to physical
c. real culture h. subculture
objects. Although most behavior among animals is
instinctual, human behavior is learned. Even d. beliefs i. ethnocentrism
reflexes and drives do not completely determine e. society j. informal sanctions
how humans will behave, because people are
heavily influenced by culture. 1. are the ideas about the nature
of reality.
Section 2: Language and Culture 2. A group that belongs to the larger culture but
Main Idea: Humans can create and transmit cul- differs from it in some significant way is called
ture. The symbols of language play a role in .
determining people’s view of reality.
3. is the study of the biological
Section 3: Norms and Values basis of human behavior.
4. Formally defined norms enforced by officials
Main Idea: Two essential components of culture are called .
are norms and values. There are several types of
norms—folkways, mores, and laws. Sanctions are 5. are rewards and punishments
used to encourage conformity to norms. Values, that can be applied by most members of a
the broadest cultural ideas, form the basis for group.
norms. 6. Actual behavior patterns of the members of a
group are called .
Section 4: Beliefs and Material Culture 7. are rewards and punishments
used to encourage desired behaviors.
Main Idea: Besides norms and values, beliefs and 8. Norms with moral dimensions are called
physical objects make up culture. Ideal culture
.
includes the guidelines we claim to accept, while
real culture describes how we actually behave. 9. A specific territory composed of people who
share a common culture are called
Section 5: Cultural Diversity and Similarity .
10. Judging others in terms of one’s own cultural
Main Idea: Cultures standards is called .
change according to
three major process-
es. Cultures contain Reviewing the Facts
groups within them Self-Check Quiz
called subcultures Visit the Sociology and You Web 1. According to sociobiology, how is human
and countercultures. site at soc.glencoe.com and behavior influenced?
click on Chapter 3—Self- 2. What are the differences between reflexes and
Check Quizzes to prepare for drives?
the chapter test.

103
CHAPTER 3 ASSESSMENT
3. What are folkways? Give three examples of the words in your school that are unique to
folkways in the United States. your community (or school group) and that
4. Explain the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. would take an “outsider” a while to learn.
5. What are the three basic types of norms? 6. Understanding Cause and Effect
6. Define formal and informal sanctions. Use the diagram below to illustrate three causes
7. Describe the relationship between norms and of cultural change.
sanctions.
8. How does a social category differ from a sub-
culture?
9. Ethnocentrism offers both advantages and dis-
advantages. Give an example of a positive role
that ethnocentrism can play in a society. When
is ethnocentrism a negative force in a society? CULTURAL CHANGE
10. What are cultural universals?

Thinking Critically
Sociology Projects
1. Making Inferences More than any other sym-
bol of our country, the American flag provokes 1. Cultural Universals Using the cultural univer-
emotional responses. Some people are willing sals diagram in your text (Figure 3.5 on page
to give their lives for it, while others have 102), create your own culture. Your culture
burned it in protest. In groups, discuss why this must include all the components of the second
symbol is so powerful. level: an economy, institutions, arts, language,
2. Applying Concepts All societies have cultural environment, recreation, and beliefs. Make sure
universals, as discussed in this chapter. Why, that elements of the third level on the cultural
then, are so many groups in conflict? Think of universal diagram are part of your culture. For
examples of groups in this country that seem to example, how will your culture entertain itself?
be in conflict (such as animal rights activists What types of music will you listen to? How old
and fur shop owners), and examine the reasons are the members of your culture? You must also
for these conflicts. name this culture and locate it on a world map.
3. Making Comparisons Discuss how you think Present your culture to the class with a detailed
a functionalist would look at the topic of cul- poster.
ture. How do you think a conflict theorist 2. Culture You are an archaeologist and you have
would view it? just uncovered a civilization called “America.”
4. Evaluating Information Some Amish parents Find at least one item from each of these
have gone to jail rather than enroll their chil- aspects of culture: economy, religion, sports,
dren in public schools. Even though you might science/technology, education, families, and
wish that your parents had taken this stand on politics/ government. For example, you might
your behalf, what does it say about Amish cul- uncover a checkbook, a small cross, a baseball
tural values? card, a mouse (not the animal), a piece of
5. Categorizing Information We have created a chalk, pictures, and campaign buttons. As you
whole new language as a result of computers. find these items around your house or school,
A mouse is no longer necessarily an animal; try to imagine what they might mean to this
another definition would be a device for navi- American culture by answering the following
gating through electronic files. Make a list of questions.

104
 a. Is this item culturally universal? Can it be efficiency is seen as very American. Look for
found in other cultures? ads that reflect each one of the American values
b. What uses might someone from another listed in your text. Put the ads together in a
culture find for this item? Be creative. booklet with a title page and conclusions drawn
c. What does this item tell us about this culture? from what you discovered.
3. Popular Culture T-shirts are a great example 6. Cultural Lag Material tools of a culture, such as
of popular culture. Everyone wears them, and computers, change faster than nonmaterial
they are very symbolic; they say a lot about our tools, such as norms and values. This difference
culture and about the people that wear them. creates what has been called cultural lag. (You
Find a public place where you can discreetly will learn more about this topic in Chapter 17.)
observe people. Look for individuals wearing T- Computers have been around for some time.
shirts, and jot down your observations of those Still, many Americans lag behind in their profi-
shirts. Do the shirts make a statement about the ciency with the technology. Interview people
people wearing them? Do they carry messages you know of varying ages: someone under age
related to any different aspects of culture such twelve, some fellow teens, some young adults,
as family, politics, or religion? Do they reflect and some elderly adults. Ask them how com-
social values? Are any of them inappropriate? If puter literate they are. Do they know how to
so, what does it say about the wearer’s values use Windows? The Internet? Does cultural lag
compared to yours? Did you see similarities in exist in your sample? If so, try to find reasons
T-shirts, such as a lot of black T-shirts or sports or explanations for the lag. Does everyone have
T-shirts? Use standard grammar, spelling, sen- equal access to computers? Do certain popula-
tence structure and punctuation to write a brief tions tend to avoid computers? Is fear of tech-
report on your observations. nology or change involved?
4. Handshakes in U.S. Culture 7. Cultural Norms Create a chart comparing cul-
Handshakes are also symbolic tural norms among U.S. subculture groups such
representations of cultures. List as ethnic, socioeconomic strata, and gender
some situations in which people groups.
shake hands in U.S. culture. For
example, do boyfriends and girl- Technology Activities
friends shake hands in the hall-
way when they meet? Do some students use
special handshakes when they greet other stu- 1. Compare the use of language between two
dents? As a class, determine all the ways in social categories within your culture (e.g.,
which handshakes are used in U.S. culture, and teenagers and parents). Make a list of ten exam-
explain how the social situation can change the ples of words or phrases that differ in meaning
meaning of a handshake. between the members of each social category.
5. American Values Based on the section on Using the Internet and your school or local
American values in your text (see pages 89–91), library, find the original derivation of the word
find ads in several magazines that reflect or phrase. Record your information in a
aspects of American values. For example, many database.
ads for fast-food restaurants emphasize efficien-
cy. These businesses pride themselves on their
ability to get your meal out fast. The value of

105
106 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Chapter 3

Enrichment Reading
Cultural Explanations
for Teen Violence
from an article by James Gilbert

E very social crisis generates its share of that this should necessarily deter critics of our
easy explanations, but adolescent crime current teen culture. But it is one thing to regard
wins the contest for pat answers. Not what young people listen to, play, or consume as
only is everyone an expert, but out-of-control strange or vulgar or even mildly threatening, and
children are often already the focus of uneasiness another to argue that it incites specific behavior.
about social change, general anxiety, and just Teenagers might be persuaded by advertising to
plain undisguised dislike. The tragic shootings at buy a Big Mac or smoke a Camel, but that doesn’t
Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado, mean that song lyrics can make them commit
have generated more than the usual number of mass murder.
theories. Few of these are original, and, in fact, Another problem with the cultural explana-
many of them repeat a formula tried out almost tion is that we have been there before and ought
45 years ago, during the national panic over juve- to recognize from our experience some of the
nile delinquency. True, the supposed cultural outcomes and implications of the argument. In
influences have changed, with blame pointed now the mid-’50s, especially between 1954 and 1956,
at the dark lyrics of Marilyn Manson or virtual- Americans worried as deeply about juvenile
reality, murder-and-mayhem computer games, delinquency as they did about the cold war,
but the ultimate message is pretty much the atomic annihilation, unemployment, and other
same: our children’s behavior is out of control social ills. The reason for this is not hard to fig-
because our culture is out of control. The only ure out. Government commissions, the FBI . . . ,
solution is to find a form of censorship that can and a number of leading psychologists and social
block adolescents’ access critics were all warning of a terrible scourge of
to the violent images that juvenile crime. Cities and towns rushed to pass
impel them to behave new ordinances . . . . The favorites of these were
violently. local curfews, naming the hour when children
One problem with under 18 had to be home. Quite naturally, this
the cultural explanation led to some increased incidence of lawbreaking
for teen violence is by youths. But, overall, during the ’50s juvenile
that, notwithstanding crime was no higher than the decade that pre-
numerous scientific ceded it. Yet fears of juvenile delinquency con-
attempts to do so, it is tinued to soar.
impossible to prove— While there were many explanations offered
there are simply too for delinquency, the one most printed in the
many other possible pages of popular magazines and voiced during
causes to factor into congressional hearings convened to examine the
the equation. Not problem was the malevolent influence of crime
 Chapter 3 Culture 107

and horror comic books. No one could accuse way. It is also impor-
“Howdy Doody” or “I Love Lucy” of inciting teen tant to separate things
What Does it Mean
violence, although there were cop-and-gangster that we don’t like
TV shows and scores of films that might have (or understand) from annihilation
been blamed. . . . Comic books, on the other those social problems total destruction
hand, particularly violent and horror comics, . . . that might, in fact, concerted
became the focus of a concerted effort to censor cause teenage alien- organized; mutually
youth culture. The effort was led by liberal ation and criminal be- arranged
Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee and was havior. Banning Marilyn
malevolent
founded on the psychological theories of Fredric Manson, hip-hop clothes,
Wertham, whose 1954 best-seller, Seduction of the and rap music will cer- vicious or harmful
Innocent, inspired a vast outcry against the tainly have an effect, scourge
comics. Wertham’s theory was based on asking but not the desired a cause of widespread
teenage criminals if they read comic books—not one. And, finally, we distress
much different from the logic behind today’s need to remind our-
blaming of computer games or music. Kefauver selves that youth culture is something that
and Wertham’s movement ultimately persuaded modern society has invented and celebrated.
the publishing industry to impose self-censorship. By extending affluence to children, by giving
Juvenile crime didn’t fall, but the comics changed; them computers and spending money, by mak-
and some of the most violent ones disappeared ing them consumers and therefore members of
altogether. the marketplace, we have given them access to
If the anti–comic-book agitation did nothing an adult world and an adult culture. We will
much to end juvenile crime . . . what explains have to learn to live with the consequences
this panic? Clearly, something was happening in of that.
the ’50s, just as it appears to be happening in our Source: Excerpted from James Gilbert, “Juvenilia,” The New
own time. The postwar era was a revolutionary Republic ( June 14, 1999), 54. Reprinted by permission of
time, the first generation in American history The New Republic, © 1999, The New Republic, Inc.
wherein children had substantial amounts of
spending money. The result was the explosion of
a youth culture designed to appeal specifically
and exclusively to young people. The teenage
market expanded rapidly, from clothing to auto- Read and React
mobiles to movies and fast food. . . . Children 1. What common assumption about juvenile
were growing up faster; they acted more like crime is the author questioning?
adults or at least demanded adult privileges. All
of this looked immensely threatening to parents 2. Why does Gilbert think it is not possible
and parenting experts in the ’50s. Parents and to scientifically prove how culture affects a
parenting experts in our age are also confronting particular behavior?
a major new development. In this case, it’s the 3. What does Gilbert say about the power of
advent of the Internet—which has exponentially advertising to affect teenage behavior?
increased the amount and scope of influences to 4. What modern day invention does Gilbert
which American kids are exposed. compare to the influence of comic books
So what can we learn from the experience in the 1950s?
of the ’50s . . . ? First, we should be wary of the 5. In two or three sentences, state the main
attempt to link behavior directly and precisely point that the author makes in this article.
to culture. There is no clear evidence to sup- Do you agree or disagree with his assess-
port this, and, besides, we can probably never ment? Why or why not?
develop a form of acceptable censorship any-
CHAPTER 4
Socialization

108
 U
S Your
I Sociological Sections
N Imagination 1. The Importance of
G Socialization
2. Socialization and Self
A ll of us have feelings of love. We as-
sume that such an emotion is innate,
that we are born with it. Actually,
we learn our feelings from those close to us,
our parents and others who take care of us.
3.
4.
Agents of Socialization
Processes of Socialization
One story that illustrates that we need to
learn how to express love is the story of
Genie. Genie had been kept isolated in a
locked room by her father from the time she Learning Objectives
was nearly two. When she was found at the
age of thirteen, much of her behavior was
subhuman. Because Genie’s father severely
After reading this chapter, you will be able to
punished her for making any sounds what- ❖ define the term socialization.
ever, she was completely silent. She never
sobbed when she cried or spoke when angry. ❖ discuss the role socialization plays in
Never having been given solid food, she human development.
could not chew. Because she had spent her ❖ describe the effects of extreme isolation
entire life strapped in a potty chair, Genie on children.
could not stand erect, straighten her arms or
❖ explain key concepts of socialization from
legs, or run. Her social behavior was primi-
the symbolic interactionist perspective.
tive. She blew her nose on whatever was
handy or into the air when nothing was avail- ❖ analyze the role of the family, school,
able. Without asking, she would take from peer group, and media in socializing
people things that attracted her attention. young people.
Attempts to socialize Genie were not suc- ❖ discuss processes for socialization in
cessful. At the end of the four-year period,
she could not read, could speak only in short
adulthood.
phrases, and had just begun to control some
of her feelings and behavior. Genie paid a
high price—her full development as a human
being—for the isolation, abuse, and lack of
human warmth she experienced. Chapter Overview
As you will see in this chapter on social- Visit the Sociology and You Web site at
ization, infants denied close and continuous soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 4—
human care have no chance to learn all the Chapter Overviews to preview chapter
feelings we mistakenly assume to be inborn. information.

109
110 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Section
The Importance of Socialization
1 K e y T e r m

• socialization

Section Socialization and Personality

Preview
N early all the human social behavior we consider natural and normal
is learned. It is natural to us in the United States for husbands and

S ocialization is the cultural

process of learning to
participate in group life.
wives to walk along side-by-side. In many places in India, however, it seems
natural for wives to walk slightly behind their husbands. In fact, nearly all
aspects of social life (including walking patterns) are not natural but learned
Without it, we would not de- through the process of socialization. Human beings at birth are helpless and
velop many of the character- without knowledge of their society’s ways of thinking, feeling, and behav-
istics we associate with being ing. If a human infant is to participate in cultural life, much learning has to
human. Studies have shown take place. Socialization is the cultural process of learning to participate in
group life.
that animals and human in-
Socialization begins at birth and continues throughout life. Successful so-
fants who are deprived of in-
cialization enables people to fit into all kinds of social groups. Socialization
tensive and prolonged social must occur if high school freshmen are to adjust to their new situation, if
contact with others are graduating seniors are to look for employment, and if presidents of the
stunted in their emotional United States are to govern successfully.
and social growth.

socialization
the process of learning to
participate in a group

Monkeys fail to develop

psychologically and socially when
deprived of their mothers. Can we
generalize from monkeys to human
children?
 Chapter 4 Socialization 111
Orphanages, such as this one in
Russia, are of interest to sociologists.
They worry what effect growing up
without prolonged social contact
with parents will have on children.

The most important learning occurs early in life. Psychological case stud-
ies reveal that without prolonged and intensive social contact, children do
not learn such basics as walking, talking, and loving. Without socialization,
a human infant cannot develop the set of attitudes, beliefs, values, and be-

“
haviors associated with being an individual.
How do we know socialization is important? Suppose you wanted to Man is the only one that
design an experiment to see how socialization affects infants. You would
have to set up an experiment that compared a group of normally socialized knows nothing, that can
infants (the control group) with a group of isolated infants—infants with lit- learn nothing without
tle or no human contact (the experimental group). For obvious reasons, being taught. He can
such experiments are not conducted with human infants. We do, however,
have some nonexperimental evidence from studies of socially isolated chil- neither speak nor walk
dren. Experiments have been done with monkeys. nor eat, and in short he
How do monkeys react to social isolation? A psychologist, Harry can do nothing at the
Harlow, devised a famous experiment that showed the negative effects of so- prompting of nature only,
cial isolation on rhesus monkeys (Harlow and Zimmerman, 1959; Harlow and
Harlow, 1962; Harlow, 1967). In one experiment, infant monkeys, separated
but weep.
from their mothers at birth, were exposed to two artificial mothers—wire dum- “
Pliny the Elder
mies of the same approximate size and shape as real adult monkeys. One of
the substitute mothers had an exposed wire body. The other was covered with Roman scholar
soft terry cloth. Free to choose between them, the infant monkeys consistently
spent more time with the soft, warm mother. Even when the exposed wire
dummy became the only source of food, the terry cloth mother remained the
favorite. Apparently, closeness and comfort were more important to these mon-
keys than food. When frightened by a mechanical toy bear or a rubber snake,
these infant monkeys consistently ran to their cloth mothers for security and
protection.
Harlow showed that infant monkeys need intimacy, warmth, physical
contact, and comfort. Infant monkeys raised in isolation became distressed,
apathetic, withdrawn, hostile adult animals. They never exhibited normal
sexual patterns. As mothers, they either rejected or ignored their babies.
Sometimes, they even physically abused them.
112 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Y ou will read in this section about the effects of extreme social iso-
lation in Anna, Isabelle, and Genie. Although no one expects the
results to be nearly as harmful, many sociologists today are concerned
about how the increased use of computers and the Internet might af-
fect young people. They wonder if this will be the first generation of
children to grow up lacking adequate social skills.
Traditional games—sandlot ball games, for example—are socially
oriented. These games require interaction and negotiation with other
people, encourage sensitivity to others’ viewpoints, help establish mu-
Can the tual understanding, and increase cooperative behavior (Casbergue
and Kieff, 1998). These social skills are not developed by children who
spend a great deal of time in isolated computer activities.
Internet One researcher, Sherry Turkle, claims that the social isolation
brought about by heavy use of the Internet leads to the destruction of
meaningful social contact (Katz and Aspden, 1997). Similarly, Cliff Stoll
Stunt Your (1995) says that excessive Internet activity lowers people’s commit-
ment to real friendships.
Perhaps you have read stories in the news about children who
Social arranged to meet adults through the Internet. These stories often sug-
gest that it was possible to lure these children to these meetings be-
cause they did not have the social skills and experience needed to
Growth? make sound judgments about their actions.
According to an important nationwide study, the Internet is promoting
social isolation (Nie and Erbring, 2000). As people spend more time on
the Internet (55 percent of Americans have access), they experience less
meaningful social contact. Impersonal electronic relationships are replac-
ing face-to-face interaction with family and friends. According to the au-
thor of this study, political scientist Norman Nie, “When you spend time
on the Internet, you don’t hear a human voice and you never get a hug.”
Another concern is that extensive video game use will shorten the
natural attention span of children. This could cause them to grow up re-
quiring a continuous flow of outside stimulation which interferes with
normal social interaction (“Lego: Fighting the Video Monsters,” 1999).
Defenders of computers and the Internet point to a survey (based
on 2,500 Americans) that showed Internet users were just as likely as
non–Internet users to join religious, leisure, or community groups (Katz
and Aspden, 1997). The survey results, according to these observers,
indicate that Internet users are just as socially active as other people.
Critics of this survey point out that the researchers failed to ask some
important questions. They did not distinguish between heavy users of
the Internet and more moderate users. Also, those surveyed were
adults who had already gone through the early years of socialization.
There will have to be more research before we understand the effects
of new technologies on children’s social growth.

Analyzing the Trends

What is your position in the debate about whether heavy Internet use
stunts social skills? Give reasons for your answers.
 Chapter 4 Socialization 113
Can we generalize from monkeys to humans?
It is risky to assume that knowledge gained about
nonhumans also applies to humans. Nevertheless,
many experts on human development believe that
for human infants—as for Harlow’s monkeys—emo-
tional needs for affection, intimacy, and warmth are
as important as physiological needs for food, water,
and protection. Human babies denied close contact
usually have difficulty forming emotional ties with
others. Touching, holding, stroking, and communi-
cating appear to be essential to normal human de-
velopment. According to a classic study by
Lawrence Casler (1965), the developmental growth
rate of institutionalized children—who receive less
physical contact than normal—can be improved
with only twenty minutes of extra touching a day.

Case Studies on Isolated

Children: Anna and Isabelle
To understand more about how socialization af-
fects development, we will look at the case histories
of two children—Anna and Isabelle—who were so-
cially and emotionally abused. You already know
the story of Genie from the Sociological Imagination
on page 109. Anna and Isabelle also had traumatic
childhoods. Although these three children were
born many years ago, similar situations still occur Studies have shown that children
today, unfortunately. raised under extremely isolated
conditions have little or no chance
Who was Anna? Anna was the second child born to her unmarried of ever being socialized.
mother. At first, Anna’s strict grandfather had forced her mother to take Anna
and leave home, but desperation drove them back again. Anna’s mother so
feared that the sight of the child would anger her father that she kept Anna
confined to a small room on the second floor of their farmhouse. For five
years, Anna received only milk to drink. When finally found, she was barely
alive. Her legs were skeleton-like and her stomach bloated from malnutrition.
Apparently, Anna had seldom been moved from one position to another, and
her clothes and bedding were filthy. She did not know what it was like to be
held or comforted. At the time of her discovery, Anna could not walk or talk
and showed few signs of intelligence.
During the first year and a half after being found, Anna lived in a county
home for children. Here, she learned to walk, to understand simple com-
mands, and to feed herself. She could recall people she had seen. But her
speech was that of a one-year-old.
Anna was then transferred to a school for learning disabled children,
where she made some further progress. Still, at the age of seven, her mental
age was only nineteen months, and her social maturity was that of a two-
year-old. A year later, she could bounce and catch a ball, participate as a fol-
lower in group activities, eat normally (although with a spoon only), attend
114 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

to her toilet needs, and dress herself (except for handling buttons and snaps).
At this point, she had acquired the speech level of a two-year-old. By the
time of her death at age ten, she had made some additional progress. She
could carry out instructions, identify a few colors, build with blocks, wash
her hands, brush her teeth, and try to help other children. Her developing
capacity for emotional attachment was reflected in the love she had devel-
oped for a doll.
Who was Isabelle? Nine months after Anna was found, Isabelle was
discovered. She, too, had been hidden away because her mother was unmar-
ried. Isabelle’s mother had been deaf since the age of two and did not speak.
She stayed with her child in a dark room, secluded from the rest of the fam-
ily. When found at the age of six and a half, Isabelle was physically ill from an
inadequate diet and lack of sunshine. Her legs were so bowed that when she
stood the soles of her shoes rested against each other, and her walk was a skit-
tering movement. Some of her actions were like those of a six-month-old in-
fant. Unable to talk except for a strange croaking sound, Isabelle communicated
with her mother by means of gestures. Like an animal in the wild, she reacted
with fear and hostility to strangers, especially men.
At first, Isabelle was thought to be severely learning disabled. (Her initial
IQ score was near the zero point.) Nevertheless, an intensive program of re-
habilitation was begun. After a slow start, Isabelle progressed through the
usual stages of learning and development at a faster pace than normal. It
took her only two years to acquire the skills mastered by a normal six-year-
old. By the time she was eight and a half, Isabelle was on an educational par
with children her age. By outward appearances, she was an intelligent,
happy, energetic child. At age fourteen, she participated in all the school ac-
tivities normal for other children in her grade.
To Isabelle’s good fortune, she, unlike Anna, benefited from intensive in-
struction at the hands of trained professionals. Her ability to progress may
also have been because she was confined with her mother for company and
comforting.
What can we learn from these case studies? The implication of the
cases of Anna, Isabelle, and Genie is unmistakable. The personal and social
development associated with being human is acquired through intensive and
prolonged social contact with others.

Section 1 Assessment
1. Define the term socialization.
2. What did Harlow’s research on rhesus monkeys reveal?
3. Did the case studies on Anna, Isabelle and Genie support Harlow’s
conclusions? Why or why not?

Critical Thinking
4. Analyzing Information Do you think sociologists have
overemphasized the importance of social contact in learning? What are
some legal and moral implications for the government in this kind of
child abuse? Should the state protect children from their parents?
 Chapter 4 Socialization 115

Section
Socialization and the Self
2 K e y

•
T e r m s

self-concept • play stage

• looking-glass self • game stage
• significant others • generalized other
• role taking • “me”
• imitation stage • “I”

The Functionalist and Conflict Section

Perspectives on Socialization Preview
E ach of the three major theoretical perspectives provides insights into
socialization. However, the symbolic interactionist perspective allows
a more complete understanding than the other two.
A ll three theoretical per-
spectives agree that so-
cialization is needed if
How does the functionalist perspective explain socialization? cultural and societal values
Functionalism stresses the ways in which groups work together to create a are to be learned. Symbolic
stable society. Schools and families, for example, socialize children by teach- interactionism offers the most
ing the same basic norms, beliefs, and values. If it were otherwise, society fully developed perspective
could not exist as a whole. It would be fragmented and chaotic. for studying socialization. In
How does the conflict perspective explain socialization? The con- this approach, the self-
flict perspective views socialization as a way of perpetuating the status quo. concept is developed by
When people are socialized to accept their family’s social class, for example, using other people as mirrors
for learning about ourselves.

According to the conflict theory,

these young boys are being
socialized to accept their social
class.
116 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures
they help preserve the current class system. People learn to accept their social
status before they have enough self-awareness to realize what is happening.
Because they do not challenge their position in life, they do not upset the ex-
isting class structure. Consequently, socialization maintains the social, political,
and economic advantages of the higher social classes.

Symbolic Interactionism and Socialization

In the early part of the twentieth century, Charles Horton Cooley and
George Herbert Mead developed the symbolic interactionist perspective.
self-concept They challenged the once widely held belief that human nature is biologi-
an image of yourself as having cally determined (that you are a certain way because you were born that
an identity separate from way). For them, human nature is a product of society.
other people
How does symbolic interactionism help us understand socialization?
Symbolic interactionism uses a number of key concepts to explain socializa-
tion. These concepts include
looking-glass self
an image of yourself based on ❖ the self-concept
what you believe others think ❖ the looking-glass self
of you ❖ significant others
❖ role taking (the imitation stage, the play stage, the game stage)
❖ the generalized other.

Where does the self-concept come from? Charles Horton

Cooley developed the idea of the self-concept from watching
his own children at play. Your self-concept is your image of
yourself as having an identity separate from other people.
Cooley (1902) realized that children interpreted how others
reacted to them in many ways. For example, young children learn
quickly that causing some disturbance when adult visitors are pre-
sent turns attention from the guests to themselves. From such in-
sights, children learn to judge themselves in terms of how they
imagine others will react to them. Thus, other people serve as
mirrors for the development of the self. Cooley called this way
of learning the looking-glass self—a self-concept based on
our idea of others’ judgments of us.
How does the looking-glass process work? According
to Cooley, we use other people as mirrors to reflect back what
we imagine they think of us. In this view, the looking-glass self
is the product of a three-stage process that is constantly taking place.
1. First, we imagine how we appear to others. (What is our perception of
how others see us?)
2. Next, we imagine the reaction of others to our (imagined) appearance.
3. Finally, we evaluate ourselves according to how we imagine others
have judged us.
This is not a conscious process, and the three stages can occur in very rapid
succession. The result of the process is a positive or negative self-evaluation.
Consider this example of the looking-glass process. Suppose you have a
new teacher you want to impress. You prepare hard for the next day’s class.
 Chapter 4 Socialization 117

Figure 4.1 Focus on Theoretical Perspectives

Socialization and Mass Media. Each theoretical perspective has a unique view of the socialization process.
This table identifies these views and illustrates the unique interpretation of each view with respect to the in-
fluence of the mass media on the socialization process.

Theoretical How the Media

Perspective View of Socialization Influence Socialization

Functionalism Stresses how socialization Network television programs encourage

contributes to a stable society social integration by exposing the
entire society to shared beliefs, values,
and norms.

Conflict Theory Views socialization as a way for Newspaper owners and editors exercise
the powerful to keep things power by setting the political agenda
the same for a community.

Symbolic Holds that socialization is the Through words and pictures, children’s
Interactionism major determinant of human books expose the young to the
nature meaning of love, manners, and
motherhood.

In class, as you are making a comment on the assignment, you have an

image of your performance (stage 1). After finishing your comments, you
think your teacher is disappointed (stage 2). Because you wanted your
teacher to be impressed, you feel bad about yourself (stage 3).
Can the looking glass be distorted? Because the looking glass we use
comes from our imaginations, it may be distorted. The mirror may not accu-
rately reflect others’ opinions of us. The teacher in the above example may
not have been disappointed at all.
Unfortunately, the looking-glass process works even if we are mistaken
about others’ perceptions of us. If we incorrectly believe that a teacher, or a
date, or our parents dislike us, the consequences to us are just as real as if it
were true.
Do we use some people as mirrors more than others? George
Herbert Mead pointed out that some people are more important to us than
others (Mead, 1934). The people whose judgments are most important to our
self-concepts are called significant others. For a child, significant others are significant others
likely to include mother, father, grandparent, teachers, and playmates. those people whose reactions
Teenagers place heavy reliance on their peers. The variety of significant oth- are most important to your
ers is greater for adults, ranging from spouses, parents, and friends to minis- self-concept
ters and employers.
118 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

What is role taking? As humans, we carry on silent conver-

sations. That is, we think something to ourselves and respond in-
ternally to it. All of us do this when we predict the behavior of
others. Through internal conversation, we can imagine the
thoughts, emotions, and behavior of others in any social situation.
Role taking allows us to see ourselves through the eyes of some-
one else. It allows us to take the viewpoint of another person
and then respond to ourselves from that imagined viewpoint.
With role taking, we can play out scenes in our minds and
anticipate what others will say or do. For example, you might
want to ask your employer for a raise. If you could not
mentally put yourself in your boss’s place, you would
have no idea of the objections that she might raise. But
by role-playing her reaction mentally, you can prepare
for those objections and be ready to justify your raise.
How does the ability for role taking develop?
According to Mead, the ability for role taking is the
product of a three-stage process. He called these
the imitation stage, the play stage, and the game
stage.
In the imitation stage, which begins at around
one and a half to two years, the child imitates
(without understanding) the physical and ver-
bal behavior of a significant other. This is the
first step in developing the capacity for role
taking.
At the age of three or four, a young child can be seen playing at being
role taking mother, father, police officer, teacher, or astronaut. This play involves acting
assuming the viewpoint of and thinking as a child imagines another person would. This is what Mead
another person and using that called the play stage—the stage during which children take on roles of oth-
viewpoint to shape the self- ers one at a time.
The third phase in the development of role taking Mead labeled the game
imitation stage stage. In this stage, children learn to engage in more sophisticated role tak-
Mead’s first stage in the ing as they become able to consider the roles of several people simultane-
development of role taking; ously. Games they play involve several participants, and there are specific
children begin to imitate rules designed to ensure that the behaviors of the participants fit together. All
behaviors without participants in a game must know what they are supposed to do and what
understanding why is expected of others in the game. Imagine the confusion in a baseball game
if young first-base players have not yet mastered the idea that the ball hit to
play stage a teammate will usually be thrown to them. In the second stage of role tak-
Mead’s second stage in the ing (the play stage) a child may pretend to be a first-base player one moment
development of role taking; and pretend to be a base runner the next. In the game stage, however, first-
children act in ways they base players who drop their gloves and run to second base when the other
imagine other people would team hits the ball will not remain in the game for very long. It is during the
game stage that children learn to gear their behavior to the norms of the
group.
game stage
Mead’s third stage in the When do we start acting out of principle? During the game stage, a
development of role taking; child’s self-concept, attitudes, beliefs, and values gradually come to depend
children anticipate the actions
less on individuals and more on general concepts. For example, being an
of others based on social rules
honest person is no longer merely a matter of pleasing significant others such
 Chapter 4 Socialization 119
as one’s mother, father, or minister. Rather, it be- What do you think is the
gins to seem wrong in principle to be dishonest. developmental level of the
As this change takes place, a generalized “generalized other” in each of these
other—an integrated conception of the norms, two shoplifters?
values, and beliefs of one’s commu-
nity or society—emerges.
generalized other
What is the self? integrated conception of the
According to Mead, we can norms, values, and beliefs of
think of the self as being one’s community or society
composed of two
parts: the “me” and
the “I.” The “me”
is the part of
“me”
the self created
the part of the self formed
through socializa-
through socialization
tion. The “me”
accounts for pre-
dictability and con-
formity. Yet much
human behavior is
spontaneous and un-
predictable. An angry
child may, for example,
unexpectedly yell hurtful
words at the parent
whom he loves. To ac- “I”
count for this sponta- the part of the self that
neous, unpredictable, accounts for unlearned,
often creative part of spontaneous acts
the self, Mead pro-
posed the “I.”
The “I” does not
operate only in extreme situations of rage or excitement. It interacts con-

“
stantly with the “me” as we conduct ourselves in social situations. According
to Mead, the first reaction of the self comes from the “I.” Before we act, how-
ever, this reaction is directed into socially acceptable channels by the social- Man can be defined as
ized “me.” When the “I” wants a piece of a friend’s candy bar, the “me”
reflects on the consequences of taking the candy without permission. Thus, the animal that can say I,
the “I” normally takes the “me” into account before acting. However, the un- that can be aware of him-
predictability of much human behavior demonstrates that the “me” is not al- self as a separate entity.
ways in control!

Section 2 Assessment
“
Erich Fromm
American psychiatrist

1. What is the looking-glass self?

2. What are the consequences of having a distorted looking glass?
3. Which “self” is the first to react to a situation, the “me” or the “I”?

Critical Thinking
4. Applying Concepts Describe an experience you have had with the
looking-glass process. How did this experience touch or change your
self-concept?
120 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Another Surviving a
Time
By learning the culture around them—whatever
Prisoner-of-War Camp
The old prisoners’ identification with the SS did
that culture is—human beings can and do adapt to not stop with the copying of their outer appear-
almost any situation. This learning process is a ance and behavior. Old prisoners accepted Nazi
type of socialization. The following description of goals and values, too, even when these seemed
adaptation in a German prison camp during World
opposed to their own interests. It was appalling to
War II was written by Bruno Bettelheim, a noted
American scholar who survived imprisonment.
see how far even politically well-educated prison-
ers would go with this identification. At one time
American and English newspapers were full of
W hen a prisoner had reached the final
stage of adjustment to the camp situa-
tion, he had changed his personality so as to ac-
stories about the cruelties committed in these
camps. The SS punished prisoners for the appear-
cept various values of the SS [Hitler’s elite troops] ance of these stories, true to its policy of punish-
as his own. A few examples may illustrate how ing the group for whatever a member or a former
this acceptance expressed itself. member did, since the stories must have origi-
Slowly prisoners accepted, as the expression of nated in reports from former prisoners. In discus-
their verbal aggressions, terms which definitely sions of this event, old prisoners would insist that
did not originate in their previous vocabularies, it was not the business of foreign correspondents
but were taken over from the very different vo- or newspapers to bother with German institutions,
cabulary of the SS. From copying the verbal ag- expressing their hatred of the journalists who tried
gressions of the SS to copying its form of bodily to help them.
aggressions was one more step, but it took several After so much has been said about the old pris-
years to make this step. It was not unusual to find oners’ tendency to conform and to identify with
old prisoners, when in charge of others, behaving the SS, it ought to be stressed that this was only
worse than the SS. part of the picture. The author has tried to con-
Old prisoners who identified themselves with centrate on interesting psychological mechanisms
the SS did so not only in respect to aggressive be- in group behavior rather than on reporting types
havior. They of behavior which are either well known or could
would try to ac- reasonably be expected. These same old prisoners
quire old pieces who identified with the SS defied it at other mo-
of SS uniforms. ments, demonstrating extraordinary courage in
If that was not doing so.
possible, they Source: From Surviving and Other Essays, by Bruno
tried to sew and Bettelheim. © 1979 by Bruno Bettelheim and Trude
mend their uni- Bettelheim as Trustees.
forms so that
they would re-
semble those of
Thinking It Over
the guards. The 1. Describe an experience you have had in
length to which which you or someone you know, as a new
prisoners would member of a group, imitated the ways of the
go in these ef- group.
forts seemed unbelievable, particularly since the 2. How does gang affiliation (such as wearing
SS punished them for their efforts to copy SS uni- gang colors or using their slogans) demon-
forms. When asked why they did it, the old pris- strate the tendency to conform?
oners admitted that they loved to look like the
guards.
 Chapter 4 Socialization 121

Section
Agents of Socialization
3 K e y T e r m s

• hidden curriculum
• peer group
• mass media

The Family and Socialization Section

Preview
T he child’s first exposure to the world occurs within the family. Some
essential developments occur through close interaction with a small
number of people—none of whom the child has selected. Within the fam-
ily the child learns to D uring childhood and
adolescence, the major
❖ think and speak agents of socialization are
❖ internalize norms, beliefs, and values the family, school, peer
❖ form some basic attitudes group, and mass media. The
family’s role is critical in form-
❖ develop a capacity for intimate and personal relationships
ing basic values. Schools in-
❖ acquire a self-image (Handel, 1990).
troduce children to life
The impact of the family reaches far beyond its direct effects on the child. beyond the family. In peer
Our family’s social class shapes what we think of ourselves and how others groups, young people learn
treat us, even far into adulthood. Author Jean Evans offers an illustration of to relate as equals. The mass
this in the case of Johnny Rocco, a twenty-year-old living in a city slum. media provide role models
Johnny hadn’t been running the streets long when the knowledge was for full integration into
borne in on him that being a Rocco made him “something special”; the society.
reputation of the notorious Roccos, known to neighbors, schools, po-
lice, and welfare agencies as “chiselers, thieves, and
trouble-makers” preceded him. The cop on the beat,
Johnny says, always had some cynical smart
crack to make. . . . Certain
children were not permitted
to play with him. Wherever
he went—on the streets, in
the neighborhood, settle-
ment house, at the wel-
fare agency’s penny
milk station, at school,
where other Roccos had
been before him—he
recognized himself by a
gesture, an oblique re-
The infant in the photo on the left is
mark, a wrong laugh. (Evans,
likely to be socialized in a very
1954:11) different way from the two children
above. What are some differences in
attitudes that will probably be
formed by these children because of
their different family life?
122 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Parents are no longer the only significant socializing force.

Socialization in Schools
In school, children are under the care and supervision of adults who are
not relatives. For the first time, many of the child’s relationships with other
people are impersonal. Rewards and punishments are based on performance
rather than affection. Although a mother may cherish any picture that her
child creates, a teacher evaluates her students by more objective standards.
Slowly, children are taught to be less dependent emotionally on their par-
ents. The school also creates feelings of loyalty and allegiance to something
beyond the family.
How do schools socialize students? The socialization process in
school involves more than reading, writing, and arithmetic. Underlying the
hidden curriculum formal goals of the school is the hidden curriculum—the informal and un-
the informal and unofficial
official aspects of culture that children are taught in preparation for life. The
aspects of culture that
hidden curriculum teaches children discipline, order, cooperation, and con-
children are taught in school
formity—characteristics required for success in the adult world of work. (You
will learn more about the hidden curriculum in Chapter 12.)
School also teaches children the reality of how we experience time in the
real world. According to education critic John Holt (1967), life in schools is
run by the clock, as it is in the working world. A bell signals when children
must move to the next scheduled event, whether or not they understand
what they have been working on and whether or not they are ready to switch
to a different subject. Getting through a preset number of activities within a
given time period often becomes more important than learning.
 Chapter 4 Socialization 123
Schools have rules and regulations to cover almost all activities—how to
dress, how to wear one’s hair, which side of the hall to walk on, when to speak
in class. Teachers reward children with praise and acceptance when they re-
cite the “right” answers, behave “properly,” or exhibit “desirable” attitudes. peer group
Children are isolated from the working adult society by being set apart in set of individuals of roughly
school for most of their preadult lives. Because they are separated from the the same age and interests
adult world for such a long time, young people must depend on one another
for much of their social life.

Peer Group Socialization

The family and the school are both agencies of socialization organized
and operated by adults. The child’s peer group—composed of individuals
of roughly the same age and interests—is the
only agency of socialization that is not controlled
primarily by adults. Children usually belong to
several peer groups. A child may belong to a
play group in the neighborhood, a clique at
school, an after-school club or sports team.
How do peer groups contribute to social-
ization? In the family and at school, children
are subordinated to adults. In the peer group,
young people have an opportunity to engage in
give-and-take relationships. Children experience
conflict, competition, and cooperation in such
groups. The peer group also gives children ex-
perience in self-direction. They can begin to
make their own decisions; experiment with new
ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving; and en-
gage in activities that involve self-expression.

Socialization is occurring in each of

the peer groups pictured here,
perhaps with far different
consequences for the larger society.
124 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Independence from adults is also promoted by the peer group, because

often the norms of the peer group conflict with those of the adult world.
Children learn to be different from their parents in ways that help to develop
self-sufficiency.
The peer group also provides an opportunity for children to develop
close ties with friends outside the family, including members of the opposite
sex. At the same time, they are learning to get along with large numbers of
mass media people, many of whom are quite different from themselves. This helps de-
means of communication velop the social flexibility needed in a mobile, rapidly changing society.
designed to reach the general
population Do friends or family have more influence on young people? The
majority of Americans now live in either urban or suburban areas. In both
two-income families and single-parent families, parents
may commute many miles to work and spend much of
their time away from home. Consequently, once chil-
dren reach the upper levels of grade school, they may
spend more time with their peers than they do with
their parents.
According to psychologist Judith Harris (1998), peers
are more important than parents in socializing children.
Even though most sociologists do not agree with this
extreme conclusion, many do believe that the peer
group is having a growing effect on social development.

The Mass Media and

Socialization
Mass media are means of communication designed
to reach the general population. They include such
things as television, radio, newspapers, magazines,
movies, books, the Internet, tapes, and discs. Many
popular images presented in the mass media are highly
distorted. For example, detective and police work are
not as exciting and glamorous as depicted in books, in
movies, and on television. Nevertheless, it is often
through the mass media that children are first intro-
duced to numerous aspects of their culture (Fishman
and Cavender, 1998).
What role do the mass media play in
socialization? The mass media display role models
for children to imitate. Learning these role models helps
to integrate the young into society.
The mass media, by their content alone, teach many
of the ways of the society. This is evident in the
The mass media are a relatively behavior we take for granted—the duties of the de-
new source of socialization. How tective, waitress, or sheriff; the functions of the hospital, advertising
does television advertising influence agency, and police court; behavior in hotel, airplane, or cruise ship;
the dating behavior of teenagers? the language of the prison, army, or courtroom; the relationship be-
tween nurses and doctors or secretaries and their bosses. Such settings
and relationships are portrayed time and again in films, television
 Chapter 4 Socialization 125

World View Availability of Television

The mass media play a key role in the socialization
process. Since nearly every U.S. home has at least
one television (the majority have more), this medium
is one of the most influential in the United States.
This map shows that ownership of televisions varies
widely around the world.
Number of TVs
per 1,000 People
(1999)

Over 400
North
North Europe
Europe 100–400
America 10–99
Less than 10
Asia Information not
available

Africa
South
America

Australia

Interpreting the Map

1. What geographical factor(s) might contribute to the density of TV households in South America?
2. Do you think the attitudes of members of societies with more televisions are influenced more by
government advertising than members of societies with fewer televisions? Why or why not?

Adapted from World Development Indicators, The World Book, 2001.

shows, and comic strips; and all “teach”—however misleadingly—

norms, status positions, and institutional functions (Elkin and Handel,
1991:189).
The mass media also offer children ideas about the values in their soci-
ety. They provide children with images of achievement and success, activity
Student Web Activity
and work, equality and democracy.
Visit the Sociology and
What about violence in the mass media? On the negative side, con- You Web site at
sider the relationship between violence on television and real-life violence. soc.glencoe.com and click on
By age sixteen, the average American child will have seen twenty thousand Chapter 4—Student Web
homicides on television (Leonard, 1998). Social scientists have been reluctant Activities for an activity on
in the past to recognize a causal connection between television violence and mass media and
real-life violence. However, based on hundreds of studies involving over ten socialization.
thousand children, most now conclude that watching aggressive behavior on
television significantly increases aggression (Hepburn, 1993; Strasburger,
1995; Dudley, 1999).
126 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Sociology Struggling Through

Today the Teen Years
Adolescents do not get good press. They are often portrayed by the media as awkward, unrea-
sonable, strong-willed, and overconfident. Some parents, taking their cue from comedian Bill Cosby,
jokingly attribute teen behavior to temporary “brain damage.” Researcher David Elkind (1981) offers
another explanation for much troublesome adolescent behavior. Teens’ problem, he concludes, is not
brain damage. They are simply struggling through the emotional and physiological changes of the
teen years as best they can.
Teenagers may appear to behave irrationally (by adult standards) because of new thinking capabili-
ties not yet under their control. Contrary to the long-accepted belief that the human brain is fully devel-
oped by the age of 8 or 12, startling new research reveals that the brain remains a construction site
even into the 20s (Begley, 2000). And the part of the brain that undergoes the greatest change between
puberty and young adulthood is responsible for such activities as judgment,
emotional control, and organization and planning.
Whereas adults are accustomed to looking at situations from several dif-
ferent viewpoints, teens are not. Confusion can result when inexperienced
young people attempt to move from making simple, one-factor decisions to
consideration of several factors simultaneously. For example, a teen who
wants to join friends in a ride from a night football game may consider that
the driver has a license, but may fail to consider the driver’s experience,
driving habits, or drinking behavior.
Teens assume that other people have as much interest in them as they
have in themselves. Consequently, they surround themselves with an

Consider a few examples. A two-year-old girl died when her older

brother, age five, set the house on fire with matches while imitating behav-
ior he had seen on the cartoon program Beavis and Butt-Head. Just on the
basis of televised reports of violence, a rash of would-be copycat crimes fol-
lowed the shooting massacre of thirteen students and one teacher at
Columbine High School by two students who then shot themselves.
Television’s effects, of course, are usually more hidden, subtle, and long term:
. . . [N]ot every child who watched a lot of violence or plays a lot of vio-
lent games will grow up to be violent. Other forces must converge, as
they did [at Columbine]. . . . But just as every cigarette increases the
chance that someday you will get lung cancer, every exposure to vio-
lence increases the chances that some day a child will behave more vi-
olently than they would otherwise (To Establish Justice, 1999:vi).
 Chapter 4 Socialization 127

“imaginary audience.” Since teenagers

believe that everyone is watching and
evaluating them, they are extremely self-
conscious. In groups, adolescents often
play to this imaginary audience by en-
gaging in loud and provocative behav-
ior. Yet they fail to understand why
adults become annoyed with them. Gradually, they begin to realize that others have their own pre-
occupations, and the imaginary-audience behavior lessens.
Teenagers frequently have the feeling of invulnerability. For example, they may think that drug
addiction, cancer from smoking, pregnancy, and death happen only to others. Their reckless behav-
ior must be seen within this context.
Young people tend to assume that fairly common adolescent experiences are unique. Common
complaints include “Mom, you just don’t know how much it hurt for Carlos to take out Maria,” and
“Dad, you don’t know what it’s like not to have my own bike.” At the other extreme, adolescents
may feel that their own perceptions are shared by everyone. A young boy, for example, may believe
that others find him unattractive because of what he thinks is a large nose. No amount of talking can
convince him that he is exaggerating the size of his nose or that others pay little attention to it. This
self-centered view of reality begins to decrease as teens discover that others are having similar feel-
ings and experiences.

Doing Sociology
Identify three ways in which adults and adolescents could use this developmental awareness to ease
the struggle of the teen years.

Section 3 Assessment
1. Why does the family have such strong influence on a child’s
socialization?
2. What aspect of socialization does the child first encounter in school
that he or she does not meet in the family?
3. What is the hidden curriculum?
4. Besides family and school, identify two other socializing agents.

Critical Thinking
5. Evaluating Information Some pyschologists believe that peer groups
have more influence on later socialization than the family group. Give
reasons why you agree or disagree with that premise.
128 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Section
Processes of Socialization
4 K e y T e r m s

• total institutions • anticipatory socialization

• desocialization • reference group
• resocialization

Desocialization and Resocialization

Section
Preview W henever change occurs over the course of your life, you will learn
new behaviors and skills. This learning is important to socializa-
tion. Symbolic interactionism describes four processes associated with so-
cialization after childhood: desocialization, resocialization, anticipatory
S ymbolic interactionism
views socialization as a
lifelong process. Desocial-
socialization, and reference groups.
How does desocialization prepare people for new learning? Mental
ization is the process of hav- hospitals, cults, and prisons are total institutions—places where residents
ing to give up old norms. are separated from the rest of society. These residents are not free to man-
Resocialization begins as age their own lives, but are controlled and manipulated by those in charge.
people adopt new norms The end purpose of this control and manipulation is to permanently change
and values. Anticipatory so- the residents. The first step is desocialization—the process by which peo-
cialization and reference ple give up old norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors. For those in total in-
groups are concerned with stitutions, desocialization often means the destruction of old self-concepts of
personal identity.
voluntary change as when
Desocialization in institutions is accom-
moving from one life stage
plished in many ways. Replacing personal
to another. possessions with standard-issue items pro-
motes sameness among the residents. It
deprives them of the personal items (long
hair, hair brushes, ball caps, T-shirts) they
have used to present themselves as unique
total institutions individuals. The use of serial numbers to
places in which people are identify people and the loss of privacy also
separated from the rest of contribute to the breakdown of past iden-
society and controlled by tity. Cult members, for example, may even
officials in charge be denied use of their given names.
How does resocialization begin?
desocialization Once the self-concept has been broken
the process of giving up old down, resocialization—the process in
norms, values, attitudes, and which people adopt new norms, values,
behaviors attitudes, and behaviors—can begin. Those
in control of total institutions, using an
resocialization elaborate system of rewards and punish-
the process of adopting new ments, attempt to give residents new self-
norms, values, attitudes, and
behaviors The starkness of this prison cell with its lack
of individual possessions aids in the
desocialization process.
 Chapter 4 Socialization 129

Rates of Imprisonment

District of
Columbia
The U.S. has one of the highest rates of
imprisonment in the industrialized
world—over four times that of any
Western European country. Justice offi-
cials worry that some prisons function as
“schools for crime.” If prisons do first
desocialize and then resocialize inmates Source: Adapted from the Rates of Imprisonment
toward a criminal identity, then the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics 600 or more
prison system is unintentionally increas- 500–599
Bulletin. Washington, D.C.: 400–499
ing the criminal portion of the popula- U.S. Department of Justice, 300–399
tion. This map shows the number of 1999. 200–299
prisoners with sentences of more than 200 or less
one year per 100,000 U.S. residents.

Interpreting the Map

1. Where does your state rank in terms of imprisonment rate? Can
you relate the extent of imprisonment in your state to the nature
of the socialization that occurs in your state?
Visit soc.glencoe.com
2. Do the states adjoining your state have imprisonment rates that are and click on Textbook
similar or dissimilar to your state? Updates–Chapter 4 for an
update of the data.

concepts. Rewards for taking on a new “identity” can include extra food, spe-
cial responsibilities, or periods of privacy. Punishments for nonconformity in-
volve shaming, loss of special privileges, physical punishment, and physical
isolation.
The concepts of desocialization and resocialization were developed to an-
alyze social processes in extreme situations. They still apply to other social
settings, including basic training in the U.S. Marine Corps and plebe (fresh-
man) year at the United States Military Academy. In much less extreme form,
these concepts illuminate changes in our normal life course. Desocialization
and resocialization occur as a child becomes a teenager, when young adults
begin careers, and as the elderly move into retirement or widowhood.

anticipatory socialization
Anticipatory Socialization the voluntary process of
preparing to accept new
Anticipatory socialization is the process of preparing (in advance) for
norms, values, attitudes,
new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors. It does not generally occur in and behaviors
prisons or mental hospitals because it involves voluntary change.
130 Unit 2 Cultural and Social Structures

Case Study:
High School Reunions
Socialization occurs throughout life. Even high school reunions play
a part. If you asked most Americans to talk about their experiences at
a recent high school reunion, what would they say?
“It was great seeing old friends.”
“I was curious about how things turned out for people I loved and
hated as a teenager.”
“I plan to get together with some old friends in the near future.”
High school reunions are generally thought to be a time to recapture
fond memories of youth.
One researcher wished to investigate the meaning of high school re-
unions. Keiko Ikeda (1998) studied eight reunions in the American
Midwest. He observed these reunions armed with a camera, a tape
recorder, and a notebook. After each reunion, he also conducted in-
depth, life-story interviews with samples of participants.
Ikeda’s results are too complex and varied to easily summarize.

“
(This is typical of in-depth observational studies.) One aspect of the
study, however, reveals the socializing aspect of high school reunions.
Ikeda compared several reunions of one high school—tenth, fifteenth,
It is thus with most of us; twentieth, thirtieth, fortieth, and fiftieth. He focused on the relative em-
we are what other people phasis on the past and the present. As you can see from the passage
say we are. We are our- below, the past becomes more important as age increases.
selves chiefly by hearsay. In the earlier reunions (the tenth and fifteenth years), a con-
cern with relative status and a sense of competitiveness is ex-
“
Eric Hoffer
American author
pressed, often blatantly, through award-giving ceremonies. . . .
The hall was decorated in the school colors, and images of the
high school mascot were present, but beyond this no high school
memorabilia were displayed. The music, too, was current, and
not the rock ‘n’ roll of the late sixties and early seventies.
The twentieth-year reunion of the Class of ’62 is typical of a
transitional phase in which elements from the past begin to as-
sume an important role. The past is expressed in high school
memorabilia . . . in . . . films and slides taken during high
school, and in . . . high school anecdotes that are playfully inter-
woven throughout the ceremonial events.
 Chapter 4 Socialization 131

Cathy, © 1990, Cathy

In the thirtieth-year reunion of the Class of ’52, the past Guisewite, Universal Press
Syndicate. (Reprinted with
firmly occupied center stage. A carefully crafted, chronological
permission. All rights
narrative of the senior year, entitled “The Way We Were,” was reserved.)
read, in which major class activities were recalled month by
month. . . .
In the fiftieth-year reunion, we find a dramatic disappear-
ance of all ritual activities. According to the president of the
Class of ’32, his class had held reunions every ten years since
graduation, and in earlier ceremonies they had given awards,
but this time, “none of the folks in the reunion committee felt like
doing that kind of thing.” It seemed that attendees at the fiftieth-
year reunion, for the most part, had risen above concerns of past
and present and were content to celebrate together the simple
fact that they all still had the vigor to attend a reunion.
Source: Keiko Ikeda, A Room Full of Mirrors. Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press, 1998, pp. 143–145.

Working with the Research

1. Ask an adult to describe the activities at one or more high
school reunions that he or she has attended. Compare the de-
scription with Ikeda’s findings.
2. Suppose you had a class assignment to study an upcoming re-
union at your school. Select a research question you would
want to ask. Identify the research methods you would use.
132 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Anticipatory socialization may

occur in people who are moving
from one stage in their lives to
another. Consider teenagers, for
example. Because they want to
resemble those their own age,
they may willingly abandon
many of the norms, values, atti-
tudes, and behaviors learned pre-
viously. This process generally
begins in the preteen years.
Preteens begin early to observe
the ways of teenagers. Teens be-
come their new reference
group—the group they use to
evaluate themselves and from
which they acquire attitudes, val-
The dress on these young people ues, beliefs, and norms. In this
indicates they are preparing for situation, the new reference group is a tool for anticipatory socialization.
entry into the adult world of work
Seniors in college, normally seen on campus only in jeans and oversized
or higher education. How does a
peer group act as a tool for
sweatshirts, suddenly, as graduation nears, are wearing tailored suits and
anticipatory socialization? much more serious expressions. In preparing for entry into the business
world, they are talking with friends who have graduated as well as company
reference group recruiters. In effect, they are preparing themselves for the resocialization they
group whose norms and know awaits them (Atchley, 1999).
values are used to guide
behavior; group with whom
you identify Section 4 Assessment
1. Identify the following actions as desocialization (D), resocialization (R),
or anticipatory socialization (A).
a. First-year students acquire a new identity during their freshman
year at a military academy.
b. Prison personnel deliberately attempt to destroy the self-concepts
of inmates.
c. High school students identify with college students.
2. Which of the following is not an example of a reference group?
a. Rock-star subculture c. Terrorists
b. United States Military Academy d. Mass media

Critical Thinking
3. Applying Concepts Which group do you feel is the most influential
in the present stage of your socialization—family, peers, school, or the
media? Why?
CHAPTER 4 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Vocabulary
Summary
Complete each sentence using each term once.
Section 1: The Importance of Socialization a. socialization e. role taking
Main Idea: Socialization is the cultural process of b. personality f. generalized other
learning to participate in group life. Without it, we c. anticipatory g. total institutions
would not develop many of the characteristics we as- socialization h. resocialization
sociate with being human. Studies have shown that an- d. looking-glass self
imals and human infants who are deprived of intensive
and prolonged social contact with others are stunted in 1. is the attitudes, beliefs, values,
their emotional and social growth. and behaviors associated with an individual.
2. The cultural process of learning to participate in
Section 2: Socialization and the Self group life is called .
Main Idea: All three theoretical perspectives agree that 3. allows us to assume the view-
socialization is needed if cultural and societal values are point of another person and use that viewpoint
to be learned. Symbolic interactionism offers the most to shape our self-concept.
fully developed perspective for studying socialization. In 4. are places in which people are
this approach, the self-concept is developed by using separated from the rest of society and con-
other people as mirrors for learning about ourselves. trolled by officials in charge.
5. The process of adopting new norms, values, at-
Section 3: Agents of Socialization titudes, and behaviors is known as
Main Idea: During childhood and adolescence, the .
major agents of socialization are the family, school, 6. An image of yourself based on what you be-
peer group, and mass media. The family’s role is criti- lieve others think of you is called
cal in forming basic values. Schools introduce children .
to life beyond the family. In peer groups, young peo- 7. is the voluntary process of
ple learn to relate as equals. The mass media provide preparing to accept new norms, values, atti-
role models for full integration into society. tudes, and behaviors.
8. The integrated conception of the norms, values,
Section 4: Processes of Socialization and beliefs of one’s society is called the
Main Idea: Symbolic interactionism views socialization .
as a lifelong process. Desocialization is the process of
having to give up old norms. Resocialization begins
as people adopt new norms and values. Anticipatory so- Reviewing the Facts
cialization and refer-
ence groups are 1. What does the study involving rhesus monkeys
concerned with volun- suggest about the choices that human infants
tary change as when would make in the same situation?
moving from one life Self-Check Quiz
2. What is socialization from the viewpoint of
stage to another. Visit the Sociology and You Web
symbolic interactionism?
site at soc.glencoe.com and
click on Chapter 4—Self- 3. What are the three major theoretical perspec-
Check Quizzes to prepare for tives of sociology?
the chapter test. 4. What concept discussed in this chapter relates
to the song lyric: “Walk a Mile in My Shoes”?

133
 CHAPTER 4 ASSESSMENT
5. What are the four major agents of socialization? denly lost contact with those people. What sup-
Use a ladder as your diagram and list the agents port would you be missing? What key elements
on the steps of the ladder. are provided by this particular social network?
4. Interpreting Information Sociologists claim
1. the average American watches television seven
2. hours a day, yet some students say they never
3. watch TV. How could you account for this fact?
Remember to refer to what you learned from
4.
the chapter in discussing this question.
5. Making Generalizations Total institutions, such
as prisons, presume that desocialization and re-
6. What is a distinguishing characteristic of total socialization occur, since one of their goals is to
institutions? make prisoners law abiding. Yet nearly half of
7. How does resocialization differ from anticipa- the inmates released in the United States return
tory socialization? to prison. If desocialization and resocialization
really do take place, why is the recidivism rate
(the number of prisoners who return to prison)
Thinking Critically so high? Propose a theory for what might be
happening, using the concept of resocialization.
1. Making Predictions You read in this chapter
about the concern that extensive computer use Sociology Projects
stunts social development. Another growing con-
cern is that some people (and groups of people)
are being “left behind” because they don’t have 1. Socialization As you read in the chapter, chil-
equal access to technology. How might this be- dren are socialized in many ways. Some books
come a problem for your generation? that you read when you were a child probably
2. Evaluating Information This chapter dis- had a lasting impact on you. Your task is to an-
cusses the socializing influences of mass media. alyze children’s books armed with your new-
Our perceptions of the ideal body types seem found sociological knowledge. Read three
to be largely a product of media socialization. children’s books or re-read three of your fa-
In a later chapter, you will have an opportunity vorites. Use the following questions to help you
to look at how the media idealizes body types. in your analysis.
Girls feel the need to be thin and boys tend to a. What was the socializing message of the
measure how muscular they are. Discuss how book? (In other words, what lesson did it
television, magazines, CDs, and video games re- teach?)
inforce these images. Give examples from your b. How are females/males portrayed in the
experience of how the media has socialized book?
Americans to admire certain figure and body c. Are any values dealt with? Do you agree or
types. disagree with those values?
3. Analyzing Information Your daily life in- d. What ethnic groups are portrayed in the
cludes many social networks, or groups that book? How are they portrayed?
regularly contribute to your socialization. They
e. Are any other concepts from the chapter
include family, friends, teachers, people at
presented in the books (resocialization,
work, teammates, and so forth. Identify one of
anticipatory socialization, looking-glass self,
these groups, and imagine your day if you sud-
and so forth)?

134
2. Socialization and Music Create the “Song of 5. Major Agents of Socialization Some children
Your Life.” From several different songs, select without parents or close family find themselves
the lyrics that best describe your life. Try to cre- being moved from one foster home to another
ate a flow, as your life represents a continuous for the greater part of their childhood. Write an
flow of events and circumstances. Prepare a essay of at least one page in length, using stan-
written summary of each song’s significance to dard grammar, proper spelling, and good sen-
you, using the socialization concepts presented tence structure, in which you examine the role
in the text. Do you think music is a socializing of each major agent of socialization in the de-
agent? velopment of an individual growing up in this
3. TV and Real Life The text mentioned the im- environment.
pact of TV on our daily lives. This activity asks HINT: Family is a major agent of socialization.
you to assess how “real” TV is compared with Family exists in the traditional sense and in
what we see and do every day. You are to variations of all kinds.
watch two hours of TV. Watch shows that fic-
tionally portray real life (sporting events, the
news, and documentaries are not appropriate Technology Activities
for this activity). Take detailed notes on the
characters, commenting on their clothing, body 1. As indicated in this chapter, the process of
types, occupations, social class, race, ethnic socialization occurs throughout a person’s life.
group, age, and so forth. Then venture out into The Internet has assumed a significant role in
the real world, to a public place such as a park, the socialization of Americans. It actually aids
laundromat, mall, bus terminal, or airport, and television in the process.
observe for two hours. (It might be easier to do 1. What are the most popular television shows
this one hour at a time.) Concentrate on several among your friends?
people, and note the same features that you did 2. Use a search engine to see if these shows
for the TV characters. You might want to focus have a web site on the Internet.
on shows that portray teens or the elderly and
3. Describe the kinds of information available
then observe members of that group.
on the web sites.
(Remember the ethics of doing research, and do
not invade a subject’s privacy without permis- 4. What benefits do the web sites provide to
sion.) Write a paragraph comparing the charac- the viewers? To the television show?
ters on television with those you observed in 2. Using the Internet and your school or local
real life. library, research the role the following
technological inventions of their time played in
4. Violence on TV and in Film Select a classmate
the socialization of Americans: the popularity of
to debate the issue of violence on TV and in
the radio during 1940–1950; the growing
film. Take the position that violence on TV and
popularity of color television from 1960 to the
in film promotes real-life violence and propose
present; and the popularity of the Internet over
a solution to this problem. Your classmate
the last five years. Consider the positive and
should try to persuade the audience that vio-
negative effects, analyzing how norms and
lence on TV does not encourage people to be-
behaviors were changed by the available
come more violent in real-life. Base your
programming and/or advertising.
arguments on research.

135
136 Unit 2 Cultural and Social Structures

Chapter 4

Enrichment Reading
National Television Violence

Key Findings effect on individuals? Does television encourage

violent behaviors?

T oday, violence is not only seen on the In 1994, the National Television Violence
streets but also in the schools. During Study initiated the first part of its three-year proj-
the last five years of the twentieth ect to assess violence on television. This study,
century, there were over 120 people shot in which is the largest study of media content ever
schools. We now hear stories in the news about undertaken, was funded by the National Cable
young people participating in violent shootings Television Association. The project examined ap-
on school grounds and killing innocent by- proximately 2,500 hours of television program-
standers. In a Michigan school in 2000, one six- ming that included 2,693 programs.
year-old shot and killed a classmate at school. The first of the three studies analyzes violent
These violent acts raise questions: Why is there content in television programming. The second
an increase in violence, especially among study examines children’s reactions to ratings
today’s youth? Does television have a negative and viewer advisories. The final study analyzes
the content of antiviolence public service an-
nouncements (PSAs).
Following is a summary of the first study con-
ducted in 1994–1995. Collectively, these findings
establish the norms that exist in the overall tele-
vision environment. Many of the patterns ob-
served cause some concern.

Overall Conclusions about

Violence on Television
❖ Violence predominates on television,
often including large numbers of violent
interactions per program.
The majority (57 percent) of programs on
television contain violence, and roughly one
third of violent programs contain nine or
more violent interactions. The frequency
of violence on television can contribute
to desensitization and fear, as well as
provide ample opportunities to learn violent
attitudes and behaviors.
This man is holding up the V-chip used to control
television viewing by children.
 Chapter 4 Socialization 137

❖ In the majority of the episodes of involve a What Does it Mean

violence, the perpetrator engages in humorous context.
repeated violent acts. Humor tends to contextual
The perpetrator engages in repeated acts of trivialize or meaning that is derived
violence in more than half (58 percent) of undermine the from the setting or the
all violent interactions. This increases the seriousness with environment; not stated,
which violence is but implied
amount of violence to which viewers are
exposed. regarded. desensitization
Humorous
❖ In one-quarter of the violent
violence can serve
the process of preventing
interactions, a gun is used. an emotional response;
to desensitize make less sensitive
Certain visual cues, such as weapons, tend viewers to the
to activate aggressive thoughts in viewers. perpetrator
serious or harmful
Later, these thoughts cause individuals to effects of violence. someone who carries out
interpret neutral events as possibly or brings about an action;
threatening or aggressive.
❖ Violent in law, one who commits
programs rarely a crime
❖ In about three-quarters of all violent employ a strong
scenes, perpetrators go unpunished. predominate
antiviolence
The portrayal of rewards and punishments theme. to exert control over; to
is probably the most important of all hold an advantage in
Only 4 percent of numbers
contextual factors for viewers as they all television
interpret the meaning of what they see on programs trivialize
television. Viewers who would otherwise emphasize a to make something less
think of a class of behaviors such as important or serious than
strong anti- it is
violence as bad may eventually learn that violence theme.
those behaviors are good (useful, Touched by an
successful, or desirable) if they are Angel, Little House on the Prairie, and Mr.
repeatedly and consistently portrayed as Rogers are among the exceptions.
rewarded or unpunished. Across all channel
types, this study discovered a common Source: Adapted from “National Television Violence
pattern that the majority of violent scenes Study: Executive Summary.” Studio City, CA:
lack any form of punishment for the Mediascope, Inc., 1998.
perpetrators.
❖ In a high proportion of violent Read and React
episodes, the consequences are not
realistically portrayed. 1. What was the stated purpose of the first
Less than half of violent interactions show study?
the victims experiencing any signs of pain. 2. Why does the report state that the
Furthermore, only about one in six contextual factors for viewing violence are
programs depict any long-term negative the most important?
consequences, such as physical suffering or 3. Do you think the report reaches its stated
financial or emotional harm. All of these purpose (see Question #1)? Why or
patterns increase the risk that viewers will why not?
believe that violence is not a particularly
painful or harmful behavior.
❖ Violence is often presented as humorous.
More than one third of all violent scenes
CHAPTER 5
Social Structure
and Society

138
 U
S Your Sections
I Sociological
N Imagination 1. Social Structure and Status
G 2. Social Structure and Roles
3. Preindustrial Societies
B ecause we are deeply involved in
our own social world, we forget that
our ability to participate in daily life
is based on years of socialization. In the
play, As You Like It, William Shakespeare
4. Industrial and
Postindustrial Societies
wrote a line reminding us of the place of
social learning in our lives: “All the world’s Learning Objectives
a stage. And all the men and women
merely players; They have their exits and
their entrances; And one man in his time After reading this chapter, you will be able to
plays many parts.”
All members of a group (including you) ❖ explain what sociologists mean by social
have parts they are expected to play. structure.
Students are expected to attend class, listen ❖ discuss how statuses and roles are related
to the instructor, and participate in class ac- to social structure.
tivities. Teachers are expected to be in the
classroom when students arrive, hold class,
❖ identify and illustrate the concepts of
teach and guide the class, and make assign- social structure.
ments. In any American high school, you ❖ explain how culture and social structures
will find similar relationships between stu- are related.
dents and staff. Interactions are orderly and ❖ describe the means of subsistence in
predictable. In most cases, the teacher preindustrial societies.
knows what the student expects of her and
the student knows what the teacher expects ❖ discuss the characteristics of industrial
of him. society.
If, however, you suddenly found yourself ❖ compare and contrast preindustrial,
in a class where the teacher raised his hand industrial, and postindustrial societies.
to talk and brought his dog to class; where
students played frisbee and took naps on
the floor, you might wonder what planet
you had beamed down to. Missing the
order and predictability you expected, you Chapter Overview
would wonder how you should act in this Visit the Sociology and You Web site at
unfamiliar setting. To fit in, what you would soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 5—
need is some awareness of the underlying Chapter Overviews to preview chapter
social structure. This chapter will discuss information.
concepts that underlie social structure.
139
140 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Section
Social Structure and Status
1 K e y T e r m s

• social structure
• status
• achieved status
• status set
• ascribed status • master status

Section Social Structure Is All Around You

Preview
Y ou learned in Chapter 4 that culture shapes human social behavior.
In the absence of biological pre-programming, culture guides us in

T he underlying pattern of
social relationships in a
group is called social struc-
our thinking, feeling, and behaving. Without culture, humans would have no
blueprint for social living. This chapter helps explain the relationship be-
tween culture and social structure.
ture. Status is one very im- So, what is social structure? The chapter opening described a situa-
portant element of social tion in which unexpected classroom behavior resulted in confusion for a
structure. Ascribed statuses newcomer. We are usually spared such confusion when entering a new group
are assigned at birth; because we bring some knowledge of how people will normally relate to one
achieved statuses are earned another. In our minds, we carry a “social map” for various group situations.
or chosen. We have mental images of the new group with its patterns of social relation-
ships. This underlying pattern is called social structure.

social structure
the underlying patterns of
Everyone Has Status
relationships in a group We are not born with mental maps of social structure; we must learn
them from others. In the process, we learn about statuses and roles—major
status elements of social structure.
a position a person occupies
within a social structure What do sociologists mean by status? People may refer to themselves
as students, doctors, welders, secretaries, mothers, or sons. Each of these la-
bels refers to a status—a position a person occupies
within a social structure. Status helps us define who and
what we are in relation to others within the same social
structure. Some social statuses are acquired at birth. For
example, a newborn female instantly becomes a child
and a daughter. From then on, she assumes an increas-
ingly larger number and variety of statuses.
Sociologists are interested in the relationships among
social statuses. A sociologist investigating delinquency,
for example, may focus on the status of social worker
in relation to the statuses of the police officer, judge,
and teacher. Figure 5.1 illustrates the status of a high

The two different status people in this photograph are

behaving exactly as most people would expect.
 Chapter 5 Social Structure and Society 141

school athlete related to various other statuses. There are two Figure 5.1 The
Interrelationships of Social
basic types of social statuses—ascribed and achieved.
Statuses. Social statuses do not
What is an ascribed status? An ascribed status exist in isolation. All statuses are
is neither earned nor chosen; it is assigned to us. At interrelated with other statuses.
birth, an infant is either a male or a fe-
male. We do not choose our gender. Age
is another example of an ascribed social
status. In some societies, religion and so-
cial class are ascribed by the family of
birth. If you were born into a lower-class
home in India, for example, you would ascribed status
not be permitted to rise to a higher social a position that is neither
class. earned nor chosen but
assigned
How is status achieved? An
achieved status is earned or chosen.
Achieving statuses is possible where
people have some degree of control achieved status
and choice. In most modern societies, for a position that is earned or
chosen
Pictured is an African Masai man in
traditional clothes. Do you think that his
clothing reflects an ascribed or an achieved
status?
142 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

example, an individual can decide to become a spouse or a parent. Occupations

are also achieved statuses in modern societies where people have freedom to
choose their work. Plumber, electrician, sales representative, nurse, executive,
lawyer, and doctor are examples of achieved statuses.
What is a status set? A person who is a social worker does not occupy
only one status. This person holds various other statuses that may be totally
status set unrelated to that of social worker. A status set is all of the statuses that a per-
all of the statuses that a son occupies at any particular time. One social worker may be a wife, mother,
person occupies at any author, and church choir director. Another may be a single parent, service club
particular time leader, and jazz musician. Another status set might be that of a student, a
brother, a tennis player, a tutor, and a store clerk. Each of these statuses is part
of another network of statuses. Assume, for example, that in addition to being
a social worker, an individual is also a part-time jazz musician. In this status,
she might interact with the statuses of nightclub owner, dancer, and fellow mu-
sician, among others.
Are all of a person’s statuses equal? Among the statuses held by an in-
master status dividual, some are more important than others. Master statuses are important
a position that strongly affects because they influence most other aspects of the person’s life. Master statuses
most other aspects of a may be achieved or ascribed. In industrial societies, occupations—achieved
person’s life statuses for the most part—are master statuses. Your occupation strongly in-
fluences such matters as where you live, how well you live, and how long you
live. “Criminal” is an achieved master status, since it affects the rest of your life.

“I hunt and she gathers—otherwise, we couldn’t make ends meet.”

Expected behavior is often based on master statuses such as gender.

 Chapter 5 Social Structure and Society 143
Explain why the status of a
lawyer is a master status.

Age, gender, race, and ethnicity are examples of ascribed master statuses.
These statuses are master statuses because they significantly affect the likeli- Student Web Activity
hood of achieving other social statuses. When will the United States have a Visit the Sociology and
female president? Would you let a nineteen-year-old or a ninety-year-old han- You Web site at
dle your case in court? Or remove your appendix? soc.glencoe.com and click on
Chapter 5—Student Web
Activities for an activity on
Section 1 Assessment social status.
1. Briefly define the term social structure.
Match the definition with the type of status (a–d) it best describes.
2. wife, mother, author, church choir director a. ascribed status
3. electrician, spouse b. achieved status
4. the presidency of the United States, c. master status
professional athlete d. status set

“
5. sex, gender, race
6. daughter, son
7. quarterback, coach, fan, trainer Our individual lives can-
not generally be works of
Critical Thinking
art unless the social order
8. Categorizing Information On a separate piece of paper, make a
diagram of your life—the statuses you possess and the responsibilities
is also.
or role expectations for each. Examples of statuses include “
Charles Horton Cooley
son/daughter, student, band member, etc.
9. Applying Concepts What is the most important master status you have
American sociologist
held? Has the master status helped or hindered you? What master status
would you like to achieve? Why?
144 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Experiment:
Adopting Statuses in
a Simulated Prison
Social psychologist Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues designed an
experiment to observe the behavior of people without criminal records
in a mock “prison.” They were amazed at the rapidity with which sta-
tuses were adopted and roles fulfilled by the college students playing
“prisoners” and “guards.” This experiment reveals the ease with which
people can be socialized to statuses and roles. Zimbardo’s own words
describe the design and results of this experiment.

In an attempt to understand just what it means . . . to be a pris-

oner or a prison guard, Craig Haney, Curt Banks, Dave Jaffe and
I created our own prison. We carefully screened over 70 volun-
teers who answered an ad in a Palo Alto city newspaper and
ended up with about two dozen young men who were selected
to be part of this study. They were mature, emotionally stable,
Students on the right in normal, intelligent college students from middle-class homes. . . .
Zimbardo’s mock prison They appeared to represent the cream of the crop of this genera-
experiment held very low tion. None had any criminal record. . . .
statuses. Half were arbitrarily desig-
nated as prisoners by a flip of a
coin, the others as guards.
These were the roles they were
to play in our simulated prison.
The guards . . . made up their
own formal rules for maintain-
ing law, order and respect, and
were generally free to impro-
vise new ones during their
eight-hour, three-man shifts.
The prisoners were unexpect-
edly picked up at their homes
by a city policeman in a squad
car, searched, handcuffed, fin-
gerprinted, booked at the Palo
Alto station house and taken
 Chapter 5 Social Structure and Society 145
blindfolded to our jail. There they were stripped, deloused, put
into a uniform, given a number and put into a cell with two other
prisoners where they expected to live for the next two weeks. . . .
At the end of only six days we had to close down our mock
prison because what we saw was frightening. It was no longer
apparent to most of the subjects (or to us) where reality ended
and their roles began. The majority had indeed become prison-
ers or guards, no longer able to clearly differentiate between
role playing and self. There were dramatic changes in virtually
every aspect of their behavior, thinking and feeling. . . . We
were horrified because we saw some boys (guards) treat others
as if they were despicable animals, taking pleasure in cruelty,
while other boys (prisoners) became servile, dehumanized
robots who thought only of escape, of their own individual sur-
vival and of their mounting hatred for the guards. We had to re-
lease three prisoners in the first four days because they had
such acute situational traumatic reactions as hysterical crying,
confusion in thinking, and severe depression. Others begged to
be paroled, and all but three were willing to forfeit all the
money they had earned [$15 per day] if they could be paroled.
By then (the fifth day) they had been so programmed to think
of themselves as prisoners that when their request for parole
was denied they returned docilely to their cells. . . .
About a third of the guards became tyrannical in their arbi-
trary use of power, in enjoying their control over other people.
They were corrupted by the power of their roles and became
quite inventive in their techniques of breaking the spirit of the
prisoners and making them feel they were worthless. . . . By the
end of the week the experiment had become a reality. . . .
Excerpted with permission of Transaction, Inc., from Society, Vol. 9, No. 6.
Copyright © 1972 by Transaction, Inc.

Working with the Research

1. If you were asked to discuss Zimbardo’s experiment in light of
one of the three major theoretical perspectives, which would
you choose? Why?
2. One of Zimbardo’s conclusions, not stated in the above ac-
count, is that the brutal behavior found in real-life prisons is not
due to the antisocial characteristics or personality defects of
guards and prisoners. Can you argue, sociologically, that he is
right in this conclusion? How?
3. There was some controversy over the ethics of this experiment.
Do you think this experiment could be carried out today under
the ASA Code of Ethics? Why or why not?
146 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Section
Social Structure and Roles
2 K e y

• role
T e r m s

• social interaction
• rights • role conflict
• obligations • role strain
• role performance

Section Rights and Obligations

Preview
A n expected behavior associated with a particular status is a role.
Any status carries with it a variety of roles. The roles of a modern

P eople interact according

to prescribed roles.
These roles carry certain
doctor, for example, include keeping informed about new medical devel-
opments, scheduling office appointments, diagnosing illnesses, and pre-
scribing treatments.
rights and obligations. Roles can be thought of as statuses “in action.” Whereas statuses describe
Sometimes conflict or strain positions, roles describe behaviors. These behaviors are based on the rights
occurs when an individual and obligations attached to various statuses. Rights are behaviors that indi-
has too many roles to play. viduals expect from others. Obligations are behaviors that individuals are
expected to perform toward others. The rights of one status correspond to
the obligations of another. Doctors, for example, are obligated to diagnose

role
an expected behavior
associated with a particular
status

right
a behavior that individuals can
expect from others

obligation
a behavior that individuals are “No, Hoskins, you’re not going to do it just because
expected to perform toward
I’m telling you to do it. You’re going to do it because you
others
believe in it.”

Hoskins is being forced to follow roles whether he

wants to or not. Are such cues ever sent your way?
 Chapter 5 Social Structure and Society 147
their patients’ illnesses. Correspondingly, patients have the right to expect
their doctors to diagnose to the best of their ability. Teachers have an obli-
gation to be prepared to teach the daily lesson. Students have a right to ex-
pect that teachers will be adequately prepared to explain the material.
Correspondingly, teachers have a right to expect that students will make the
attempt to learn. Students have the obligation to make that effort.
“
It is never too late to
Recall that this chapter began with a quotation from Shakespeare’s play As be what you might
You Like It. In terms of a play, roles are the part of the script that tells the ac- have been.
tors (status holders) what beliefs, feelings, and actions are expected of them.
A playwright or screenwriter specifies the content of a performer’s part. In the George Eliot
same way, culture underlies the parts played in real life. Mothers, for instance,
have different maternal “scripts” in different cultures. Most American mothers
emphasize independence more than most Iranian mothers.
“
English author

Role Performance and Social Interaction

Statuses and roles provide the basis for group life. It is primarily when
people interact with each other socially that they “perform” in the roles at-
tached to their statuses.
Role performance is the actual conduct, or behavior, involved in carry- role performance
ing out (or performing) a role. Role performance can occur without an au- the actual behavior of an
dience (as when a student studies alone for a test). Most role performance, individual in a role
though, involves social interaction.
Social interaction is the process of influencing each other as people re-
late. For example, before two boys begin to fight, they have probably gone social interaction
through a process of insulting and challenging each other. Fortunately, most the process of influencing
social interaction is not as negative and violent, but the same process of in- each other as people relate
fluence and reaction to others is involved.
Think again of the analogy of the play. If statuses are like the parts in a
play and roles are like the script, then social
interaction represents the way actors re-
spond to cues given by other actors. Role
performance is the perfor-
mance itself.

These students each have

particular roles and statuses
within their group.
148 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

How does play-acting differ from social

interactions? The play anal-
ogy is a valid one, but it is dan-
gerous to take it too far. For
one thing, “delivery of the
lines” in real life is not the
CULTURE conscious process used by
actors. Unlike stage perfor-
mances, most real-life role per-
formance occurs without
planning.
transmitted
Second, although actors
via roles
may sometimes ad-lib, change
lines to suit themselves, and
so forth, overall they stick
pretty closely to the script.
attached to
social statuses
Departures are fairly easy to
detect and control. This is not
the case with differences be-
tween a role and a role perfor-
guides mance.
role perfomance Third, on the stage, there is a pro-
grammed and predictable relationship This illustration draws an analogy between
between cues and responses. One rehearsed behavior on the stage and real
social behavior. How do community
performer’s line is a cue for a specific cultural standards affect the role behavior
through response from another actor. In life, of students and teachers?
social interaction we can choose our own cues and re-
sponses. A student may decide to tell
a teacher that her tests are the worst he has ever encountered. On hearing
this, the teacher may tell the student that it is not his place to judge, or the
which may teacher may ask for further explanation so that improvement may be made.
be observable as
In effect, the teacher can choose from several roles to play at that time.
patterned relationships
Likewise, the student can choose from a variety of responses to the teacher’s
behavior. If the teacher tells the student he is out of line, the student may re-
port the matter to a counselor, or he may decide to forget it altogether. The
which constitute
process of choosing the role and then acting it out occurs in nearly all in-
stances of social interaction.
Keep in mind, however, that the range of responses is not limitless. Only
certain responses are culturally acceptable. It is not an appropriate response
for the teacher to bodily eject the student from her classroom, and the stu-
SOCIAL dent would be very foolish to pound the teacher’s desk in protest.
STRUCTURE Figure 5.2 outlines the connection between culture and social structure.
As you can see at the top of the figure, the first link between culture and
social structure is the concept of role (behavior associated with a status).
Figure 5.2 The Links Between
Roles are in turn attached to statuses (a position a person occupies within a
Culture and Social Structure.
Sociologists concentrate on the study group). Yet people do not always follow roles exactly. The manner in which
of social structure. They have roles are actually carried out is role performance, the third link in the con-
developed a set of concepts and an ceptual chain. Role performance occurs through social interaction. This is
understanding of their relationships the fourth link between culture and social structure. Social interaction based
in order to examine the basic nature on roles is observable as patterned relationships, which make up social
of social structure. structure. In turn, existing social structure affects the creation of and
changes in culture.
 Chapter 5 Social Structure and Society 149

Number of Gun-related
School Expulsions
per 100,000 Students,
11.5 1998-99
2.8
9.4 2.6
8.8 2.8 8.1 2.9
12.7 6.8 7.2 5.4
11.5 6.2 4.5
3.4 8.0 2.6
16.7 5.1 4.2
2.7 3.8 10.4 2.0
13.4* 6.7
Guns in School 4.9 11.0 18.7 5.6 10.2
11.2
4.0
7.9
11.9 14.6 16.8 3.7
Bringing firearms to school is a major 14.3 2.5 7.8
violation of the student role. Teachers 23.3 14.8 District of
2.7 4.8
17.7 Columbia
have a right to expect students to come 7.4
18.1
to school unarmed. Students are obli- 4.0
gated not to bring weapons to school.
This map gives us some idea of the rela- 2.7
0.0–5.0
tive extent to which this role is being vi- 5.1–10.0
olated and punished in various states. In 10.1–15.0
total, 3,523 students were expelled dur- 15.1–25.0
ing the 1998–99 school year for carrying Source: U.S. Dept. of Education, 2000. *Includes all weapons, not just firearms.
guns to school. The good news—this
number represents a substantial drop
over the two previous survey years.

Interpreting the Map

1. Which states reported the most expulsions per 100,000 students
in the 1998–1999 school year? (Which states fall in the over 15.0
range?)
2. Explain why violation of a law can also be a role violation.
Visit soc.glencoe.com
and click on Textbook
Updates–Chapter 5 for an
Source: U.S. Dept. of Education update of the data.

Role Conflict and Role Strain

The existence of statuses and roles permits social life to be predictable
and orderly. At the same time, each status involves many roles, and each in-
dividual holds many statuses. This diversity invites conflict and strain.
role conflict
What are role conflict and role strain? Role conflict exists when the condition in which the
performance of a role in one status clashes with the performance of a role performance of a role in one
in another. Many teenagers, for example, hold the statuses of student and status interferes with the
employee. Those who do often find it difficult to balance study and work performance of a role in
demands. another status
150 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Figure 5.3 Focus on Theoretical Perspectives

Illustrating Social Structure Concepts. This table illustrates how each theoretical perspective might ap-
proach the study of social structures. The concepts could be switched to any other theoretical perspective and
illustrated from that perspective. Associate each concept with a different theoretical perspective and provide
your own example.

Theoretical Social Structure

Perspective Concept Example

Functionalism Role Social integration is promoted by

culturally defined rights and obligations
honored by group members.

Conflict Theory Ascribed Master Ascribed master statuses such as gender

Status and race empower some to subjugate
others.

Symbolic Social Interaction Roles are carried out by individuals on

Interactionism the basis of the symbols and meanings
they share.

role strain
Role strain occurs when a person has trouble meeting the many roles
condition in which the roles of connected with a single status. College basketball coaches, for example, have
a single status are inconsistent to recruit for next year’s season while trying to win games in the current sea-
or conflicting son. Besides preparing daily lessons, high school teachers often are required
to sponsor social clubs. Each of these roles (coach and recruiter or teacher
and advisor) is time consuming, and the fulfillment of one role may interfere
with the performance of the others. If your expectations as a high school stu-
dent require you to perform well academically, join a social organization, pur-
sue a sport, date, and participate in other school activities, you will probably
experience some degree of role strain as a result of these expectations.
How do we manage role conflict and strain? Role conflict and strain
may lead to discomfort and confusion. To feel better and to have smoother
relationships with others, we often solve role dilemmas by setting priorities.
When roles clash, we decide which role is most important to us and act ac-
cordingly. For example, a student who frequently misses school-related ac-
tivities because of work demands will have to assess her priorities. She can
eliminate the role conflict completely by quitting work and putting a priority
on school activities. If she remains in both statuses, she can reduce work
hours or cut down on extracurricular school activities.
We also segregate roles. That is, we separate our behavior in one role from
our behavior in another. This is especially effective for reducing the negative
 Chapter 5 Social Structure and Society 151
effects of conflicting roles. A college coach experiencing the role strain as-
sociated with coaching and recruiting simultaneously can decide to give
priority to one over the other. He may, for example, let his assistant coach
do most of the recruiting until the season ends. Ranking incompatible
roles in terms of their importance is a good way to reduce role conflict
and strain. An organized-crime member may reduce role conflict by seg-
regating his criminal activities from his role as a loving father.
Because of role conflict and role strain, meeting the goals and expec-
tations of all our roles is impossible. This poses no problem as long as
role performance occurs within accepted limits. Professors at research-
oriented universities may be permitted to emphasize teaching over re-
search. Coaches may accent fair play, character building, and scholarship
rather than a winning record. Professors at research universities who do
too little publishing or coaches who win too few games, however, usu-
ally will not be rewarded for very long. At some point they will be judged
as failing to meet expected role performance. (For more on handling role
conflict, see Sociology Today on the next page.)

Section 2 Assessment
Match each situation below with the key term (a–e) it illustrates.
1. A husband and wife discuss the a. role
disciplining of one of their children. Do you think this young man is
2. A mother is expected to take care b. role conflict suffering from role conflict or role
of her children. strain?
3. A businessman has no time for his c. role performance
children.
4. A school principal hands out diplomas d. role strain
at a graduation ceremony.
5. A corporate chief executive officer is e. social interaction
economically forced to terminate
employees who are his friends.
6. Which of the following is not one of the differences between a play
and social life?
a. There is considerably more difference between roles and role
performance in social life than between a script and a stage
performance.
b. Unlike the stage, there are no cues and responses in real life.
c. Role performance in real life is not the conscious process that
actors go through on the stage.
d. In social life, the cues and responses are not as programmed and
predictable as on the stage.

Critical Thinking
7. Applying Concepts Are you presently experiencing role conflict or
role strain? If you are, analyze the source. If not, explain why at this time
you are free from role conflict and role strain, making clear the meaning
of the concepts.
152 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Sociology Reducing Conflict in

Today Two-Career Families
Families with two working adults have special strains. While in 1960, less than 20 percent of mar-
ried women with young children worked outside of the home, by 2000, the figure was about 65 per-
cent (U.S. Bureau of the Census). This increase has resulted in added role conflict for women. In a
two-career family, the woman is more likely to suffer from conflict because she is still generally ex-
pected to balance her traditional homemaker roles with her career roles. The women are not the
only ones who suffer, however. The effects of this conflict are felt by husbands and children, as well.
Since you will likely be faced with the stress associated with dual-career families, you would be wise
to learn now some techniques for reducing role conflict.
1. Focus on the Positive
Conflict can be reduced when couples define their situation positively. If both partners are work-
ing from choice rather than necessity, it can be helpful to remember some of the reasons why they
first made the choice for both to work. These reasons might include additional income or personal
satisfaction.
2. Put Family Needs First
Role conflict can be most effectively managed when family roles are placed ahead of working
roles. When a baby-sitter fails to show up, when a child is sick, or when a parent-teacher conference
is called, one of the parents can place these demands above work-related demands. Placing a higher
priority on family needs will help keep the family support
structure intact.
3. Assume One Role at a Time
Conflict can be reduced if a person focuses on only one role
at a time. Leaving job-related problems at work and family issues
at home is often difficult but is very effective in reducing role
conflict.
4. Find the Compromise Balance
Although many men take active roles in child care today in
order to meet family obligations, women still make the most com-
promises in their careers. With the increasing number of women
in better-paying professional careers, we should expect more
equality in career compromises between husbands and wives.

Doing Sociology
Identify three ways that you believe would help reduce role
conflict in dual-career families. Provide specific examples not
given in the text.
 Chapter 5 Social Structure and Society 153

Section
Preindustrial Societies
3 K e y

• society
T e r m s

• horticultural society
• hunting and gathering • pastoral societies
society • agricultural society

Types of Society Section

Preview
T he culture and social struc-
ture of a society are greatly
affected by the way the society pro-
vides for basic needs. A society, as
you may remember from Chapter
T he way a society provides
for basic needs greatly
affects its culture and social
3, is composed of people living structure. Preindustrial, in-
within defined territorial borders dustrial, and postindustrial
who share a common culture. societies meet basic needs in
Societies meet their members’ different ways. Preindustrial
basic needs, such as the needs for societies include hunting and
food and shelter, in diffferent
gathering, horticultural,
ways. These differences form the
basis of a system anthropologists pastoral, and agricultural
often use to classify societies. In societies.
this system, societies are classified
as preindustrial, industrial, or
postindustrial. We will look at
preindustrial societies in this sec-
tion and examine industrial and society
postindustrial societies in the fol- people living within defined
Even the earliest societies territorial borders and sharing
had patterned and lowing sections.
a common culture
predictable social In theory, a society is inde-
relationships. pendent of outsiders. It contains
enough smaller social structures—
family, economy, and so forth—to
meet the needs of its members. As you will see, preindustrial societies actu-
ally could be independent and self-sufficient. Modern societies, although ca-
pable of caring for most members’ needs, must have political, military,
economic, cultural, and technological ties with other societies. In fact, mod-
ern societies are rapidly moving toward the creation of a global society.
In the next few pages, several basic types of societies will be distin-
guished. Each type of society is unique in important ways. All societies, how-
ever, are comprised of social structures. Members in each type of society
know what is expected of them and what they can expect from others.
Members of a particular type of society engage in the same basic social pat-
terns time after time because they share patterned and predictable social re-
lationships that are passed from generation to generation.
154 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Preindustrial
Hunting and gathering Horticultural gardening Pastoral herding
2 million to 10,000 years ago 12,000 to 10,000 years ago 12,000 to 10,000 years ago

Hunting and Gathering Societies

The hunting and gathering society survives by hunting animals and
hunting and gathering society
a society that survives by
gathering edible foods such as wild fruits and vegetables. This is the oldest
hunting animals and gathering solution to the problem of providing for the basic need for food, or subsis-
edible plants tence. In fact, it was only about nine thousand years ago that other methods
of solving the subsistence problem emerged.
Hunting and gathering societies are usually nomadic—they move from
place to place as the food supply and seasons change. Because nomads must
carry all their possessions with them, they have few material goods. Hunting
and gathering societies also tend to be very small—usually fewer than fifty
people—with members scattered over a wide area. Because the family is the
only institution in hunting and gathering societies, it tends to all the needs
of its members. Most members are related by blood or marriage, although
marriage is usually limited to those outside the family or band.
Economic relationships within hunting and gathering societies are
based on cooperation—members share what they have with other mem-
bers. Members of hunting and gathering societies seem simply to give
things to one another without worrying about how “payment” will be
made. In fact, the more scarce something is, the more freely it is shared.
Generosity and hospitality are valued. Thrift is considered a reflection of
selfishness. Because the obligation to share goods is one of the most
binding aspects of their culture, members of hunting and gathering so-
cieties have little or no conception of private property or ownership.
Without a sense of private ownership and with few possessions for
anyone to own, hunting and gathering societies have no social classes,
no rich or poor. These societies lack status differences based on polit-
ical authority because they have no political institutions; there is no
one to organize and control activities. When the traditional Inuit in
Canada and Alaska, for example, want to settle disputes, they use dueling
Judging from this photograph, to songs. The people involved in the dispute prepare and sing songs to express
what type of society do these Navajo their sides of the issue. Their families, as choruses, accompany them. Those
women belong? listening to the duel applaud their choice for the victor (Hoebel, 1983).
 Chapter 5 Social Structure and Society 155

Preindustrial (continued) Industrial Postindustrial

Agricultural farming Industrial England Mid-1950s to present.
6,000 years ago 240 years ago More than half of employed
are in the service sector

The division of labor in hunting and gathering societies is limited to the

sex and age distinctions found in most families, since the family is the only
institution. Men and women are assigned separate tasks, and certain tasks are
given to the old, the young, and young adults. There is more leisure time in
hunting and gathering societies than in any other. Today, few true hunting
and gathering societies remain other than the Khoi-San (Bushmen) in
Southern Africa, the Kaska Indians in Canada, and the Yanomamö of Brazil.
(See Another Place on page 158.)

Horticultural Societies
A horticultural society solves the subsistence problem primarily horticultural society
through the growing of plants. This type of society came into being about a society that survives
ten to twelve thousand years ago, when people learned they could grow and primarily through the growing
harvest certain plants instead of simply gathering them. The gradual change of plants
from hunting and gathering to horticultural societies occurred over several
centuries (Nolan and Lenski, 1999).
The shift from hunting and gathering to horticulture, or gardening, led to
more permanent settlements. People no longer needed to move frequently
to find food. Even without plows and animals to pull them, they could work
a piece of land for extended periods of time before moving on to more fer-
tile soil. This relative stability permitted the growth of multicommunity soci-
eties averaging one thousand to two thousand people each.
The family is even more basic to social life in horticultural societies than
in hunting and gathering societies. In hunting and gathering societies, the sur-
vival of the group usually has top priority. In horticultural societies, primary
emphasis is on providing for household members. This is because producing
food in horticultural societies can be handled through the labor of family
members. With the labor necessary for survival, households depend more on
themselves and less on others outside the family unit for their subsistence.
156 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Pastoral Societies
Most horticultural societies keep domesticated animals such as pigs and
chickens. They do not, however, depend economically on the products of
pastoral society these animals the way pastoralists, or herders, do. In pastoral societies,
a society in which food is food is obtained primarily by raising and taking care of animals. For the most
obtained primarily by raising part, these are herd animals such as cattle, camels, goats, and sheep, all of
and taking care of animals which provide both milk and meat. Since grains are needed to feed the ani-
mals, pastoralists must also either farm or trade with people who do (Nanda
and Warms, 1998; Peoples and Bailey, 2000).
There is more migration in pastoral societies than in those based more
fully on cultivation of land. However, permanent (or at least long-term) vil-
lages can be maintained if, as seasons change, herd animals are simply
moved to different pastures within a given area. In such societies, the
women remain at home while the men take the herds to different pastures.
With men being responsible for providing food, the status of women in pas-
toral societies is low. These societies are male dominated.
Because both horticultural and pastoral societies can produce a surplus of
food, they usher in important social changes unknown in hunting and gath-
ering societies. With a surplus food supply, some members of the commu-
nity are free to create a more complex division of labor. People can become
political and religious leaders or make goods such as pottery, spears, and
agricultural society clothing. Because nonedible goods are produced, an incentive to trade with
a society that uses plows and other peoples emerges.
draft animals in growing food The creation of a surplus also permits the development of social inequality
(class or caste), although it is limited. Even a relatively small surplus, however,
means that some families, villages, or clans have more wealth than others.

Agricultural
Societies
An agricultural society,
like a horticultural society,
subsists by growing food.
The difference is that
agricultural societies
use plows and ani-
mals. In fact, the
transition from horticul-
tural to agricultural society was made
possible largely through the invention of
the plow (Nolan and Lenski, 1999).
The plow not only allows the farmer
to control weeds but also turns the
weeds into fertilizer by burying them
under the soil. By digging more deeply
into the ground than was possible
with sticks, hoes, and spades, the
This Bali farmer lives in an
agricultural society. How does his
plow is able to reach nutrient-rich dirt that had sunk below root level. The
society differ technologically from a result is more productivity—more food per unit of land.
horticultural society?
 Chapter 5 Social Structure and Society 157
This medieval manuscript shows a
noble instructing villeins on crop
harvesting. Why would this type of
superior-subordinate behavior first
appear in an agricultural society?

Using animals also increases productivity, because larger areas can be cul-
tivated with fewer people. As a result, more people are free to engage in
noneconomic activities such as formal education, concerts, and political ral-
lies. Cities can be built, and occupations appear that are not directly tied to
farming, such as politician, blacksmith, and hat maker. New political, eco-
nomic, and religious institutions emerge. Although family ties remain impor-
tant, government replaces the family group as the guiding force for
agricultural societies.
In the past, agricultural societies were headed by a king or an emperor.
Distinct social classes appeared for the first time. Wealth and power were
based on land ownership, which was controlled by the governing upper
class. These elites enjoyed the benefits of the work done by the peasants.
Urban merchants were better off than peasants, but they, too, worked hard
for their livings. An economy based on trade began to emerge as an identi-
fiable institution during this time. Monetary systems, which use money rather
than goods for payment, began to be used as well. Increasingly, religion and
government became separate as institutions. Rulers were believed to be di-
vinely chosen, but few of them were also religious leaders.

Section 3 Assessment
1. Briefly restate the chief traits of each type of society: hunting and
gathering, horticultural, pastoral, and agricultural.
“Money is the most egali-
tarian force in society. It
2. In which type of society did a marked class system first appear? confers power on who-
Explain why. ever holds it.
Critical Thinking Roger Starr
“
3. Synthesizing Information Using information from this section, American economist
develop a theory that would explain why conflict increases as society
becomes more complex.
158 Unit 2 Cultural and Social Structures;

Another The Chest-

Place Pounding
Duel
A description of the “chest-pounding” ritual that livered it
takes place among the Yanomamö tribe in would
Southern Venezuela was recorded by anthropolo- throw his arms above his head, roll his eyes
gist Napoleon Chagnon. It provides a good exam- back, and prance victoriously in a circle
ple of social structure in a preindustrial society.
around his victim, growling and screaming,
All of the participants in this activity—even those
merely observing—know exactly what is expected
his feet almost a blur from his excited dance.
of them and what to expect of the others. This is The recipient would stand poised and take as
what sociologists mean by social structure. many as four blows before demanding to hit
his adversary. He would be permitted to
. . . There were about sixty adult men on strike his opponent as many times as the lat-
each side in the fight divided into two arenas, ter struck him, provided that the opponent
each comprised of hosts and guests. Two could take it. If not, he would be forced to
men, one from each side, would step into the retire, much to the dismay of his comrades
center of the milling, belligerent crowd of and the delirious joy of their opponents. No
weapon-wielding partisans, urged on by their fighter could retire after delivering a blow. If
comrades. One would step up, spread his he attempted to do so, his adversary would
legs apart, bare his chest, and hold his arms plunge into the crowd and roughly haul him
behind his back, daring the other to hit him. back out, sometimes being aided by the
The opponent would size him up, adjust the man’s own supporters. Only after having re-
man’s chest or arms so as to give himself the ceived his just dues could he retire. If he had
greatest advantage when he struck and then delivered three blows, he had to receive
step back to deliver his close-fisted blow. The three or else be proven a poor fighter. He
striker would painstakingly adjust his own could retire with less than three only if he
distance from his victim by measuring his were injured. Then, one of his comrades
arm length to the man’s chest, taking several would replace him and demand to hit the
dry runs before delivering his blow. He victorious opponent. The injured man’s two
would then wind up like a baseball pitcher, remaining blows would be canceled and the
but keeping both feet on the ground, and de- man who delivered the victorious blow
liver a tremendous wallop with his fist to the would have to receive more blows than he
man’s left pectoral muscle, putting all of his delivered. Thus, good fighters are at a disad-
weight into the blow. The victim’s knees vantage, since they receive disproportionately
would often buckle and he would stagger more punishment than they deliver. Their
around a few moments, shaking his head to only reward is . . . [prestige]: they earn the
clear the stars, but remain silent. The blow reputation of being fierce.
invariably raised a “frog” on the recipient’s
pectoral muscle where the striker’s knuckles Source: Excerpted from Napoleon A. Chagnon,
bit into his flesh. After each blow, the com- Yanomamö: The Fierce People (New York: Holt, Rinehart
rades of the deliverer would cheer and and Winston, 1977), pp. 113–115.
bounce up and down from the knees, wav-
ing and clacking their weapons over their
Thinking It Over
heads. The victim’s supporters, meanwhile,
would urge their champion on frantically, in- Describe an activity in your culture that illustrates
sisting that he take another blow. If the deliv- patterned social relationships. Explain the statuses
ery were made with sufficient force to knock and roles involved.
the recipient to the ground, the man who de-
 Chapter 5 Social Structure 159

Section Industrial and

4 Postindustrial Societies
K e y T e r m s

• industrial society • social solidarity

• mechanization • mechanical solidarity
• urbanization • organic solidarity
• Gemeinschaft • postindustrial society
• Gesellschaft

Basic Features of Industrial Societies Section

Preview
T he Industrial Revolution created a society that is dependent upon sci-
ence and technology to produce its basic goods and services.
Sociologists call this an industrial society.
What happens when agricultural societies become industrial
T he Industrial Revolution
created a new type of so-
ciety, called industrial society.
societies? Neil Smelser (1976) has identified some basic structural Characteristics that distin-
changes that occur in societies shifting from an agricultural to an industrial
guish this society from all
base. Industrialism brings with it a change—away from simple, traditional
technology (plows, hammers, harnesses) toward the application of scientific earlier ones include the
knowledge to create more complex technological devices. Early examples of growth of large cities and a
wide-spread dependence on
machines and technology.
Postindustrial society has a
predominately white-collar
labor force that is concen-
trated in service industries.
Social instability has been
linked to the transition from
an industrial to a postindus-
trial society.

industrial society
a society that depends on
science and technology to
produce its basic goods and
services

Ford Motor Company employees

work on the Model T assembly line.
What technology underlies
industrial society?
160 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

industrial technology include the steam engine and the use of electrical
mechanization
power in manufacturing. More recent technological developments include
the process of replacing
animal and human power with
nuclear energy, aerospace-related inventions, and the computer.
machine power In industrial societies, intensive animal and human labor is replaced by
power-driven machines, a process known as mechanization. These ma-
chines are operated by wage earners who produce goods for sale on the
urbanization market. With the help of machinery, farmers are able to produce enough
the shifting of population from food to support themselves and many others. This surplus allows people to
farms and villages to large cities move away from farms and villages, adding to the growing population in
large cities. Urbanization, then, is also a basic feature of industrial societies.
How does the role of the family change? With industrialization, fam-
ily functions change in many ways. Economic activities, once carried out in
the home, move to the factory. Similarly, the education of the young, which
in agricultural societies centered on teaching farming, moves from the home
to the formal school. An industrial society requires a more broadly educated
and trained labor force, so young people can no longer be prepared for the
work force by their families. Blood relationships decline in importance as fam-
ilies begin to separate socially and physically due to urbanization and the ne-
cessity of taking jobs in distant locations where factories have been built.
Personal choice and love replace arranged marriages. Women, through
their entrance into the work force, become less subordinate to their
husbands. Individual mobility increases dramatically, and social class
is based more on occupational achievement than the social class
of one’s parents. Because the United States has been an in-
dustrial society for so long, its characteristics are taken as
a given. The effects of industrialization are easier to ob-
serve in societies currently moving from an agricultural to
an industrial economic base. For example, Vietnam and
Malaysia are experiencing mechanization and urbaniza-
tion at the beginning of the twenty-first century (Singh,
1998; Phu, 1998).
Job skills in an industrial society,
like those needed here, cannot be
learned in the home. What does
this mean for education in an
A Conversation with Two Sociologists
industrial society?
Ferdinand Tönnies and Emile Durkheim were two early sociologists who
wrote about preindustrial and industrial societies. Sociologists today still
Gemeinschaft study their writings.
preindustrial society based on
tradition, kinship, and close What did Tönnies write? Ferdinand Tönnies (1957, originally published
social ties in 1887), was an early German sociologist. In his writing, he distinguished be-
tween gemeinschaft (ga MINE shoft) and gesellschaft (ga ZELL shoft).
Gemeinschaft is German for “community.” It describes a society based on tra-
Gesellschaft dition, kinship, and intimate social relationships. These are the types of com-
industrial society characterized munities found in preindustrial societies. Gesellschaft is the German word for
by weak family ties,
“society.” This concept represents industrial society and is characterized by
competition, and impersonal
weak family ties, competition, and less personal social relationships.
social relationships
What were Durkheim’s views? Shortly after Tönnies published his the-
ory, Emile Durkheim (1964a, originally published in 1893) made a similar ob-
social solidarity
the degree to which a society
servation. He distinguished the two types of societies by the nature of their
is unified social solidarity. Social solidarity is the degree to which a society is unified
or can hold itself together in the face of obstacles.
 Chapter 5 Social Structure and Society 161

World View Agricultural Employment

As societies move from the preindustrial to the
postindustrial stage, fewer people are required to
raise food to feed the population. This map shows
the percentage of each country’s population involved
in the production of agricultural products.

Population Working
in Agriculture
Over 70%
51% to 70%
North
Nor th Europe
Europe 31% to 50%
America 10% to 30%
Below 10%
Asia

Africa
South
America

Australia

Interpreting the Map

1. After examining this map, what generalizations about types of societies around the world
would you make? Explain.
2. Which countries do you think could be ready to move from one type of society to another? Be
specific about countries and types of societies.
3. What parts of the world are least likely to change in the near future? Explain your answer.

Adapted from Compact Peters Atlas of the World. Essex, England: Longman Group UK Limited.

Social solidarity, Durkheim contended, is a result of society’s division of

labor. In societies in which the division of labor is simple—in which most
people are doing the same type of work—mechanical solidarity is the mechanical solidarity
foundation for social unity. A society based on mechanical solidarity achieves a type of social unity achieved
social unity through a consensus of beliefs, values, and norms; strong social by people doing the same type
pressures for conformity; and dependence on tradition and family. In this of work and holding similar
values
type of society, which is best observed in small, nonliterate societies, people
tend to behave, think, and feel in much the same ways, to place the group
above the individual, and to emphasize tradition and family.
In contrast, in an industrial society, members depend on a variety of peo- organic solidarity
ple to fulfill their needs—barbers, bakers, manufacturers, and other suppliers a type of social unity in which
members’ interdependence is
of services. This modern industrial society is based on organic solidarity.
based on specialized functions
It achieves social unity through a complex of specialized statuses that make and statuses
members of the society interdependent.
162 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures
The term organic solidarity is based on an analogy with biological or-
ganisms. If a biological organism composed of highly specialized parts is to
survive, its parts must work together. Similarly, the parts of a society based
on organic solidarity must cooperate if the society is to survive.

Major Features of Postindustrial Society

Some societies, such as the United States, have passed beyond industrial
postindustrial society society into postindustrial society. In this type of society, the economic
a society in which the emphasis is on providing services and information rather than on producing
economic emphasis is on goods through basic manufacturing.
providing services and Sociologist Daniel Bell (1999) identifies five major features of a post-
information
industrial society, a society based on a service economy.
1. For the first time, the majority of the labor force are employed in services
rather than in agriculture or manufacturing. These industries
emphasize services (banking, medical care, fast food, entertainment)
rather than producing tangible goods, such as oil or steel. They include
organizations in the areas of trade, finance, transportation, health,
recreation, research, and government. In 2000, about 75 percent of all
employed workers in the United States were in service jobs.
2. White-collar employment replaces much blue-collar work. White-collar
workers outnumbered blue-collar workers in the United States for the
first time in 1956, and the gap is still increasing. The most rapid growth
has been in professional and technical employment.
3. Technical knowledge is the key organizing feature in postindustrial
society. Knowledge is used for the creation of innovations as well as
for making government policy. As technical knowledge becomes more
important, so do educational and research institutions.
4. Technological change is planned and assessed. In an industrial society,
the effects of a technology are not assessed before its introduction.
When the automobile engine was invented, no one asked whether it
would have an effect on the environment. In postindustrial societies,
the effects—good and bad—of an innovation can be considered before
it is introduced.
5. Reliance on computer modeling in all areas. With modern computers, it
is possible to consider a large number of interacting variables
simultaneously. This “intellectual technology” allows us to manage
complex organizations—including government at national, state, and
local levels.

The New York Stock Exchange Social Instability in Postindustrial Society

symbolizes the shift from production-
based work to knowledge-based work Historian Francis Fukuyama (1990) believes that the transition to a service
in postindustrial society. economy has increased social instability in nations undergoing this change.
He writes the following about deteriorating social conditions that began in
the mid-1960s.
Crime and social disorder began to rise, making inner-city areas of the
wealthiest societies on earth almost uninhabitable. The decline of kinship
 Chapter 5 Social Structure 163
as a social institution, which has been going on for more than 200
years, accelerated sharply in the second half of the twentieth century.
Marriages and births declined and divorce soared; and one out of every
three children in the United States and more than half of all children in
Scandinavia were born out of wedlock. Finally, trust and confidence in
institutions went into a forty-year decline (Fukuyama, 1999:55).

Will social instability continue? According to Fukuyama, this social

instability is now lessening. He sees current indications of a return to social
stability. The establishment of new social norms, he believes, is reflected in
the slowing down of increases in divorce, crime, distrust, and illegitimacy. In
the 1990s, Fukuyama notes, many societies have even seen a reversal of
these rates—crime, divorce, illegitimacy, and distrust have actually declined.
This is particularly true in the United States, where levels of crime are
down a good 15 percent from their peaks in the early 1990s. Divorce
rates peaked in the early 1980s, and births to single mothers appear to
have stopped increasing. Welfare rolls have diminished almost as dra-
matically as crime rates, in response both to the 1996 welfare-reform
measures and to opportunities provided by a nearly full-employment
economy in the 1990s. Levels of trust in both institutions and individu-
als have also recovered significantly since the early 1990s (Fukuyama,
1999:80).

What has caused the return to social stability? Fukuyama believes

that humans find it difficult to live without values and norms:
The situation of normlessness . . . is intensely uncomfortable for us,
and we will seek to create new rules to replace the old ones that have
been undercut (Fukuyama, 1999:76).
Because culture can be changed, it can be used to create new social struc-
tures better adapted to changing social and economic circumstances.

Section 4 Assessment
1. Explain why blood relationships are less important in an industrial
society than in a preindustrial society.

“
2. State whether each of the following is or is not a major feature of a
postindustrial society.
a. emphasis on technical knowledge
b. employment of the majority of the labor force in service industries We live in a moment of
c. reliance on advanced technology history where change is so
d. increased dependence on skilled blue-collar workers speeded up that we begin
e. shift toward the employment of white-collar workers to see the present only
Critical Thinking when it is disappearing.
3. Analyzing Information Explain from your own observation why R.D. Laing
family relationships would probably weaken in an industrial society.
4. Making Predictions As the United States becomes a more complete
information society, how may life for you change?
“
Scottish psychiatrist
164 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

A ccording to a business visionary, one of the most important

changes that will occur in the postindustrial workplace is the “vir-
tual organization.” The virtual organization is a workplace of digital
technologies, wireless transfer of information, computer networks, and
telecommuting. In this picture, the worker has more freedom, inde-
pendence, and job satisfaction than ever before (Barner, 1996).
If this optimistic view of new technology is correct, workers in high-
tech jobs should be much happier than employees doing low-tech
work. However, in a survey of 1,509 workers in California’s Silicon
The Dark Valley (an area where high-tech industry is concentrated), researchers
found no differences in job satisfaction between employees in high-
tech companies and those in more traditional manufacturing firms.
Side of They also found that there are still large social class differences within
the workplace. These findings challenge the belief that work in high-
tech society will be more satisfying and economically fair (Gamst and
Workplace Otten, 1992).
Other researchers found that job security decreases in high-tech
positions. Employees are forced to learn new skills and upgrade pres-
Technology ent skills throughout their careers; lifelong learning is the key to eco-
nomic survival. Management positions are also at risk. Functions that
managers have been performing for centuries, such as decision mak-
ing and training, will be done by technology rather than humans.
Another feature of the high-tech workplace is the use of technology
to monitor employee performance. This practice can make employees
feel helpless, manipulated, and exploited. Many workers feel that their
managers are spying on them, constantly looking over their shoulders
(Barner, 1996). In fact, there has been a dramatic rise in employer
workplace surveillance. Over two-thirds of U.S. companies
now engage in electronic cybersnooping of employees: re-
viewing e-mail, examining computer files, documenting web
sites visited each day (Naughton, 1999). How would you feel
if all of your actions at work were being monitored by a com-
puter, creating a record of your behavior that can be replayed
and reexamined? (Remember the discussion in Chapter 2
about the ethics of researchers’ use of video cameras.)
Digitally based technology offers many benefits. It has
boosted productivity and created many new employment
opportunities. Like any technology that has wide-ranging ef-
A video camera has been fects on society, there are some undesirable consequences.
implanted inside the smoke
Postindustrial societies are just beginning to deal with the dark side of
detector above. These tiny cameras
a very bright technology.
are part of the technological
revolution that is currently
changing society. Would you want
one of these in your school?
Analyzing the Trends
1. Which theoretical perspective do you think underlies this research
and speculation? Indicate specific features of the research to sup-
port your conclusions.
2. Does the use of technology to monitor employees clash with any
values in American society? Explain.
CHAPTER 5 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Vocabulary
Summary
Complete each sentence using each term once.
Section 1: Social Structure and Status a. social structure h. hunting and
Main Idea: The underlying pattern of social rela- b. achieved status gathering society
tionships in a group is called social structure. c. ascribed status i. agricultural
Status is one very important element of social d. roles society
structure. Ascribed statuses are assigned at birth; e. role conflict j. industrial society
achieved statuses are earned or chosen. k. organic solidarity
f. society
g. horticultural l. mechanical
Section 2: Social Structures and Roles solidarity
society
Main Idea: People interact according to pre-
scribed roles. These roles carry certain rights and 1. The underlying pattern of social relationships
obligations. Sometimes conflict or strain occurs is called .
when an individual has too many roles to play. 2. is the social unity achieved
through interdependence based on specialized
Section 3: Preindustrial Societies functions.
3. is status that is assigned.
Main Idea: The way a society provides for basic
4. is a society that solves the
needs greatly affects its cultural and social struc-
subsistence problem by learning to grow and
ture. Preindustrial, industrial, and postindustrial
harvest plants.
societies meet basic needs in different ways.
Preindustrial societies include hunting and gather- 5. is a nomadic society charac-
ing, horticultural, pastoral, and agricultural terized by economic cooperation.
societies. 6. Status that can be earned is called
.
Section 4: Industrial and Postindustrial 7. People living within defined territorial borders
Societies and sharing a common culture are called a
.
Main Idea: The Industrial Revolution created a new 8. Culturally defined rights and obligations at-
type of society, called industrial society. tached to statuses are known as
Characteristics that distinguish this society from all .
earlier ones included the growth of large cities and
9. The society that releases some people from
a widespread dependence on machines and tech-
the land to engage in noneconomic activities
nology. Postindustrial society has a predominantly
is called .
white-collar labor force that is concentrated in ser-
vice industries. Social 10. occurs when the roles of a
instability has been single status are inconsistent or conflicting.
linked to the transi- 11. Social unity accomplished through a consen-
tion from an indus- sus of values, beliefs, and norms is known as
trial to a postindustrial Self-Check Quiz .
society. Visit the Sociology and You Web 12. is a society characterized by
site at soc.glencoe.com and the replacement of human labor with mechan-
click on Chapter 5—Self- ical labor.
Check Quizzes to prepare for
the chapter test.
165
CHAPTER 5 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing the Facts 2. Applying Concepts What are some of the
roles and statuses that you fill in the course of
your day? List them, and describe the basic
1. What is the sociological term for the dilemma of rights connected to each status.
women who have careers and who also must 3. Analyzing Information In hunting and gath-
run households? ering societies, resources are distributed equally.
2. What do sociologists mean by social structure? If one person eats, everyone eats. Is that the
3. What is the difference between role strain and case in industrial and postindustrial societies?
role conflict? Should Americans be concerned whether every-
4. In what ways do workers in the “virtual organi- one eats every day? Why might they not be
zation” differ from low-tech workers? In what concerned?
ways are the workers the same? 4. Drawing Conclusions Modern societies have
5. As people move away from agricultural soci- been given the role of providing an education
eties to industrial societies, they also move from for all of their members. This education is con-
the personal to the impersonal. What sociologi- ducted in schools. Some people, however, are
cal terminology did Emil Durkeim give to such returning to the ways of older societies and
a shift? Use the diagram below to illustrate the teaching their children at home rather than
cause-and-effect relationship of the shift from sending them to school. What are some of the
personal to impersonal. role conflicts and strains that might exist for
those who choose to home-school their chil-
dren? What do you think some of the advan-
tages and disadvantages of home schooling
might be?

Sociology Projects
PERSONAL IMPERSONAL

1. Role Performance George Herbert Mead said

that humans are social beings because they can
“take on the role of another person.” Your task
Thinking Critically here is to create a one-minute improvisational
skit in which you react to a basic statement
1. Making Inferences The chapter suggests that through the “persona” of another individual.
society functions because social patterns are This person might be the school principal, a fa-
usually predictable. History records that John D. vorite teacher, a school liaison police officer, or
Rockefeller, the founder of Standard Oil a parent. If you are not confident that you can
Company, was so rich he would walk down the improvise, take the time to write out the lines
street and pass out dimes to children. Allegedly, of the statement you are reacting to: Teenagers
he gave out three million dollars’ worth of today need to assume more responsibility.
dimes before he died. Let’s say you decided to 2. Social Cues You have probably watched so
go to the mall and hand out a dollar to all the much television over the course of your lifetime
children who passed by. How do you think that you can watch it without really paying at-
people would react? Would they be suspicious? tention. Here’s a twist on TV watching. Watch
Do you think mall security would be concerned television tonight for ten minutes without turn-
by your behavior? What has changed since the ing the set on—that’s right, sit in front of it
days of Rockefeller that would make your be- without turning it on. Concentrate on every-
havior suspect? thing that is happening as you focus on the TV.
Next, actually turn on the TV, but turn the vol-

166
 ume all the way down. Try to figure out what is home are status symbols for wealth. High
going on by reading faces and nonverbal ex- school status symbols might involve a letter
pressions. Try this for ten minutes. This activity sweater, a trendy article of clothing, or a video
might give you an idea of how good human game player. Search newspaper and magazine
beings are at grasping certain ideas without advertisements for examples of products that
words. Next, try watching the news for ten min- you believe are status symbols for a particular
utes without the sound on. Then spend another status or occupation. (It is not only wealthy and
ten minutes watching the news with the sound powerful people who possess status symbols.)
on but concentrating on the technical aspects of Make a montage of these images.
the program: camera changes, graphics, sound, 6. Status Use newspapers and magazines to find
music, voices, changes in color, and so forth. pictures that can be used to make a visual ex-
Identify and describe in a brief paragraph two planation of the following terms: status, as-
or three cues or expressions that allowed you cribed status, status set, master statuses, and
to correctly interpret a situation. social structure. Create a pictorial chart using
3. Individuals as Players On a Stage Create a the terms and pictures.
collage entitled “Society” using pictures from
magazines or old photographs. In this collage,
depict yourself in various statuses. For example, Technology Activities
if you are in a club at school or in a band, in-
clude that. If you are a sister or daughter, that is 1. This chapter describes rights as the behaviors
another status you hold. Then show how your individuals can expect from others and obliga-
statuses are related to society, family, education, tions as the behaviors others expect from them.
religion, the economy (your job), and so forth. Different societies place emphasis on different
This collage should help you understand how rights and obligations, but there is a common
individuals are players on a stage. understanding of some basic human rights. One
4. Observation As you learned in Chapter 2, ob- organization that provides a list of these basic
servation is one method that sociologists use to rights is the European Commission of Human
accumulate data. In this activity, you will ob- Rights. Visit its web site at http://194.250.50.201/.
serve the structure and interactions of three From its home page, select the section entitled
groups (without drawing attention to your pro- “organization, procedure and activities.” Then
ject!). Look for general patterns in the group go to the document called “Convention for the
that you observe, such as style of dress, lan- Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
guage, status positions, values, routines, and so- Freedoms.” Scroll down to Section I Article 2 of
cial boundaries. You might want to try this document.
observing your family or a group at the mall, in a. What are the basic human rights listed there?
the school cafeteria, or any other place that b. Are any of these rights built into some of the
groups meet. Write down your observations, roles you are expected to perform? Explain.
concentrating on patterns of behavior.
c. Do you believe that these rights should be a
5. Status Symbols Roles are behaviors associated part of the role prescriptions in any society?
with certain statuses. Status symbols are prod- Why or why not?
ucts or items that represent a status, or position.
For example, a luxury automobile or a vacation

167
168 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Chapter 5

Enrichment Reading
Social Functions of Malls
by Wayne S. Wooden
In The Mall: An Attempted Escape from Everyday Life, Jerry Jacobs presents an ethnographic
account of a midsize, enclosed suburban shopping center. Karen Lansky’s article, “Mall Rats,” for
Los Angeles magazine discusses what it means for teenagers when they “just hang out” at these
“indoor shopping palaces.”

I n recent years several excellent books and hand, since malls are designed to make life
magazine articles have been published on more comfortable by eliminating parking
the social phenomenon of teenagers problems, long walks, heavy doors, hot sun,
and suburban shopping malls. depressing clouds. It is ironic, in fact, that
The modern mall, Jacobs argues, provides the mall is becoming all that many kids
three things for its participants. First, it offers know of the outside world, since the mall is
people entertainment or just plain diversion. a placeless space whose primary virtue is
Second, it provides the public with convenient that it’s all inside. Kids come in from the
shopping. And, third, the mall offers public, so- cold (or heat) for a variety of reasons, of
cial space—a place to meet and interact with oth- course. But the main reason kids seek the
ers. In other words, the modern shopping center mall, especially in the summer when
has become an “indoor street corner society.” school’s out, seems to be because they can’t
Karen Lansky contends that kids spend so think of anything better to do.
much time in the mall partly because parents en- Lansky sees mall rats as kids with nowhere else
courage it, assuming it is safe and that there is to go.
adult supervision. The structured and controlling
environment of the mall is ideal for them. Their parents may drink or take drugs, be
According to Lansky, violent or just gone. Whatever, the mall be-
comes the home they don’t have. For them,
True mall rats lack structure in their home the mall is a rich, stimulating, warm,
lives, and adolescents about to make the clean, organized, comfortable [social]
big leap into growing up crave more struc- structure—the only [social] structure in
ture than our modern society cares to ac- some of their lives.
knowledge.
In gathering research for her article, Lansky in-
Lansky also believes that the mall has become terviewed several adolescents. Although teenagers
the focus of these young people’s lives. in several high schools would be approached as
Malls are easy. Food, drink, bathrooms, well, the vast majority of the interviews and sur-
shops, movie theaters—every part of the veys gathered for the Youth Survey portion of this
life-support system a modern kid needs is study were completed by over four hundred
in the mall. Instant gratification for youths contacted in Southern California malls. The
body and senses—and all of it close at initial focus of this study, therefore, began with
 Chapter 5 Social Structure and Society 169

my meeting and talking with these so-called teen- about myself at What Does it Mean
age mall rats. the time. I felt very
One male expressed the belief that the mall self-conscious at
ethnographic
“belongs to the mall rats.” Arguing that the mall school. I always
the descriptive study of
is his property, his mission in life, he said, is to kind of dressed
human cultures
become “top mall rat,” adding, “Without the mall, differently. Being
we’d be street people.” tall, people usually habitué
Another female mall habitué interviewed by looked at me phys- one who regularly visits a
Lansky complained that the only place in the ically, and I used place
mall that is “theirs” is the arcade. She and her to be very insecure instant gratification
friends get kicked out of the other places. about that. So I the immediate
Security warns them to keep moving if they are kind of had the at- satisfaction of wishes or
not buying anything. It is these kids, according to titude, if I do wants
Lansky, that the mall owners do not like. The something a little social phenomenon
managers resent having to set limits for these bit different, then
a fact or event of social
kids—limits that should be the responsibility of that would be the interest subject to
the community or the family. The owners dis- reason why they’re scientific interpretation
courage these kids because they often do not staring at me. I or explanation
have much money to spend, yet drain the re- can’t do anything
sources of the mall. about the fact that
One of the first young men so contacted was I’m tall.
Bob Bogan, or “Skidd Marx,” as he preferred to be Q: So it gave you a rationalization?
called, who allowed me to spend several after- A: Right. The punk thing is when I just
noons with him as he wandered through the Brea didn’t care what I looked like. My parents
Mall. Seventeen and 5
10  tall, Skidd struck a were always saying, “You’re such a nice
mean pose. With his black hair spiked all over looking young man. Why do you want to
with three separate 1-foot tails in back, Skidd also do that?” That really used to bother me.
sported eye makeup, a leather jacket studded with
Source: Adapted from an article by Wayne S. Wooden,
spikes, a white T-shirt with a punk band logo on
Renegade Kids, Suburban Outlaws: From Youth Culture
it, black Levis rolled up high, and black Converse
to Delinquency, Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing
high tops. Skidd also sported four hanging ear-
Company, 1994.
rings in each ear and a loop pierced into his right
nostril. Skidd, decked out in full punk regalia, cut
the swaggering image of the “young man about
the mall.” Read and React
Skidd, like all of the teenagers studied in this
book, resided in suburbia. He came from a middle- 1. According to this reading, what effect do
class background. Both of his parents worked. He malls have upon teenage values?
defined himself as “a suburban punk bordering on 2. Given what you have learned in this
the punk funk.” Skidd, in true mall-rat fashion, chapter, what does it mean to say that
spent much of his free time and social life in the people have no social structure in their lives
Brea Mall. except in the malls? Could this really be
Q: When did you first define yourself as true? Explain.
being into punk or punk funk? How did 3. Do you agree with the claims in this
the process occur? writing? Why or why not?
A: It was in my third year of high
school. I really wasn’t feeling that good
CHAPTER 6
Groups and Formal
Organizations

170
 U
S Your Sections
I Sociological
N Imagination 1. Primary and Secondary
G Groups
2. Other Groups and

M ost people assume that conflict

should be avoided because it is dis-
ruptive and interferes with group
effectiveness. While this can be true, there
are also social benefits associated with con-
3.
Networks
Types of Social
Interaction
flict and disagreement. Willingness to tolerate
(and even encourage) disagreement can pre- 4. Formal Organizations
vent what sociologists call groupthink.
The Challenger space shuttle disaster is
an excellent example of a group making a Learning Objectives
catastrophic decision because it conformed
to the larger group commitment. The
Challenger was launched from Kennedy After reading this chapter, you will be able to
Space Center on January 28, 1986. Just over
a minute after the launch, the Challenger
❖ define the concepts of group, social cate-
exploded, taking the lives of all seven astro- gory, and social aggregate.
nauts on board. ❖ list the major characteristics of primary
Like the teams of all space missions, the and secondary groups.
Challenger team was composed of a number ❖ describe five types of social interaction.
of specialists. Its engineers had earlier rec-
ommended against takeoff because crucial ❖ discuss the advantages and disadvantages
parts had never been tested at a temperature of bureaucracy.
as low as the temperature was on the morn- ❖ distinguish between formal and informal
ing of the takeoff. As victims of groupthink organizations.
do, NASA leaders screened out this opposi-
❖ discuss the use of power within an orga-
tion by discounting the engineers’ ability to
nization and demonstrate its importance
make the “right” decision. Except for the en-
gineers, the decision “to go” was unanimous.
with examples.
By avoiding consideration of a dissenting
view, the majority lost the shuttle passengers
and harmed NASA’s long-term objectives.
This chapter will look closely at behaviors of Chapter Overview
groups and organizations. Visit the Sociology and You Web site at
soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 6—
Chapter Overviews to preview chapter
information.

171
172 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Section
Primary and Secondary Groups
1 K e y

•
•
group
T e r m s

social category
• primary relationships
• secondary group
• social aggregate • secondary relationships
• primary group

Section Groups, Categories, and Aggregates

Preview
A group is composed of people who share several features, including
the following.

G roups are classified by

how they develop and
function. Primary groups
❖
❖
They
They
are in regular contact with one another.
share some ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
meet emotional and support ❖ They take one another’s behavior into account.
needs, while secondary ❖ They have one or more interests or goals in common.
groups are task focused. Groups play important roles in the lives of their members, as well as in-
fluence society around them. Groups range from the small and informal to
the large and formal. They tend to draw lines around themselves, creating
insiders and outsiders. Some groups have tighter, more definite boundaries
than others. Boundaries between African Americans and whites in the South
group of the early 1960s were rigid. Members of the minority were unable to drink
at least two people who have from the same water fountains, use the same rest rooms, or eat at the same
one or more goals in common restaurants as whites. Group boundaries may change over time, however.
and share common ways of Since the 1960s, boundaries between African Americans and whites in the
thinking and behaving United States are much looser.

Compare these Korean choir

members with the Denver concert
goers. Explain why one is a group
and the other is not.
 Chapter 6 Groups and Formal Organizations 173
A group is not the same as a social category—people who share a social
characteristic. High school seniors are a social category, for example. Women social category
belong to another social category. A group is also sometimes confused with a people who share a social
characteristic
social aggregate—people who happen to be in the same place at the same
time, such as students waiting in line for concert tickets.
Although neither categories nor aggregates are groups, some of their
members may form groups. Witnesses of a disaster (an aggregate) may work social aggregate
together to cope with an emergency. Citizens of a state (a social category) people temporarily in the
may band together in an organized tax revolt. These people may form a same place at the same time
group if they begin to interact regularly; share ways of thinking, feeling, and
behaving; take one another’s behavior into account; and have some common
goals.

Primary Groups primary group

Two principal types of groups are primary and secondary. At the ex- people who are emotionally
tremes, the characteristics of these two types of groups—and the relation- close, know one another well,
and seek one another’s
ships that occur within them—are opposites. But most groups sit at different
company
points along a continuum from primary to secondary.
What is a primary group? Charles Horton Cooley, one of the founders
of symbolic interactionism, was the first to use the term primary group. A
primary group is composed of people who are emotionally close, know
one another well, and seek one another’s company. The members of a
primary group have a “we” feeling and enjoy being together. These
groups are characterized by primary relationships that are intimate,
personal, caring, and fulfilling.
Primary groups are the most important setting for socialization.
Family and childhood play groups are the first primary groups a
child experiences. People, of course, participate in primary groups
throughout life. Close friends in high school and college, neighbors
who keep an eye on one another’s children, and friends who meet
weekly for golf are all examples of primary groups.
How do primary groups develop? A number of conditions
favor the development of primary groups and primary relationships.
❖ Small size. It is hard for members of large groups to develop
close emotional ties. The chances of knowing everyone fairly well
are far greater in small groups. The boys or girls who play for the school
What type of group do you think is
basketball team are more likely to develop primary relationships than the pictured above?
multitude of student spectators who cheer them on.
❖ Face-to-face contact. Primary relationships occur more easily when
interaction is face to face. People who can see each other and who can
experience nonverbal communication such as facial expressions, tone of primary relationships
voice, and touch are much more likely to develop close ties. interactions that are intimate,
❖ Continuous contact. Closeness rarely develops in a short period of personal, caring, and fulfilling
time. In spite of reported love at first sight, most of us require repeated
social contact for the development of a primary relationship.
❖ Proper social environment. Just seeing someone every day in a close
setting is not enough to form a primary relationship. You may visit your
local video store every day and never form a relationship with the video
174 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures
clerk. The social setting does not encourage personal relationships, and
the statuses are unequal. This is why primary relationships do not usually
develop between students and teachers, bosses and employees, or
judges and lawyers.

What are the functions of primary groups? Primary groups provide

three important functions in society.
❖ Emotional support. At the end of World War II, the German army
refused to crumble despite years of being outnumbered, undersupplied,
and outfought. These conditions should have led to desertion and
surrender, but they did not. Strong emotional support ties within German
combat units kept them fighting against overwhelming odds.
❖ Socialization. For children, the family is the primary group that teaches
them how to participate in social life. In like manner, primary groups
promote adult socialization—as adults enter college, take new jobs,
change social classes, marry, and retire.
❖ Encourage conformity. Primary groups not only teach new members
the appropriate norms and values, these groups provide pressure to
conform. William F. Whyte’s (1993) study of an Italian slum gang
illustrates encouragement to conform within primary groups. Whyte
reported that bowling scores corresponded with status in the gang—the
higher the rank, the higher the score. If a lower-ranked member began
to bowl better than those above him, verbal remarks—“You’re bowling
over your head” or “How lucky can you get?”—were used to remind him
that he was stepping out of line.

secondary group Secondary Groups

people who share only part
of their lives while focusing
Unlike a primary group, a secondary group is impersonal and goal ori-
on a goal or task ented. It involves only a segment of its members’ lives. Secondary groups
exist to accomplish a specific purpose. Work groups, volunteers during dis-
asters, and environmentalist organizations are examples of secondary groups.
Members of secondary groups interact impersonally, in ways involving only
secondary relationships
impersonal interactions
limited parts of their personalities. These interactions are called secondary
involving limited parts of relationships. Interactions between clerks and customers, employers and
personalities workers, and dentists and patients are secondary relationships.
What are secondary relationships like? Members of secondary groups
may be friends and identify with one another, but the purpose of the group is
to accomplish a task, not to enrich friendships. In fact, if friendship becomes
more important than the task, a secondary group may become ineffective.
If the members of a basketball team become more interested in the emo-
tional relationships among themselves or with their coach than in play-
ing their best basketball, their play on the court could suffer.
Do secondary groups ever include primary relationships?
Although primary relationships are more likely to occur in primary
groups and secondary relationships in secondary groups, there are a
number of exceptions. Many secondary groups include some primary
relationships. Members of work groups may relate in personal
terms, demonstrate genuine concern for one another, and have
 Chapter 6 Groups and Formal Organizations 175
Why are these young people
probably not a primary group?

“
Love thy neighbor as
thyself, but choose your
neighborhood.
relationships that are fulfilling in themselves. Similarly, members of a primary
group sometimes engage in secondary interaction. One family member may, Louise Beal
“
for example, lend money to another member of the family with a set inter- American author
est rate and repayment schedule.

Section 1 Assessment
1. Listed below are some examples of primary and secondary relationships.
Indicate which examples are most likely to be primary relationships (P)
and which are most likely to be secondary relationships (S).
a. a marine recruit and his drill instructor at boot camp
b. a married couple
c. a coach and her soccer team
d. a teacher and his students
e. a car salesperson and her potential customer
2. Which of the following is not a condition that promotes the
development of primary groups?
a. small group size
b. face-to-face contact
c. continuous contact
d. interaction on the basis of status or role
3. What are the three main functions of primary groups?

Critical Thinking
4. Making Comparisons Identify a primary group and a secondary
group to which you belong. Describe three functions of each of these
groups based on your personal experiences. Then compare and
contrast your relationships in each group. (Note: It may help if you
create a diagram.)
176 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Another
Place Work Life in China

Generally, Americans separate their work and also in charge of the management of the house-
nonwork life. When they don’t, we say that they hold register, the staple and non-staple food sup-
are “married” to their jobs. This means that most ply, all medical services, and all housing. It is also
American work relationships are secondary rela- in charge of ideological remolding, political study,
tionships. They are impersonal and goal oriented.
policing and security matters, marriages and di-
In China, however, work relationships are mostly
primary because they are intimate, personal, car-
vorce, entry into the Chinese Communist Youth
ing, and fulfilling in themselves. This excerpt League and into the Party, awarding merit and car-
from Streetlife China describes a typical work sit- rying out disciplinary action. If one wants to run
uation in present-day China. for election as a deputy for either the National
People’s Congress or the Chinese People’s

E veryone exists in China in terms of a work

unit. When meeting for the first time, they
will usually ask each other what work unit they
Consultative Congress, one must firstly get the
permission of one’s work unit. When administra-
tive sanctions are deployed to detain somebody,
are from. When ringing someone, the first ques- or they are to be sent for labor reform, then the
tion likely to be asked is, “What is your work authorities must consult with the work unit. “I am
unit?”, which usually precedes the question of a person working in a work unit” is worn as a
one’s own name. When registering in a hotel, the badge of pride in China; conversely, the expres-
registrar will list the guest in terms of “guest from sion “I don’t have a work unit” basically identifies
such and such a work unit”. . . . the speaker as little short of a swindler. . . .
The contemporary Chinese work unit, then, is Chinese have a love-hate relationship with the
really quite extraordinary. Apart from functioning work unit. On the one hand, they cannot stand it,
as a department or organization, the work unit is but on the other, they are unable to live without it.
The work unit is like their family: they must love
their commune as they love their family, love their
factory as they love their home, and love their shop
as they would their kin. In work units with a very
rigid system, one’s rank within the unit is a symbol
of one’s status; the individual’s worth is realized in
the rank attributed to them. Whether one’s name is
first or last, the order of arrival at the unit, their ad-
dress, their living conditions, what transport is avail-
able to them, their access to documents of varying
levels of classification are all things of great concern
and are fought over at great length.
Source: Excerpted from Michael Dutton, Streetlife
China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998,
pp. 43–44, 46–47.

Thinking It Over
Can you analyze the effects of the work unit in
China in terms of its relationship to other groups
to which workers belong?
 Chapter 6 Groups and Formal Organizations 177

Section
Other Groups and Networks
2 K e y T e r m s

• reference group • out-group

• in-group • social network

Reference Groups Section

Preview
W e use certain groups to evaluate ourselves and to acquire attitudes,
values, beliefs, and norms. Groups used in this way are called
reference groups.
Reference groups may include our families, teachers, classmates, student
government leaders, social organizations, rock groups, or professional foot-
R eference groups help us
evaluate ourselves and
form identities. In-groups
ball teams. We may consider a group to be a reference group without being and out-groups divide peo-
a member; we may only aspire to be a member. For example, junior high ple into “we” and “they.”
school girls may imitate high school girls’ leadership style or athletic inter-
Social networks extend our
ests. Junior high school boys may copy high school boys’ taste in clothing
contacts and let us form links
and music. Similarly, you need not be a member of a rock band to view mu-
sicians as a reference group. You need only evaluate yourself in terms of to many other people.
their standards and subscribe to their beliefs, values, and norms.
Reference groups do not have to be positive. Observing the behavior of
some group you dislike may reinforce a preference for other ways of acting,
feeling, and behaving. For example, a violent gang should provide a blue-
print of behavior for people to avoid. reference group
group used for self-evaluation
and the formation of attitudes,
values, beliefs, and norms

This choir commemorating the

Emancipation Proclamation
constitutes a positive reference
group. Gangs are a negative
reference group for neighborhood
children.
178 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

In-Groups and Out-Groups

In-groups and out-groups are like two sides of a coin—you can’t have
in-group one without the other. An in-group requires extreme loyalty from its mem-
exclusive group demanding bers. Its norms compel members to exclude others. The in-group competes
intense loyalty with and is opposed to the out-group. An out-group is a group toward
which in-group members feel opposition, antagonism, or competition. Based
on membership in these groups, people divide into “we” and “they.”
out-group
group targeted by an in-group Where are these groups found? In-groups and out-groups may form
for opposition, antagonism, or around schools, athletic teams, cheerleading squads, racially or ethnically di-
competition vided neighborhoods, or countries at war. High school students can easily
identify the many “in” and “out” groups in their schools. Jocks, cheerleaders,
geeks, and nerds are in-groups for some and out-groups for others.
What are group boundaries? In-groups must have ways of telling who
is and is not “in.” If nothing distinguishes “us” from “them,” then there can
be no “ins” and “outs.” A boundary is often a symbol (badges, clothes, or a
particular slang); it may be an action (handshake, high five); or it may be an
actual place. New in-group members are often taught the boundaries at ini-
tiation ceremonies. To outsiders, group boundaries form an entrance barrier.
How are group boundaries maintained? Maintaining group bound-
aries requires intense loyalty and commitment from the group members.
Unfortunately, this may involve clashes with outsiders. Urban gang members
may injure or kill an enemy gang member who has entered their “territory.”

Social Networks
social network As individuals and as members of primary and secondary groups, we in-
a web of social relationships teract with many people. All of a person’s social relationships make up his
that join a person to other or her social network—the web of social relationships that join a person to
people and groups other people and groups. This social network includes family members, work
colleagues, classmates, church members, close friends, car mechanics, and
store clerks. Social networks tie us to hundreds of people within our com-
Busy people have social networks munities, throughout the country, and even around the world (Doreian and
that interconnect like this old
Stokman, 1997).
telephone switchboard.
Your broader social network can be
thought of as containing smaller webs
within the larger web of social rela-
tionships, depending on how finely
you wish to break it down. All of your
friends are only one part of your total
social network. Another part might be
composed of all the people at your
school with whom you have social re-
lationships of various kinds.
The Internet is expanding the
amount of interaction and the flow of
information within networks. Before the
Internet, for example, environmental
 Chapter 6 Groups and Formal Organizations 179
activists across the United States had to depend on slower, more cumber-
some means of communication, such as the print media, the telephone, and
letter writing. With the Internet, members of environmental organizations can
supply almost unlimited information to as many people as they can reach.
Volunteers, for example, can recruit others to write to political leaders
protesting the Chesapeake Bay environmental problems. Protests in various
regions of the country can be organized very quickly. Feedback among net-
work members can be instantaneous.
This increased ease, speed, and frequency of social contact can promote
a sense of membership in a particular network. Whereas in the past, oppo-
nents to gun control were largely unaware of each other, they may now feel
part of a nationwide social network.
Are social networks groups? Although a person’s social network in-
cludes groups, it is not a group itself. A social network lacks the boundaries
of a group and it does not involve close or continuous interaction among all
members. Thus, all members of a social network do not necessarily experi-
ence a feeling of membership because many of the relationships are too tem-
porary for a sense of belonging to develop.
How strong are the ties in a social network? Social networks include
both primary and secondary groups. Thus, the social relationships within a
network involve both strong and weak ties (Granovetter, 1973; Freeman,
1992). Strong ties exist in primary relationships. Weak ties are most often
found in secondary relationships.
What are the functions of social networks? Social networks can serve
several important functions. They can provide a sense of belonging and pur-
pose. They can furnish support in the form of help and advice. Finally, net-
works can be a useful tool for those entering the labor market. Getting to
know people who can help you in your career is very important.

Section 2 Assessment
1. Provide an example, not given in the text, of each of the following:
a. out-group
b. in-group
c. social aggregate
d. social category
e. reference group
“
Organization has been
made by man; it can be
2. How are social networks different from social aggregates? changed by man.
Critical Thinking William H. Whyte
3. Making Comparisons Your high school has in-groups and out-
groups. Concentrate on two of these groups and analyze sociologically
“
American sociologist

the differences in the roles of group membership in one in-group and

one out-group.
180 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Sociology School Violence and

Today Social Networks
The 1999 murders of twelve students and one teacher at Columbine High in Littleton, Colorado,
captured the attention of the American public. There had been many earlier incidents of violence in
schools, but the Columbine tragedy forced Americans to finally recognize that violence was not con-
fined to troubled inner-city schools.
Explanations for the attack, which was carried out by two students, came rapidly. Some blamed
the lack of gun control. Others looked to violent video games and movies. For others, it was the par-
ents’ fault. A fourth reason, suggested by many sociologists, involved failure of the community’s so-
cial networks.
Social networks reduce violence in at least three ways.
1. Strong social bonds reinforce acceptable and unacceptable behavior.
2. Social networks allow community or neighborhood members to share information about other
members.
3. Social networks provide help and social support.
According to Laub and Lauritsen (1998), when many people are involved in their community net-
works, “social capital” is amassed. Social capital is the degree to which a person can depend on oth-
ers in the community for help and support. For young people, community support can help
compensate for a lack of closeness in families.
The social capital of the community can to a considerable extent offset its absence in particular
families in the community. For example, children from single-parent families are more like their
two-parent counterparts in both achievement and in continuation in school when the schools
are in communities with extensive social capital (Coleman, 1987:10).
In the Littleton case, social capital seemed in short supply. The parents of Eric Harris, one of the
students who carried out the attack, were out of touch with the bomb-making activity occurring in
their own home. More important, the rest of the community seemed unaware of any problem with
these students. The only exception was a family that alerted authorities to threats Harris had posted
on the Internet. But upon receiving this information, the sheriff’s office apparently did not seek addi-
tional information from other members of the community (Gegax and Bai, 1999).
School violence can be diminished through the building of community networks. Both parents
and young people must be willing to build social ties with other people in their neighborhoods and
communities.

Doing Sociology
Examine some of the social networks in your neighborhood and community. How strong are they?
What could be done to strengthen them?
 Chapter 6 Groups and Formal Organizations 181

Section
Types of Social Interaction
3 K e y T e r m s

• cooperation
• conflict
• coercion
• conformity
• social exchange • groupthink

Five Types of Group Social Interaction Section

Preview
S ocial interaction is crucial to groups. In group settings, people take on
roles and adopt appropriate norms and behaviors. These may be very
different from the norms and behaviors that the individual holds in other set-
tings. For example, you may behave one way as a member of a choir or a
basketball team, but act quite differently when you are at home or out with
F ive types of social interac-
tion are basic to group
life: cooperation, conflict, so-
your friends. In this section, we will look closely at those processes or forces cial exchange, coercion, and
that determine how individuals behave in a group setting. Robert Nisbet conformity.
(1988) describes five types of social interaction basic to group life: coopera-
tion, conflict, social exchange, coercion, and conformity. Some of these inter-
actions keep the group stable and ongoing, while others encourage change.
cooperation
interaction in which individuals
Cooperation or groups combine their
efforts to reach a goal
Cooperation is a form of interaction in which individuals or groups com-
bine their efforts to reach some goal. Cooperation usually occurs when
conflict
reaching a goal demands the best use of limited resources and efforts. The interaction aimed at defeating
survivors of a plane crash in a snow-covered mountain range must cooper- an opponent
ate to survive. Victims of floods, mudslides, tornadoes, droughts, or famines
must help one another to get through their crisis.
Cooperation exists outside of emergencies as well: Children
agree to a set of rules for a game, couples agree to share
household duties, and students organize to march in support
of a community project. Indeed, without some degree of co-
operation, social life could not exist.

Conflict
Groups or individuals that work together to obtain certain
benefits are cooperating. Groups or individuals that work against
one another for a larger share of the rewards are in conflict. In
conflict, defeating the opponent is considered essential. In fact,
defeating the opponent may become more important than
achieving the goal and may bring more satisfaction than winning
the prize. These Habitat for Humanity
volunteers are cooperating in an
What are the societal benefits of conflict? As you read in Using effort to provide shelter for a family
Your Sociological Imagination on page 171, conflict is usually considered a in need.
182 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures
A group of demonstrators, their
hands painted in white to symbolize
their opposition to violence, march
through downtown Genoa, Italy, to
protest against the 2001 Group of
Eight summit. What was one
possible societal benefit of this
demonstration?

Student Web Activity

Visit the Sociology and
You Web site at
soc.glencoe.com and click on
Chapter 6—Student Web
Activities for an activity on
conflict resolution.

disruptive form of interaction. A cooperative, peaceful society is assumed to

be better than one in conflict. Conflict can be socially beneficial, however.
According to sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918), one of the major
benefits of conflict is the promotion of cooperation and unity within oppos-
ing groups. The Revolutionary War drew many American colonists together,
even though it brought them into conflict with the British. Similarly, a labor
union often becomes more united during the process of collective bargain-
ing. A neighborhood bully can unite (at least temporarily) even the most ar-
gumentative of brothers.
Another positive effect of conflict is the attention it draws to social in-
equities. Norms and values are reexamined when crises and conflicts erupt.
Civil rights activists in the early 1960s, for instance, jarred the American
Congress into passing laws that ensure basic rights and freedoms to all people.
Conflict may also be beneficial when it changes norms, beliefs, and val-
ues. Student protests in the late 1960s and early ’70s (many of which were
violent) resulted in changes to previously accepted norms and behaviors
within universities. University administrations became more sensitive to di-
verse student needs, and more emphasis was placed on teaching.
 Chapter 6 Groups and Formal Organizations 183

Social Exchange
All men, or most men, wish what is noble but choose what is prof-
itable; and while it is noble to render a service not with an eye to re-
ceiving one in return, it is profitable to receive one. One ought,
therefore, if one can, to return the equivalent of services received, and
to do so willingly.
In this passage from The Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle touches on social social exchange
exchange, a type of social interaction in which one person voluntarily does a voluntary action performed
something for another, expecting a reward in return. If you help a friend in the expectation of getting a
wash her car, expecting that she will help you study for a test, the relation- reward in return
ship is one of exchange.
In an exchange relationship, it is the benefit to be earned rather than the
relationship itself that is key. When you do something for someone else, he
or she becomes obligated to return the favor. Thus, the basis of an exchange
relationship is reciprocity, the idea that you should do for others as they have
done for you.
What is the difference between cooperation and social exchange?
While both cooperation and social exchange involve working together, there
is a significant difference between these two types of interaction. In cooper-
ation, individuals or groups work together to achieve a shared goal. Reaching
this goal, however, may or may not benefit those who are cooperating. And
although individuals or groups may profit from cooperating, that is not their
main objective.
For example, group members may work to build and maintain an ade-
quate supply of blood for a local blood bank without thought of benefit to
themselves. This is an example of cooperation. Suppose, though, that the
group is working to ensure availability of blood for its own members. In this
case, it has an exchange relationship with the blood bank. In cooperation,
the question is, “How can we reach our goal?” In exchange relationships, the
implied question is, “What is in it for me?”

These high school students are

working together in a computer lab.
Explain why this could be a social
exchange relationship.
184 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

coercion Coercion
interaction in which individuals
or groups are forced to behave Coercion is social interaction in which individuals or groups are forced
in a particular way to give in to the will of other individuals or groups. Prisoners of war can be
forced to reveal information to enemies, governments can enforce laws
through legalized punishment, and parents can control the behavior of
young children by threatening to withdraw privileges.
Coercion is the opposite of social exchange. Whereas social exchange in-
volves voluntary conformity for mutual benefit, coercion is a one-way street.
The central element in coercion, then, is domination. This domination may
occur through physical force, such as imprisonment, torture, or death. More
often, however, coercion is expressed more subtly through social pressure—
ridicule, rejection, withdrawal of affection, or denial of recognition.
Conflict theory best describes this type of social interaction. When parents
coerce children with a curfew, guards coerce prisoners with force, and gov-
ernments coerce drivers with fines, obvious power differentials are at work.

Conformity
Conformity is behavior that matches group expectations. When we con-
form, we adapt our behavior to fit the behavior of those around us. Social
What type of social interaction is
life—with all its uniformity, predictability, and orderliness—simply could not
involved in city curfews? exist without this type of social interaction. Without conformity, there could
be no churches, families, universities, or governments. Without conformity,
there could be no culture or social structure.
Do most people conform to group pressures? The tendency to con-
conformity form to group pressure has been dramatically illustrated in a classic experi-
behavior that matches group ment by Solomon Asch (1955). In this experiment, many participants publicly
expectations denied their own senses because they wanted to avoid disagreeing with ma-
jority opinion.
Asch asked groups of male college students to compare lines printed on
two cards. (See Figure 6.1.) The students were asked to identify the line on
the second card that matched, in length, one of the lines on the first card. In
each group, all but one of the subjects had been instructed by Asch to choose
a line that obviously did not match. The naive subject—the only member of
each group unaware of the real nature of the experiment—was forced either
to select the line he actually thought matched the standard line or to yield to
the unanimous opinion of the group.
In earlier tests of individuals in isola-
tion, Asch had found that the error rate
Card A Card B
in matching the lines was only 1 per-
cent. Under group pressure, however,
Figure 6.1 Cards for Asch’s the naive subjects went along with the
Experiments. Which of the lines
on Card A matches the line on
majority’s wrong opinion over one-third
Card B? You may be surprised to of the time. If this large a proportion of
learn that in a group setting many naive subjects yielded to group pressure
people associated the first and the in a group of strangers, it is not difficult
third lines with the longer line on to imagine the conformity rate in groups
Card B. Read about Asch’s where people are emotionally commit-
experiment in the text. ted to the welfare of the group (Myers,
1999).
 Chapter 6 Groups and Formal Organizations 185
What is groupthink? Because of the difficulty of going against decisions
made by the group, Irving Janis (1982) has argued that many decisions are
likely to be the product of groupthink. Groupthink exists when thinking in a groupthink
group is self-deceptive, based on conformity to group beliefs, and created by self-deceptive thinking that is
group pressure. In groupthink, pressures toward uniformity discourage mem- based on conformity to group
bers from expressing their concerns about group decisions. beliefs, and created by group
pressure to conform
During the administration of President John F. Kennedy in the early 1960s,
for example, the president and his advisers decided to launch an invasion of
Cuba at the Bay of Pigs. The invasion failed. Analysis by Janis revealed that
during the decision process, because of group pressure, several top advisers
failed to admit that they thought the plan would probably not succeed.
Research indicates that groupthink can be avoided when leaders or group
members make a conscious effort to see that all group members participate
actively in a multisided discussion. In addition, members must know that
points of disagreement and conflict will be tolerated (Moorhead, Neck, and
West, 1998; Myers, 1999).

How is groupthink promoted?

186 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Figure 6.2 Focus on Theoretical Perspectives

Illustrating Types of Social Interaction. A type of social interaction is illustrated below from the viewpoint
of a particular theoretical perspective. Each concept can be viewed from either of the other two perspectives.
Associate a type of social interaction with a different theoretical perspective and make up your own example.

Theoretical Type of
Perspective Social Interaction Example

Functionalism Conformity Team integration is

promoted when basketball
players accept their roles on
the floor.

Conflict Theory Coercion Conflict in prisons is kept in check

by the superior power of the guards.

Symbolic Social Exchange Two neightbors share

Interactionism recipes and ideas so
each benefits.

Section 3 Assessment
Match terms a–e with the appropriate numbered example.
1. Blood donors expect payment. a. cooperation
2. Students read what a teacher assigns. b. conflict
3. Saddam Hussein invades Kuwait. c. social exchange
4. Flood victims help each other. d. coercion
5. Employees are forced to work e. conformity
overtime or be fired.
6. Solomon Asch’s experiment demonstrates the positive consequences of
group pressure. T or F ?
7. Why is conformity essential for the development of social structures?

Critical Thinking
8. Analyzing Information Describe an example of groupthink in your
school. Analyze this situation in terms of its positive or negative
consequences.
 Chapter 6 Groups and Formal Organizations 187

V anishing are the traditional offices [in formal organizations] that oc-
cupy a common, fixed space, and employ a totally permanent
workforce. Numerous companies are now utilizing what have come to
be called “virtual offices.” For the most part, these offices are staffed
by at-home employees who telecommute, use Internet resources, and
are frequently temporary employees.
Virtual offices offer many benefits in today’s climate of global com-
petition. For those workers who previously found it difficult to work
outside the home (the elderly, [disabled], or parents with child-care re-
Working sponsibilities), telecommuting can be a vehicle into the workforce.
What’s more, corporate executives and managers enjoy advantages of
the Internet: It provides rich resources of both people and information;
in the it improves operations; it markets products. In fact, telecommuting has
been shown to result in productivity gains of between 15–20%. Finally,
virtual offices afford companies dramatic savings in the costs of em-
Virtual ployees and facilities.
But what of the problems associated with telecommuting? Notable
is the telecommuters’ sense of alienation. They may feel isolated from
Office fellow workers and the larger organization. This alienation can be min-
imized by bringing telecommuters together for periodic meetings.
Ostensibly established to allow telecommuters
to report to their supervisors, such get-togeth-
ers serve to reinforce the telecommuters’ mem-
bership in, and loyalty to, the organization for
which they work.
Two other difficulties confront the telecom-
muter. The first is low wages. In most instances,
wages paid for work done by home telecom-
muters lag noticeably behind wages paid to
office workers. This is unlikely to change given
the difficulties that trade unions face in union-
izing such workers. The second difficulty is the
family tension stemming from the home/
office merger. Until traditional views about
appropriate work locations become more en-
lightened, home telecommuters are likely to
be perceived by other family members as
“not really working.”
Source: William E. Snizek, “Virtual Offices: Some
Neglected Considerations,” Communications of the
ACM, 38 (September 1995):15, 16. Reprinted by
permission of the author.

Analyzing the Trends

Do you think the trend toward the virtual office is a good thing?
Defend your answer from a functionalist viewpoint.
188 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Experiment: Group
Pressure and Obedience
Can a group cause a person to physically punish a victim with in-
creasing severity despite the victim’s pleas for mercy? Researcher
Stanley Milgram (1963, 1974) has shown that this could happen.
As noted in the text, Solomon Asch demonstrated that group pres-
sure can influence people to make false claims about what they see.
Specifically, experimental subjects can be pressured to claim that two
lines (drawn on a card) match in length even though they originally
perceived these same two lines as different in length. Milgram wanted
to know if group pressure can have the same effect on behavior. Can
group pressure cause people to treat others in ways they otherwise
would not?
To test this question, Milgram could have chosen a desired behav-
ior relatively easy to induce, such as sharing food with a stranger or
damaging someone else’s property. Choosing a much harder case,
Milgram asked research participants to administer increasingly stronger
electric shocks to people who appeared to be in pain. And these re-
search participants were people just like you and me!
Milgram placed eighty males in an experimental situation in which
a team of three individuals (two “confederates” who knew the nature
of the experiment and one “subject” who did not) tested a fourth per-
son (who was also in on the experiment) on a learning task. Each mis-
take by the fourth party brought an apparent electric shock from the
subject. The two confederates (participants cooperating with Milgram)
on each team suggested increasingly higher shock levels for successive
mistakes made by the “learner” (the third confederate in the electric
chair). The researcher recorded the degree to which the “operator” (the
subject of the experiment) resisted or went along with group pressure
to increase the voltage levels.
After explaining to the subject that the purpose of the experiment
was to determine the effects of punishment (electric shocks) on mem-
ory, the learner was strapped into an electric-chair apparatus in full
view of the other three team members. These three were seated in front
of a large shock generator whose switches were labeled from 15 to 450
volts in 15-volt increments. The lowest-level group of switches was la-
beled “Slight Shock”; the highest-level group of switches read “Danger:
Severe Shock.”
The “operator” controlled the maximum shock that could be ad-
ministered. He could keep the shock level at 15 volts throughout or
 Chapter 6 Groups and Formal Organizations 189
increase the shock level in line with the group’s recommendation.
It was his decision. (Remember—he was the only one not in on the
real purpose.)
The learner was primed to not only answer questions incor-
rectly. As the shocks become stronger, he grunted, protested, and
finally demanded that the experiment stop. Each of these com-
plaints was actually prerecorded and played in coordination with a
given shock level. No discomfort was indicated until a 75-volt shock
was administered. At 120 volts, the learner shouted that the shocks
were becoming painful. Groans followed a 135-volt shock, and at
150 volts the learner cried out to be released from the experiment,
complaining of a heart condition. At 180 volts, the learner cried out,
“I can’t stand the pain,” and 285 volts was followed by an agonized
scream. From 300 to 450 volts, the learner continuously shouted
desperately that he would no longer answer questions.
Milgram first needed to know how far the operator would go in
administering shocks without group influence. To accomplish this,
an identical experiment was run minus the two confederates in the
punishing group. Response to group pressure was measured by the
difference in the operator’s behavior in the two situations.
Group pressure heavily affected the level of shock administered
by the operator. That is, the average shock level in the three-person
situation was significantly higher than in the one-person situation.
Perhaps most interesting are the results on maximum shock levels.
When alone, only two operators went beyond the point where the
learner first vehemently protested. Under group pressure, twenty-
seven of the operators went beyond this point. Nineteen of the op-
erators went above 255 volts (“Intense Shock”), and ten went into the
group of voltages labeled “Danger: Severe Shock.” Seven even
reached 450 volts (the highest shock level possible).
The research by Milgrim and Asch reveal the power of group
Photographs from Stanley
pressure to create conformity in thought and behavior. Clearly, confor- Milgram’s experiment show
mity must occur for social structure and society to exist. What worries participants ordering higher
many scholars is the extent to which social pressure can determine how and higher level shocks for
humans think and act. the actor pretending to be
shocked.

Working with the Research

1. Discuss the ethical implications of Milgram’s experiment. (You
may want to refer to Chapter 2, pp. 59–61, for a discussion
about ethics in social research.)
2. If the researcher had not been present as an authority figure
during the experiment to approve the use of all shock levels,
do you think group pressure would have been as effective?
Explain.
3. Discuss some implications of this experiment for democratic
government. Can you relate it to George Orwell’s novel 1984?
4. Do you think society would be possible without this tendency
to conform? Explain your position.
190 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Section
Formal Organizations
4 K e y

•
T e r m s

formal organization • rationalization

• bureaucracy • informal organization
• power • iron law of oligarchy
• authority

Section The Nature of

Preview Formal
Organizations
A formal organization is
created to achieve some
goal. Most are bureaucratic.
The existence of primary
U ntil the 1920s, the
majority of Americans
lived on farms or in small towns
groups and primary relation-
and villages. Nearly all of their
ships within formal organiza- daily lives were spent in pri-
tions can either help or mary groups such as families,
hinder the achievement neighborhoods, and churches.
of goals. As industrialization and urban-
ization have advanced, how-
ever, Americans have become
more involved in secondary
groups. Born in hospitals, edu-
cated in large schools, em-
ployed by huge corporations,
regulated by government agen-
cies, cared for in nursing
homes, and buried by funeral
establishments, Americans, like
members of other industrialized
societies, now often find them-
selves within formal organiza-
tions (Pfeffer, 1997).
formal organization Both these Japanese workers and these bank customers in
How are formal organ- the U.S. feel the effects of the formal organization
a group deliberately created
to achieve one or more long-
izations and bureaucracies structure. Do you think most organizations are
term goals
related? A formal organi- bureaucratic in nature?
zation is deliberately created
to achieve one or more long-term goals. Examples of formal organizations are
high schools, colleges, corporations, government agencies, and hospitals.
bureaucracy Most formal organizations today are also bureaucracies—formal organi-
a formal organization based zations based on rationality and efficiency. Although bureaucracies are pop-
on rationality and efficiency ularly thought of as “monuments to inefficiency,” they have proven to be
effective in industrial societies.
 Chapter 6 Groups and Formal Organizations 191

Major Characteristics of Bureaucracies

All bureaucracies possess certain characteristics. The most important of
these are listed below.
❖ A division of labor based on the principle of specialization. Each
person in a bureaucracy is responsible for certain functions or tasks. (See power
the ability to control the
Figure 6.3 for an organizational chart outlining the division of labor in a
behavior of others
public school district.) This specialization allows an individual to become
an expert in a limited area.
❖ A hierarchy of authority. Before discussing authority, it is necessary to
authority
define power. Power refers to the ability to control the behavior of
the legitimate or socially
others, even against their will. Authority is the exercise of legitimate
approved use of power
power—power that derives from a recognized or approved source.

School Board

Clerk of
the Board
Public Information
Superintendent
Officer

Assistant Assistant
Superintendent Executive for Executive for
School Principals Superintendent for
for Operations Student Services Human Resources Instructional Systems

Business Student Elementary Professional Elementary

Services Services Schools Services School
Services

Building
Operations and Special Middle Classified Middle School
Maintenance Education Schools Services Services

Food Alternative High Benefit High School

Services Programs Schools Services Services

Magnet Business and

Construction Guidance
Programs Technical
Management
Education

Federal
Transportation
Programs

Instructional
Figure 6.3 Public School District Organization Technology
Chart. Each organizational position and department has
certain tasks associated with it. The connecting lines indicate
who reports to whom and who has organizational authority. Can Subject Area
Coordination
you identify the type of leadership assumed to motivate members
of any bureaucratic organization?
F
192 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Calvin doesn’t think that bureaucratic rules should apply to him if they interfere with his wishes.

People submit to authority because they believe it is the right thing to

do. With respect to authority, bureaucratic organizations are like
pyramids. The greatest amount of authority is concentrated in a few
positions at the top, with decreasing amounts of authority in a larger
number of lower positions. This is what is meant by “hierarchy of
authority.”
❖ A system of rules and procedures. Rules and procedures direct how
work is to be done and provide a framework for decision making. They
stabilize the organization because they coordinate activities and provide
guidelines to follow in most situations.
❖ Written records of work and activities. Written records of work and
activities are made and then kept in files. This organizational “memory”
is essential to smooth functioning, stability, and continuity.
❖ Promotion on the basis of merit and qualifications. Jobs are filled on
the basis of technical and professional qualifications. Promotions are given
on the basis of merit, not favoritism. The norm in a bureaucracy is equal
treatment for all.

Max Weber and Bureaucracy

Max Weber was the first to analyze the nature of bureaucracy. Although
he recognized there were problems with this type of organization, overall he
believed that bureaucracies were very efficient in dealing with the needs of
industrial societies.
What are the advantages of bureaucracy? In Chapter 1, you read
how Weber feared the dehumanizing effects of bureaucracies. As the values
of preindustrial societies began to weaken, however, Weber also saw advan-
tages to bureaucracy. On these advantages, he wrote the following:
The decisive reason for the advance of bureaucratic organization has
always been its purely technical superiority over any other form of or-
 Chapter 6 Groups and Formal Organizations 193
ganization. The fully developed bureaucratic mechanism compares
with other organizations exactly as does the machine with the nonme-
chanical modes of production (Gerth and Mills, 1958:214).
Earlier kinds of organizations, where the decision makers were chosen on
the basis of family or wealth, were just not capable of dealing with an in-
dustrial economy. The fast-moving industrial economy required steadiness,
precision, continuity, speed, efficiency, and minimum cost—advantages bu-
reaucracy could offer. Rationalization—the mindset emphasizing knowl-
edge, reason, and planning rather than tradition and superstition—was on
the rise. (See pages 17–18 for a review of this concept.) rationalization
the mind-set emphasizing
knowledge, reason, and
planning

Membership in
Fraternal Orders
You may not realize it, but fraternal or-
ders, such as Moose, Elk, Eagles, and
Shriners, are bureaucracies. They have a Fraternal Order Membership
Compared to U.S. Average
division of labor, hierarchy of authority,
High
system of rules and procedures, written Above average
records, and promotion based on merit Below average
within the organization. This map shows Low
fraternal organization membership by re-
gion in relation to the national average.

Interpreting the Map

Look back at the map of population densities in the United States on page 57. Do you see any patterns
common to that map and this one? Explain.

Adapted from Latitudes and Attitudes: An Atlas of American Tastes, Trends, Politics, and Passions. Boston: Little Brown.
194 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

World View Military Might

In preindustrial societies, military groups are loosely
organized and informal in nature. They are com-
posed of group members who live nonmilitary lives
except during defense emergencies. In industrial so-
cieties, bureaucratic principles are applied to military
organizations.

Military Personnel
(per thousand
population)
North
Nor th Europe
Europe 20 or more
America 15–19.9
10–14.9
Asia 5–9.9
Less than 5
No data

Africa
South
America

Australia

Interpreting the Map

Does this map show a relationship between the type of political leadership and the extent of citi-
zen participation in the military? If so, describe this relationship.
Adapted from Atlas of the World Today. New York: Harper & Row.

Do bureaucracies undervalue people? As strange as it might sound,

bureaucracy is designed to protect individuals. People often complain about
the rules, procedures, and impersonal treatment that characterize bureau-
cracy. Without them, though, decision making would be arbitrary and with-
out reason. It might sound great, for example, to abolish final exams, but
then grading would not be objective. For example, a teacher might give
higher grades to males. This is not to say that favoritism never occurs in bu-
reaucratic organizations. Nevertheless, the presence of rules guarantees at
least a measure of equal treatment.
informal organization
groups within a formal
organization in which personal Informal Structure within Organizations
relationships are guided by
norms, rituals, and sentiments Bureaucracies are designed to act as secondary groups. As anyone who
that are not part of the formal has worked in a bureaucratic organization knows, though, there are primary
organization relationships as well. Primary relationships emerge as part of the informal
organization—groups within a formal organization in which personal rela-
 Chapter 6 Groups and Formal Organizations 195
tionships are guided by norms, rituals, and sentiments that are not part of the
formal organization. Based on common interests and personal relationships,
informal groups are usually formed spontaneously.
When were informal organizations first studied? The existence of in-
formal organizations within bureaucracies was first documented in the mid-
1920s, when a group of Harvard researchers was studying the Hawthorne
plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago. In a study of fourteen male
machine operators in the Bank Wiring Observation Room, F. J. Roethlisberger
and William Dickson (1964, originally published in 1939) observed that work
activities and job relationships were based on norms and social sanctions of
that particular group of male operators. Group norms prohibited “rate bust-
ing” (doing too much work), “chiseling” (doing too little work), and “squeal-
ing” (telling group secrets to supervisors). Conformity to these norms was
maintained through ridicule, sarcasm, criticism, and hostility.
Why do informal organizations develop? Informal groups exist to
meet needs ignored by the formal organization. Modern organizations tend
to be impersonal, and informal groups offer personal affection, support,
humor, and protection. The study mentioned above pointed out that infor-
mal organizations encourage conformity, but the resulting solidarity protects
group members from mistreatment by those outside the group.

Despite working in a bureaucratic organization, these construction workers seem to be

on very personal terms. How do sociologists explain this?
196 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Iron Law of Oligarchy

If an organization’s goals are to be achieved, power must be exercised.
Sometimes this power may be grabbed by individuals for their own purposes.
This process is described by the iron law of oligarchy (Michels, 1949; originally
published in 1911).
iron law of oligarchy What is the iron law of oligarchy? According to the iron law of
theory that power increasingly oligarchy, formulated by German sociologist Robert Michels, power increas-
becomes concentrated in the ingly tends to become more and more concentrated in the hands of fewer
hands of a few members of members of any organization. Michels observed that, even in organizations in-
any organization tended to be democratic, a few leaders eventually gain control, and other
members become virtually powerless. He concluded that this increased con-
centration of power occurs because those in power want to remain in power.
The government in communist China is a prime example of Michels’s
principle. Not subject to popular election, the aging individuals at the top
have been able to consolidate, or strengthen, their power over a long period
of time. Each of the leaders is able to build a loyal staff, control money, offer
jobs, and give favors.
Why does organization lead to oligarchy? According to Michels,
three organizational factors encourage oligarchy. First, organizations need a
hierarchy of authority to delegate decision making. Second, the advantages
held by those at the top allow them to consolidate their powers. They can
create a staff that is loyal to them, control the channels of communication,
and use organizational resources to increase their power. Finally, other mem-
bers of the organization tend to defer to leaders—to give in to those who
take charge.

Section 4 Assessment
1. Define the term formal organization.

“
2. List the major characteristics of bureaucracy, according to Max Weber.
3. Identify whether the following are advantages (A) or disadvantages (D)
Guidelines for of a bureaucracy:
Bureaucrats: a. its use of appropriate criteria in hiring employees
(1) When in charge— b. its use of rules to provide definite guidelines for behavior within
the organization
ponder. c. its ability to hide the true nature of authority relationships
(2) When in trouble— d. its encouragement of administrative competence in managers
delegate. 4. Can you describe the form of leadership most suited to the operation
(3) When in doubt— of the iron law of oligarchy? Explain your answer.
mumble. Critical Thinking
James H. Boren
“ 5. Synthesizing Information Analyze your school as a bureaucracy.
business author Give an example of the following characteristics of bureaucracy: (1)
system of rules and procedures; (2) impersonality and impartiality (lack
of favoritism). Discuss a positive and negative consequence of each
characteristic.
CHAPTER 6 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Vocabulary
Summary
Complete each sentence using each term once.
Section 1: Primary and Secondary Groups a. social category g. social exchange
Main Idea: Groups are classified by how they de- b. social aggregate h. conformity
velop and function. Primary groups meet emo- c. primary group i. groupthink
tional and support needs, while secondary groups d. secondary group j. formal organization
are task focused. e. reference group k. bureaucracy
f. social network l. rationalism
Section 2: Other Groups and Networks
Main Idea: Reference groups help us evaluate 1. A is an impersonal and goal-
ourselves and form identities. In-groups and out- oriented group that involves only a segment of
groups divide people into “we” and “they.” Social one’s life.
networks extend our contacts and let us form 2. A group of people who are in the same place
links to many other people. at the same time is called .
3. A is a web of social relation-
Section 3: Types of Social Interaction ships that join a person to other people and
Main Idea: Five types of social interaction are groups.
basic to group life: cooperation, conflict, social 4. A is composed of people
exchange, coercion, and conformity. who are emotionally close, know one another
well, and seek one another’s company.
Section 4: Formal Organizations 5. A situation in which pressures toward unifor-
mity discourage members from expressing
Main Idea: A formal organization is created to
their reservations about group decisions is
achieve some goal. Most are bureaucratic. The ex-
called .
istence of primary groups and primary relation-
ships within formal organizations can either help 6. A type of social interaction in which one per-
or hinder the achievement of goals. son voluntarily does something for another,
expecting a reward in return, is called
.
7. is behavior that goes accord-
ing to group expectations.
8. A is a group used for self-
evaluation.
9. are deliberately created to
achieve one or more long-term goals.
10. A is a formal organization
based on efficiency and rationality.
Self-Check Quiz
Visit the Sociology and You Web 11. The solution of problems on the basis of logic,
site at soc.glencoe.com and data, and planning is called .
click on Chapter 6—Self- 12. People who share a social characteristic are
Check Quizzes to prepare for called a .
the chapter test.

197
CHAPTER 6 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing the Facts groups in your school? Have these conflicts ever
erupted or are they just below the surface? How
could your school work to lessen any potential
1. Use the diagram below to list the basic societal group conflicts?
functions of primary groups. 4. Analyzing Information You read about social
BASIC SOCIETAL FUNCTION OF PRIMARY GROUPS exchange, the type of interaction in which
someone does something for another person
and expects a reward in return. This might also
be described as the “I’ll scratch your back if
you’ll scratch mine” expectation. Do you think
that this expectation is always present? Is it pos-
2. List the major characteristics of primary and sec- sible to perform truly random acts of kindness?
ondary groups. If you have ever done volunteer work, haven’t
3. What is the difference between a reference you done something with no reward expected?
group and a social network? 5. Making Inferences The text discusses the
4. What is the main difference between coopera- issue of groupthink in the Kennedy administra-
tion and social exchange? tion. Have you ever been in a situation in
5. Explain the relationship between in-groups and which you disagreed with the majority opinion
out-groups. or felt that something that was about to happen
was wrong? Did you speak up? If not, did the
power of the group influence you? When might
Thinking Critically failing to speak up lead to harm?
6. Making Comparisons You are a member of a
1. Applying Concepts Your high school is prob- variety of informal groups—church, school
ably made up of many diverse in-groups. clubs, work, sports, band, and so forth.
Identify some of these groups with their own Compare and contrast the roles of group mem-
labels, and then list common links joining all of bership in two of these groups.
the groups. Look for characteristics that the
groups share, not for what separates them. For
example, all members of the various groups Sociology Projects
might need to take two math classes in order to
graduate. See how many items you can list that 1. Formal and Informal Groups Places such as
all the different groups share. teen centers, homeless shelters, food pantries,
2. Making Generalizations Social networks are and crisis centers are all formal organizations
an important component of group interactions. established to help people. Sometimes these or-
Are there any people in your sociology class ganizations are less bureaucratic than more offi-
you would consider part of your social net- cial government aid agencies. Informal groups
work? Are there any classmates who are part of are often more apparent. Create a brochure that
your family, work, church, team, or neighbor- describes such social agencies in your neighbor-
hood groups? Are the people that you sit next hood, city, or town. Identify as many agencies
to closely related to your social network? Do as you can, and list an address, phone number,
these people have strong or weak ties to you? and contact person for each. Then select one
Are any of them among your best friends? agency to call. Ask if you can interview some-
3. Evaluating Information Some high school ad- one who works there to get an idea of what the
ministrators and educators have expressed con- agency does. Ask him or her to describe the or-
cern that school violence is an indication that ganization in terms of formality or informality.
many high school groups are in conflict. Do Ask about regulations, rules, and procedures.
you believe conflicts exist between the in- Does he or she think the procedures are gener-

198
 ally helpful or a barrier to providing service? policy about sexual harassment in schools.
Create a special brochure on this organization What constitutes harassing behavior? Do you
alone. Share the results of your work with the think your school has an effective policy to
social agency. help prevent sexual harassment? Or do you
2. Social Categories In this activity, you will look think that sometimes the bureaucracy misinter-
at generations as social categories. Write down prets behavior and assigns motivations that may
some of the things that you believe define your not be intended?
generation—for example, skateboarding, ex- 5. Reference Groups Reread the section on refer-
treme sports, rap music, Gap clothes. Then find ence groups. Then take a quick survey of ten
adults in their forties or early fifties and ask or fifteen of your schoolmates. Ask them to
them to define their own generation. What identify their three most important reference
were the things that identified their generation? groups. Compare the lists to see what groups
What are the things that define them now? Each show up most frequently. What are the norms
list should include about ten cultural items of and objectives of these most commonly cited
that generation. Share your findings with the groups?
class. If possible, bring in some items that rep- 6. Groupthink Using articles from the newspaper
resent the two generations. and magazines, find an article that is an exam-
3. Promotions According to Merit The text dis- ple of groupthink. Using the article as a starting
cusses the major characteristics of a bureau- point, write a brief report that describes a
cracy. One of these involves the principle of model of group system in which the interactive
promoting people according to merit. Another roles of the individuals would have brought
principle, however, is that people are treated about a better outcome.
equally and not given special consideration or
shown favoritism. In many organizations, merit
is sometimes synonymous with seniority so that Technology Activities
the length of time on the job becomes just as
important or more important than the skill exer- 1. Dilbert is a popular cartoon strip that makes fun
cised in the job. Do an informal interview of six of the bureaucratic structures in American cor-
people who work for relatively large corpora- porations. Go to the Dilbert web site at
tions or businesses to determine what role they http://www.unitedmedia.com/comics/dilbert
think seniority should play in promotion deci- and read several of the comic strips.
sions. Should a mediocre—but satisfactory—em- 1. Find a few cartoons that illustrate some
ployee who has been with a company for many important ideas presented in this chapter.
years be skipped over for a position in favor of Explain the cartoons in terms of knowledge
an employee with much less time on the job, gained in this chapter.
but who has demonstrated superior skill?
2. Discuss some of the strips with an adult
Summarize the results of your interviews and be
who works in a corporation. What does that
prepared to share your feelings with the class.
person think about the accuracy of the
4. Sexual Harassment in Schools As you know, situations portrayed in Dilbert?
individual actions are linked to group and orga-
3. Prepare a brief report describing what you
nizational norms. One of the emerging norms in
learned about formal organizations and
all grades of school involves behaviors that
bureaucracies from your review of Dilbert.
could be interpreted as sexual harassment. Even
very young children are being cautioned about
comments and actions that could be interpreted
as being sexist or being intimidating to one
gender. Check with your school administration
or guidance office to find out about the formal

199
200 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Chapter 6

Enrichment Reading
The McDonaldization
of Society
by George Ritzer
George Ritzer defines McDonaldization as “the process by which the principles of the fast-food
restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as of the
rest of the world” (Ritzer, 1996:1). Ritzer sees McDonaldization as an extension of Max Weber’s
theory of rationalization. (See p. 17 in Chapter 1.) For Weber, the industrial West was becoming
increasingly rational—dominated by efficiency, predictability, calculability, and nonhuman tech-
nology. These features, in his view, were beginning to control human social behaviors.

W hy has the McDonald’s model possible to resist. The fast-food model offers
proven so irresistible? Four alluring people, or at least appears to offer them, an effi-
dimensions lie at the heart of the cient method for satisfying many needs.
success of this model and, more generally, of Calculability Second, McDonald’s offers
McDonaldization. In short, McDonald’s has suc- calculability, or an emphasis on the quantitative
ceeded because it offers consumers, workers, and aspects of products sold (portion size, cost) and
managers efficiency, calculability, predictability, service offered (the time it takes to get the prod-
and control. uct). Quantity has become equivalent to quality; a
Efficiency First, McDonald’s offers effi- lot of something, or the quick delivery of it, means
ciency, or the optimum method for getting from it must be good. As two observers of contempo-
one point to another. For consumers, this means rary American culture put it, “As a culture, we tend
that McDonald’s offers the best available way to to believe deeply that in general ‘bigger is better.’”
get from being hungry to being satisfied. . . . Predictability Third, McDonald’s offers
Other institutions, fashioned on the McDonald’s predictability, the assurance that their products
model, offer similar efficiency in losing weight, and services will be the same over time and in all
lubricating cars, getting new glasses or contacts, locales. The Egg McMuffin in New York will be,
or completing income-tax forms. In a society for all intents and purposes, identical to those in
where both parents are likely to work, or where Chicago and Los Angeles. Also, those eaten next
there may be only a single parent, efficiently sat- week or next year will be identical to those eaten
isfying the hunger and many other needs of peo- today. There is great comfort in knowing that
ple is very attractive. In a society where people McDonald’s offers no surprises. People know
rush, usually by car, from one spot to another, that the next Egg McMuffin they eat will taste
the efficiency of a fast-food meal, perhaps even about the same as the others they have eaten; it
without leaving their cars by wending their way will not be awful, but it will not be exceptionally
along the drive-through lane, often proves im- delicious, either. The success of the McDonald’s
 Chapter 6 Groups and Formal Organizations 201

What Does it Mean

albeit
even though; although
alluring
attractive or fascinating
calculability
bring about by deliberate
intent by controlling
quantities
wending
traveling; proceeding on
your way

Explain why you would expect

service at this McDonald’s
restaurant in Guang Zhou,
China, except for language, to
be the same as the one in your
neighborhood. Use
sociological terms in your
response.

model suggests that many people have come to

prefer a world in which there are few surprises. Read and React
Control Fourth, control, especially through 1. State what Ritzer means by
the substitution of nonhuman for human tech- McDonaldization.
nology, is exerted over the people who enter the 2. Since Ritzer contends that McDonaldization
world of McDonald’s. A human technology (a is spreading throughout modern society,
screwdriver, for example) is controlled by peo- he thinks you are affected by it. Describe
ple; a nonhuman technology (the assembly line, a part of your social life, aside from eating
for instance) controls people. The people who at fast-food restaurants, that has been
eat in fast-food restaurants are controlled, albeit McDonaldized.
(usually) subtly. Lines, limited menus, few op- 3. Describe your feelings about the
tions, and uncomfortable seats all lead diners to McDonaldization you are experiencing.
do what management wishes them to do—eat 4. Do you think McDonaldization is a
quickly and leave. Further, the drive-through (in rational or an irrational process? That is,
some cases walk-through) window leads diners does McDonaldization produce results that
to leave before they eat. work for or against an organization’s goal?
Source: Adapted from George Ritzer, McDonaldization Defend your answer.
of Society, rev. ed., Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge
Press, 1996.
CHAPTER 7
Deviance and
Social Control

202
 U
S Your Sections
I Sociological
N Imagination 1. Deviance and
G Social Control
2. Functionalism and

W hat would a Martian, after watch-

ing an evening of prime-time
television, think about American
culture? If the impression of our culture
were formed solely from these programs,
3.
Deviance
Symbolic Interactionism
and Deviance
the Martian likely would conclude that the
inhabitants of Earth are an exceptionally 4. Conflict Theory and
violent people. If the Martian then began to
display violent behavior, could we conclude
Deviance
that he or she had been watching too much
television?
5. Crime and Punishment
Before answering this question, think for
a moment about these statistics: Children
Learning Objectives
aged two to eleven spend an average of
twenty-eight hours per week watching tele- After reading this chapter, you will be able to
vision (compared to thirty hours in school).
Fifty-seven percent of television program- ❖ define deviance.
ming contains violence. In one-quarter of
❖ define social control and identify the
the violent interactions, a gun is used.
Finally, in about three-quarters of all violent
major types of social control.
scenes, the persons committing the violent ❖ discuss the positive and negative
acts go unpunished (National Television consequences of deviance.
Violence Study, 1998). ❖ differentiate the major functional theories
In the past sociologists have hesitated to of deviance.
link violent behavior with exposure to tele-
vision violence. But after hundreds of stud- ❖ discuss the conflict theory view of
ies, researchers now confirm a link between deviance.
televised aggression and personal aggres- ❖ describe four approaches to crime control.
siveness. This link between imagined and
actual violence is an example of culturally
transmitted social behavior.
As humans learn the culture around Chapter Overview
them, they adopt certain patterns of behav- Visit the Sociology and You Web site at
ior. In this chapter we will examine the soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 7—
learned behavior called deviance. Chapter Overviews to preview chapter
information.

203
204 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Section
Deviance and Social Control
1 K e y T e r m s

• deviance
• negative deviance
• deviant
• social control
• positive deviance • social sanctions

Section The Nature of Deviance

Preview
D eviance refers to behavior that departs from societal or group norms.
It can range from criminal behavior (recognized by almost all mem-

D eviance is the violation

of social norms. It is dif-
ficult to define because not
bers of a society as deviant) to wearing heavy makeup (considered deviant by
some religious groups). Some people violate norms by robbing banks or com-
mitting assault or murder. Incidents of deviance sometimes receive a great deal
everyone agrees on what of attention because they involve prominent figures whose behavior is cap-
should be considered de- tured on national television. Former heavyweight boxing champion Mike
viant behavior. Tyson, in a bout with the current champion, Evander Holyfield, actually bit off
the tip of Holyfield’s right ear and spat it onto the ring mat. Figure 7.1 illus-
trates the frequency of two types of juvenile deviance.
These examples appear clear-cut, but deviance is not always so easy to
identify. Because deviance is a matter of social definition, it can vary from
deviance group to group and society to society. In a diverse society like that of the
behavior that departs from United States, it is often difficult to agree on what is or is not deviant
societal or group norms behavior. In a groundbreaking study, Simmons (1969) polled people on this
issue:

50%
The sheer range of responses [to
the question “What constitutes
Percentage of high school students

Carried a weapon Was in a physical fight

who engaged in these activities

Years deviant behavior?”] predictably

40% 42.5 41.8 included homosexuals, prosti-
’91
38.7
36.6 tutes, drug addicts, radicals,
30% ’93 and criminals. But it also in-
cluded liars, career women,
26.1
’95 Democrats, reckless drivers,
20% 22.1
20.0 atheists, Christians, suburban-
18.3
’97 ites, the retired, young folks,
10% card players, bearded men,
artists, pacifists, priests, prudes,
0 hippies, straights, girls who wear
makeup, the President of the
Figure 7.1 Two Types of Youth Deviance. United States, conservatives, in-
What does the graph say about the trend in youth tegrationists, executives, divorcees, perverts, motorcycle
violence? gangs, smart-alec students, know-it-all professors, modern
Source: Journal of the American Medical
people, and Americans.
Association 282 (August, 1999): 440–446. To this list, one researcher would add obese people. For a week,
she wore a “fat suit,” adding 150 pounds to her normal body
weight, in order to experience firsthand what it feels like to be
 Chapter 7 Deviance and Social Control 205
an overweight woman in American society. She concluded that American
“society not only hates fat people, it feels entitled to participate in a prej-
udice that at many levels parallels racism and religious bigotry”
(Lampert, 1993:154).
Deviance may be either positive or negative. Negative deviance
involves behavior that fails to meet accepted norms. People ex-
pressing negative deviance either reject the norms, misinterpret
the norms, or are unaware of the norms. This is the kind of be-
havior popularly associated with the idea of deviance. There
is, however, another type of deviance. Positive deviance in-
volves overconformity to norms—leading to imbalance and ex-
tremes of perfectionism. Positive deviants idealize group norms.
In its own way, positive deviance can be as disruptive and hard
to manage as negative deviance. Think about the norms related
to personal appearance in American society. The mass media are
constantly telling young people that “lean is mean.” Negative de-
viants will miss the mark on the obese side. Positive deviants may
push themselves to the point of anorexia. Most young people will weigh Singapore political opposition
somewhere between these two extremes. leader Chee Soon Juan is selling his
Minor instances of behavior that some might consider deviant occur fre- book without a license, an example
of negative deviance in that culture.
quently in modern societies. For that reason, sociologists generally reserve
the term deviance for violations of significant social norms. Significant norms
are those that are highly important either to most members of a society or to negative deviance
the members with the most power. For a sociologist, a deviant is a person involves behavior that
who has violated one or more of society’s most highly valued norms. underconforms to accepted
Reactions to deviants are usually negative and involve attempts to change or norms
control the deviant behavior.

positive deviance
involves behavior that
overconforms to social
expectations

deviant
a person who breaks
significant societal or group
norms

This anorexic teenager in a made-for-television movie is displaying positive deviance.

How would you explain to her mother that her child’s behavior is “positive”?
206 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

District of
Columbia
Violent Crime
Although experiencing a recent decline,
the U.S. has one of the highest violent
crime rates of the major industrialized
countries. In fact, the U.S. has the high-
est murder, rape, and robbery rates, and
keeps pace in burglaries and auto thefts. 1,000 or more Number of Violent Crimes
This map indicates the number of violent 800–999 Reported per 100,000
crimes by state per 100,000 residents. 600–799 Population, 1996
400–599
200–399
Interpreting the Map 199 or less

1. Create a graph showing how the violent crime rate in

your state compares with the rates in other states.
2. Pose a question which relates to the relative ranking of
your state with other states.
Visit soc.glencoe.com
3. What sociological conclusion can you draw from this
and click on Textbook
map? Updates–Chapter 7 for an
Adapted from The World Almanac of the U.S.A., Mahwah, NJ, 1998. update of the data.

Social Control
All societies have ways to promote order, stability, and predictability in
social life. We feel confident that drivers will stop for red lights, that waiters
will not pour soup in our laps, and that store clerks will give us the correct
social control change. Without social control—ways to promote conformity to norms—
ways to encourage conformity social life would be unpredictable, even chaotic. There are two broad types
to society’s norms of social control: internal and external.
What is internal social control? Internal social control lies within the
individual. It is developed during the socialization process. You are practicing
internal social control when you do something because you know it is the
right thing to do or when you don’t do something because you know it would
be wrong. For example, most people most of the time do not steal. They act
this way not just because they fear arrest or lack the opportunity to steal but
because they consider theft to be wrong. The norm against stealing has be-
come a part of them. This is known as the internalization of social norms.
 Chapter 7 Deviance and Social Control 207
What is external social control? Unfortunately for society, the
process of socialization does not ensure that all people will conform all of
the time. For this reason, external social control must also be present.
External social control is based on social sanctions—rewards and punish- social sanctions
ments designed to encourage desired behavior. Positive sanctions, such as rewards or punishments that
awards, increases in allowances, promotions, and smiles of approval, are encourage conformity to social
used to encourage conformity. Negative sanctions, such as criticism, fines, norms
and imprisonment, are intended to stop socially unacceptable behavior.
Sanctions may be formal or informal. Ridicule, gossip and smiles are ex-
amples of informal sanctions. Imprisonment, low grades, and official awards
are formal sanctions.

Because of its hurtful nature, gossip

can be a very effective informal
sanction.

Section 1 Assessment
1. What is the term sociologists use for behavior that significantly violates
societal or group norms?
2. State a major problem sociologists have in defining deviance.
3. What is the purpose of a social sanction?

Critical Thinking
4. Applying Concepts At some point in growing up, nearly everyone
“
No crime is rational.

“ Livy
displays some minor deviant behaviors, such as cutting class or telling
Roman historian
a lie. Getting “caught” in such behaviors generally results in attempts at
social control. Recall such an instance for yourself. How successful
were these controls in changing your behavior? (Be specific as to the
types of social control and their precise application to you.)
208 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Another
Time Murder among the Cheyenne

Historically, the Cheyenne believed that when a Banishment is

member of the tribe committed murder, the whole not in itself enough,
tribe suffered the consequences. The punishment however. His act
for this terrible crime was banishment from the has disrupted the
tribe. The Cheyenne way of dealing with murders
fabric of tribal life.
illustrates both deviance and social control.
Symbolically, this is
[The Cheyenne have] specific concepts related expressed in the
to the killing of a fellow tribesman and specific soiling of the Ar-
mechanisms for dealing with homicide when it rows, the allegori-
does occur. cal identity of the
The first of these is purely mystical and relates tribe itself. As long
to the major tribal fetish, the Four Sacred Arrows. as the Arrows re-
A murderer becomes personally polluted, and main polluted, bad
specks of blood contaminate the feathers of the luck is believed to
Arrows. The very word for murder is he’joxones, dog the tribe. Not
“putrid.” A Cheyenne who kills a fellow Cheyenne only does the spec-
rots internally. His body gives off a fetid odor, a tre of starvation
symbolic stigma of personal disintegration, which threaten, but there
contrition may stay, but for which there is no cure. can be no success
The smell is offensive to other Cheyennes, who in war or any other
will never again take food from a bowl used by enterprise. The earth is disjointed and the tribe out
the killer. Nor will they smoke a pipe that has of harmony with it. The Arrow Renewal is the
touched his lips. They fear personal contamination means of righting the situation. The oneness of the
with his “leprous” affliction. This means that the tribe is reasserted in the required presence at the
person who has become so un-Cheyenne as to fly ceremony of every family—save those of murder-
in the face of the greatest of Cheyenne injunctions ers. The renewed earth, effected by the rites in the
is cut off from participation in the symbolic acts of Lone Tipi, is fresh and unsullied, once again free
mutuality—eating from a common bowl and of the stain of killing.
smoking the ritual pipe. With this alienation goes Source: Excerpted from E. Adamson Hoebel, The
the loss of many civil privileges and the coopera- Cheyennes: Indians of the Great Plains (New York: Holt,
tive assistance of one’s fellows outside of one’s Rinehart and Winston, 1960), pp. 50–52. © 1960 by Holt,
own family. The basic penalty for murder is there- Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Reprinted by permission.
fore a lifetime of partial social ostracism [forced
isolation from society].
Thinking It Over
On the legal level, the ostracism takes the form
of immediate exile imposed by the Tribal Council Many societies, both in the past and today,
sitting as a judicial body. The sentence of exile is placed responsibility for the behavior of an indi-
enforced, if need be, by the military societies. The vidual on the family or tribe. Would you favor
rationalization of the banishment is that the mur- similar laws in the U.S., such as those making
derer’s stink is noisome to the buffalo. As long as parents accountable for their children’s actions?
an unatoned murderer is with the tribe, “game Why or why not?
shuns the territory; it makes the tribe lonesome.”
Therefore, the murderer must leave.
 Chapter 7 Deviance and Social Control 209

Section
Functionalism and Deviance
2 K e y

• anomie
T e r m s

• control theory
• strain theory

Costs and Benefits of Deviance Section

Preview
A s you probably remember from earlier chapters, the functionalist per-
spective emphasizes social stability and the way the different parts of
society contribute to the whole. It may surprise you to know that functionalists
believe that some deviance can contribute to the smooth operation of society.
Deviance, therefore, has both positive and negative consequences for society.
A ccording to functional-
ists, deviance has both
negative and positive conse-
What are some of the negative effects of deviance? Deviance quences for society. Func-
erodes trust. If bus drivers do not follow planned routes, if television stations tionalism also forms the basis
constantly change their schedules, if parents are not consistent in their disci- for two important theories of
pline, trust will be undermined. A society with widespread suspicion and dis- deviance: strain theory and
trust cannot function smoothly. control theory.
If not punished or corrected, deviance can also cause nonconforming be-
havior in others. If bus drivers regularly pass students waiting for the bus, the
students may begin to heave rocks at the bus. If television stations offer ran-
dom programming, customers may picket the stations in protest.
If parents neglect their children, more teenagers may turn to
delinquency. Deviance stimulates more deviance in others.
Deviant behavior is also expensive. It diverts resources, both
human and monetary. Police may have to spend their time deal-
ing with wayward bus drivers and angry students rather than per-
forming more serious duties.
How does deviance benefit society? Society can some-
times benefit from deviance in spite of its negative effects. Emile
Durkheim observed that deviance clarifies norms by exercising
social control to defend its values; society defines, adjusts, and
reaffirms norms. When parents are taken to court or lose their
children because of neglect, for example, society shows other
parents and children how it expects parents to act.
Deviance can be a temporary safety valve. Teens listen to
music, watch television programs, and wear clothes that adults
may view as deviating from expected behavior. This relatively
minor deviance may act to relieve some of the pressure teens
feel from the many authority figures in their lives, including par-
ents, relatives, teachers, and clergy.
Deviance increases unity within a society or group. When
deviance reminds people of something they value, it strengthens
their commitment to
How did the Reverend King’s use of nonviolent
that value. Consider deviance benefit American society?
210 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures
spies who sell government secrets to an enemy, for example. When they are
discovered, citizens who read or hear about them experience stronger feel-
ings of patriotism.
Deviance promotes needed social change. Suffragettes who took to the
streets in the early 1900s scandalized the nation but helped bring women
the right to vote. Prison riots in the past have led to the reform of inhuman
conditions.
anomie
a social condition in which
norms are weak, conflicting, or
absent Strain Theory
According to Emile Durkheim, anomie (AN-uh-me) is a social condi-
tion in which norms are weak, conflicting, or absent. Without shared
strain theory
norms, individuals are uncertain about how they should think and act.
theory that deviance is more
likely to occur when a gap
Societies become disorganized. In 1968, sociologist Robert Merton adapted
exists between cultural goals Durkheim’s concept of anomie to deviant behavior and called his hypoth-
and the ability to achieve these esis the strain theory. Deviance, said Merton, is most likely to occur
goals by legitimate means when there is a gap between culturally desirable goals, such as money and
prestige, and a legitimate way of obtaining them. Every society establishes
some goals and socially approved ways of reaching them. In the United
States, an important goal is success and the material possessions that go
with it. Education and hard work are two of the approved means for being
successful. This is when people accept the goal and the means to achieve
it; Merton calls this conformity. Wealthy people conform, but so do
poor people who continue to work hard in low-paying jobs in the
hope of improving life for themselves or their children.
How do people respond to strain? By definition, conformity is
not deviant behavior. Each of the remaining four responses to strain
are considered deviant, however. (See Figure 7.2.)
❖ In innovation, the individual accepts the goal of success but uses
illegal means to achieve it. People engaging in this response may use
robbery, drug dealing, or other lucrative criminal behavior to be
successful. Innovation is the most widespread and obvious type of
deviant response.
❖ In ritualism, the individual rejects the goal (success) but continues to
use the legitimate means. Here people go through the motions without
really believing in the process. An example is the teacher who goes
According to strain theory, what
kind of deviance is homelessness?
about the daily routines of work without any concern for students or the
quality of his or her teaching.
❖ Retreatism is a deviant response in which both the legitimate means
and the approved goals are rejected. Skid-row alcoholics, drug addicts,
and bag ladies are retreatists; they have dropped out. They are not
successful by either legitimate or illegitimate means and they do not
seek success.
❖ In rebellion, people reject both success and the approved means for
achieving it. At the same time, they substitute a new set of goals and
means. Some militia group members in the United States illustrate this
response. They may live in near isolation as they pursue the goal of
changing society through deviant means: creating their own currency,
deliberately violating gun laws, and threatening (or engaging in) violent
behavior against law enforcement officers.
 Chapter 7 Deviance and Social Control 211

Figure 7.2 Merton’s Strain Theory

Culturally Socially Accepted
Approved Goal: Way to Succeed: Conformity Deviant
Success Hard Work Response Responses Examples

Accepts hard work as Conformity— Business

Accepts goal of the appropriate way works hard to executive
success to succeed succeed

Rejects hard work as Innovation— Criminal

Accepts goal of the appropriate way finds illegal ways
success to succeed to succeed

Accepts hard work as Ritualism—acts Unmotivated

Rejects goal of the appropriate way as if he wants to teacher
success to succeed succeed but does
not exert much
effort

Rejects hard work as Retreatism— Skid row

Rejects goal of the appropriate way drops out of the alcoholic
success to succeed race for success

Rejects hard work as Rebellion— Militia

Rejects goal of the appropriate way substitutes new group
success to succeed way to achieve member
new goal

Adapted from Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure, rev. ed. New York: Free Press.

Control Theory
Travis Hirschi’s control theory (1972) is also based on Durkheim’s views.
According to control theory, conformity to social norms depends on the control theory
presence of strong bonds between individuals and society. If those bonds are theory that compliance with
weak—if anomie is present—deviance occurs. social norms requires strong
In this theory, social bonds control the behavior of people, thus prevent- bonds between individuals
ing deviant acts. People conform because they don’t want to “lose face” with and society
family members, friends, or classmates.
212 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

What are the basic elements of social bonds? According to

Hirschi, the social bond has four basic components:
1. Attachment. The stronger your attachment to groups or
individuals, the more likely you are to conform. In other
words, the likelihood of conformity varies with the strength
of ties with parents, friends, and institutions such as schools
and churches.
2. Commitment. The greater your commitment to social
goals, the more likely you are to conform. The commitment
of individuals who believe their hard work will be rewarded
is greater than the commitment of people who do not
believe they can compete within the system.
3. Involvement. Participation in approved social activities
increases the probability of conformity. Besides positively
focusing your time and energy, participation puts you in
contact with people whose opinions you value.
4. Belief. Belief in the norms and values of society promotes
conformity. A belief in the appropriateness of the rules of social
life strengthens people’s resolve not to deviate from those
norms.
In short, when social bonds are weak, the chances for deviance
increase. Individuals who lack attachment, commitment, involve-
ment, and belief have little incentive to follow the rules of society.
This young woman is completing
her purchase in a clothing store.
Relate this transaction to control
theory and anomie. Section 2 Assessment
1. Which of the following is NOT one of the benefits of deviance for
society?
a. It decreases suspicion and mistrust among members of a society.
b. It promotes social change.

“
c. It increases social unity.
d. It provides a safety valve.
A loving person lives in a e. It promotes clarification of norms.
loving world. A hostile 2. Briefly describe the main idea of Merton’s strain theory.
3. A high school teacher who simply goes through the motions of
person lives in a hostile
teaching classes without any thought of success is an example of which
world. Everyone you response in strain theory?
meet is your mirror. 4. What are the four basic elements needed to create strong social
bonds?
“ Ken Keys
U.S. author Critical Thinking
5. Applying Concepts Describe someone you know (anonymously, of
course) who falls into one of the four deviant response categories
identified by strain theory. Use specific characteristics of this person to
show the influence of different aspirations on economic decisions.
 Chapter 7 Deviance and Social Control 213

Sociology Is Teen Smoking a

Today Deviant Behavior?
Sociologist Philip Hilts believes that tobacco companies target young people in their advertise-
ments and that the strategy has a sociological basis.
[C]hildren are just beginning to shape their image of themselves, elbowing out a niche in the
world, and must somehow differentiate themselves from parents and other adults, and get out
from under what the authorities in life want from them. They dress differently, sometimes shock-
ingly. They listen to different, sometimes shocking, music. In this quest, the children are worried,
insecure, seeking to make choices and have them supported by their friends or others they re-
spect. Most obviously, their choices are supported by each other. They have learned to lean on
each other for aid and assent. Sometimes older siblings lend support. But because the insecurity
is great, as many supports as possible are needed (Hilts, 1997:33).
Cigarette advertising, claims Hilts, por-
trays smoking as another ally in teenagers’
attempts to find their own identities.
Smoking is portrayed as a pleasurable, cool
way for them to declare their successful
transition into adulthood. In other words,
tobacco corporations assume correctly that
teenagers are at a time in their lives when
deviant behavior can serve a developmental
need. To teens, smoking (like their choice
of clothing, music, and slang) begins as
simply a form of deviance.

Doing Sociology
Do you agree with Hilts’s analysis? State
your arguments for or against it. Search
magazines and newspapers for examples
of advertising that emphasizes “young adult
smokers” moving into adult activities. Or,
see if you can find any advertisements that
picture middle-aged or older people smok-
ing. Why do you think these ads are virtu-
ally unknown?
This mural advertising a brand of cigarettes is designed to
attract the attention and admiration of teenagers.
214 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Section
Symbolic Interactionism
3 and Deviance
K e y T e r m s

• differential association • primary deviance

theory • secondary deviance
• labeling theory • stigma

Section Differential Association Theory

Preview
A ccording to symbolic interactionism, deviance is transmitted through
socialization in the same way that nondeviant behavior is learned.

T he symbolic interactionist
perspective yields two
theories of deviance. We read
For example, an early study revealed that delinquent behavior can be trans-
mitted through play groups and gangs. Even when new ethnic groups enter
neighborhoods, they learn delinquent behavior from the current residents.
in Chapter 3 that culture is Differential association and labeling theory are both based on symbolic
learned. Sociologists believe interactionism.
that deviance is a learned be- How is deviance learned? Differential association theory empha-
havior that is culturally trans- sizes the role of primary groups in transmitting deviance. Just as we learn
mitted. Labeling theory holds preferences in religion and politics from others we associate with closely,
that an act is deviant only if people can learn deviance by association, as well. The more that individuals
other people name it so. are exposed to people who break the law, the more apt they are to become
criminals. Three characteristics affect differential association:
❖ the ratio of deviant to nondeviant individuals. A person who knows
mostly deviants is more likely to learn deviant behavior.
differential association theory
❖ whether the deviant behavior is practiced by significant others. A person
is more likely to copy deviant behavior from a significant other than from
theory that individuals learn
deviance in proportion to
people less important to him or her.
number of deviant acts they ❖ the age of exposure. Younger children learn deviant behavior more
are exposed to quickly than older children.

Labeling Theory
Strain theory, control theory, and differential association theory help us
labeling theory understand why deviance occurs. Labeling theory explains why deviance is
theory that society creates relative—that is, sometimes of two people breaking the norm only one may
deviance by identifying be labeled a deviant.
particular members as deviant
Is deviance defined by the act or by the individual? According to la-
beling theory, deviant behaviors are always a matter of social definition. In
this view, deviance exists when some members of a group or society label
others as deviants. Howard Becker, a pioneer of labeling theory, writes:
 Chapter 7 Deviance and Social Control 215

Deviance is relative. Some members of a society, such as athletes and celebrities, are often
treated more tolerantly.

Social groups create deviance by making the rules whose infraction

constitutes deviance, and by applying these rules to particular people
and labeling them as outsiders. From this point of view, deviance is
not a quality of the act the person commits, but rather a consequence primary deviance
deviance involving occasional
of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an “offender.”
breaking of norms that is not a
The deviant is one to whom that label has successfully been applied; part of a person’s lifestyle or
deviant behavior is behavior that people so label (Becker, 1991:9). self-concept
Labeling theory allows us to understand the relativity of deviance. It ex-
plains, for example, why unmarried pregnant teenage girls are more nega-
tively sanctioned than the teenage biological fathers. An unsanctioned
pregnancy requires two people, but usually only one of the pair is labeled
deviant. Traditionally, society expects females to set the boundaries—to
be the ones to say “no.” When females become pregnant outside of
marriage, they have violated this norm and are considered
deviant. Even today, males are not considered as deviant,
not because they do not literally bear the child, but be-
cause our ideas about their sexual responsibility are still
different than for females. And, of course, it is easier to
stigmatize women because advanced pregnancy is so vis-
ible. Labeling theory also explains why a middle-class
youth who steals a car may go unpunished for “borrow-
ing” the vehicle whereas a lower-class youth goes to court
for stealing. Too often, lower-class youths are “expected” to
be criminals while middle-class youths are not.
Are there degrees of deviance? Edwin Lemert’s (1972)
distinction between primary and secondary deviance helps
clarify the labeling process. In cases of primary deviance, a
person engages only in isolated acts of deviance. For example,
when college students are asked to respond to a checklist of
Student pranksters decorated the
unlawful activities, most admit to having violated one or more norms. Yet the Massachusetts Institute of
vast majority of college students have never been arrested, convicted, or la- Technology dome to look like the
beled as criminals. Certainly, those who break the law for the first time do not Star Wars character, R2D2. Was this
consider themselves criminals. If their deviance stops at this point, they have an example of primary or
engaged in primary deviance; deviance is not a part of their lifestyles or secondary deviance?
216 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures
self-concepts. Juveniles,
likewise, may commit a
few delinquent acts with-
out becoming committed
to a delinquent career or
regarding themselves as
delinquents.
secondary deviance Secondary deviance,
deviance in which an on the other hand, refers to
individual’s life and identity deviance as a lifestyle and
are organized around as a personal identity. A
breaking society’s norms secondary deviant is a per-
son whose life and identity
are organized around de-
viance. In this case, the de-
viant status overshadows
all other statuses. Individ-
uals identify themselves
primarily as deviants and
organize their behavior
largely in terms of deviant
roles. Other people label
them as deviant as well
and respond to them
accordingly. When this oc-
curs, these individuals usu-
ally begin to spend most of
their time committing acts
of deviance. Deviance be-
comes a way of life, a ca-
reer (Kelly, 1996).
Secondary deviance is
reflected in the words of John Dillinger was at one time the FBI’s “public enemy
Carolyn Hamilton-Ballard number 1.” Explain why Dillinger is considered a
—known as “Bubbles” to secondary deviant.
her fellow gang members
in Los Angeles:
Because of my size, I was automatically labeled a bully-type person. . . . I
mean, people saw that Bloods jacket and since everybody thought I was
crazy, I started acting crazy. At first it was an act, but then it became
me. After being the target for drive-bys and going through different
things, that became my life-style. I started retaliating back and I got more
involved (Johnson, 1994:209).

What are the consequences of labeling? Labeling people as deviants

can cause them pain and suffering, as well as determine the direction of their
lives. Erving Goffman examined some of the negative effects of labeling
stigma when he wrote about stigma—an undesirable characteristic or label used by
an undesirable trait or label others to deny the deviant full social acceptance. For example, an ex-convict
that is used to characterize is not accepted by many members of society. Why? Because a stigmatic
an individual label—jailbird—spoils the individual’s entire social identity. One stigma, a
prison record, is used to discredit the individual’s entire worth. The same
 Chapter 7 Deviance and Social Control 217
may be true for a person with a disability or an unem-
ployed person.
The words of a forty-three-year-old bricklayer, who
was unemployed during the Depression, illustrate this
point.
How hard and humiliating it is to bear the name of
an unemployed man. When I go out, I cast down my
eyes because I feel myself wholly inferior. When I go
along the street, it seems to me that I can’t be com-
pared with an average citizen, that everybody is
pointing at me with his finger. I instinctively avoid
meeting anyone. Former acquaintances and friends
of better times are no longer so cordial. They greet me
indifferently when we meet. They no longer offer me a
cigarette and their eyes seem to say, “You are not
worth it, you don’t work.”

Section 3 Assessment
1. Which of the following describes what is meant by
differential association?
a. Crime is more likely to occur among individuals
who have been treated differently.
b. People may become criminals through close
association with criminals.
c. Crime is not transmitted culturally.
d. Crime comes from conflict between two
cultures.
2. Name the sociological theory that takes into account
the relativity of deviance.
This young man in New York City
3. What is secondary deviance? in the 1940s probably felt the
4. What are the social consequences of labeling? stigma of being unemployed. How
does this stigma relate to the
Critical Thinking labeling of deviants?

5. Analyzing Information Think of someone you know or know of

who has been labeled as deviant by some members of society. Analyze
the consequences of this labeling for the person identified as a deviant.
6. Drawing Conclusions What actions could be taken against students
who are viewed as secondary deviants?
218 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Section
Conflict Theory and Deviance
4 K e y T e r m s

• victim discounting
• white-collar crime

Section Deviance in Industrial Society

Preview
F rom the conflict perspective, deviance in an industrial society is be-
havior that those in control see as threatening to their interests.
T he conflict perspective
looks at deviance in terms
of social inequality and
Consequently, the rich and powerful use their positions to determine which
acts are deviant and how deviants should be punished.
Sociologist Steven Spitzer (1980) proposed some basic ways in which the
power. The most powerful culture of an industrial society defends itself against deviants.
members of a society deter-
1. Critics of industrial society are considered deviants because their beliefs
mine who will be regarded as
challenge its economic, political, and social basis.
deviant. Conflict theorists
2. Because industrial society requires a willing workforce, those who will
point to some disproportional
not work are considered deviants.
statistical relationships be-
3. Those who threaten private property, especially that belonging to the
tween minorities and crime.
rich, are prime targets for punishment.
4. Because of society’s need for respect of authority,
people who show a lack of respect for authority—
agitators on the job, people who stage nonviolent
demonstrations against established practices—are
treated as deviants.
5. Certain activities are encouraged depending on how
well they fit within industrial society. For example,
violent behavior in sports is accepted because it
fosters competition, achievement, teamwork, and
winning (Eder, 1995; Adler and Adler, 1999).

Race, Ethnicity, and Crime

The relationship between minorities and the judicial
system is another way to view deviance from the conflict
perspective.
What is the relationship between race, ethnicity,
and crime? Supporters of the conflict perspective be-
lieve that minorities receive unequal treatment in the
Conflict theorists predict that this American criminal justice system. They cite statistics
suspect’s race is likely to have a showing that African Americans and Latinos are dealt with more harshly than
negative impact on his treatment in whites. This is true throughout the criminal justice process—from arrest
the criminal justice system.
 Chapter 7 Deviance and Social Control 219

Even when they have committed the

through indictment, conviction, sentencing, and parole (Shaeffer, 1993; same crimes, African Americans
and Latinos are more severely
Sknolnick, 1998).
punished than whites.
Even when the criminal offense is the same, African Americans and
Latinos are more likely than whites to be convicted, and they serve more time
in prison than whites. Although African Americans account for only 12 per-
cent of the total population in the United States, more than 43 percent of in-
mates under the death penalty are African American. In interracial murders,
an African American is thirteen times as likely to be sentenced to death for
the murder of a white person as a white person is for murdering an African
American.
About one-half of all homicide victims in the United States are African
American (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1998a). Nevertheless, the overwhelm-
ing majority of prisoners on death row are there for murdering whites.
Prosecutors are less likely to seek the death penalty when an African
American has been killed, and juries and judges are less likely to impose the
death penalty in cases involving African American victims.
Why are minorities and whites treated so differently? The conflict
theory suggests several reasons for differences in the way minorities and
whites are treated in the criminal justice system. For one thing, conflict the-
orists point to the fact that minorities generally do not have the economic re-
sources to buy good legal services. Thus, the outcomes of their trials are not
likely to be as favorable to them.
Another source of difference involves the fact that crimes against whites
tend to be punished more severely than crimes against minorities.
Sociologists who follow the conflict perspective believe that this happens be-
cause society sees minority interests as less important than the interests of
whites. Victim discounting reduces the seriousness of crimes directed at victim discounting
process of reducing the
members of lower social classes (Gibbons, 1985). According to the logic be-
seriousness of the crimes that
hind victim discounting, if the victim is less valuable, the crime is less seri- injure people of lower status
ous, and the penalty is less severe.
220 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Figure 7.3 Focus on Theoretical Perspectives

Deviance. This figure illustrates approaches to understanding deviance using concepts associated with a
particular theoretical perspective. Construct some examples of your own.

Theoretical Sociological
Perspective Concept Example of Deviance
Functionalism Anomie Delinquent gangs sell drugs because they
want success without holding conventional
jobs.

Conflict Theory White-Collar A convicted Wall Street stock

Crime broker (a more powerful
member of society) may
spend less time in prison
than a factory worker (a
less powerful member of
society) found guilty of a
less serious crime.

Symbolic Labeling Some high school students reject dating because

Interactionism they have been consistently treated and described
as “not cool.”

White-Collar Crime
White-collar crime is yet another way to view deviance. According to
Edwin Sutherland (1940, 1983), white-collar crime is any crime committed
white-collar crime by respectable and high-status people in the course of their occupations. As
job-related crimes committed one researcher put it, lower-status people commit crimes of the streets;
by high-status people higher-status people engage in “crimes of the suites.” Officially, the term
white-collar crime is used for economic crimes such as price fixing, insider
trading, illegal rebates, embezzlement, bribery of a corporate customer, man-
ufacture of hazardous products, toxic pollution, and tax evasion.
What are the costs of white-collar crime? According to the U.S.
Department of Justice, the costs of white-collar crime are eighteen times
higher than the costs of street crime. Illegal working environments (for ex-
ample, factories that expose workers to toxic chemicals) account for about
one-third of all work-related deaths in the United States. Five times more
Americans are killed each year from illegal job conditions than are murdered
on the streets.
 Chapter 7 Deviance and Social Control 221
What kinds of punishment
do the majority of white-collar
criminals receive? Despite
the fact that white-collar crime
costs taxpayers hundreds of bil-
lions of dollars every year, the
people that commit these crimes
are treated more leniently than
other criminals. In federal court,
where most white-collar cases
are tried, probation is granted to
40 percent of antitrust-law viola-
tors, 61 percent of fraud defen-
dants, and 70 percent of
embezzlers. In general, con-
victed white-collar criminals are
less likely to be imprisoned. If
they are imprisoned, they receive
shorter average sentences and
are more likely to be placed in
prisons with extra amenities, White-collar criminals often receive
such as tennis courts or private rooms. Both Charles Colson and G. Gordon milder punishments than other
Liddy, convicted conspirators in the Watergate cover-up in the early 1970s, criminals. G. Gordon Liddy, shown
served their sentences in minimum-security federal facilities. here outside the radio station that
broadcasts his national radio show,
spent four years in prison for
Section 4 Assessment Watergate-related crimes during the
Nixon administration.
1. Which of the following IS NOT one of the basic ways in which the
culture of an industrial society defends itself in the face of deviance?
a. People whose beliefs clash with those of industrial society are

“
labeled deviants.
b. Industrial society requires a willing workforce.
c. Innovation is rewarded. The reason that crime
d. People who fail to show respect for authority are likely to be doesn’t pay is that when
considered deviant.
it does it is called some-
2. What is the term that describes reducing the seriousness of crimes
against victims from lower social classes? thing else.
3. What is white-collar crime? “
Dr. Lawrence Peter
Critical Thinking American author
4. Evaluating Information How could the conflict theory be misused
to rationalize deviant behavior?
5. Summarizing Information Using the concept of victim discounting,
explain why lower-class criminals are usually punished more severely
than white-collar criminals for the same crime.
222 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Case Study: Saints and

Roughnecks
In tbis classic study, William Chambliss (1973) observed the behavior
of two white teenage gangs at “Hanibal High School” over a two-year
period. In addition to gang activity, Chambliss documented the
responses of parents, teachers, and police to the delinquent behavior.

The Saints On weekends the automobile was even more critical

than during the week, for on weekends the Saints [a delinquent high
school gang] went to Big Town—a large city with a population of over
a million. . . . Every Friday and Saturday night most of the Saints would
meet between 8:00 and 8:30 and would go into Big Town. Big Town
activities included drinking heavily in taverns or nightclubs, driving
drunkenly through the streets, and committing acts of vandalism and
playing pranks. . . .
Searching for “fair game” for a prank was the boys’ principal activ-
ity after they left the tavern. The boys would drive alongside a foot pa-
trolman and ask directions to some street. If the policeman leaned on
the car in the course of answering the question, the driver would speed
away, causing him to lose his balance. The Saints were careful to play
this prank only in an area where they were not going to spend much
time and where they could quickly disappear around a corner to avoid
having their license plate number taken.
Construction sites and road repair areas were the special province
of the Saints’ mischief. A soon-to-be-repaired hole in the road in-
evitably invited the Saints to remove lanterns and wooden barricades
and put them in the car, leaving the hole unprotected. The boys would
find a safe vantage point and wait for an unsuspecting motorist to drive
into the hole. Often, though not always, the boys would go up to the
motorist and commiserate [sympathize] with him about the dreadful
way the city protected its citizenry.
Leaving the scene of the open hole and the motorist, the boys
would then go searching for an appropriate place to erect the stolen
barricade. An “appropriate place” was often a spot on a highway near
a curve in the road where the barricade would not be seen by an on-
coming motorist. The boys would wait to watch an unsuspecting mo-
torist attempt to stop and (usually) crash into the wooden barricade.
A stolen lantern might well find its way onto the back of a police
car or hang from a street lamp. Once a lantern served as a prop for a
reenactment of the “midnight ride of Paul Revere” until the “play,”
which was taking place at 2:00 A.M. in the center of a main street of Big
Town, was interrupted by a police car several blocks away. The boys
ran, leaving the lanterns on the street . . . .
 Chapter 7 Deviance and Social Control 223
The Roughnecks [T]ownspeople never perceived the Saints’ . . .
delinquency. The Saints were good boys who just went in for an oc-
casional prank. After all, they were well dressed, well mannered and
had nice cars. The Roughnecks [a delinquent gang at the same high
school] were a different story. Although the two gangs of boys were the
same age, and both groups engaged in an equal amount of wild-oat
sowing, everyone agreed that the not-so-well-dressed, not-so-well-
mannered, not-so-rich boys were heading for trouble. . . .
From the community’s viewpoint, the real indication that these kids
were in for trouble was that they were constantly involved with the po-
lice. Some of them had been picked up for stealing, mostly small stuff, of
course, “but still it’s stealing small stuff that leads to big time crimes.” “Too
bad,” people said. “Too bad that these boys couldn’t behave like the other
kids in town; stay out of trouble, be polite to adults, and look to their
future.” . . .
The fighting activities of the group were fairly readily and accurately
perceived by almost everyone. At least once a month, the boys would
get into some sort of fight, although most fights were scraps between
members of the group or involved only one member of the group and
some peripheral hanger-on. Only three times in the period of observa-
tion did the group fight together: once against a gang from across town,
once against two blacks and once against a group of boys from another
school. For the first two fights the group went out “looking for trou-
ble”—and they found it both times. The third fight followed a football
game and began spontaneously with an argument on the football field
between one of the Roughnecks and a member of the opposition’s
football team.
More serious than fighting, had the community been aware of it,
was theft. Although almost everyone was aware that the boys occa-
sionally stole things, they did not realize the extent of the activity. Petty
stealing was a frequent event for the Roughnecks. Sometimes they stole
as a group and coordinated their efforts; other times they stole in pairs.
Rarely did they steal alone. . . . Types of thievery varied with the whim
of the gang. Some forms of thievery were more profitable than others,
but all thefts were for profit, not for thrills.
Roughnecks siphoned gasoline from cars as often as they had access
to an automobile, which was not very often. Unlike the Saints, who
owned their own cars, the Roughnecks would have to borrow their par-
ents’ cars, an event which occurred only eight or nine times a year. The
boys claimed to have stolen cars for joy rides from time to time.
Source: Excerpted from William J. Chambliss, “The Saints and the Roughnecks,”
Society 11 (November/December, 1973):24–31.

Working with the Research

1. From your understanding of Chambliss’s study, is deviance so-
cially created? Explain.
2. Which of the three major theoretical perspectives best explains
Chambliss’s findings? Support your choice.
224 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Section
Crime and Punishment
5 K e y

• crime
T e r m s

• incarceration
• criminal justice system • rehabilitation
• deterrence • recidivism
• retribution

Section Measurement of Crime

Preview
M ost Americans think of crime—acts in violation of statute law—as
including a narrow range of behavior. On the contrary, more than

C rime statistics in the U.S.

come from two major
sources: the FBI and the
2,800 acts are classified as federal crimes. Many more acts violate state and
local statutes.
How much crime is there in the United States today? Crime in-
Census Bureau. Differences creased sharply between the 1960s and the 1990s. For example, the FBI
in statistics between the two Index of violent crime has increased from a big city offense rate per 100,000
agencies are due to differ- of 860 in 1969 to 1207 in 1999. Violent crime rates are considerably higher
ences in methods of collect- in the U.S. than in most other industrialized countries.
ing data. Four approaches to
Today the rate of homicide death for a young man is 23 times higher
crime control are deterrence,
in the U.S. than in England. In 1995, handguns were used to kill 2
retribution, incarceration, people in New Zealand, 15 in Japan, 30 in Great Britain, 106 in
and rehabilitation. Canada, 213 in Germany, and 9,390 in the United States (To
Establish Justice, 1999:iv).

crime
acts committed in violation
of the law

The job of this forensic scientist is to

examine evidence—fingerprints,
DNA, handwriting, firearms—for
indications that a crime has
occurred.
 Chapter 7 Deviance and Social Control 225
One Figure 7.4 FBI’s Crime Clock:
MURDER 1999. How often do
every 34 minutes Americans commit crimes?
The number to the far left, of course,
One does not mean that one Crime Index
FORCIBLE RAPE
every 6 minutes
offense actually occurs every three
seconds. It does mean that when all
One One Crime Index offenses for 1999 are
VIOLENT CRIME ROBBERY divided by the total number of
every 22 seconds every 60 seconds seconds in a year there are enough
of them to be spaced out every three
One One seconds.
CRIME INDEX OFFENSE AGGRAVATED ASSAULT
every 3 seconds every 34 seconds Source: Federal Bureau of
Investigation, Uniform Crime
One One
PROPERTY CRIME BURGLARY Reports, 1999.
every 3 seconds every 15 seconds

One
LARCENY-THEFT
every 5 seconds

One Visit soc.glencoe.com

MOTOR VEHICLE THEFT
and click on Textbook
every 27 seconds
Updates–Chapter 7 for an
update of the data.

How are crime statistics collected? The major source of American

crime statistics is the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Uniform Crime Reports
(UCR). These official statistics are gathered from police departments across
the country. Reports are submitted voluntarily by law enforcement agencies.
What do UCR statistics cover? Nine types of crimes (called crime
index offenses) are tracked: murder, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated as-
sault, burglary, larceny–theft, motor vehicle theft, arson, and hate crimes.
Figure 7.4 shows UCR statistics on the frequency of seven of these crimes
in the United States in 1999. Figure 7.5 presents another view of the 1998
statistics. Crimes known to the police totaled 11,635,900 (total violent crime
plus total property crime). As the table shows, both violent crime and prop-
erty crime have declined since 1990. Since murder receives the most pub-
licity, it can be used to highlight this general, across-the-board reduction in

Crime rate 1990–1999 Figure 7.5 Crimes in the

Types of crime Number of per 100,000 Percent change Percent change in United States, 1999. If you were
crimes residents in crime rate number of crimes
a law enforcement officer, would
Violent crime 1,430,690 524.7 -28.3 -21.4 you be encouraged or discouraged
Murder 15,530 5.7 -39.4 -33.7 by this data? Why?
Forcible rape 89,110 32.7 -20.6 -13.1
Robbery 409,670 150.2 -41.6 -35.9
Source: Federal Bureau of
Aggravated assault 916,380 336.1 -20.7 -13.1 Investigation, Uniform Crime
Reports, 1999.
Property crime 10,284,500 3,742.1 -26.5 -19.4
Burglary 2,099,700 770.0 -37.7 -31.7
Larceny-theft 6,957,400 2,551.4 -20.1 -12.4
Motor vehicle theft 1,147,300 420.7 -36.0 -29.9
226 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures
Larceny-theft 59.8% crime. The murder rate in the United States has declined more
Burglary 18.0% than 39 percent since the late 1980s. This decline has gained
momentum since the mid-1990s. One major reason for this new
Motor vehicle theft 9.9%
downward crime trend is a recent reduction in juvenile crime.
Aggravated assault 7.9% Figure 7.6 indicates that violent crime—murder, forcible
Robbery 3.5% rape, aggravated assault, and robbery—made up 12.3 percent
of the known crimes. Property crime—burglary, larceny-theft,
Forcible rape 0.8%
motor vehicle theft—accounted for 87.7 percent.
Murder 0.1%
How reliable are UCR statistics? The UCR statistics
provide considerable information about crime. A major
Figure 7.6 Types of Crimes
Americans Commit. This strength of this reporting system lies in the fact that experienced police offi-
figure shows the contribution each cers decide if an incident should be reported as a crime. The UCR statistics
major type of crime makes to the also have serious limitations, however:
total of U.S. crime. ❖ The UCR tends to overrepresent the lower classes and undercount the
Source: Federal Bureau of middle and upper classes.
Investigation, Uniform Crime ❖ Some crimes (amateur thefts, minor assaults) are not as likely to be
Reports, 1999. reported to the police as murder and auto thefts.
❖ Prostitutes and intoxicated persons are subject to arrest in public
places, but are fairly safe in private settings where the police cannot
enter without a warrant.
❖ About two-thirds of U.S. crimes are not reported at all.
❖ Crime reporting varies from place to place and crime to crime, and
white-collar offenders are seldom included.

Are any other crime statistics available? In response to these criti-

Student Web Activity cisms, the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) was launched in the
Visit the Sociology and early 1970s. This survey is conducted semiannually for the Bureau of Justice
You Web site at Statistics by the U.S. Census Bureau.
soc.glencoe.com for an The NCVS has two advantages. First, it helps make up for the underre-
activity on juvenile crime. porting of crime. Second, its surveys are more scientifically sound than meth-
ods used in the UCR. At the very least, the NCVS is an increasingly important
supplement to the FBI’s official statistics. Together they provide a more com-
plete account of the extent and nature of crime in the United States (Wright,
1987; U.S. Department of Justice, 1999).

Juvenile Crime
Juvenile crime refers to legal violations among those under 18 years of
age. Juvenile offenders are the third largest category of criminals in the
United States. Teenage criminal activity includes theft, murder, rape, robbery,
assault, and the sale of illegal substances. Juvenile delinquent behavior in-
cludes deviance that only the young can commit, such as failing to attend
school, fighting in school, and underage drinking and smoking.
What is the trend in juvenile crime? Violent juvenile crime reached
its lowest level in a decade in 1999, a fall of 36 percent since 1994 (Office of
Justice Programs, 2000). During the 1990s
❖ the juvenile murder arrest rate dropped by 68 percent.
❖ juvenile arrests for weapons violations declined by a third.
❖ the juvenile rape arrest rate went down by 31 percent.
 Chapter 7 Deviance and Social Control 227

Arrests per 100,000 juveniles 10–17 years

600

500

400
Violent crime rate
300

200

100

0
1980 1985 1990 1995 1998 2000

Figure 7.7 Juvenile Violent Crime Declines. Why is the juvenile violent crime
rate in the U.S. dropping?

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Juvenile Offenders and Victims, 1999, and Office of
Visit soc.glencoe.com
Justice Programs, 2000. and click on Textbook
Updates–Chapter 7 for an
update of the data.

There were also fewer juvenile victims of murder—down from almost 3,000
to about 2,000. Juvenile crime, in short, returned to the rates typical of the
years prior to the crack epidemic of the late 1980s.
Why has juvenile crime gone down? Several factors are said to account
for this decline in juvenile crime. For one, there has been a decline in the de-
mand for crack cocaine. Remaining crack gangs that provided guns to juveniles
have reached truces. Repeat violent juvenile offenders have been given stiffer
sentences. Finally, police are cracking down on illegal guns on the street.

Approaches to Crime Control

The criminal justice system is made up of the institutions and processes criminal justice system
responsible for enforcing criminal statutes. It includes the police, courts, and system comprising institutions
correctional system. A criminal justice system may draw on four approaches and processes responsible for
to control and punish lawbreakers—deterrence, retribution, incarceration, enforcing criminal statutes
and rehabilitation.
Does punishment discourage crime? The deterrence approach uses
the threat of punishment to discourage criminal actions. A basic idea of this deterrence
approach is that punishment of convicted criminals will serve as an example discouraging criminal acts by
to keep other people from committing crimes. There is considerable debate threatening punishment
on the effectiveness of deterrence (DiIulio and Piehl, 1991). Research indi-
cates that the threat of punishment does deter crime if potential lawbreakers
know two things: that they are likely to get caught and that the punishment
will be severe. In the U.S., however, the punishment for crime is usually not
certain, swift, or severe. Consequently, punishment does not have the deter-
rent effect that it could have (Pontell, 1984).
Capital punishment (the death penalty) is a special case. Over four thou-
sand people have been executed in the United States since 1930, the year the
federal government began gathering statistics on capital punishment. Unless
228 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

O ne of the newest forms of deviance is “identity theft.” An identity

thief “steals” credit information belonging to another person, then
commits fraud with it. The results for victims can be devastating.
In testimony before the Maryland legislature, one couple reported
that a thief used their credit cards to purchase five automobiles.
Graciela has been a victim of identity theft for more than ten years. A
thief gained access to her Social Security number, birth certificate, and
driver’s license. With this information, the imposter has obtained credit
cards, purchased furniture, bought cars, and obtained welfare. (All of
Look Out these examples, and more, are available through the Privacy Rights
Clearinghouse, http://www.privacyrights.org, a nonprofit group for
consumers’ privacy rights.)
for Beth Givens of the Privacy Rights Clearinghouse explains that iden-
tity theft can occur in many ways. A thief can steal a wallet or purse,
get copies of credit card slips from trash, or steal someone’s mail.
Identity There are also high-tech methods of identity theft. The most common
method is to illegally gain access to credit rating company computers.
These companies maintain credit reports that provide valuable infor-
Thieves! mation about a consumer—Social Security number, birth date, credit
card numbers, and address. Although credit rating companies try to
prevent high-tech identity theft, the very nature of their service makes
this information accessible through computer terminals. This access is
an open invitation to criminals.
The victims of identity theft obviously suffer great damage. Unless
the thief is caught in the act, there seems to be little the po-
lice can do to stop this kind of crime. Many victims also have
to deal with abusive collection agencies. It has taken some
people ten years or more to clean up the mess the thieves
have created. Victims are often scarred emotionally and re-
port feelings of violation, hopelessness, and great anger.
The goal of today’s identity thieves is to get items at no
cost, not to take over the victims’ identities. But what if
identity theft also involved losing one’s identity? What
would happen if a person’s identity were actually “stolen“?
This was the topic of a film called The Net. In this movie, a
woman’s entire identity is erased. The villains in the movie
steal the documents that would prove her identity and de-
stroy all of her existing computer records. Using her photo-
graph and Social Security number, they create a whole new
identity for her, including a new name, a bad credit report,
and a criminal record. As the woman in the movie says,
“They knew everything about me. It was all on the
Internet.”

Analyzing the Trends

Which theoretical perspective would be most useful in analyzing
identity theft? Explain your choice, and apply that perspective to the
issue of identity theft.
 Chapter 7 Deviance and Social Control 229
it is premeditated, a murder is an extremely emotional and irrational
act. Under such circumstances, you would not expect the threat of
capital punishment to be a deterrent, and research shows that it is
not. If the death penalty were a deterrent to murder, a decline in its
use should be followed by an increase in the murder rate. Research
indicates, however, that the murder rate remains constant, or even
drops, following a decline in the use of the death penalty (Sellin,
1991; Lester, 1998; Sarat, 1998).
Do Americans believe capital punishment deters criminals?
Despite those findings, about three-fourths of Americans believe that
the death penalty acts as a deterrent to murder. Actually, attitudes re-
garding the ability of the death penalty to prevent crime do not seem
to affect attitudes toward the death penalty itself. Of those Americans
who favor the death penalty, over three-fourths indicate they would
continue to favor it even if confronted with conclusive evidence that
the death penalty does not act as a deterrent to murder and that it
does not lower the murder rate. Feelings of revenge and a desire for
retribution, then, appear to contribute more to the support of capital
punishment than do its deterrent effects. When asked to choose, a
significantly higher proportion of the American population support
the death penalty for murder (66 percent) than oppose it (26 percent;
Gallup, 2001).
Why does the attitude toward the death penalty vary?
Attitudes toward the death penalty in the United States vary accord-
ing to race and ethnicity. Over three-fourths of whites favor the
death penalty compared with 40 percent of African Americans and
52 percent of Latinos. This racial and ethnic variation in attitude to-
ward the death penalty is not surprising. The less favorable African
American and Latino attitude is due, in part, to the fact that, when
convicted, they are more likely than whites to receive the death
penalty (Spohn, 1995). While African Americans comprise only
about 13 percent of the U.S. population, they make up 43 percent Demostrators protest in support of
of death row inmates. Racial minorities constitute half of all inmates in U.S. and in opposition to the death
penalty. Based on the evidence, do
prisons.
you think support for the death
What is retribution? Retribution is a type of punishment intended to penalty is motivated by deterrence
make criminals pay compensation for their acts. It comes from the idea of or retribution?
“an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.” The law allows designated offi-
cials to exact retribution. However, it does not allow individuals to take per-
retribution
sonal vengeance. If a mother “takes the law into her own hands” by shooting
punishment intended to make
her son’s killer, she must also answer to society for her action.
criminals pay compensation
Why does society keep criminals in prisons? The basic idea behind for their acts
incarceration—keeping criminals in prisons—is that criminals who are not
on the street cannot commit crimes. Recently, the United States has taken a
tougher stance in favor of the incarceration approach with such bills as the incarceration
three strikes law. As a result, the number of local, state, and federal prisoners a method of protecting society
increased by almost 700,000 between 1990 and 2000, and is expected to ex- from criminals by keeping
ceed 2 million very shortly. In more repressive societies, such as the former them in prisons
Soviet Union and present-day Nationalist China, people may spend their entire
lives in prison camps for crimes ranging from political opposition to murder.
230 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

World View Death Penalty Policy

Countries vary in their approach to the control of
crime. The most extreme form of social control, the
death penalty, is utilized in many countries, while
some countries have abolished capital punishment
completely. This map shows variations in national
policy regarding the death penalty.

North Europe
America
Asia

Africa
South
America

Australia
Legal Status of Capital Punishment
Abolished for all crimes
Abolished for ordinary crimes but retained for crimes against the
state and its agents, or for crimes committed in extraordinary times,
such as war
Retained for ordinary crimes but no executions since 1990
Retained and used for ordinary crimes
Federal system; status varies

Interpreting the Map

1. Do you notice any pattern in the use of the death penalty? Describe it.
2. What additional information would you need to determine if capital punishment is an effective
deterrent to crime? Explain.

Source: Amnesty International Online

rehabilitation Do prisons rehabilitate criminals? Rehabilitation is an approach to

process of changing or crime control that attempts to resocialize criminals. Most prisons have pro-
reforming a criminal through grams aimed at giving prisoners both social and work skills that will help
socialization them adjust to normal society after their release. Unfortunately, 30 to 60 per-
cent of those released from penal institutions are sent back to prison in two
 Chapter 7 Deviance and Social Control 231
to five years. This return to criminal behavior is called recidivism. The rel-
atively high rate of recidivism makes it seem unlikely that prison rehabilita- recidivism
tion programs are working (Elikann, 1996; Zamble and Quinsey, 1997). a repetition of or return to
criminal behavior
Reasons for the high rate of recidivism include
❖ the basic nature of the offenders
❖ influences of more hardened criminals
❖ the stigma of being an ex-convict.
It is difficult to change attitudes and behavior within the prison subcul-
ture. Conformity with the “inmate code” stresses loyalty among inmates as
well as opposition to correctional authorities. Also, a released prisoner is
likely to bring the toughness reinforced in prison life to the
workplace. This transfer of prison norms does not work be-
cause most jobs in the service economy require interpersonal
skills (Hagan, 1994b).
What are some alternatives to prisons? If prisons do
not rehabilitate, what are some alternatives? Several are being
considered.
1. A combination of prison and probation. A mixed or split
sentence, known as shock probation, is designed to shock
offenders into recognizing the realities of prison life.
Prisoners serve part of their sentences in an institution and
the rest on probation.
2. Community-based programs. These programs are designed
to reintroduce criminals into society. By getting convicts
out of prison for at least part of the day, community-based
programs help break the inmate code. At the same time,
prisoners have a chance to become part of society—
participating in the community but under professional
guidance and supervision.
3. Diversion strategy. Diversion is aimed at preventing, or
greatly reducing, the offender’s involvement in the
criminal justice system. Diversion involves a referral to a
community-based treatment program rather than a prison
or a probationary program. Because offenders are handled
outside the formal system of criminal law, authorities
believe the offenders will not acquire stigmatizing labels
and other liabilities (Morris and Tonry, 1990; Lanier and
Henry, 1997).

Will any of these alternatives work? Most of the alter-

native programs have not been sufficiently evaluated to deter- These juveniles are in the Texas-
mine how well they work. Continued use of these alternatives will depend based Del Valle Correctional Boot
on what American voters believe are the appropriate functions of prisons. Camp. What is the reasoning
behind this alternative to
These programs can exist only so long as rehabilitation has a high priority.
imprisonment?
Recently, Americans have taken a harsher view toward criminals, so support
for alternatives may be eroding.
232 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Population Incarceration
Rank Country Prisoners* (in millions) rate per 1,000
1 United States 1,726,000 267.5 6.45
2 China 1,410,000 1,243.7 1.15
3 Russia 1,010,000 147.0 6.85
4 India 231,000 960.2 .25
5 Ukraine 212,000 51.2 4.15
6 Brazil 167,000 157.1 1.05
7 South Africa 142,000 44.3 3.20
8 Thailand 131,000 59.3 2.20
9 Mexico 103,000 94.9 1.10
10 Iran 102,000 65.0 1.55

*Approximate figures for latest year available.

Figure 7.8 Top Ten Countries in Number of Prisoners. What can you
conclude from this table about a possible relationship between level of economic
development and crime?
Source: British Home Office Online Research and Development Statistics.

Section 5 Assessment
1. Indicate whether the approaches to punishment listed below are
rehabilitation (R), deterrence (D), retribution (Rb), or incarceration (I).
a. imprisonment without parole
b. longer prison sentences
c. extremely harsh prison conditions
d. psychological counseling in prison
e. swift justice
2. According to the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reports, has crime in the United
States increased or decreased since 1989?

“
Violence is the last refuge
of the incompetent.
3. Do you believe that the cultural values of American society affect the
policies of government regarding approaches to crime control? Why or
why not?
4. Has research supported the position that the death penalty deters crime?

Isaac Asimov Critical Thinking

“ author 5. Synthesizing Information The text outlines several distinct
approaches to crime control. Choose one approach, and explain why
you believe it is or is not successful. Use functionalism, conflict theory,
or symbolic interactionism as a reference point.
6. Evaluating Information What are your beliefs on capital
punishment? Defend your viewpoint.
CHAPTER 7 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Vocabulary
Summary
Complete each sentence using each term once.
Section 1: Deviance and Social Control a. deviance i. deterrence
Main Idea: Deviance is the violation of social b. stigma j. control theory
norms. It is difficult to define because not every- c. social control k. recidivism
one agrees on what should be considered deviant d. white-collar crimes l. rehabilitation
behavior. e. social sanctions m. differential
f. anomie association theory
Section 2: Functionalism and Deviance n. retribution
g. Uniform Crime
Main Idea: According to functionalists, deviance Reports o. labeling theory
has both negative and positive consequences for h. strain theory
society. Functionalism also forms the basis for two
important theories of deviance: strain theory and 1. The tactic that uses intimidation to prevent
control theory. crime is called .
2. is the approach to crime con-
Section 3: Symbolic Interactionism and trol that attempts to resocialize criminals.
Deviance 3. is an undesirable characteristic
or label used to deny the deviant acceptance.
Main Idea: The symbolic interactionist perspec- 4. A violation of social norms is called
tive yields two theories of deviance. We read in .
Chapter 3 that culture is learned. Sociologists be-
5. are crimes committed by
lieve that deviance is a learned behavior that is
high-status people in the course of their occu-
culturally transmitted. Labeling theory holds that
pation.
an act is deviant only if other people name it so.
6. is a theory that states that
people are defined by those in power as de-
Section 4: Conflict Theory and Deviance
viant.
Main Idea: The conflict perspective looks at de- 7. The theory that states that deviance exists
viance in terms of social inequality and power. when there is a gap between culturally desir-
The most powerful members of a society deter- able goals and means is called
mine who will be regarded as deviant. Conflict .
theorists point to some disproportional statistical 8. The theory that conformity to social norms de-
relationships between minorities and crime. pends on a strong bond between individuals
and society is known as the .
Section 5: Crime 9. are rewards or punishments
and Punishment designed to encourage desired behavior.
Main Idea: Crime 10. is a theory that states that de-
statistics in the U.S. viance is learned in proportion to exposure to
come from two Self-Check Quiz deviant acts.
major sources: the Visit the Sociology and You Web 11. When past offenders return to prison, such an
FBI and the Census site at soc.glencoe.com and occurrence is called .
Bureau. click on Chapter 7—Self- 12. are ways for promoting con-
Check Quizzes to prepare for formity to norms.
the chapter test.
233
CHAPTER 7 ASSESSMENT
13. is the social condition in Thinking Critically
which norms are weak, conflicting or absent.
14. The major source of American statistics on
crime gathered from police departments is 1. Interpreting Information Use the information
known as . in this chapter to explain the following state-
ment: “Deviance, like beauty, is in the eye of
15. is the practice in which crimi- the beholder.”
nals pay compensation equal to their offenses.
2. Applying Concepts There is a chain of restau-
rants in this country known for the outrageous
Reviewing the Facts behavior of its servers. At these restaurants,
servers might purposely spill drinks and food
on the patrons. Despite this apparently deviant
1. In a famous study known as the Minneapolis behavior, patrons seem to love the restaurants
Domestic Violence Study, sociologists discov- and recommend them to friends. How do these
ered that arresting someone for hitting his wife restaurants, which clearly violate concepts of
did not necessarily stop him from hitting her social control, continue to attract customers?
again. What is the name of the theory upon
which they based their hypothesis that arrest 3. Making Inferences If a person is rarely de-
would stop the behavior? viant, people come to expect that behavior. If a
person is often deviant, people expect that be-
2. A group of lower-class youths are accused of a havior. What do you think happens when peo-
crime for behavior that higher-status teens have ple are deviant occasionally? How might
engaged in without punishment. What sociolog- unpredictability of behavior be more alarming
ical term describes this process? or disturbing?
3. When a high school student admits to cheating 4. Drawing Conclusions Some states are consid-
on a test, this behavior is labeled as primary de- ering life imprisonment with no chance of pa-
viance. Explain why. role as an alternative to the death penalty. The
4. Give two reasons why the crime statistics re- states argue that the capital punishment process
ported by the Uniform Crime Reports differ is more costly than imprisonment over time.
from those statistics reported by the National Proponents also claim that offenders given life-
Crime Victimization Survey. Which report would time sentences are more likely to develop re-
you consider more reliable and why? morse for their crimes. Do you think this
5. What is the strain theory? argument has merit? Why or why not?
6. Robert Merton’s strain theory of deviance is 5. Evaluating Information The conflict perspec-
based on four types of responses. Using the tive says that the capitalistic society of the United
chart below, list each response. Then, from the States—with its emphasis on gaining wealth—is
perspective of means and goals explain each re- really responsible for crime. Find examples to
sponse and give an example. support or to refute the hypothesis that crime is
the result of society’s materialistic values.
MERTON’S DEVIANT RESPONSES TO STRAIN
6. Analyzing Information The chapter case
Response Explanation Example study “Saints and Roughnecks” describes how
social class contributed to people’s perceptions
Innovation Individual accepts success as Shoplifter
a goal but uses illegal means of the level of deviance of two groups of boys.
to achieve it. Some students complain that there are special
groups in their schools (athletes, honor stu-
dents, and so forth) that never seem to be held
responsible for their actions. Is this true of your
school? If so, why? If not, what do you credit
for the even-handed discipline?

234
Sociology Projects group’s results with the results of other groups
in your class. What have you learned about the
difficulty of reaching agreement on this sensi-
1. Random Acts of Kindness and Positive tive topic?
Deviance Go out of your way to help a 4. The Role of the Media The text discussed how
stranger (not a friend or family member). You race is an important factor in understanding de-
might give someone directions, help someone viance. Another factor you might wish to con-
to carry parcels, or even smile and say a sider is the role of the media in shaping our
friendly hello. (Important note: Remember to perceptions of crime and criminals. Your task is
keep safety and sensitivity to others’ feelings in to collect one crime-related newspaper article
mind when you approach people you don’t per day for one week. Analyze the article for
know.) Write answers to the following ques- information such as the race, age, gender, and
tions to help you evaluate the stranger’s reac- status, of the accused. Also consider the geo-
tions to your act. graphic location of the crime. How does the
a. How do you think the traits of the newspaper describe the area where the crime
individual you helped (race, age, gender) took place? Do you detect any bias in the type
affected the situation? of words used to report these incidents?
b. Why did you choose your particular act of 5. Preparing a News Broadcast As an extension
kindness? of the project above (i.e., number 4), imagine
c. How did you feel while performing the yourself as a news anchor on the local news.
random act of kindness? Choose one of the stories that you have col-
d. What surprised or impressed you the most lected. Limiting yourself to one paragraph, pre-
about the individual’s reaction? pare your news broadcast using the facts as
2. Categorizing Deviance As you read in the reported in the newspaper. Now, evaluate your
quotation on page 204, in a diverse society broadcast and write another version that is neu-
such as that of the United States, many groups tral (i.e., gives no indication of race, gender or
of people may be categorized as deviant by age). Which version do you feel the program
someone. List the groups named in the quota- producer would choose to put on the air? Why?
tion on a piece of paper. For each group, assign
a number from 1 to 7, with 1 being the most Technology Activity
deviant and 7 the least deviant. Afterward, com-
pare your list with those of two or three of your
classmates to see if there was any agreement. 1. Using the Internet, your school or local library,
Discuss possible reasons for major differences. find a murder case from the year 1900. Find a
3. Deviant Crimes What crimes today do people similar type of murder case from the year 2000.
consider the most severe? Working individually, Consider how each murder was reported and
make a list of the five crimes you consider the punished (i.e., the type of approach to crime
most deviant, with the first item on the list the control that was used). Design a database to
most deviant, the second item the next most illustrate similarities and differences between
deviant, and so forth. Next, assign a punish- the two deviant acts. What can you conclude
ment for each crime. Does the crime warrant about society’s view of deviance at the time the
the death penalty? Life imprisonment? After you crime was committed?
have completed your list, work with two or
three classmates until you agree on a new list.
You must reach consensus on the crimes in-
cluded on the list, their rankings, and the pun-
ishment assigned to each. Finally, compare your

235
236 Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

Chapter 7

Enrichment Reading
The Police and the
Black Male
by Elijah Anderson

T he police, in the Village-Northton hood interests, which often translates as keeping

[neighborhood] as elsewhere, repre- blacks “in their place”—away from neighbor-
sent society’s formal, legitimate means hoods that are socially defined as “white.” In try-
of social control. Their role includes protecting ing to do their job, the police appear to engage
law-abiding citizens from those who are not law- in an informal policy of monitoring young black
abiding by preventing crime and by apprehend- men as a means of controlling crime, and often
ing likely criminals. Precisely how the police they seem to go beyond the bounds of duty. . . .
fulfill the public’s expectations is strongly related On the streets late at night, the average young
to how they view the neighborhood and the peo- black man is suspicious of others he encounters,
ple who live there. On the streets, color-coding and he is particularly wary of the police. If he is
often works to confuse race, age, class, gender, dressed in the uniform of the “gangster,” such as
incivility, and criminality, and it expresses itself a black leather jacket, sneakers, and a “gangster
most concretely in the person of the anonymous cap,” if he is carrying a radio or a suspicious bag
black male. In doing their job, the police often (which may be confiscated), or if he is moving
become willing parties to this general color- too fast or too slow, the police may stop him. As
coding of the public environment, and related part of the routine, they search him and make
distinctions, particularly those of skin color and him sit in the police car while they run a check to
gender, come to convey definite meanings. see whether there is a “detainer” on him. If there
Although such coding may make the work of the is nothing, he is allowed to go on his way. After
police more manageable, it may also fit well with this ordeal the youth is often left afraid, some-
their own presuppositions regarding race and times shaking, and uncertain about the area he
class relations, thus shaping officers’ perceptions had previously taken for granted. He is upset in
of crime “in the city.” Moreover, the anonymous part because he is painfully aware of how close
black male is usually an ambiguous figure who he has come to being in “big trouble.” He knows
arouses the utmost caution and is generally con- of other youths who have gotten into a “world of
sidered dangerous until he proves he is not. . . . trouble” simply by being on the streets at the
To be white is to be seen by the police—at wrong time or when the police were pursuing a
least superficially—as an ally, eligible for consid- criminal. In these circumstances, particularly
eration and for much more deferential treatment at night, it is relatively easy for one black man to
than that accorded to blacks in general. This atti- be mistaken for another. Over the years, while
tude may be grounded in the backgrounds of the walking through the neighborhood I have on oc-
police themselves. Many have grown up in . . . casion been stopped and questioned by police
“ethnic” neighborhoods. They may serve what chasing a mugger, but after explaining myself I
they perceive as their own class and neighbor- was released.
 Chapter 7 Deviance and Social Control 237

Many youths, however, have reason to fear But such strategies What Does it Mean
such mistaken identity or harassment, since they do not always work
might be jailed, if only for a short time, and over the long run and
would have to post bail money and pay legal must be constantly ambiguous
fees to extricate themselves from the mess. . . . modified. For instance, capable of being
When law-abiding blacks are ensnared by the because so many understood in two or
criminal justice system, the scenario may proceed young ghetto blacks more ways
as follows. A young man is arbitrarily stopped have begun to wear anonymous
by the police and questioned. If he cannot effec- Fila and Adidas sweat lacking individuality,
tively negotiate with the officer(s), he may be ac- suits as status symbols, distinction, or
cused of a crime and arrested. To resolve this such dress has become recognition
situation he needs financial resources, which for incorporated into the arbitrarily
him are in short supply. If he does not have public image generally without meaning;
money for any attorney, which often happens, associated with young resulting from the
he is left to a public defender who may be more black males. These unrestrained exercise of
interested in going along with the court system athletic suits, particu- power
than in fighting for a poor black person. Without larly the more expen-
circumscribe
legal support, he may well wind up “doing time” sive and colorful ones,
to reduce the range or
even if he is innocent of the charges brought along with high-priced
scope of action
against him. The next time he is stopped for sneakers, have be-
questioning he will have a record, which will come the leisure dress extricate
make detention all the more likely. of successful drug to remove from an
Because the young black man is aware of dealers. . . . entanglement
many cases when an “innocent” black person presuppositions
was wrongly accused and detained, he develops assumed knowledge
an “attitude” toward the police. The street word
for police is “the man,” signifying a certain
Ed. note: This article is based on the author’s field
machismo, power, and authority. He becomes
research on two city neighborhoods he calls Village-
concerned when he notices “the man” in the
Northton.
community or when the police focus on him be-
cause he is outside his own neighborhood. The From: Elijah Anderson, Streetwise (Chicago: University of
youth knows, or soon finds out, that he exists in Chicago Press, 1990), pp. 190–206. © 1990 University of
a legally precarious state. Hence he is motivated Chicago Press. Reprinted by permission of the publisher
to avoid the police, and his public life becomes and author.
severely circumscribed. . . .
To avoid encounters with the man, some
streetwise young men camouflage themselves,
giving up the urban uniform and emblems that Read and React
identify them as “legitimate” objects of police at- 1. According to the article, what are some
tention. They may adopt a more conventional pre- consequences to black youth of being
sentation of self, wearing chinos, sweat suits, and arrested, innocent or not?
generally more conservative dress. Some youths
have been known to “ditch” a favorite jacket if 2. What presuppositions regarding race and
they see others wearing one like it, because wear- class exist in your neighborhood?
ing it increases their chances of being mistaken for 3. Do you think color-coding exists in your
someone else who may have committed a crime. town or city? Why or why not?
UNIT 3

238
SOCIAL INEQUALITY
Chapter 8
Social Stratification
Chapter 9
Inequalities of Race
and Ethnicity
Chapter 10
Inequalities of
Gender and Age

Enrichment Readings
Chapter 8 – Elliot Liebow
“The Lives of Homeless Women,”
page 272
Chapter 9 – Patricia Williams
“The Skin Color Tax,”
page 306
Chapter 10 – Lois Gould
“The Story of Baby X,”
page 342

239
CHAPTER 8
Social Stratification

240
 U
S Your Sections
I Sociological
N Imagination 1. Dimensions of
G Stratification

J ane Smith, aged forty and reeling from

a bitter divorce, was discouraged. A se-
rious back injury meant she could no
longer work at her nursing aide job.
2.

3.
Explanations of
Stratification
Social Classes in America
Without a high school diploma, she found
that no one was willing to hire her.
Reluctantly, she applied for welfare and was
4. Poverty in America
enrolled in a program designed to develop
job skills. She completed an eighteen-month
5. Social Mobility
course and was hired by an engineering
firm. After two years, Jane has moved up in Learning Objectives
the company and now thinks of herself as
an intelligent, capable person.
A different type of welfare story involves After reading this chapter, you will be able to
Mary, the “welfare queen.” Many politicians
have used her as a typical example of how ❖ explain the relationship between stratifica-
the social welfare system is abused. Mary tion and social class.
managed to register for government aid ❖ compare and contrast the three dimensions
under dozens of assumed names and col- of stratification.
lected thousands of dollars from food
stamps and other federally subsidized pro- ❖ state the differences among the three
grams. With this money, she supported her major perspectives on social stratification.
drug and alcohol habits while her children ❖ identify the distinguishing characteristics
were left cold and underfed. of the major social classes in America.
Which welfare case do you believe is
❖ describe the measurement and extent of
typical? Your answer depends a lot on your
poverty in the United States.
social class and such characteristics as age,
education, politics, and income. Sociologists ❖ discuss social mobility in the United
know that most Americans seriously overes- States.
timate both the amount of welfare fraud
and the amount of money spent on welfare.
At the same time, negative attitudes about
welfare recipients have become part of the Chapter Overview
American culture. This chapter will look at Visit the Sociology and You Web site at
attitudes and behaviors of different social soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 8—
classes. Chapter Overviews to preview chapter
information.

241
242 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Section
Dimensions of Stratification
1 K e y

•
•
T e r m s

social stratification
social class
•
•
income
wealth
• bourgeoisie • power
• proletariat • prestige

Section Social
Preview Stratification
and Social
S tratification is the division
of society into classes
that have unequal amounts Class
of wealth, power, and pres-
tige. Karl Marx and Max
Weber studied these dimen-
I n one of his best-
known children’s
books, Dr. Seuss writes
sions of stratification in great of the Sneetches, birds
detail. whose rank depends on
whether or not they
have a large star on their
stomachs. Star-bellied
Sneetches have high sta- In George Orwell’s Animal Farm, the animals overthrew
tus, and plain-bellied their human master to form their own soon-to-be
Sneetches have low sta- stratified society.
tus. In the classic novel
Animal Farm, George Orwell creates a barnyard society where the pigs ulti-
mately take over the previously classless animal society. The animals’ motto
changes from “All animals are equal” to “All animals are equal—but some an-
imals are more equal than others.” Both books mock the tendency of humans
social stratification to form ranks. Social stratification is the creation of layers (or strata) of peo-
ranking of people or groups ple who possess unequal shares of scarce resources. The most important of
according to their unequal these resources are income, wealth, power, and prestige (Levine, 1998).
access to scarce resources
How is social stratification related to social class? Each of the lay-
ers in a stratification system is a social class—a segment of a population whose
social class members hold similar amounts of scarce resources and share values, norms,
segment of society whose and an identifiable lifestyle. The number of social classes in a society varies.
members hold similar amounts Technologically developed countries generally have three broad classes—
of resources and share values, upper, middle, and lower—subdivided into smaller categories. In some devel-
norms, and an identifiable
oping countries, there might only be an upper class and a lower class.
lifestyle
Karl Marx and Max Weber made the most significant early contributions
to the study of social stratification. (See Chapter 1, pages 16–18 for an intro-
duction to these two pioneers of sociology.) Marx explained the importance
of the economic foundations of social classes, while Weber emphasized the
prestige and power aspects of stratification.
 Chapter 8 Social Stratification 243

World View Poverty and Death

Receiving basic nutrition and medical care is critical to
survival in the early years of human life. Because
wealth and income have a significant impact on a
family’s ability to provide these necessities of life, ex-
treme poverty matters a great deal. This map shows
the number of deaths of children less than five years
old per 1,000 live births in each country.

Deaths of Children
Under Age Five
North
Nor th per 1,000 Live Births
Europe
Europe
America ³ 200 (1 in 5)
100–199
Asia 50–99
30–49
10–29
< 10
No data

Africa
South
America

Australia

Interpreting the Map

1. Do you see a pattern in the death rates for children under five years old? Explain.
2. Why do you think the U.S. ranks higher than some countries in Europe?
3. Imagine you have the job of reducing the world’s death rate among children under age five.
What programs would you introduce?

Adapted from The State of the World Atlas, 5th ed.

The Economic Dimension

bourgeoisie
Marx identified several social classes in nineteenth-century industrial soci- class that owns the means
ety, including laborers, servants, factory workers, craftspeople, proprietors of of production
small businesses, and moneyed capitalists. He predicted, however, that capi-
talist societies would ultimately be reduced to two social classes. He thought
that those who owned the means of production—the bourgeoisie—would
proletariat
be the rulers. Those who worked for wages—the proletariat—would be the
class that labors without
ruled. Marx predicted that because the capitalists owned the means of pro- owning the means of
duction (factories, land, and so forth), they would both rule and exploit the production
working class. The working class would have nothing to sell but its labor.
244 Unit 3 Social Inequality
Marx believed that control of the economy gave the capitalists control
over the legal, educational, and government systems as well. For Karl Marx,
income
the economy determined the nature of society.
amount of money received
by an individual or group Are there extremes of income and poverty in the United States? In his
over a specific time period writings, Marx emphasized the unequal distribution of economic resources. How
unequally are these resources distributed in the United States? When discussing
this issue, economists often make a distinction between income and wealth.
wealth Income is the amount of money received within a given time period by an in-
total economic resources dividual or group. Wealth refers to all the economic resources possessed by an
held by a person or group individual or group. In brief, your income is your paycheck, and your wealth is
what you own.
In 1999, over 32 million Americans were living in
120% 115% poverty. (In 2000, the poverty level was set at $17,603
for a family of four.) At the other extreme, there were
100% about 5 million millionaire households and around 260
billionaires in the United States. The economist Paul
Percent change in income

80% Samuelson described income inequality in America in

these words: “If we made an income pyramid out of a
60%
43%
child’s blocks, with each layer portraying $500 of in-
come, the peak would be far higher than Mt. Everest,
40%
but most people would be within a few feet of the
20% ground” (Samuelson and Nordhaus, 1995). The truth in
8%
-9% Samuelson’s statement is supported by government
0 figures on the distribution of income. In 1999, the rich-
est 20 percent of American households received over
-20% 49 percent of the nation’s income. The poorest 20 per-
Lowest Middle Top Top 1%
Fifth Fifth Fifth cent received under 4 percent (U.S. Bureau of the
Income group
Census).
Income inequality exists and is growing. Figure 8.1
Figure 8.1 Percentage
Change in After-Tax Income charts percentage changes in after-tax income in the
1977 to 1999. To what United States over a twenty-two year period. During this period, the income
percentages do the labels Lowest,
Middle, and Top Fifth refer?

Sources: Washington, DC: Center on

Budget and Policy Priorities, 1999.

Visit soc.glencoe.com
and click on Textbook
Updates–Chapter 8 for an
update of the data.

This cartoon is illustrating what sociologists

have confirmed—usually, those who have, get.
 Chapter 8 Social Stratification 245
100% Figure 8.2 Shares of Wealth.
Is this picture of the distribution of
84%
wealth different from what you
80% would expect? Explain.
Percent of wealth in the U.S.

Source: Washington, DC: Center on

60% Budget and Policy Priorities, 1999.

39%
40%

20% 16%

0
Top 1 Top 20 Bottom 80
Percent Percent Percent
Percent of U.S. population

of the top 1 percent of the population increased by 115 percent. Compare this
to a 9 percent decline for the lowest fifth of the population. How much in-
equality in wealth exists in the United States?
Income distribution figures reveal economic inequality, but they do not
show the full extent of inequality. For that, inequality in wealth (what you
own) must be considered. In the United States, there is a high concentration
of wealth. The richest 20 percent of the population holds 84 percent of the
wealth. The top 1 percent alone has 39 percent of the total wealth in the
United States. (See Figure 8.2)

The Power Dimension

You will recall from Chapter 1 that power is the ability to control the be- power
havior of others, even against their will. Individuals or groups who possess the ability to control the
power are able to use it to enhance their own interests, often—but not nec- behavior of others, even
essarily—at the expense of society. against their will

Can you exercise power without being wealthy? According to Marx,

those who own and control capital have the power in a society. Weber, on
the other hand, argued that while having money certainly helps, economic
success and power are not the same. Money and ownership of the means of
production are not the only resources that can be used as a basis for power.
Expert knowledge can be used to expand power, too. For example, many
lawyers convert their expertise into substantial amounts of political power.
Fame is another basis for power. In 1952, for example, Albert Einstein was
offered the presidency of Israel. (He refused, saying, “I know a little about
nature, and hardly anything about men.”)
Power is also attached to the social positions we hold. Elected officers in
organizations have more power than rank-and-file members. People in top
executive positions in the mass media are powerful, even if they themselves
do not have great wealth. People who are wealthy and powerful also are as-
sumed to have characteristics they may not have. Not all of these people are
as intelligent and wise as is usually assumed. Still, these attributed character-
istics help them gain prestige.
246 Unit 3 Social Inequality
Jesse Jackson has channeled his
intense interest in civil rights into
the exercise of power on behalf of
the poor and disadvantaged.

Finally, we can overcome a lack of wealth if we have large numbers of

people on our side or if we are skillful at organizing our resources. Hitler, for
example, was able to turn the problem of limited resources into a mass po-
litical movement. He gained absolute power by promising to deliver
Germany from economic hardship following World War I.

The Prestige Dimension

prestige A third dimension of social stratification is prestige—recognition, respect,
recognition, respect, and and admiration attached to social positions. Prestige is defined by your cul-
admiration attached to social ture and society. Honor, admiration, respect, and deference are extended to
positions dons within the Mafia, for example; but outside their own circles Mafia chiefs
do not have high prestige.

Popular actors such as Julia Roberts

and Will Smith have considerable
wealth. Their prestige rating is
stronger in some circles than others,
however.
 Chapter 8 Social Stratification 247

Occupations Prestige Occupations Prestige Occupations Prestige

Score Score Score

Surgeon 87 Police officer 61 Automobile dealer 43

Astronaut 80 Actor 60 Deep-sea diver 43
Lawyer 75 Journalist 60 Landlord 41
College professor 74 TV anchorman 60 Prison guard 40
Airline pilot 73 Businessperson 60 Auto mechanic 40
Dentist 72 Actress 59 Roofer 37
Priest 71 Nursery school teacher 55 Barber 36
Engineer 71 Fashion designer 55 Sales clerk in a store 36
TV anchorwoman 70 Firefighter 53 Bus driver 32
Secret Service agent 70 Airplane mechanic 53 Dry cleaner 32
School principal 69 Commercial artist 52 Waitress 29
Medical technician 68 Housewife 51 Taxicab driver 28
Optometrist 67 Funeral director 49 Used car salesperson 25
Registered nurse 66 Jazz musician 48 Bill collector 24
High school teacher 66 Mail carrier 47 Janitor 22
Air traffic controller 65 Insurance agent 46 Grocery bagger 18
Professional athlete 65 Mechanic 46 Street-corner drug dealer 13
Paramedic 64 Disc jockey 45 Fortune teller 13
Public grade school teacher 64 Photographer 45 Panhandler 11
Advertising executive 63 Plumber 45
Veterinarian 62 Bank teller 43

Figure 8.3 Prestige Rankings of Selected Occupations in the United

States. Why do you think the highest listed prestige score is 87? What occupations
might rate a higher score?

“
Prestige must be voluntarily given, not claimed. Scientists cannot proclaim
themselves Nobel Prize winners; journalists cannot award themselves Pulitzer
Prizes; and corporate executives cannot grant themselves honorary doctor- All wealth is power, so
ates. Recognition must come from others.
power must infallibly
People with similar levels of prestige share identifiable lifestyles. The off-
spring of upper-class families are more likely to attend private universities draw wealth to itself by
and Episcopalian churches. Children from lower-class homes are less likely some means or other.
to attend college at all and tend to belong to fundamentalist religious groups.
In fact, some sociologists view social classes as subcultures because their
members participate in distinctive ways of life.
“
Edmund Burke
British statesman
How is prestige distributed? The social positions that are considered
the most important, or are valued the most highly, have the most prestige.
Because Americans value the acquisition of wealth and power, they tend to
assign higher prestige to persons in positions of wealth and power.
In America, most people achieve prestige because of their occupations.
(See Figure 8.3.) White-collar occupations (doctors, ministers, schoolteach-
ers) have higher prestige than blue-collar jobs (carpenters, plumbers, me-
chanics). Even though wealth and power usually determine prestige, that is
not always the case. You may find it somewhat surprising, for example, that
priests and college professors have more prestige than bankers.
248 Unit 3 Social Inequality
Associate each of these people with a
prestige level. If an occupation is
not obvious, choose a likely one for
that person. Can the young girl
even be ranked?

Section 1 Assessment
1. What is social stratification?
2. Match the dimensions of stratifications with the examples below. Use
(W) for wealth, (Po) for power, and (Pr) for prestige.
a. the respect accorded doctors
b. a politician considering the interests of a lobby
c. the Nobel Peace Prize
d. stock market holdings
e. a Supreme Court ruling
f. real estate assets
3. The top 20 percent of U.S. households receive approximately what
percent of the total income?
4. What are the most common sources of prestige in U.S. society?

Critical Thinking
5. Analyzing Information Social class level influences the likelihood of
gaining political power. Can you analyze the relationship between
social class level and political power?
 Chapter 8 Social Stratification 249

Another
Time You Are What You Wear

Social rank in Europe in the Middle Ages was re- mons. Establishing one’s social identity was impor-
flected, as it is today, in clothing and accessories. tant. Each man knew his place, believed it had
The following excerpt describes some of the norms been [determined] in heaven, and was aware that
associated with dress and status. what he wore must reflect it.
To be sure, certain fashions were shared by all.
C lothing [in medieval Europe] served as a
kind of uniform, designating status. Lepers
were required to wear gray coats and red hats, the
Styles had changed since Greece and Rome shim-
mered in their glory; then garments had been
skirts of prostitutes had to be scarlet, released wrapped on; now all classes put them on and fas-
heretics carried crosses sewn on both sides of their tened them. Most clothing—except the leather
chests—you were expected to pray as you passed gauntlets and leggings of hunters, and the crude an-
them—and the breast of every Jew, as [required] imal skins worn by the very poor—was now woven
by law, bore a huge yellow circle. of wool. (Since few Europeans possessed a change
The rest of society belonged to one of the three of clothes, the same [dress] was worn daily; as a
great classes: the nobility, the clergy, and the com- consequence, skin diseases were astonishingly
prevalent.) But there was no mistaking the distinc-
tions between the parson in his vestments; the toiler
in his dirty cloth tunic, loose trousers, and heavy
boots; and the aristocrat with his jewelry, his hair-
dress, and his extravagant finery. Every knight wore
a signet ring, and wearing fur was as much a sign of
knighthood as wearing a sword or carrying a falcon.
Indeed, in some European states it was illegal for
anyone not nobly born to adorn himself with fur.
“Many a petty noble,” wrote historian W. S. Davis,
“will cling to his frayed tippet of black lambskin,
even in the hottest weather, merely to prove that he
is not a villein [a type of serf].”
Source: Excerpted from A World Lit Only by Fire, © 1992
by William Manchester. By permission of Little, Brown
and Company. Reprinted by permission of Don Congdon
Associates, Inc. © 1993 by William Manchester.

Thinking It Over
Think about how you and your classmates dress.
Identify some ways in which differences in dress
reflect social status in your school.

Clothing in medieval society was strictly regulated.

250 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Section
Explanations of Stratification
2 K e y T e r m

• false consciousness

Section Functionalist Theory of Stratification

Preview
A ccording to the functionalists, stratification assures that the most qual-
ified people fill the most important positions, that these qualified

E ach of the three perspec-

tives—functionalism, con-
flict theory, and symbolic
people perform their tasks competently, and that they are rewarded for their
efforts. The functionalist theory recognizes that inequality exists because cer-
tain jobs are more important than others and that these jobs often involve
interactionism—explains special talent and training. To encourage people to make the sacrifices nec-
stratification in society in a essary to fill these jobs (such as acquiring the necessary education), society
different way. attaches special monetary rewards and prestige to the positions. That is why,
for example, doctors make more money and have more prestige than bus dri-
vers. A higher level of skill is required in the medical profession, and our
society’s need for highly qualified doctors is great.

Conflict Theory of Stratification

According to the conflict theory of stratification, inequality exists be-
cause some people are willing to exploit others. Stratification, from this per-
spective, is based on force rather than on people voluntarily agreeing to it.
The conflict theory of stratification is based on Marx’s ideas regarding
class conflict. For Marx, all of history has been a class struggle between the
false consciousness powerful and the powerless, the exploiters and the exploited. Capitalist so-
adoption of the ideas of the ciety is the final stage of the class struggle. Although the capitalists are out-
dominant class by the less numbered, they are able to control the workers. This is because the
powerful class capitalists use a belief system that legitimizes the way things are. For exam-
ple, the powerful contend that income and wealth are based on ability, hard
work, and individual effort.
Those who own the means of
production are able to spread
their ideas, beliefs, and val-
ues through the schools, the
media, the churches, and the
government. (More will be
said about how this might
happen in the next section.)
Marx used the term false
consciousness to refer to
working-class acceptance of
capitalist ideas and values.
How would functionalists explain the different places of these people on the stratification
structure?
 Chapter 8 Social Stratification 251
Later conflict sociologists have proposed that
stratification is based more on power than on prop-
erty ownership. America’s legal system, for example,
is used by the wealthy for their benefit, and the po-
litical system is skewed toward the interests of the
powerful. For followers of the conflict perspective,
stratification occurs through the struggle for scarce
resources.

Symbolic Interactionism and

Stratification
Symbolic interactionism helps us understand how
people are socialized to accept the existing stratifica-
tion structure. According to this perspective,
American children are taught that a person’s social
class is the result of talent and effort. Those “on top”
have worked hard and used their abilities, whereas These South Dakotans are protesting
those “on the bottom” lack the talent or the motivation to succeed. Hence, it the unequal treatment of Native
is not fair to challenge the system. In this way, people come to accept the Americans in the criminal justice
existing system. system. How could the protestors use
Understandably, people in the lower social classes or social strata tend to conflict theory to support their
suffer from lower self-esteem. How could it be otherwise when messages viewpoint?
from all sides tell them they are inferior? Remember that, in the symbolic in-
teractionist view, self-esteem is based on how we think others see us. In other
words, the looking-glass process is at work. Those at the top blame the vic-
tims; the victims blame themselves. (See pages 116–117 for an explanation of
the looking-glass self.)
The reverse is true for the higher classes. Those profiting most from the
stratification structure tend to have higher self-esteem. This, in turn, fuels
their conviction that the present arrangement is just. In short, people’s self-
concepts also help preserve the status quo.

It isn’t always easy being out of the “in–group.”

252 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Figure 8.4 Focus on Theoretical Perspectives

Social Stratification. This table summarizes what issues of social stratification might be of interest to each
of the major perspectives and predictions that they would make. Why would the symbolic interactionists be
more likely than the functionalists to look at issues of self-esteem?

Theoretical Research
Perspective Topic Expected Result

Functionalism Relationship between Pay levels increase with job

job performance performance.
and pay

Conflict Theory Relationship between The chances for prosecution

social class and the decrease as the level of social
likelihood of class increases.
punishment for a
crime

Symbolic Link between social Self-esteem is higher

Interactionism class and self-esteem among the upper
class than the lower
class.

Section 2 Assessment
1. Identify which of the major perspectives describes the examples below.
a. Corporate executives make more money because they decide who
gets what in their organizations.
b. Engineers make more money than butlers because of their education.
c. Poor children tend to have low self-esteem.
2. How did Marx explain the stratification of society?
3. According to the symbolic interactionists, people are socialized to
accept the existing stratification structure through .
a. the “I” c. conflict
b. evolution d. the self-concept

Critical Thinking
4. Making Comparisons Compare and contrast the explanations given
by functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism for the
existence of poor people in the United States.
 Chapter 8 Social Stratification 253

Field Research: Who’s

Popular, Who’s Not?
In 1995, sociologist Donna Eder and her research team stud-
ied popularity among middle-schoolers. They observed
lunchtime interactions and attended extracurricular activities.
After several months of observation, informal interviews were
conducted with individuals and groups. To capture interac-
tion for closer study, the researchers received student and
parental permission for audio and video recordings.
Eder and her colleagues found that in the sixth grade,
there were no elite groups. Seventh and eighth graders,
however, did not see each other as equals; popular seventh
graders were divided along gender lines. By the eighth
For adolescent males, playing
grade, the two groups intermingled. In both grades, popularity was based sports is a way to become
on how many others knew who you were and wanted to talk with you. popular.
Status differences could arise in the seventh and eighth grades be-
cause cheerleading and team sports existed as a way to become highly
visible. Realizing the source of their prestige, male athletes took every
opportunity to display symbols of their team affiliation. Team uniforms,
jerseys, and athletic shoes were among the most important items of
dress. Bandages, casts, and crutches were worn with pride.
Girls could not use sports to gain visibility because female athletics
were not as valued by faculty, administrators, or students. Girls, there-
fore, used cheerleading to make themselves widely known. In addition
to performing at basketball and football games, cheerleaders appeared
in front of the entire student body at pep rallies and other school events.
Boys made fun of this high-status female activity by mockingly im-
itating cheers. One male coach joined the mockery by telling football
players that either they must practice harder or he would get them
cheerleading skirts. He then pretended to cheer in a falsetto voice.
Girls, in contrast, regarded cheerleaders highly. Popular girls in the
seventh and eighth grades were either cheerleaders or friends of cheer-
leaders. Flaunting their status (just as the male athletes did), cheerleaders
put on their uniforms as far ahead of games as possible and wore their
cheerleading skirts for extracurricular school activities.

Working with the Research

Which of the three major theoretical perspectives best explains the
stratification structure described in this feature? Give reasons for
your choice.
254 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Section
Social Classes in America
3 K e y T e r m s

• class consciousness
• working poor
• underclass

Section Class Consciousness

Preview
A mericans have always been aware of inequality, but they have never
developed a sense of class consciousness—a sense of identifica-

S ociologists have identi-

fied several social classes
in the United States. They in-
tion with the goals and interests of the members of a particular social class.
In part because the American public has shown relatively little interest in
class differences, sociologists began to investigate inequality rather late. It
clude the upper class, the was not until the 1920s that sociologists in the United States began system-
middle class, the working atically to identify social classes. Since that time, however, research on this
class and the working poor, subject has been plentiful. Early efforts to study stratification were mostly
and the underclass. case studies of specific communities. Only in relatively recent times have at-
tempts been made to describe the stratification structure of America as a
whole.
Since social classes are changeable and full of exceptions, any attempt to
identify the social-class structure of American society is hazardous.
class consciousness Nevertheless, sociologists have described some of the major classifications.
identification with the goals (See Figure 8.5.)
and interests of a social class

Figure 8.5 American Class Typical Occupations Typical Incomes

Structure. What does this chart
of the American class structure Upper Class Investors, heirs, chief executive officers
1% $1.5 million
indicate about stratification in
the U.S.? Upper Middle Upper-level managers, professionals,
Class owners of medium-sized businesses 14% $80,000+
Source: Adapted from Dennis
Gilbert, The American Class
Structure, 1998. 30% $45,000
Middle Lower-level managers, semiprofessionals, craftspeople,
Class foremen, non-retail salespeople, clerical

30% $30,000
Working Low-skill manual, clerical, and
Class retail sales workers

Working Poor Lowest-paid manual, retail, and 13% $20,000

service workers
Underclass Unemployed people, people in part-time
menial jobs, people receiving public assistance 12% $10,000
 Chapter 8 Social Stratification 255

The Upper Class

The upper class includes only 1 percent of the
population (Gilbert, 1998) and may be divided into
the upper-upper class and the lower-upper class.
At the top is the “aristocracy.” Its members repre-
sent the old-money families whose names appear
in high society—Ford, Rockefeller, Vanderbilt, and
du Pont, among others. The basis for membership
in this most elite of clubs is blood rather than sweat
and tears. Parents in this class send their children
to the best private schools and universities. People
in this group seldom marry outside their class.
People are in the lower-upper class more often
because of achievement and earned income than
because of birth and inherited wealth. Some have
made fortunes running large corporations or in-
vesting in the stock market. Members of this class
may actually be better off financially than members
of the upper-upper class. However, they often are
not accepted into the most exclusive social circles.
Upper-class people tend to shop at
upscale stores such as Saks and
Company.
The Middle Classes
Most Americans think of themselves as middle class. In reality, though,
only about 40 to 50 percent of Americans fit this description. And most of
these people are not in the upper-middle class.
The upper-middle class (14 percent of the population) is composed of those
who have been successful in business, the professions, politics, and the mili-
tary. Basically, this class is made up of individuals and families who benefited

Student Web Activity

Visit the Sociology and
You Web site at
soc.glencoe.com and click on
Chapter 8—Student Web
Activities for an activity on
social class.

This family fulfills the American

image of comfortable middle-class
living.
256 Unit 3 Social Inequality
from the tremendous corporate and professional expansion following World
War II. Members of this class earn enough to live well and to save money. They
are typically college educated and have high educational and career goals for
their children. They do not have national or international power, but they tend
to be active in voluntary and political organizations in their communities.
The middle-middle class (30 percent of the population) is a very mixed
bag. Its members include owners of small businesses and farms; independent
professionals (small-town doctors and lawyers); other professionals (clergy,
teachers, nurses, firefighters, social workers, police officers); lower-level
managers; and some sales and clerical workers. Their income level, which is
at about the national average ($21,181 in 1999), does not permit them to live
as well as the upper-middle class. Many have only a high school education,

“
although many have some college, and some have college degrees. Members
of this class are interested in civic affairs. They participate in political activi-
ties less than the classes above them but more than either the working class
The upper class is a or the lower class.
nation’s past; the middle
class is its future. The Working Class
“ Ayn Rand The working class (often referred to as the lower-middle class) comprises
novelist almost one-third of the population. Working class people include roofers, de-
livery truck drivers, machine operators, and salespeople and clerical workers
(Rubin, 1994). Although some of these workers may earn more than some
middle-class people, in general the economic resources of the working class
are lower than those of the middle class.
Members of the working class have below-average income and unstable
employment. They generally lack hospital insurance and retirement benefits.
The threat of unemployment or illness is real and haunting. Outside of union
activities, members of the working class have little opportunity to exercise
power or participate in organizations. Members of the working class—even
those with higher incomes—are not likely to enter the middle class.

The Working Poor

working poor The working poor (13 percent of the population) consists of people em-
people employed in low-skill ployed in low-skill jobs with the lowest pay. Its members are typically the
jobs with the lowest pay who lowest-level clerical workers, manual workers (laborers), and service work-
do not earn enough to rise out ers (fast-food servers). Lacking steady employment, the working poor do not
of poverty earn enough to rise above the poverty line ($17,603 for a family of four in
2000). The working poor tend not to belong to organizations or to partici-
pate in the political process. (See also Enrichment Reading: No Shame in My
Game on page 460 in Chapter 13.)

underclass
The Underclass
people typically unemployed
The underclass (12 percent of the population) is composed of people
who came from families that
have been poor for
who are usually unemployed and who come from families with a history of
generations unemployment for generations. They either work in part-time menial jobs
(unloading trucks, picking up litter) or are on public assistance. In addition
 Chapter 8 Social Stratification 257

This Navajo single mother belongs

to the underclass, America’s
to a lack of education and skills, many members of the underclass have other poorest.
problems. Physical or mental disabilities are common, and many are single
mothers with little or no income.
The most common shared characteristic of the working poor and the un-
derclass is a lack of skills to obtain jobs that pay enough to meet basic needs.
There are many routes into these classes—birth, old age, loss of a marriage
partner, lack of education or training, alcoholism, physical or mental disabil-
ity. There are, however, very few paths out. Poverty in the United States, an-
other way to discuss the working poor and the underclass, is the topic of the
next section.

Section 3 Assessment
1. Statistically, out of 500 people, how many would belong to the upper
class?
2. What is a major distinction between members of the upper-middle and
the middle-middle classes?
3. Which class is the largest segment of society?

Critical Thinking
4. Summarizing Information Chapter 5 discussed the concept of
status. How does ascribed status relate to social class? How does
achieved status relate to social class?
258 Unit 3 Social Inequality

World View Social Classes in

World Perspective
The World Bank, whose business it is to dispense eco-
nomic advice and loans to low- and middle-income
countries, continuously monitors income levels around
the world. The map below displays the World Bank’s
classification of countries in terms of per capita in-
come. For example, the United States is one of the
few nations with a “high-income” economy—one that
has a gross national product (GNP) per capita of over
$9,655.

Low-income
economies ($784
or less in 1998)
Lower middle-
North
North income economies
Europe
Europe ($785 to $2,975 in
America 1998)
Asia Upper middle-
income economies
($2,976 to $9,655
in 1998)
High-income
Africa economies ($9,656
South or more in 1998)
America

Australia

Interpreting the Map

1. Explain the definitions of the four income groups.
2. Identify two countries within each of the four income categories.
3. Why do you think the U.S. is one of the few countries to fall within the high-income category?
4. Compare poverty in the United States to poverty in low-income economies.

Source: World Bank, 1999.

 Chapter 8 Social Stratification 259

Section
Poverty in America
4 K e y T e r m s

• absolute poverty
• relative poverty
• feminization of poverty

Measuring Poverty Section

Preview
A bsolute poverty is the absence of enough money to secure life’s ne-
cessities—enough food, a safe place to live, and so forth. It is possi-
ble, however, to have the things required to remain alive and still be poor.
We measure relative poverty by comparing the economic condition of
those at the bottom of a society with the economic conditions of other mem-
P overty can be measured in
absolute or relative terms.
The poor in the U.S. are dis-
bers of that society. According to this measure, the definition of poverty can proportionately represented
vary. It would not, for example, be the same in India as in the United States. by African Americans, Latinos,
How is poverty measured in the United States? Historically, the United women, and children.
States government has measured poverty by setting an annual income level and
considering people poor if their income is below that level. As noted earlier, in
2000 that figure was $17,603 for a family of four.
How many Americans are poor? Poverty is widespread throughout absolute poverty
the United States. According to 2000 U.S. Census Bureau reports, the poor the absence of enough money
comprise 11.8 percent of the American population, or more than 32.2 million to secure life’s necessities
people. Great poverty existed when it became a national political and social
issue in the 1960s. Forty years later, poverty in America is still a problem
(Newman, 1999). (See Figure 8.6 on page 260.) relative poverty
a measure of poverty based
on the economic disparity
From the slums of between those at the bottom
Calcutta to a project in of a society and the rest of the
the United States, what society
do these photos say
about the relativity of
poverty?
 260 Unit 3 Social Inequality
50 50%

Number of poor persons (in millions)

40 Poverty rate In 1999, 32,300,000 people were 40%
Number of poor (millions)

considered poor.

Poverty rate (percentage)

30 30%

20 In 1999, 11.8% of the population was 20%

considered poor.

10 10%

0 0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1998 1999

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Poverty in the United States: 1999, 2000.

Figure 8.6 Number of Poor and Poverty Rate: 1959–1999. This graph shows two types of information: (1) the
number of poor in the total population and (2) the poverty rate as a percentage of the total population. Why is it often helpful to
have related information plotted on the same graph?

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Poverty in the United States: 1999, 2000.

Identifying the Poor

Minorities, female-headed households, children under eighteen years of
age, elderly people, people with disabilities, and people who live alone or
with nonrelatives make up the most disadvantaged
groups in the United States.
80%
69.1% How are race and ethnicity related to
70%
Percentage below poverty level
poverty? About 47 percent of the poor in America
60% Percentage of poor today are non-Latino white. The poverty rate for
Percentage of population

Percentage of the total population African Americans and Latinos is much higher than
50% 46.9% that for whites, however. The poverty rate for whites
is 7.5 percent; for African Americans and Latinos
40%
about 23 percent. African Americans and Latinos to-
30% 22.1%
25.3% 21.2%
gether account for only about one-fourth of the total
23.0%
population, but they make up nearly half of the poor
20% population. (See Figure 8.7.)
12.3% 12.5% 10.8%
7.5% 3.9%
10%
3.7% How are gender and age related to poverty?
0
Another large segment of the poor population is
Whites African Latinos Asian/Pacific made up of female-headed households. We can look
Americans Islanders at this issue in two different ways. We can look at all
Figure 8.7 The Distribution poor households as a group and determine what
of Poverty in the U.S. What proportion of them are headed by females. When we do this, we find that
are the most important conclusions nearly one-half of poor households are female headed. In contrast, when we
you would reach from this figure? look at nonpoor households, we find that only about 14 percent are headed
Source: U.S. Bureau of the by females. Another approach would be to look at all female-headed house-
Census, 2000. holds as a group and determine what proportion of them are poor. We find
that the poverty rate for these households is about 25 percent, compared
with just under 10 percent for all families.
 Chapter 8 Social Stratification 261

District of
Columbia
Percentage of
Population in Poverty
Although the U.S. economy is booming,
some people are concerned that many
have not benefited from this prosperity. Percentage of Population in Poverty
In fact, many people still live in povery. 20% or greater
This map shows the percentage of the 17%—19.9%
14%—16.9%
poor by state. Source: The World Almanac of the 11%—13.9%
U.S.A., Allan Carpenter and Carl
Provorse, Mahwah, NJ: World Almanac
8%—10.9%
Books, 2001. Less than 7.9%

Interpreting the Map

1. Can you make any generalization about poverty from this map?
2. If you were the governor of your state, what would your platform on poverty be? Be specific.

Adapted from The World Almanac of the U.S.A., 2001.

By either measure, then, households headed by females are poorer than

those headed by males. A related factor is the poverty rate for children under
six years of age. The current rate for this group is about 22 percent—the high-
est rate for any age group in the United States (U.S. Bureau of the Census,
1999a). The high poverty rates for women and children reflect a trend in U.S.
society. Between 1960 and today, women and children make up a larger pro-
portion of the poor. Sociologists refer to this trend as the feminization of feminization of poverty
poverty (The State of America’s Children, 1998). a trend in U.S. society in which
There are several reasons why women have a higher risk of being poor. women and children make up
As we discuss in more detail in Chapter 10 (see pages 323–324), women earn an increasing proportion of
the poor
only about $.72 for every dollar earned by men. Women with children find
it more difficult to find and keep regular, long-term employment. A lack of
good child-care facilities adds to the likelihood that they will not be able to
continue working.
Older Americans account for another large segment of the poor. About 9
percent of people aged sixty-five or older live in poverty (U.S. Bureau of the
Census, 2000b). Another large segment of the poor are people with disabili-
ties—those who are blind, deaf, or otherwise disabled. This group accounts for
some 12 percent of America’s poor. Finally, more than one out of every four
poor persons lives either alone or with nonrelatives.
262 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Blaming the victim is easy. Accepting blame is harder.

Responses to the Problem of Poverty

Before the mid-1960s, fighting poverty was not a major goal of the fed-
eral government. Some programs, such as Social Security and Aid to Families
with Dependent Children, had been enacted during the Great Depression.
These measures did not usually reach the lowest levels of needy citizens,
however. Finally in 1964, President Lyndon Johnson marshalled the forces of
the federal government to begin a War on Poverty.

“
What were the goals of the War on Poverty? The philosophy behind
the War on Poverty was to help poor people help themselves (Patterson, 1986;
Jacoby, 1997; Barry, 1999). President Johnson’s predecessor, President John F.
Kennedy, believed that if the chains of poverty were to be broken, it had to
Wealth is conspicuous, be through self-improvement, not temporary relief. Accordingly, almost 60
but poverty hides. percent of the first poverty budget was earmarked for youth opportunity pro-
grams and the work experience program (work and job training designed pri-
James Reston marily for welfare recipients and unemployed fathers).
“
American journalist Hopes for positive results from the War on Poverty were high. However,
not all of the programs were as successful as predicted. Indeed, some have
come under severe criticism. These criticisms center around supposed wide-
spread abuses and the fear that the system encourages people to become de-
pendent upon the government longer than is necessary. “Fixing” the way
social welfare should be provided and payments should be distributed has
been the focus of many hot political debates.

Welfare Reform
In 1999, actual spending for education, training, employment, and social
services was $56 billion, or 3 percent of total U.S. government expenditures.
Payments for Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) was less than
1 percent of the federal budget.
 Chapter 8 Social Stratification 263
What is the nature of welfare reform? Social Security 23%
The most recent legislation on welfare re-
Non-Defense Discretionary 19%
form, enacted in 1996, limits the amount of
time those able to work can receive welfare National Defense 16%
payments. The bill has three major elements: Medicare 12%
it reduces welfare spending, it increases state
Net Interest 11%
and local power to oversee welfare rules, and
it adds new restrictions on welfare eligibility. Other Means-Tested Entitlements 6%
For example, benefits to children of unwed Medicaid 7%
teenage mothers are denied unless the moth-
Other Mandatory 6%
ers remain in school and live with an adult.
Cash aid to able-bodied adults will be termi-
nated if they fail to get a job after two years.
Has welfare reform worked? It is too
early to give a final evaluation of this latest attempt at welfare reform. But a Figure 8.8 The Federal
recent major study indicates that the welfare rolls have decreased more dra- Government Dollar—Where
matically than most predicted (Loprest, 1999). Just over seven million people It Goes. Where is the largest
were on welfare in 1999, down from over twelve million in 1996 when the share of the federal dollar spent?
welfare bill was signed. Well over half of those leaving the welfare rolls re- Source: “A Citizen’s Guide to
port finding jobs. Only a small percentage of recipients have been removed the Federal Budget,” Washington,
from the rolls because of the new time limits on benefits. D.C., 2001.
There is a darker side, however. Most of those leaving the rolls since 1996
hold entry-level jobs—in restaurants, cleaning services, and retail stores—
earning less than $7 per hour. Despite extraordinary national economic pros-
perity, most of those leaving public assistance are at the bottom of the
economy with little hope of advancing. One-fourth work at night, and over
half report child-care problems. Most have jobs without health insurance. A
substantial minority report a food shortage and difficulty paying rent. In short,
many of those leaving welfare still live in poverty. The true test of the success
of welfare reform will come in a few years when the economy weakens,
when we get down to the harder cases still on the rolls, and when the last
time limits take effect for the more difficult cases (Rosin and Harris, 1999).

Section 4 Assessment
1. Discuss the difference between absolute and relative measures of poverty.
2. Which of the following is not one of the major categories of poor
people in the United States?
a. children under age eighteen
b. able-bodied men who refuse to work
c. elderly people
d. people with disabilities
e. people who live alone or with nonrelatives
3. Do government welfare programs affect the poor’s decision to work?
Explain.

Critical Thinking
4. Understanding Cause and Effect Describe the feminization of
poverty. How does this trend affect the motivation to have children?
264 Unit 3 Social Inequality

D uring the last century, when mass production changed the way
goods were produced, a favorite adage of businesspeople was
“Time is money.” In today’s service economy (where most people are
not producing a tangible product), information is money. Children
from disadvantaged families have far less access (both at school and at
home) to information technology, such as computers and the Internet,
than children in wealthier families. This puts them at a disadvantage in
competition for grades and in the job market.
Because of this situation, educators are designing special school-
Street- based programs to provide computers in low-income schools and to
train teachers in those schools to use them. Harlem-based “Playing to
Win” is one of these programs. This computer center offers classes
Smart and workshops to nearly four hundred people per week. It also pro-
vides assistance to other community groups that want to set up their
own computer centers (George et al., 1993).
Technology Another successful program is “Street-Level Youth Media” in
Chicago’s inner city. Street-Level’s mission is to educate disadvantaged
young people about new technologies. Street-Level began by asking
inner-city youths to make videos about their everyday lives on the
streets of Chicago. These videos helped residents to see the youths as
real human beings trapped in desperate, life-threatening situations.
Street-Level continues to work with youths
who have been rejected by mainstream soci-
ety, helping them find solutions to their prob-
lems, strengthen their communities, and
achieve economic success. With revenue
earned from providing technical support to
local businesses, Street-Level pays over
$70,000 in salaries to young people (Street-
Level, 1999).

Analyzing the Trends

Do you think the rise of computer technol-
ogy is affecting the social stratification struc-
ture in America? Do you think these
computer-training programs can seriously
affect the cultural values and subsequent
economic behavior of those who participate
in them? Why or why not?

Computer training is the gateway to

success in the information-based
economy. Students in these
classrooms will have an advantage
in the job market because of their
computer-based skills.
 Chapter 8 Social Stratification 265

Section
Social Mobility
5 K e y T e r m s

• social mobility • intergenerational mobility

• horizontal mobility • caste (closed-class system)
• vertical mobility • open class system

Types of Social Mobility Section

Preview
M obility is the ability to move; social mobility is the movement of
people between social classes.
What are the types of social mobility? Social mobility can be hori-
zontal or vertical. Horizontal mobility involves changing from one occupa-
S ocial mobility, the move-
ment of individuals or
groups within the stratification
tion to another at the same social class level, as when an Army captain
structure, is usually measured
becomes a public school teacher, a minister becomes a psychologist, or a
by changes in occupational
restaurant server becomes a taxi driver. Because horizontal mobility involves
no real change in occupational status or social class, sociologists are not gen- status. Sociologists are most
erally interested in investigating it. Vertical mobility, however, is another story. interested in upward or down-
With vertical mobility, a person’s occupational status or social class ward (vertical) mobility.
moves upward or downward. When the change takes place over a generation, Closed-class systems permit
it is called intergenerational mobility. If a plumber’s daughter becomes a little vertical mobility; open-
physician, upward intergenerational mobility has occurred. If a lawyer’s son class systems, such as those in
becomes a carpenter, downward intergenerational mobility has occurred. industrialized countries, allow
considerable vertical mobility.

social mobility
the movement of individuals
or groups between social
classes

horizontal mobility
a change in occupation within
the same social class

vertical mobility
a change upward or downward
in occupational status or social
class

intergenerational mobility
a change in status or class from
Night school is a popular way for adults to improve skills needed for upward social mobility. one generation to the next
266 Unit 3 Social Inequality
These Indian women learning about
computers belong to one of the upper
castes, as indicated by their clothes
and body ornamentation.

Caste and Open-Class Systems

The extent of vertical mobility varies from society to society. Some soci-
eties have considerable mobility; others have little or none. This is the major
difference between caste (or closed-class) system and open-class systems.
caste system What is a caste system? In a caste system, there is no social mobil-
a stratification structure that ity because social status is inherited and cannot be changed. In a caste sys-
does not allow for social tem, statuses (including occupations) are ascribed or assigned at birth.
mobility Individuals cannot change their statuses through any efforts of their own. By
reason of religious, biological, superstitious, or legal justification, those in
one caste are allowed to marry only within their own caste and must limit
relationships of all types with those below and above them in the stratifica-
tion structure. Apartheid, as practiced in South Africa before the election of
Nelson Mandela, was a caste system based on race.
The caste system in India is one based on occupation and the Hindu re-
ligion. It is as complex as it is rigid. In it are four primary caste categories,
ranked according to their degree of religious purity. The Brahmin, the top
caste, is composed of priests and scholars. Next comes the Kshatriyas, in-
cluding professional, governing, and military occupations. Merchants and
businessmen form the third caste, called the Vaisyas. Finally, there is the
Sudra caste, containing farmers, menial workers, and craftsmen. Actually,
there is a fifth category called the “untouchables.” This group of Indians are
thought to be so impure that any physical contact contaminates the religious
purity of all other caste members. They are so low on the scale that they are
not even considered to be part of the caste system. They are given the dirty,
degrading tasks, such as collecting trash and handling dead bodies.
How is the caste system kept intact? Traditional rules exist in India to
prevent movement into a higher caste. Members of different castes are not
permitted to eat together, and higher-caste people will hardly accept any-
thing to eat or drink from lower-caste persons. Untouchables, who must live
 Chapter 8 Social Stratification 267
apart from everyone else, cannot even drink water from the wells used by
higher castes. Although the long-standing legal prohibition against dating or
marrying someone in a higher caste no longer exists, such crossings are still
extremely rare. Most important, the caste system is maintained as a result of
the power of the higher castes, who use their political clout, wealth, and
prestige to prevent change.
What is an open-class system? In an open-class system, an indi- open-class system
vidual’s social class is based on merit and individual effort. Individuals move a system in which social class
up and down the stratification structure as their abilities, education, and re- is based on merit and
sources permit. Most people in the United States believe they live in an open- individual effort; movement is
allowed between classes
class system. In reality, the opportunity for upward mobility is sometimes
denied individuals or groups in America today. For example, because of race
or ethnicity, some members of minority groups, such as African Americans,
Native Americans, and Latinos, have been denied opportunities for social
mobility. Therefore, because it imposes some limitations on upward mobil-
ity, U.S. society cannot be considered truly and completely open. It is, how-
ever, a relatively open-class system.

Upward and Downward Mobility

Few places in the world provide the opportunities for advancement
that are available in the United States. Nevertheless, countless Americans
fail to be upwardly mobile, despite their talents and dedication to work.
This is hard for many people to accept because American tradition—
both historical and fictional—is filled with examples of upward
mobility. Earlier generations have been raised on the “rags to
riches” Horatio Alger stories. In these books, a young, down-
on-his-luck boy “makes good” through honesty, pluck, and
diligence. The lesson to be learned is that the only thing
standing between any American citizen and success is talent,
a willingness to work, and perseverance. Teachers point to
political leaders such as Abraham Lincoln and to early busi-
ness leaders such as Cornelius Vanderbilt, John D.
Rockefeller, and Henry Ford to support the idea of unlim-
ited mobility in American society. These men, in reality, are
exceptions to the rule. While considerable upward mobility
has occurred, great leaps in social-class level are rare
(Gilbert, 1998). Upward mobility typically involves only a
small improvement over the social class situation of one’s
parents.
Why is Microsoft founder Bill Gates
Is upward mobility increasing? After World War II, an explosion in the exception to the rule in terms of
the availability of high-paying manufacturing jobs made it relatively easy for social mobility?
people to move upward. Americans came to expect that their children would
have more than they had, but this may not be the case for future generations.
This change is the result of new technology and the globalization of busi-
ness. With computer-driven production, improved means of communication,
and better transportation, it is possible for U.S. companies seeking to lower
their costs to move their manufacturing operations overseas. And they are
doing so often. As a result, high-paying U.S. manufacturing jobs are being
transferred to lower-paid foreign workers. U.S. workers, then, who lack the
268 Unit 3 Social Inequality
The costs of downward mobility are
already etched on this corporate
executive’s face.

“
Inequity of property will
exist as long as liberty
education needed to perform the more technologically sophisticated jobs are
being forced to take lower-paying jobs. Compared to their parents, more U.S.
exists. workers are experiencing downward mobility (Newman, 1999).

Alexander Hamilton What are the social and psychological costs of downward mobility?
“
American statesman
In Falling from Grace, sociologist Katherine Newman (1999) describes
America’s enduring belief in the rewards of hard work. This belief, she fears,
prevents recognition of a major problem: downward mobility for many middle-
class people. And, she argues, the consequences are enormous for people in a
society that measures self-worth by occupational status. Downwardly mobile
people experience lowered self-esteem, despair, depression, feelings of power-
lessness, and a loss of a sense of honor.

Section 5 Assessment
1. What is social mobility?
2. Match the major types of social mobility with the examples. Use (IM)
for intergenerational mobility, (VM) for vertical mobility, and (HM) for
horizontal mobility.
a. a restaurant waiter becomes a taxi driver
b. an auto worker becomes a manager
c. the daughter of a hairdresser becomes a college professor
3. How do you think that the cultural values associated with a caste and
an open-class system differently affect economic behavior?
4. Why is the United States not a completely open-class system?

Critical Thinking
5. Analyzing Information Analyze the social mobility that has occurred
in your family for the last two generations (or more, if you prefer).
Use sociological concepts in your analysis.
CHAPTER 8 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Vocabulary
Summary
Complete each sentence using each term once.
Section 1: Dimensions of Stratification a. social stratification i. wealth
Main Idea: Stratification is the division of society b. feminization of j. horizontal mobility
into classes that have unequal amounts of wealth,
povery k. income
power, and prestige. Karl Marx and Max Weber stud-
ied these dimensions of stratification in great detail. c. social class l. open-class system
d. social mobility m. prestige
Section 2: Explanations of Stratification
e. bourgeoisie n. absolute poverty
Main Idea: Each of the three perspectives—func-
f. vertical mobility o. relative poverty
tionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interaction-
ism—explains stratification in society in a different g. proletariat p. caste system
way. h. intergenerational
mobility
Section 3: Social Classes in America
Main Idea: Sociologists have identified several so- 1. A class system with no social mobility is called
cial classes in the United States. They include the .
upper class, the middle class, the working class and 2. is movement among social
the working poor, and the underclass. classes based on merit and individual effort.
3. is upward or downward mo-
Section 4: Poverty in America bility based on occupational status.
4. The changing from one occupation to another
Main Idea: Poverty can be measured in absolute or
at the same general status level is known as
relative terms. The poor in the U.S. are dispropor-
.
tionately represented by African Americans, Latinos,
women, and children. 5. is the movement of individu-
als or groups within social classes.
Section 5: Social Mobility 6. The trend involving an increase in the number
of women and children living in poverty is
Main Idea: Social mobility, the movement of indi- called .
viduals or groups within the stratification structure,
7. The recognition, respect, and admiration at-
is usually measured by changes in occupational sta-
tached to social positions are known as
tus. Sociologists are most interested in upward or
.
downward (vertical) mobility. Closed-class systems
permit little vertical 8. is the amount of money re-
mobility; open-class ceived by an individual or group.
systems, such as 9. The economic resources possessed by an indi-
those in industrial- vidual or group is called .
ized countries, allow 10. is the name given to those
considerable vertical Self-Check Quiz who are ruled; the worker class.
mobility. Visit the Sociology and You Web 11. is the name given to rulers;
site at soc.glencoe.com and click or those who own the means of production.
on Chapter 8—Self-Check 12. The measure that compares the economic con-
Quizzes to prepare for the dition of those at the bottom of society with
chapter test.
269
CHAPTER 8 ASSESSMENT
the economic conditions of others is called as such a serious problem when it represents
. such a small portion of federal spending? Why
13. The creation of layers, or strata, of people do Americans seem to complain less about the
who possess unequal shares of scarce re- money spent on military or science projects?
sources is called . 2. Applying Concepts At least a hundred mem-
14. is the absence of enough bers of Congress are millionaires, which sug-
money to secure life’s necessities. gests that power and wealth do go hand in
15. A segment of the population whose members hand. Why is it unlikely that a poor person
hold similar amounts of resources and share would become a member of Congress? Why do
values, norms, and an identifiable lifestyle is many poor people not participate in voting and
called . political parties? What implications does this
have for democratic government?
16. The mobility that occurs from one generation
to the next is known as . 3. Interpreting Graphs In Figure 8.3, “Prestige
Rankings of Selected Occupations in the United
States,” surgeons are rated as having the most
Reviewing the Facts prestigious job. In your view, what jobs on this
list are essential? What jobs could society do
without? Are there high-prestige jobs that are re-
1. Examine the graph in Figure 8.7 on page 260 of
ally not essential? What does this say about
your text. The graph illustrates that just over 46
prestige rankings?
percent of all poor people in the United States
are white, while only 12% of the population is Create a diagram similar to the one below to
poor. What can you conclude from the graph record your answer.
about the representation of white people in JOBS—ESSENTIAL AND
terms of the total population of poor people? NOT ESSENTIAL TO SOCIETY
2. According to Figure 8.8 on page 263, where Essential Prestige Not Essential Prestige
does the federal government spend the largest Rank Rank
share of the federal budget? Surgeon 87 Disc Jockey 45
3. Describe false consciousness.
4. Explain how a sociologist determines relative 4. Analyzing Information Herbert Gans (1971),
poverty. a noted sociologist, has written about the func-
5. A man who has worked at a factory for twenty tions of poverty. He says that poverty serves
years loses his job because of layoffs. After sev- many useful purposes in society. For example,
eral months, he ends up homeless. What type the poor act as dishwashers, maids, and parking
of social mobility is illustrated in this scenario? attendants. What are some other ways in which
6. Bill Gates has an estimated net worth of $90 poverty might benefit society? What are some
billion. How would sociologists label Gates in conflicts that poverty causes?
terms of social class? 5. Summarizing Information Can you describe
the cultural values underlying the federal gov-
ernment’s philosophy in the War on Poverty in
Thinking Critically the 1960s?
6. Making Inferences The sinking of the luxury
1. Analyzing Information As implied in “Using liner Titanic offers some insights into social
Your Sociological Imagination” on page 241, at- class. Among first-class passengers, only 3 per-
titudes about welfare spending are partially cent of the women died, and none of the chil-
shaped by politicians and the media. Why do dren died. Among third-class passengers, 45
you think the media portray welfare spending percent of the women died, and 70 percent of

270
 the children died. In all, 76 percent of the third- has ever found a correlation between how
class passengers died, compared with 40 per- much money you have and how nice you are.
cent of the first-class passengers. What 4. Social Class From magazines and newspapers,
implications would you draw from these num- cut out as many pictures as you can find of dif-
bers? Is it important to know that the third- ferent classes to make a montage. Label or cir-
class passengers were restricted to the lower cle traits that led you to determine that a
decks and thus farther away from the lifeboats? person was in a particular class. (For example,
the person may be driving a luxury car or
working with hand tools.)
Sociology Projects

1. Understanding Disadvantaged Families This Technology Activity

activity may provide some insight into the diffi-
culties faced by disadvantaged families every 1. The National Center for Children in Poverty
day. Work on the task with three or four of measures poverty rates for children in the
your classmates. Tear a sheet of paper into six United States. Visit its web site at http://
pieces. On each piece, write one of the follow- cpmcnet.columbia.edu/dept/nccp/.
ing: health care, education for my children, car a. What is the Young Child Poverty Rate
maintenance, food, and housing. Now, imagine (YCPR) in the United States?
that because of an unexpected financial set-
b. How does the YCPR in the United States
back, you do not have enough money to take
compare to that of other industrialized
care of all these necessities and will need to
Western nations?
eliminate one. Reach consensus to decide
which category to eliminate. c. Now click on “Child Poverty Facts” and
select “Young Child Poverty in the States—
2. Researching Employment Using the employ-
Wide Variation and Significant Change.”
ment section from your local newspaper, look
Scroll down to the map of the United
for job ads in the following categories: jobs that
States. How does your state compare to the
require postgraduate degrees (highly skilled),
other states?
jobs that require college or special training, and
unskilled jobs. Which category has the most d. Now scroll further down the page to the
jobs available? What assumptions could you table entitled “Change in the percentage
make about the job market based on analyzing and number of children under age six in
these ads? What factors might influence how poverty, by state, 1979–1983 to 1992–1996.”
and where employers advertise certain kinds of What is your state’s most recent YCPR? Has
jobs? the percentage increased or decreased from
the earlier YCPR?
3. Perception and Reality One of the themes of
sociology is the difference between perception e. Go back to the “Child Poverty Facts” page
and reality. Write down five perceptions that and select “Poverty and Brain Development
you have heard people say about others based in Early Childhood.” According to this page,
on their social class. Next to each, describe the when is the period for a child‘s optimal
reality based on information in this text or addi- brain development? What are some of the
tional research. If not sure, write pathways through which a child in poverty
“unknown–needs further research.” For exam- is put at risk for poor brain development?
ple, a common perception of wealthy people is How do you think poverty affects these
that they consider themselves superior to other pathways?
people (snobbery). The reality is that no one

271
272 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Chapter 8

Enrichment Reading
The Lives of
Homeless Women
by Elliot Liebow

On the street or in a shelter, homelessness is For homeless women on the street, the strug-
hard living. . . . How do they manage to slog gle for subsistence begins at the animal level—
through day after day, with no end in sight? for food, water, shelter, security, and safe sleep. In
How, in a world of unremitting grimness, do contrast, homeless women in shelters usually have
they manage to laugh, love, enjoy friends, even these things; their struggle begins at the level of
dance and play the fool? How, in short, do they human rather than animal needs—protection of
stay fully human while body and soul are under one’s property, health care, and avoidance of
continuous and grievous assault? boredom. The struggle then moves rapidly to the
Simple physical survival is within the grasp of search for companionship, modest measures of in-
almost everyone willing and able to reach out for dependence, dignity, and self-respect, and some
it. As the women thrash about, awash in a sea of hope and faith in the future. . . .
need, emergency shelters, along with public as- For some of the women, day-by-day hardships
sistance in the form of cash, food stamps, and begin with the problem of getting enough sleep.
medical assistance, make it just possible for many A few women complained they could never get
of the women to keep their heads above water. any sleep in a shelter. Grace was one of them.
Through the use of shelters, soup kitchens, and “There’s no getting sleep in a shelter,” she said.
hospital emergency rooms, it is even possible for “Only rest. . . .”
most homeless people who do not get public as- There was indeed much night noise and move-
sistance to survive at some minimal level without ment. There was snoring, coughing, sneezing,
benefit of a structured assistance program. wheezing, retching, . . . cries from bad dreams, oc-
At their very best, however, these bare-boned casional weeping or seizures, talking aloud to one-
elements of a life-support system merely make self or to someone else who may or may not have
life possible, not necessarily tolerable or livable. been present, and always movement to and from
Serious problems remain. Homelessness can the bathroom. Grace was complaining about
transform what for others are little things into noise, and she found a partial remedy in ear plugs.
insurmountable hurdles. Indeed, homeless- But ear plugs could not help those women like
ness in general puts a premium on “little things.” Kathleen who were kept awake not by noise but
Just as some homeless women seem to have by questions: Is this for me? How did I end up
learned (more than most of us, perhaps) to value here? How will I get out? But eventually, as the
a small gesture of friendship, a nice day, a bus night wore on, there was a lot of snoring, and that
token, or a little courtesy that others might take meant that, Grace and Kathleen notwithstanding,
for granted or not notice at all, so too can events there was a lot of sleeping, too.
or circumstances that would be trivial irritants to Having to get up at 5:30 A.M., and be out of the
others approach catastrophic proportions for shelter by 7:00 was a major hardship of shelter
the homeless person. life. It was not simply the fact of having to get up
 Chapter 8 Social Stratification 273

and out, but rather that the women had to do this end result was that
every day of the week, every day of the year many homeless women What Does it Mean
(Thanksgiving and Christmas Day excepted), no who would have left
matter what the weather or how they felt. On any their belongings behind
accessible
given morning, as the women drifted onto the had they had a safe
street, one might see two or three ailing women— place to store them available; easy to reach
this one with a fever or cough or a headache, that were forced to take catastrophic proportions
one with a limp or stomach ache or other ail- most of their belong- a size approaching
ment—pick up their bags and walk silently into ings with them. Some disaster; too large to deal
the weather. . . . wore them in layers. with individually
Along with perennial fatigue, boredom was Others carried them.
embedded
one of the great trials of homelessness. Killing They had become, in
made a part of;
time was not a major problem for everyone but it short, bag ladies.
surrounded by
was high on most women’s lists of hardships. During a discussion
Betty could have been speaking for most of them of Luther Place, one of insurmountable hurdles
when she talked about the problem. On a social the best-run shelters in obstacles or barriers that
visit to the state psychiatric hospital where, four downtown Washington, cannot be overcome
years earlier, she had been an inpatient in an al- one of the women said perennial
coholic program, Betty sought out a nurse named Luther Place was OK regularly repeated;
Lou. They embraced and Lou asked Betty what but she didn’t like enduring and persistent
she was doing these days. Betty said she was liv- the women there—they
subsistence
ing in a shelter. Lou said that was a shame, and were all bag ladies.
meeting basic needs
asked Betty how she spent her time. One of the other
“I walk the streets,” said Betty. “Twelve hours women objected that unremitting
and 15 minutes a day, every day, I walk the the women at Luther constant; never ending
streets. Is that what I got sober for? To walk the Place were no different
streets?” Betty went on to say that she sits on a lot from women in other shel-
of park benches looking for someone to talk to. ters. They were bag ladies, she said, because
Many times there is no one, so she talks to the Luther Place had no storage space. . . .
birds. She and the birds have done a lot of talking Past and future . . . and even one’s self were
in her day, she said. . . . embedded in one’s belongings. When Louise
Some of the women with jobs also had trouble could no longer pay for storage and lost her be-
killing time. Like the others, Grace had to leave longings to auction, she was surprised at her own
the shelter by 7:00 A.M. but she couldn’t report to reaction to the loss. Her belongings had been so
work much before 9:00, and her job was less than much a part of her, she said, that now that she’s
a 10-minute drive away. “Have you ever tried to lost them, she’s not sure who she is.
kill two hours in the morning, every morning,
Source: Excerpted from Elliot Liebow, Tell Them Who I
with nowhere to go and nothing to do?” she
Am: The Lives of Homeless Women. New York: Penguin
asked. “I have some tapes I can listen to in the
Books, 1995.
car—some Christmas carols and some Bible read-
ings. But two hours? Every day?” Read and React
. . . It is all too easy to think of homeless peo-
ple as having few or no possessions . . . , but one 1. What are the two major problems related to
of the major and most talked-about problems was homelessness discussed in this writing?
storage—how to keep one’s clothing, essential 2. What attitude or belief about the homeless
documents, and other belongings secure and that you had before reading this article has
accessible. . . . Stealing was believed to be com- been changed? If none, what did you learn
mon: “You’ve got to expect these things in shel- that you didn’t know before?
ters” was heard from staff and women alike. The
CHAPTER 9
Inequalities of Race
and Ethnicity

274
 U
S Your Sections
I Sociological
N Imagination 1. Minority, Race, and
G Ethnicity
2. Racial and Ethnic

“T he Four Americas” is a report

published by a major think tank,
a national newspaper, and a
prestigious university (Brodie, 1995). These
organizations used an extensive national
3.
Relations
Theories of Prejudice and
Discrimination
survey to investigate race in the United
States. The survey asked people to respond 4. Minority Groups in the
to such questions as “Do you think the av-
erage African American is better off, worse
United States
off, or as well off as the average white per-
son in terms of jobs, education, housing, Learning Objectives
and health care?”
Most Asians and Latinos answered that
African Americans are doing less well than After reading this chapter, you will be able to
whites. But most whites thought blacks
were doing about equally well. ❖ describe what sociologists mean by the
The evidence shows that the average in- terms minority, race, and ethnicity.
come of African American households is ❖ discuss patterns of racial and ethnic
considerably less than that of white house-
relations.
holds. Moreover, at each level of educa-
tion—the gateway to good jobs—African ❖ discuss the difference between prejudice
American males earn less than white males. and discrimination.
On average, for example, white high school ❖ explain how functionalists, conflict
graduates can expect to earn annually theorists, and symbolic interactionists
nearly as much as African American college view racial inequalities.
graduates with associate degrees. The report
concluded that while most minorities under- ❖ compare the condition of American
stand each other’s real-life difficulties, minorities with that of the white majority.
“whites stand alone in their misperceptions
of the problems facing minorities in
America today.”
Whites, of course, are not the only Chapter Overview
group of people who would benefit from a Visit the Sociology and You Web site at
better understanding of the issues facing all soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 9—
Americans. This chapter will take a close Chapter Overviews to preview chapter
information.
look at how race and ethnicity have af-
fected the ability of people to achieve the
American dream. 275
276 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Section
Minority, Race, and Ethnicity
1 K e y

• minority
• race
T e r m s

• ethnic minority

Section Minorities
Preview
I magine that one evening, you and eight friends are unable to decide
whether to go bowling or to the movies. Being a democratic group, you
S ociologists have specific
definitions particular to
their field of study for minor-
decide to put the question to a vote. If only three of you vote for the show,
the movie fans—being fewer in number—will make up a minority.
But numbers alone are not the basis of the sociological definition of
ity, race, and ethnicity. Ethnic minority. Women in the United States outnumber males, and yet they are still
minorities have historically referred to as a minority. Blacks in South Africa and in many large cities in
been subjected to prejudice the United States are minority populations even though they outnumber the
and discrimination. white population. For sociologists, then, a minority population is defined by
something more than size or number.
What are the characteristics of a minority? In 1945, sociologist Louis
Wirth offered the following definition of minority:
minority We may define a minority as a group of people who, because of their
a group of people with physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in
physical or cultural traits the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment,
different from those of the and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimi-
dominant group in the society nation. The existence of a minority in a society implies the existence of
a corresponding dominant group with higher social status and greater
privileges. Minority carries with it the exclusion from full participation
in the life of the society.
A minority, then, has several key features.
1. A minority has distinctive physical or cultural characteristics
which can be used to separate it from the majority. Physical
characteristics may include such things as skin color, facial
features, and disabilities. Cultural characteristics may include
accent, religion, language, and parentage. In the past, some
people have been forced to carry papers or wear badges that
marked them as members of a minority. For example, during
the Nazi regime, Jews in German-occupied countries were
forced to wear yellow stars to separate them from non-Jewish
citizens.
2. The minority is dominated by the majority. Because the majority
is the dominating group, it holds an unequal share of the
Which of these teens are members of
a minority group? Explain why.
desired goods, services, and privileges. Further, minority
members have fewer opportunities to get these goods and
services. The best jobs are hard for minorities to get because of
a lack of education or unfair hiring practices.
 Chapter 9 Inequalities of Race and Ethnicity 277
3. Minority traits are often believed by the dominant majority to be
inferior. This presumed inferiority can be used to justify unequal
treatment. For example, a majority may justify job discrimination
by depicting a minority as shiftless or lazy.
4. Members of the minority have a common sense of identity, with
strong group loyalty. Efforts to keep the minority isolated create
empathy among those suffering discrimination. Within
the minority, there is a “consciousness of kind.” Because
of this sense of common identity, members of the
minority accept a “we” and “they” vocabulary.
5. The majority determines who belongs to the minority
through ascribed status. People become members of
the minority at birth. Thus, membership is an ascribed
status and is not easily changed. This is especially true
when physical characteristics such as race are
involved.

Defining Race
How many races are represented in
Members of a race share certain biologically inherited physical characteris- this photo? On what basis did you
tics that are considered equally important within a society. Biologists use char- make that determination?
acteristics such as skin color, hair color, hair texture, facial features, head form,
eye color, and height to determine race. The most common system classifies
races into three major divisions—Negroid, Mongoloid, and Caucasian. race
people sharing certain inherited
Is there a scientific basis for race? Although certain physical features physical characteristics that are
have been associated with particular races, scientists have known for a long considered important within a
time that there is no such thing as a “pure” race. Features, or markers, typi- society
cal of one race show up in other races quite frequently. For example, some
people born into African American families are assumed to be white because
of their facial features and light skin color. Most scientists consider racial
classifications arbitrary and misleading. For students of sociology, social atti-
tudes and characteristics that relate to race are more important than physical
differences.
But aren’t some physical characteristics superior? It has sometimes
been argued that certain physical characteristics often associated with race
are superior and others are inferior. In fact, physical characteristics are supe-
rior only in the sense that they provide advantages for living in particular en-
vironments. For example, a narrow opening between eyelids protects against
bright light and driving cold such as found in Siberia or Alaska. A darker skin
is better able to withstand a hot sun. But these physical differences are con-
trolled by a very few genes. In fact, geneticists claim that there may be more
genetic difference between a tall person and a short person than between
two people of different races who are the same height. Only about six genes
in the human cell control skin color, while a person’s height is affected by
dozens of genes. Thus a six-foot white male may be closer genetically to a
black male of the same height than to a five-foot white male. What is im-
portant to remember is that there is no scientific evidence that connects any
racial characteristic with innate superiority or inferiority (Hurley, 1998). There
is, for example, no evidence of innate differences in athleticism or intelli-
gence among the various races.
 278 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Ethnicity
The term ethnicity comes from the Greek word ethnos, originally mean-
ing “people” or “nation.” Thus, the Greek word referred to cultural and na-
ethnic minority tional identity. Today, an ethnic minority is socially identified by unique
group identified by cultural, characteristics related to culture or nationality. Just as physical characteristics
religious, or national define racial minorities, cultural differences define ethnic minorities.
characteristics An ethnic minority is a subculture defined by its own language, religion, val-
ues, beliefs, norms, and customs. (See page 98 in Chapter 3 for an introduction
to subcultures.) Like any subculture, it is part of the larger culture—its members
work in the majority, or host, economy, send their children through the host
educational system, and are subject to the laws of the land. Ethnic minorities
are also separate from the larger culture. The separation may continue because
the ethnic minority wishes to maintain its cultural and national origins or be-
cause the majority erects barriers that prevent the ethnic group from blending
in with the larger culture. For example, Michael Novak (1996) makes a case that
members of white ethnic minorities from southern and eastern Europe—Poles,
Slavs, Italians, Greeks—have not been able to blend completely into American
society. Compared with other white European immigrant groups, such as
German immigrants, groups from southern and eastern Europe were more cul-
turally different from the white Anglo-Saxon Protestant (WASP) majority and
thus mixed less easily with the majority culture.
Why are ethnic minorities seen as inferior? Negative attitudes to-
ward ethnic minorities exist in part because of ethnocentrism. As you read in
Chapter 3, ethnocentrism involves judging others in terms of one’s own cul-
tural standards. Ethnocentrism creates the feeling of “us,” the group one be-
Figure 9.1. Attitudes of longs to, versus “them,” the other groups that are out there.
Americans Toward Immigrant People in the majority, out of loyalty to and preference for their own val-
Minorities. The results of a ues, beliefs, and norms, may consider other views to be inferior. Because
Gallup poll are displayed in this
members of ethnic minorities do not measure up to the majority’s concep-
graph of attitudes toward various
immigrant groups in the United tion of appropriate ways of behaving, it may be assumed that something is
States. What pattern is reflected in wrong with them. Ethnocentric judgments are often expressed as prejudice
this graph among the groups that and discrimination. Figure 9.1 shows American attitudes toward specific im-
are most favored as helping the migrant groups. In general, European immigrants are viewed more positively
country? than non-European immigrants.

Irish Perceived that 11% 75%

the immigrant group has generally
Polish created problems for the country 15% 65%

Chinese 31% 59%

Koreans 33% 53%

Immigrant group

Vietnamese 46% 43%

Mexicans 59% 29%

Cubans 64% 24%

Perceived that the
Iranians 68% 20% immigrant group has generally
benefited the country
Haitians 65% 19%

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Percentage of Americans responding
 Chapter 9 Inequalities of Race and Ethnicity 279

Another
Place The Travelling People
The following excerpt describes the Irish Most settled people want nothing to do with
“Travelling People,” who are viewed by main- Travellers. Popular belief has it that Travellers
stream Irish as inferior. draw the dole [welfare] in more than one county
at a time, are troublemakers, and leave piles of
T hey are Ireland’s unrecognized minority—
homeless and ostracized. Despite public dis-
approval, their family groups wander the Irish
garbage in their wake. Many local people are op-
posed to having halting sites in their vicinity. Why
should “respectable” people support itinerants?
countryside. Other than a limited number of official
But these “homeless” outcasts have filled a so-
halting sites they have no place to stop. Most live by
cial niche in Ireland for centuries. Theirs may be a
the side of the road. They bathe, eat, and sleep in
distinct lifestyle, and their traditions are unlike
public. They live without electricity or permanent
those of other Irish, but they are, nonetheless, Irish.
running water, bathing facilities, or toilets. Their
In a traditionally rural society, Travellers served ac-
child-mortality rate is similar to those in Third World
ceptable social purposes as itinerant farm workers,
countries, and there is a 98 percent illiteracy rate
metal craftsmen, lace makers, and storytellers. But
among adults. According to the Economic and
in today’s settled urban society, this integrated
Social Research Institute’s 1985 report, “The circum-
group of nomads are a people displaced by and at
stances of the Irish Travelling People are intolerable.
odds with contemporary expectations. They are a
No humane and decent society once made aware of
community without a place in its own homeland
such circumstances could permit them to persist.”
and a cultural group in danger of losing its identity.
But although local political groups and organi-
zations have expressed the need to create perma- Source: Excerpted and reprinted with permission from
nent housing for the Travellers (most commonly The World & I, Amy Seidman, June 1993, The Washington
described as “gypsies” or “tinkers”), the settled Times Corporation, © 1993, pp. 250, 252.
community prefers what Traveller Nell McDonaugh
calls an “unspoken segregation.” Travellers are Thinking It Over
evicted from areas not designated as official halting
sites, and grassy lanes that Traveller groups have Use either functionalism or conflict theory to ex-
frequented for years are blocked and barred. Most plain this attitude toward the Travellers.
official halting sites are located in undesirable,
often industrial, areas.

Section 1 Assessment
1. Summarize the five main characteristics of a minority.
2. What is the difference between race and ethnicity? Between race and
nationality?
“ I know of no rights of
race superior to the
rights of man.
Critical Thinking Frederick Douglas
“
3. Summarizing Information Identify the main racial or ethnic American abolitionist
minorities in your area. Are you a member of any minority groups? What
are they?
280 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Section
Racial and Ethnic Relations
2 K e y T e r m s

• assimilation
• cultural pluralism
• subjugation
• de jure segregation
• genocide • de facto segregation

Section Patterns of Assimilation

Preview
G enerally, minority groups are either accepted—which leads to as-
similation—or rejected—which leads to conflict. Within these two

P atterns of racial and eth-

nic relations take two
forms: assimilation and con-
broad approaches, however, is a wide range of outcomes.
Assimilation refers to the blend-
ing or fusing of minority groups into
flict. Patterns of assimilation the dominant society. When a racial or
include Anglo-conformity, ethnic minority is integrated into a so-
melting pot, cultural plural- ciety, its members are given full partic-
ism, and accommodation. ipation in all aspects of the society.
Conflict patterns include Assimilation has taken several forms in
genocide, population trans-
the United States: Anglo-conformity,
melting pot, cultural pluralism, and
fer, and subjugation.
accommodation.
What is the most common pattern
of assimilation? Anglo-conformity
Anglo-conformity has been the most has been the most prevalent pattern of
assimilation common form of assimilation in U.S. assimilation in America. Anglo is a pre-
the blending or fusing of society. fix used to indicate an American of
minority groups into the
English descent. In Anglo-conformity,
dominant society
traditional American institutions are maintained. Immigrants are accepted as
long as they conform to the “accepted standards” of the society. Anglo-
conformity is the least egalitarian pattern of assimilation because the immigrant
minority is required to conform. By implication, it must either give up or sup-
press its own values.
Is America more like a melting pot or a
tossed salad? A second pattern of assimilation is
the melting pot, in which all ethnic and racial mi-
norities voluntarily blend together. Older history
textbooks, in describing the immigrant experience
in the United States, often referred to a melting pot
of cultures. However, there is some question about
how much fusing of cultures has really taken place.
Instead of a melting pot, many sociologists are now
using the idea of a “tossed salad,” in which tradi-
tions and cultures exist side by side. The cultures of
the Tejanos in Texas and the Creoles of New
 Chapter 9 Inequalities of Race and Ethnicity 281
Orleans are examples. This pattern of assimilation is called cultural pluralism.
It recognizes immigrants’ desire to maintain at least a remnant of their “old”
ways. In so doing, however, the immigrants have an impact on institutions in cultural pluralism
the United States. Because of the large numbers of Hispanic immigrants, for desire of a group to maintain
example, many states have instituted bilingual education programs in public some sense of identity
schools. The government now routinely makes official forms available in both separate from the dominant
English and Spanish, many churches throughout the country conduct services group
in both languages, and cable television stations offer English and Spanish
audio tracks.
Accommodation is an extreme form of cultural pluralism. It occurs when a
minority maintains its own culturally unique way of life. The minority learns to
deal with, or accommodate, the dominant culture when necessary but remains
independent in language and culture. The Cubans in Miami and the Amish in
Pennsylvania are examples of distinct groups within larger communities that
have kept separate identities.

Patterns of Conflict
In looking for broad patterns of conflict, sociologists examine historical
records and analyze current events. Three basic patterns have emerged that
describe approaches that dominant cultures take in their rejection of
minority groups. These are genocide, population transfer, and subjugation
(Mason, 1970).
What is the most extreme pattern of conflict? At the extreme, con-
flict takes the form of genocide, the systematic effort to destroy an entire genocide
population. One of the best-known examples is the Holocaust, Adolf the systematic effort to
Hitler’s attempt to destroy all European Jews during the 1930s and 1940s. destroy an entire population
(See Figure 9.2 below.) Less well known is the “Rape of Nanking,” begun in

Jewish Population in 1992 As a Figure 9.2. Impact of the

Percentage of Jewish Population in 1930 Holocaust. One of the worst
100% or more examples of genocide was the Nazis’
75% to 99%
50% to 74% attempt, in the 1930s and 1940s, to
25% to 49% exterminate the European Jewish
15% to 24% population. This map shows the
10% to 14% decline in Jewish population in
1% to 9%
European countries as a result of
Less than 1%
the Holocaust.
282 Unit 3 Social Inequality

1937, during which the Japanese massacred an

estimated 260,000 to 350,000 Chinese men,
women, and children (Chang, 1998).
Tragically, genocide campaigns are more
common in world history than might be sup-
posed. Recently, the Serbians have been ac-
cused of conducting campaigns of “ethnic
cleansing” against the Muslims in Bosnia and
Kosovo. In 1994, the Tutsi tribe of Rwanda
slaughtered 500,000 to 800,000 of the minority
Hutu tribe.
What is population transfer? In popu-
lation transfer, a minority is forced either to
move to a remote location or to leave entirely
the territory controlled by the majority. This
The Cherokees were not the only
Native American population
was the policy most often used against Native Americans. For example, in
transferred from their homes. The 1838, sixteen thousand Cherokees from the southeastern United States were
Creeks and the Seminoles were also set on a forced march along the “Trail of Tears” to Oklahoma reservations,
forcibly removed by U.S. troops. where they became dependent on the U.S. government. An estimated four
thousand Cherokees (nearly a fourth of the tribes) died because of harsh
conditions along the Trail of Tears.
subjugation What conflict pattern appears most often? Subjugation is the most
process by which a minority common pattern of conflict. A subjugated minority is denied equal access to
group is denied equal access the culture and lifestyle of the larger society. Subjugation may be based on
to the benefits of a society the law, or de jure. An example was the de jure segregation of public
schools in the United States during the latter part of the nineteenth century
and the first half of the twentieth century. In Brown vs. Board of Education
de jure segregation of Topeka (1954) the Supreme Court overturned previous case law that had
denial of equal access based made racial segregation legal in the U.S.
on the law Subjugation may also arise from the everyday practices of people, even
when specific laws do not exist to deny opportunities to minority groups. De
facto is a term used in case law that describes the actual, or real, situation re-
gardless of what the law is. De facto segregation is operating when, for ex-
de facto segregation ample, neighboring homeowners agree among themselves not to sell to
denial of equal access based
members of certain ethnic groups or races. De facto discrimination exists when
on everyday practice
people of certain backgrounds are not promoted to important positions in local
government or in businesses because of widely held stereotypes. Although il-
legal, the difficulty of proving bias can make this type of subjugation a very ef-

“We’re not where we want

to be. And we’re not
fective tool for controlling a minority.

Section 2 Assessment

where we’re going to be. 1. Identify and define four patterns of assimilation.
2. What is the difference between de jure and de facto segregation?
But we are sure a long
way from where we were. Critical Thinking
Rev. M. L. King, Jr. 3. Evaluating Information Work with one or more of your classmates
“
civil rights leader
to research and evaluate the impact that the assimilation of Latinos is
having on American institutions such as public schools, churches, and
government agencies.
 Chapter 9 Inequalities of Race and Ethnicity 283

Sociology Bridging the

Today Digital Divide
In 2000, Delta Airlines and Ford Motor Company both publicly announced their multimillion-
dollar (hundreds of millions, in fact) bet they are placing on their employees (Miller and Silverstein,
2000). Each intends to provide home computers and Internet access to all of their 422,000 workers. It
is a new company benefit costing each employee as little as $5 per month.
The bet is that employees become more efficient and effective when they are proficient with
computers. Expected payoffs for the companies is improved communication with their workforces,
heightened employee morale, and increased employee loyalty. Employees at Ford and Delta enthusi-
astically welcomed the new benefit.
There is a possible downside for employees. When workers can be reached instantaneously at
home day or night, the traditional boundaries between the home and the workplace could erode.
And Ford and Delta do have plans to communicate with workers at home. According to sociologist
Arlie Hochschild, this apparent gift could be a Trojan horse by extending the “long arm of the work-
place.” Even worse, some workers fear that companies might intrude on their private lives by moni-
toring their Internet activities.
There could also be a social upside to wide-scale on-line access. Sociologists have recognized
computer literacy as a key to social mobility in the twenty-first century. (See the Enrichment Reading
entitled “Falling Through the Net” in Chapter 17.) Since those nearer the bottom of the social class
structure lack the resources necessary to be computer literate, sociologists fear they will be hope-
lessly left behind.
Given this situation, widespread exposure of less-skilled workers to computer technology could
have benefits Ford and Delta employees may not have considered. Since both companies are en-
couraging workers’ families to use the technology, the spouses and children of a significant number
of individuals will have access to an indispensable tool for occupational advancement. While Ford
and Delta may be concerned only about keeping their employees out of the digital divide, their ac-
tion may unintentionally enable many more Americans to cross this divide. Company-provided com-
puter technology at home may become a staple in most future corporate benefit packages.

Doing Sociology
1. Do you believe that computer literacy is a key element in today’s job market? Tomorrow’s?
2. Evaluate your own capabilities regarding computer technology.
3. Go to your library and examine the employment page of the Sunday edition of a major newspa-
per. Write a brief report on the extent to which computer literacy appears to be an important
qualification in today’s urban marketplace.
284 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Section
Theories of Prejudice
3 and Discrimination
K e y T e r m s

• prejudice • hate crime

• racism • stereotype
• discrimination • self-fulfilling prophecy

Section Prejudice, Racism, and Discrimination

Preview
I ndividuals hold prejudices of many types. To a sociologist, though,
prejudice has a very particular meaning. It refers to widely held pre-

P rejudice involves atti-

tudes, while discrimina-
tion is about behavior.
conceptions of a group (minority or majority) and its individual members.
Prejudice involves a generalization based on biased or insufficient infor-
mation. Prejudiced attitudes are based on strong emotions, so they are
Prejudice usually leads to often difficult to change, even in the face of overwhelming evidence. It is
discrimination. Conversely, in easier to explain individuals who don’t fit the stereotype as exceptions than
some instances, discrimina- it is to reexamine a whole set
tion creates prejudiced atti-
of established beliefs. For ex-
ample, many people believe
tudes through stereotyping.
that Asian students have a
Each of the three major per- particular “gift” for mathe-
spectives looks at different matics. Suppose that Susie is
aspects of prejudice. one of these people. In alge-
bra class, she sits next to an
Asian student who is not
doing well. Will Susie change
her idea about the mathemat-
prejudice
ical abilities of Asian people
widely held negative attitudes
toward a group (minority or
as a result of this? Probably
majority) and its individual not. It will be less trouble for
members her to think that this one
Asian student is the excep-
tion to the rule.
racism Racism is an extreme
an extreme form of prejudice form of prejudice, because it
that assumes superiority of not only involves judging
one group over others people unfairly, but it as-
sumes that a person’s own
race or ethnic group is supe-
rior. Racists believe that dis-
crimination or exclusion is
morally justified because of
their own natural superiority. When prejudice is used as a basis for making
decisions—as in denying minorities advancement—
then it becomes discrimination.
 Chapter 9 Inequalities of Race and Ethnicity 285
How is discrimination different from prejudice? While prejudice in-
volves holding biased opinions, discrimination involves acting upon those discrimination
opinions by treating people unfairly. Prejudice does not always result in dis- treating people differently
crimination, but it often does. based on ethnicity, race,
Discrimination takes many forms, including avoiding social contact with religion, or culture
members of minority groups, denying them positions that carry authority,
and blocking their access to the more exclusive neighborhoods. It can also
involve such extremes as attacking or killing minority members.

Hate Crimes
In 1998, James Byrd, Jr., an African American
from Texas, was chained to a pickup truck, then
dragged to death. That same year saw Matthew
Shepard, a gay college student, tied to a fence
and beaten to death. Both incidents fell under a
special kind of crime called hate crimes.
How are hate crimes different? A hate
crime is a criminal act that is motivated by ex-
treme prejudice (Lawrence, 1999). Hate crimes
involve bias related to race, religion, sexual ori-
entation, national origin, or ancestry (Levin and
McDevitt, 1993). Victims include, but are not
limited to, African Americans, Native Americans,
Latinos, Asian Americans, Jews, gay men, les-
bian women, and people with disabilities. While
the term hate crime is relatively new, the be-
havior is not. The federal government has kept These federal agency employees are
statistics since 1900. Hate crimes still occur in relatively small numbers, but searching through the ashes of an
the frequency is increasing. Just under 8,000 cases were reported to the FBI African American church in
in 1999. By 2000, forty-three states had passed hate-crime laws. Mississippi. What would make this
case of arson a hate crime?
How does sociology interpret hate crimes? Each of the theoretical
perspectives discussed below can help us understand hate crimes. The func-
tionalist might notice that members of a group are bolstering their sense of
unity against a common enemy. Some hate crimes, consistent with conflict hate crime
a criminal act motivated by
theory, are based on the belief that the victim is somehow threatening the
prejudice
person’s livelihood or self-interest. This is the case when immigrants are at-
tacked out of fear that they will take the jobs of the white majority. Finally,
hate crimes always involve labeling. People who commit hate crimes have
vocabularies filled with demeaning stereotypes that attempt to justify vio-
lence directed against the victims.

Stereotypes
A stereotype is a set of ideas—based on distortion, exaggeration, and stereotype
oversimplification—that is applied to all members of a group. Stereotypes ap- a distorted, exaggerated, or
pear throughout any society. In the United States, examples of stereotypes in- oversimplified image applied
clude that athletes are “all brawn and no brain” and that politicians are corrupt. to a category of people
Stereotypes are sometimes created to justify unethical behavior against mi-
nority groups. For example, very early relationships between the colonists and
286 Unit 3 Social Inequality
Native Americans in early colonial
times were relatively peaceful and
cooperative. As the population of
the colonies grew, however, con-
flicts over land and resources be-
came more frequent and intense.
To justify expansion onto Indian
territory, the colonists began per-
ceiving Native Americans as
“lying, thieving, un-Christian sav-
ages” who did not deserve the
rights accorded to white settlers.
This image helped the colonists
defend their otherwise unjustifi-
able treatment of the Native
Student Web Activity American population.
Visit the Sociology and
You Web site at
soc.glencoe.com and click on The Functionalist Even marching band members suffer from
Chapter 9—Student Web stereotyping.
Activities for an activity on Perspective
examples of stereotypes.
In studying prejudice and discrimination, functionalists focus on the dys-
functions caused by these practices. (We will look at this topic in greater de-
tail in Section 4.) When minorities are exploited or oppressed, the social,
political, educational, and economic costs to society are extremely high.
Furthermore, the safety and stability of the larger society are at risk, because
violence periodically erupts between the groups.
Functionalists recognize, however, that by fostering prejudice, a dominant
group can create a feeling of superiority over minority groups. This feeling
can strengthen its members’ own self-concepts. Strangely, then, for the ma-
jority culture, functionalists can see a positive aspect to discrimination.

The Conflict Perspective

According to conflict theory, a majority uses prejudice and discrimination
as weapons of power to control a minority. The majority does this to increase
its control over property, goods, and other resources. The example about

“
stereotypes used by colonists to portray Native Americans is based on the
conflict perspective.
In the conflict perspective, despite being common targets, different mi-
Prejudice is what fools norities tend to view one another as competitors rather than as allies in their
use for reason. struggle against the majority (Olzak and Nagel, 1986). Conflict among mi-
norities, particularly African Americans and Latinos, is increasing in the
“Voltaire United States as whites leave cities and African Americans assume political
French philosopher power. To many urban blacks, Latinos appear to be benefiting from the civil
rights movement waged by African Americans. Many Latinos, on the other
hand, believe that African Americans are using their political clout to push
an agenda that favors their own community at the expense of others. It
remains to be seen if urban African Americans and Latinos will become
allies for their mutual welfare or if they will engage in fierce conflict over the
scarce resources available to them.
 Chapter 9 Inequalities of Race and Ethnicity 287

Minority Populations and

Hate Groups
Race in the United States is no longer a “black
and white” issue. Our population is becoming
more complex, with many different races and
ethnicities represented in increasingly large
numbers. This map shows the percentage of the
largest minorities in each state, as well as the
location of hate groups in America.

Minorities as a
Percent of
Hate Groups Population
Ku Klux Klan > 30%
Neo-Nazi 25 to 30%
Skinhead 20 to 24%
Identity 15 to 19%
Black Separatist 10 to 14%
Other < 10%

Interpreting the Map

1. Do you see any relationship between the location of hate groups and the location of minority
populations? Explain.
2. Do you see a pattern in the location of U.S. minority populations? Why might U.S. minority popu-
lations be distributed as they are?
3. Create a question for your classmates to answer regarding the geographic distribution of U.S.
minority populations.
Adapted from the The State of the U.S.A. Atlas, New York and Southern Poverty Law Center.

The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

According to the symbolic interactionist perspective, members of a society
learn to be prejudiced in much the same way they learn to be patriotic.
Sociologist Gordon Allport (1958) described two stages in the learning of prej-
udice. In the pregeneralized learning period, children may overhear parents
make racist or prejudiced statements, but they have not yet learned to sepa-
rate people by race or ethnic group. By the time children reach the total re-
jection stage, however, they are able to use physical clues to sort people into
groups. If children repeatedly hear parents malign a minority, they will reject
all members of the group, on all counts and in all situations.
Symbolic interactionists also point out that language itself can reflect prej-
udices. For example, in Anglo culture, many terms that include black are
negative. Such terms as blackball, blacklist, black mark, and black eye illus-
trate the negative slant associated with the word black.
288 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Figure 9.3 Focus on Theoretical Perspectives

Prejudice and Discrimination. This table illustrates how a particular theoretical perspective views a cen-
tral sociological concept. Switch the concepts around and illustrate how each theoretical perspective would
view a different concept. For example, discuss some functions and dysfunctions of the self-fulfilling prophecy.

Theoretical
Perspective Concept Example

Functionalism Ethnocentrism White colonists used negative sterotypes as a

justification for taking Native American land.

Conflict Theory Competition for African Americans accuse Latinos of using their
power political clout to win advantages for themselves.

Symbolic Self-fulfilling prophecy Members of a minority fail because of the low

Interactionism expectations they have for their own success.

self-fulfilling prophecy Symbolic interactionism underlies the concept of the self-fulfilling

an expectation that leads to prophecy—an expectation that leads to behavior that then causes the ex-
behavior that causes the pectation to become a reality. For example, if a student is continually en-
expectation to become reality couraged and told that she is capable of succeeding at a task, she will likely
act as if she can succeed. If, however, she is discouraged from trying and told
she will probably fail, that same student will likely act in a manner that will
cause her to fail. Similarly, if members of any minority are continually treated
as if they are less intelligent or less competent than the majority, they may
eventually accept this limitation. This acceptance, in turn, may lead them to
place less emphasis on education as a way of succeeding. Given this nega-
tive interaction, and the lack of opportunity to develop their abilities, mem-
bers of minorities may become locked in low-level jobs.

Section 3 Assessment
1. Can you hold a prejudice about a group without discriminating against
that group? Why or why not?
2. Why do you think most stereotypes are negative? Can you think of any
positive stereotypes?
3. Why does conflict exist between African Americans and Latinos?

Critical Thinking
4. Evaluating Information Discuss specific ways in which African
Americans and Latinos have attempted to resolve their role conflicts.
 Chapter 9 Inequalities of Race and Ethnicity 289

W hite supremacists, neo-Nazis, and other hate groups have

discovered the Internet as a channel to spread hatred of
Jews, African Americans, homosexuals, and fundamentalist Christians,
among others (Sandberg, 1999). From one hate site in 1995, the Anti-
Defamation League estimates that there are now thousands of web
sites advocating racism, anti-Semitism, and violence. Aryan Nation
identifies Jews as the natural enemy of whites; White Pride Network of-
fers a racist joke center; Posse Comitatus defends alleged abortion-
clinic bomber Eric Robert Rudolph; World Church of the Creator is
Spinning violently anti-Christian.
Organized racists use high technology to deliver their message to a
mass audience. While members of hate groups used to be recognized
a Web of by their white hoods or neo-Nazi swastikas, they can now just as easily
be wearing business suits instead of brown shirts. The Southern Poverty
Law Center is especially concerned about the repackaging of hate-
Hate based ideologies to make them appear more respectable to mainstream
America. To reach the young, hate web sites offer such child-friendly
attractions as crossword puzzles, jokes, cartoons, coloring books, con-
tests, games, and interactive comic strips.
Not all hate-group activity comes from white supremacists who tar-
get African Americans. The Southern Poverty Law Center also tracks
the activities of Black Separatists and documents several recent hate
crimes committed by blacks against whites. In addition, the continued
immigration of Asians and Central and South Americans is drawing the
angry attention of hate groups of all types. More information on hate
group activities can be found at the Southern Poverty Law Center web
site, http://www.splcenter.org.

Analyzing the Trends

When the economy is not performing well, membership in hate
groups rises, and membership declines when the economy is doing
well. Relate this fluctuating membership pattern to scape-
goating and conflict theory.
How is propaganda used by hate groups to deliver
their message?

Young people today may grow up to be

“Internet policemen.” This software company
CEO designs and markets programs that
prevent children from accessing web sites
their parents think unsuitable.
290 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Section Minority Groups in the

United States
4 K e y T e r m s

• institutionalized discrimination • underclass

• hidden unemployment

Section Institutionalized Discrimination

Preview
M any people believe that discrimination in the United States ended
when civil rights legislation was passed in the 1960s. These laws did

D iscrimination in the
United States has caused
some ethnic and racial groups
stop many discriminatory practices. Nevertheless, minorities in this country
still suffer from what sociologists call institutionalized discrimination. This
type of discrimination results from unfair practices that are part of the struc-
to lag behind the white ma- ture of society and that have grown out of traditional, accepted behaviors.
jority in jobs, income, and ed- Seniority systems, in which promotion and pay increase with years of ser-
ucation. Progress is being vice, for example, can discriminate against minority workers. Because they
made, but gains remain frag- were shut out of jobs in the past, members of minorities are just now begin-
ile. African American, Latino, ning to enter seniority systems. Having fewer years of service than majority
members who have been in the system for years, minority members’ chances
Asian American, Native
for quick promotion are slight, even though the seniority systems may not
American, and white ethnics
have been intentionally designed to obstruct their progress.
are the largest minority Another example of institutionalized discrimination exists in public edu-
groups in this country. cation. Schools with large numbers of minority students are more likely to be
located in large urban areas than in wealthier suburbs. This is the case in part

institutionalized discrimination
unfair practices that grow out
of common behaviors and
attitudes and that are a part of
the structure of a society

Institutionalized discrimination has contributed to the deterioration of some inner-city

public schools.
 Chapter 9 Inequalities of Race and Ethnicity 291
because of white flight to the suburbs. As a result, minority children in many
states are more concentrated in school districts with a tax base too low to
provide resources equal to those in the suburbs. This lack of funding means
that teachers in minority schools receive fewer opportunities for training.
Textbooks, when students have them, are outdated. Parental and community
support is generally not as strong. There is little, if any, money for new tech-
nology, and buildings are badly in need of repair.
Institutionalized discrimination in the United States is reflected in the ex-
periences of minorities—African Americans, Latinos, Native Americans, Asian
Americans, white ethnics, and Jewish Americans. For each minority, the so-
cial and economic costs of discrimination have been enormous.

African Americans
African Americans make up the largest racial minority group in the United
States, numbering almost 34 million, or about 12 percent of the total popu-
lation. (See Figure 9.4.) They are also one of the oldest minorities, first
brought to America as indentured servants and slaves in the early 1600s.
What are the barriers to African American assimilation? There are
many reasons for the lack of acceptance of African Americans into the main-
stream of U.S. society. Skin color and physical features make it possible to
identify at a glance people of African American lineage. This makes it easy
for the dominant white ethnic group to create negative stereotypes based on
physical characteristics.
A second reason for the continuing minority status of African Americans
has its roots in early American history. Brought into the country to labor on
plantations, African Americans were immediately assigned to the lowest class
status. Even when freed, ex-slaves and their descendants in the United States

40

35 35.3
African American 33.9
30
Population (in millions)

25
Latino
20

15
Asian/Pacific Islander 10.5
10

5
Native American/Alaskan Native 2.1
0
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Figure 9.4 U.S. Resident Minority Populations, 1980–2000. This graph

shows the increase in the larger minority populations in the United States since 1980.
Are you surprised by the growth of any group?

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000.

292 Unit 3 Social Inequality

were rarely accepted as equal to free whites. Upward social

mobility for freed slaves (or any African Americans) was vir-
tually impossible.
Slavery was legally abolished by the Thirteenth
Amendment (1865), but the legacy of prejudice and discrimi-
nation that grew out of slavery affects African Americans to this
day. Practices and laws that segregated the races became in-
stitutionalized, especially in the South, but also throughout the
country. Such practices continued until the late 1960s, when
they were made illegal by the passage of civil rights legislation
and by key Supreme Court decisions. In a very real sense,
then, African Americans have experienced barely forty years of
constitutional equality. The gap between African Americans
and whites in education, income, and employment represents
the legacy of centuries of prejudice and discrimination.
What are average income levels for African
Americans? As noted in the Sociological Imagination fea-
ture opening this chapter, average African American income
in the United States is far from equal to the average income
for whites. Specifically, African American income is approxi-
mately 64 percent that of whites. This means that for every
$100 an average white family earns, an average African
American family earns $64. Figure 9.5 shows differences in
Could institutionalized discrimin- household income for various minority groups.
ation help to account for the near Not surprisingly, African Americans and whites also differ in wealth
absence of African Americans in (home and car, business assets, and the like). The average African American
this corporate merger meeting? family holds less than one-quarter of the wealth of the average white family
(U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999e).
How do African Americans fare in the job market? Part of the reason
for the economic differences can be traced to employment patterns. Compared
with white men and women, a lower percentage of African American men and
women are employed in professional, managerial, technical, and administra-
tive occupations. African Americans are almost twice as likely as whites to
work in low-level service jobs (U.S. Department of Labor, 1997).

$51,205
Figure 9.5 Majority and $50,000 1999
Minority Median Household $44,366 1989
Incomes. Explain why
$40,000 $38,053
sociologists consider Asian
Americans a minority group $32,049 $30,735
despite their relatively high $30,000 $27,910
Income

annual income. $23,105

Source: U.S. Bureau of the $19,060
$20,000
Census, 2000.

$10,000

$0
White African American Asian or Pacific Latino Origin
Islander
 Chapter 9 Inequalities of Race and Ethnicity 293
New long-term economic trends threaten to make matters even worse.
These trends include a shift from higher-paying manufacturing jobs to lower-
paying service jobs and replacement of workers because of the transfer of
high-wage jobs to low-wage countries.
Patterns of unemployment also affect the economic status of African
Americans. Jobless rates among African Americans are double those of whites,
and these rates do not account for all unemployed persons. Traditional un-
employment rates are based on the number of unemployed people who are
looking for jobs. They do not include so-called hidden unemployment— hidden unemployment
discouraged workers who have stopped looking or part-time workers who unemployment that includes
would prefer to have full-time jobs. When hidden unemployment is consid- people not counted in the
ered, the jobless rate for African Americans exceeds one in four workers, the traditional unemployment
national unemployment rate during the Great Depression of the 1930s categories
(Swinton, 1989; Wilson, 1997).
The greatest unemployment problem exists among African American
teenagers. According to official statistics, about one out of every three African
American teenagers is unsuccessfully looking for work. With hidden unem-
ployment taken into account, it is estimated that over 40 percent of all African
American teenagers are unemployed. Consequently, thousands of African
American youths are becoming adults without the job experience vital to se-
curing good employment in the future (World Without Work, 1999).

Have African Americans made advances? Education is the

traditional American path to economic gain and occupational pres-
tige. The educational story for African Americans is mixed. As of
1999, 84 percent of whites had finished high school, compared with
77 percent of African Americans. Similarly, where 25 percent of
whites had completed college, only 15 percent of African
Americans had done so.
Moreover, higher educational attainment doesn’t pay off for
African Americans as it does for whites. Although income tends
to rise with educational level for all races, it increases much less
for African American men (and for women of both races) than
for white men. White male high school graduates, on the aver-
age, earn nearly as much each year as African American men
with college associate degrees. At each level of schooling, black
men tend to gain less than their white peers.
While these figures may seem discouraging, real gains have
been made. Since the 1960s, the number of African Americans in
professional and technical occupations—doctors, engineers, lawyers,
This African American congressman
teachers, writers—has increased by 128 percent. The number of African has made providing quality
American managers or officials is more than twice as high as in 1960. As a re- education a top priority.
sult of the recent upward mobility of educated African Americans, some soci-
ologists predict the emergence of two black Americas—a growing black
middle class and a black underclass composed of unemployed people who
come from families that have been poor for generations (Wilson, 1984; Landry, underclass
1988; Kilson, 1998). people typically unemployed
African Americans have seen their political power grow since 1970. More who come from families that
than 5,300 African Americans are serving as city and county officials, up have been poor for
from 715 in 1970. There are nearly 9,000 African American elected officials generations
in the United States, a sixfold increase since 1970 (Yorke, 2000). The emer-
gence of “biracial politics”—election of African Americans in predominantly
294 Unit 3 Social Inequality

white areas—is a hopeful sign. African Americans, though still vastly under-
represented, have entered the “power elite” of America:
Although the power elite is still composed primarily of Christian white
men, there are now . . . blacks . . . on the boards of the country’s largest
corporations; presidential cabinets are far more diverse than was the
case forty years ago; and the highest ranks of the military are no longer
filled solely by white men (Zweigenhaft and Domhoff, 1998:176).

White 69%
Latinos
African American 12%
Latino is a term that refers Latino 12.5%
to ethnic minorities from Latin
America, a region that in- Asian/Other 4.5%
cludes Mexico, Central Amer-
ica, South America, and the
islands of the Caribbean. High
2000
birth rates and immigration
rates make Latinos (along White 53%
with Asian Americans) one of
African American 13%
the fastest-growing minorities
in the United States. In fact, Latino 24%
early in the twenty-first cen- Asian/Other 10%
tury, Latinos overtook African
Americans as America’s largest
minority group (U.S. Bureau
of the Census, 2000). By the 2050
time you retire—about the
year 2050—it is predicted that Percentages do not total 100% due to rounding.
Note: The White, African American, and Asian/Other categories
nearly one out of every four exclude Latinos, who may be of any race.
Americans will be Latino. (See
Figure 9.6.) Figure 9.6 The U.S. Population by Race
What are the largest and Ethnicity, 2000 and 2050. The racial
Latino groups in the United and ethnic composition in the U.S. is expected to
look very different by 2050. Discuss some social
States? Nearly 60 percent consequences of this changing composition.
of Latinos today are of
Mexican descent. Puerto Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000.
Ricans make up a little less
than one-tenth of the total
Latino population. Most Puerto Ricans are concentrated in or near New York
City, although the population is beginning to shift to the outlying areas.
Cubans make up the third most populous group of Latinos, with about one
million people. Most Cuban Americans are located in the Miami, Florida,
area (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1998a).
Like Anglos, Native Americans, and African Americans, Latino peoples are
diverse. Each group came to the United States under different circumstances
and retains a sense of its own identity and separateness. In addition, there are
significant internal differences within individual Latino minorities. For exam-
ple, the first large group of Cuban immigrants to enter the United States were
successful middle- and upper-class people who fled from Cuba when Fidel
 Chapter 9 Inequalities of Race and Ethnicity 295
Castro instituted a communist government
there in the late 1950s. These Cuban Amer-
icans differ substantially from later Cuban im-
migrants, who were relatively uneducated
members of the lower class.
What is the general level of educa-
tion among Latinos? Latinos fall behind
white Americans in formal education. Just
over half of adult Latinos have completed
high school, compared with 84 percent of
non-Latinos. Mexican Americans have the
lowest levels of educational attainment.
Cubans have the highest, owing to the fact
that many Cuban immigrants to the United
States were middle- and upper-class peo-
ple, as explained earlier (Stefancic and
Delgado, 1998). The meager wages earned by
migrant farm laborers still keep
How much money do Latinos earn? Average income for Latinos many Latino children in the fields
($30,735) is higher than that of African Americans but significantly lower than and out of schools where they could
that of non-Latino whites ($44,366). Cubans are the most affluent Latinos, but receive an education.
their median income is only about 75 percent that of whites. The poorest
among the large Latino groups are the Puerto Ricans, whose income is only
half that of whites. Almost one-fourth of Latino families live below the
poverty level, compared with about one-tenth of white non-Latinos (U.S.
Bureau of the Census, 1999).
From the data above, it should come as no surprise that many Latinos
work in low-paying and low-status jobs as semiskilled workers and unskilled
laborers. Mexican Americans make up the majority of migrant workers in the
country. Cuban men belong to the only Latino minority with occupations
similar to those of the white Anglo majority (Moore and Pachon, 1985). The

“
numbers of Latino-owned homes and businesses are increasing rapidly, but
they still fall far behind the national averages.
How do Latinos stand politically? Politically, Latinos are becoming a No one can make you
force in shaping American politics. As of 2000, there were no Latino U.S. sen- feel inferior without your
ators, but seventeen seats in the U.S. House of Representatives were held by
consent.
Latinos. Of these members of Congress, thirteen were Mexican Americans,
three were of Cuban descent, and one was of Puerto Rican ancestry. Issues Eleanor Roosevelt
of education and immigration, as well as income and the quality of life,
promise to keep Latinos politically active.
“
American humanitarian

Native Americans
Today, Native Americans number just over two million. About five hun-
dred separate tribes and bands have been identified in the United States. This
great diversity is generally unrecognized because of stereotyped images of
Native Americans based on old Hollywood films and paperback adventures
of the Old West. In fact, however, tribal groups such as the Navajo and Sioux
are as different from one another as Anglo Americans are from Italians or
Brazilians.
296 Unit 3 Social Inequality

What is the current situation of Native

Americans? Native Americans, perhaps more
than any other minority, are suffering today from
the effects of hundreds of years of discrimination.
Abject poverty remains a major fact of life among
Native Americans, especially on reservations. Just
over one-fourth of the Native American popula-
tion live below the poverty line. Fewer Native
Americans graduate from high school than any
other major minority group.
Native Americans have the lowest annual in-
come of any minority group in the United States
($21,619). Only 20 percent of all employed Native
American men and women hold professional,
managerial, or administrative positions. One-third
are in blue-collar jobs (craftworkers, supervisors,
machine operators, and nonfarm laborers). In
2001 there were two Native Americans in
Congress—one in the Senate and one in the
House of Representatives.
Are conditions on reservations better or
worse? About one-fourth of Native Americans
live on reservations. For these Native Americans,
Some Native American tribes are
becoming more economically
the situation is considerably worse than for those living off the reservations.
independent through the gaming Fully 50 percent of those on reservations live below the poverty level, com-
industry. Not everyone agrees that pared with over 25 percent of the total Native American population.
this will result in long-term gains. Reservation dwellers earn only $16,000 per year on average. The rate of col-
lege education for Native Americans living on reservations is only about half
that for those living off reservations—5 percent versus 9.3 percent (U.S.
Bureau of the Census, 1993e, 1993i).
A recent development on reservations is the introduction of casino-type
gaming establishments. Native American gaming both on and off reservations
has grown unexpectedly into an enormous, rapidly expanding industry. In
1999, over 184 tribes were operating more than 300 gaming facilities. Gaming
revenues had exceeded $10 billion. Most tribal governments use this revenue
to promote services and to promote economic and community development.
Over half the tribal revenues, however, had gone to only ten of the tribes.
Given the poor social and economic conditions on reservations, it is not sur-
prising that the gaming industry has been embraced by many Native
Americans as a source of money. The long-term effects, however, are yet to
be seen.

Asian Americans
More than 10 million Asians live in the United States, comprising 4 per-
cent of the total population. Like Latinos, Asians come from many different
national and ethnic backgrounds. The largest groups are from China, the
Philippines, Japan, India, Korea, and Vietnam.
If a success story can be told for any minority group in America, those
groups are Chinese and Japanese Americans. Even for them, however, the
road has not been smooth.
 Chapter 9 Inequalities of Race and Ethnicity 297
How have Chinese Americans fared over the years? Attracted at first
by the California gold rush, Chinese immigrants arrived in large numbers dur-
ing the 1850s. They worked as agricultural laborers, on railroad crews, and
in low-paying industrial jobs. When hard times hit in the 1870s, unemployed
European Americans began to compete for jobs that the Chinese had held.
Race riots erupted, and the children of Chinese immigrants were barred from
attending schools in San Francisco. Chinese Americans were driven into large
urban ghettos known as Chinatowns, where they are still concentrated today.
Pressure by congressmen from California led to the Chinese Exclusion Act of
1882, which virtually ended Chinese immigration to the United States for
nearly a hundred years.
Although Chinese Americans, in many ways, remain isolated from American
life, their situation began to improve after 1940. American-born Chinese college
graduates began to enter professional occupations, and Chinese American
scholars and scientists began to make publicly recognized contributions to sci-
ence and the arts. Most Americans today recognize Chinese Americans’ willing-
ness to work hard, their dedication to education, and their contributions to
American society.
What has been the history of Japanese Americans in the United
States? Early diplomatic relations between the United States and Japan were
warm and cordial. But beginning in 1885, large numbers of Japanese men im-
migrated to the West Coast of the United States. Their arrival coincided with
the attempt described above to exclude Chinese immigrants. The Japanese suf-
fered prejudice and discrimination during these early years. Nevertheless, they
moved from being laborers in certain industries (railroads, canning, logging,
mining, meat packing) to being successful farmers.
When the Japanese began to compete with white farmers, however,
anti-Japanese legislation was passed. The California Alien Land Bill of 1913,
for example, permitted Japanese to lease farm-
land for a maximum of three years; it did not
allow land they owned to be inherited by their
families. In 1924, the U.S. Congress halted all
Japanese immigration, and the 126,000 Japanese
already in the United States became targets for
still more prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping,
and scapegoating.
In 1941, Japan attacked the Pearl Harbor naval
base in Hawaii, an act that brought the United
States into World War II. Wartime hysteria gener-
ated a fear of a possible Japanese invasion that led
President Franklin Roosevelt to issue Executive
Order 9066. This emergency law moved more than
110,000 Japanese people into internment camps
away from the West Coast. Historians later agreed
that the Japanese Americans had posed no security
threat during World War II. (Immigrants from
Germany and Italy were not relocated, even
though their countries were also at war with the
United States.) Eventually, in the 1980s, the U.S.
government formally apologized to Japanese Over 100,000 Japanese residents in
American internees and paid them $20,000 each in compensation. America were sent to internment
camps during World War II. Many
lost homes and businesses as a result.
298 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Survey Research:
The Legacy of Racism
According to many scholars, African Americans today suffer more
from low economic class than from racism. In a well-known study of
the early 1990s, one sociologist, Joe Feagin, challenged this line of ar-
gument. Feagin set up a study that looked at African Americans’ access
to public accommodations, including restaurants, hotels, and motels.
Feagin interviewed middle-class African Americans in several cities.
He wished to study African Americans in the middle class because they
would have the economic resources needed to take advantage of pub-
lic accommodations. His research was guided by several questions:
Do middle-class African Americans still experience racism in public
accommodations?
If so, how is it manifested?
What means do middle-class African Americans use to handle
discrimination?
What are the effects of discrimination on its victims?
Feagin conducted 37 in-depth interviews. Those interviewed were
drawn from a larger group of 135 middle-class African Americans in
several large cities.
The interviewees were representative of the larger sample based on
such characteristics as occupation, age, income, education, sex, and lo-
cation. The initial participants in the study were identified as middle
class by city-based consultants. Names of additional participants were
suggested by the first people interviewed. (This is known as “snowball”
sampling.) Middle class was defined as “those holding a white-collar
job (including those in professional, managerial, and clerical jobs), col-
lege students preparing for white-collar jobs, and owners of successful
businesses.”
Middle-class African Americans, Feagin concluded, still experience
discrimination based on race. Several types of discrimination were re-
ported by the respondents, including avoidance, verbal attack, physical
abuse, and subtle slights. Rejection and poor service were the most
common forms of discrimination, however.
 Chapter 9 Inequalities of Race and Ethnicity 299
According to Feagin, the most tragic cost of
this continuing discrimination is the ongoing
physical and psychological drain felt by the vic-
tims. Isolated discriminatory acts may appear in-
significant to whites, but years of being the target
of discriminatory actions have a cumulative effect.
Many African Americans report having developed
a “second eye” to analyze interracial situations. As
one respondent said:
I think that it causes you to have to look at
things from two different perspectives. You
have to decide whether things that are done
or slights that are made are made because
you are black or they are made because the
person is just rude, or unconcerned and
uncaring. So it’s kind of a situation where
you’re always kind of looking to see with a
second eye or a second antenna just what’s
going on (Feagin, 1991:115).
Feagin concluded that what may appear to
American whites as “black paranoia,” then, is ac-
tually a developed sensitivity to continuous dis-
criminatory encounters. Despite decades of legal
protection, Feagin says, African Americans have
not attained the full promise of the American
dream. Although middle-class African Americans
work hard for their success, it is too often over-
shadowed by the legacy of past racist actions.

Because of decades of racism and

discrimination, this obviously
successful African American couple
Working with the Research may still have trouble getting a cab
1. Do you agree that disadvantages related to economic class are driver to stop for them.
currently more harmful to African Americans than racism and
discrimination? Why or why not?
2. Do you believe that Feagin adequately tested his hypothesis?
Explain your conclusion.
3. Which of the three major theoretical perspectives best fits
Feagin’s research study? Defend your choice.
300 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Figure 9.7 Socioeconomic Characteristics of Minorities

This figure presents some important social and economic characteristics of the majority and larger minorities
in the U.S. Can you make sociological generalizations about income level and education based on these data?

African Native Asian

Whites Americans Latinos Americans Americans

Percent of Families 7.7% 23.6% 22.8% 25.9% 10.7%

in Poverty

Median Income $44,366 $27,910 $30,735 $21,619 $51,205

Percent with High 84.3% 77.0% 56.1% 66% 84.7%

School Diploma

Percent with 25.9% 15.4% 10.9% 9.4% 42.4%

College Degree

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000.

Visit soc.glencoe.com
and click on Textbook Japanese Americans have not had to deal with the centuries of prejudice
Updates–Chapter 9 for an and discrimination endured by African Americans and Native Americans.
update of the data. Nevertheless, they have overcome great hardship and have become one of
the most successful racial minorities in the United States (Zwiegenhaft and
Domhoff, 1998).
Why have so many Asian Americans been successful? In large part,
Asian Americans have been successful because they have used the educa-
tional system for upward mobility. This is reflected in the academic achieve-
ment of school-aged Asian Americans, whose average SAT scores are 45
points higher than the general high school population. Furthermore, over 42
percent of Asian Americans have completed four years of college, compared
with about 26 percent of whites and 11 percent of Latinos (U.S. Bureau of
the Census, 2000c).

White Ethnics
White ethnics are the descendants of immigrants from Eastern and
Southern European nations, particularly Italy and Poland. They also include
Greek, Irish, and Slavic peoples. The majority are blue-collar workers living
in small communities surrounding large cities in the eastern half of the United
States.
During the 1960s, white ethnics gained the undeserved reputation of
being conservative, racist, pro-war “hardhats.” In fact, surveys conducted dur-
ing the 1960s showed white ethnics to be more against the Vietnam War than
white Anglo-Saxon Protestants. Catholic blue-collar workers were found to
be more liberal than either Protestant blue-collar workers or the country as
a whole. They were more likely to favor a guaranteed annual wage, more
 Chapter 9 Inequalities of Race and Ethnicity 301
likely to vote for an African American
presidential candidate, and more con-
cerned about the environment. Finally,
white ethnics tended to be more sym-
pathetic to government help for the
poor and more in favor of integration.
White ethnics have not traditionally
been the victims of occupational or in-
come discrimination. Despite their rel-
ative success, many white ethnics
have in recent years become very con-
scious of their cultural and national
origins. There is, in fact, a white eth-
nic “roots” movement. The new trend
toward white ethnic identity began
with the black power movement of
the 1960s. Just as many African
Americans decided that they wanted
to preserve their cultural and racial
identities, many white ethnics now believe that “white ethnicity is beautiful.” Why do many of these descendants
of European immigrants wish to be
Many think that the price of completely abandoning one’s cultural and na-
identified as a minority group?
tional roots is simply too high.
Lillian Rubin (1994) links the continuing accent on white ethnicity to the
rising demands of ethnic minorities. White ethnics, she believes, are at-
tempting to establish a public identity that enables them to take a seat at the
“multicultural table.”

Section 4 Assessment
1. How are general discrimination and institutionalized discrimination
different?
2. In what ways have white ethnics influenced American culture?
3. What does the level of Latino participation at the top of the American
political structure suggest about the relationship between cultural group
“
Choose your friends by
their character and your
socks by their color.
membership and political power in the United States?
Choosing your socks by
4. Does the economic situation of Native Americans today help or hurt
the economy? their character makes no
sense, and choosing your
Critical Thinking friends by their color is
5. Drawing Conclusions Do you think that affirmative action has unthinkable.
affected American culture positively or negatively? Explain. “
Anonymous
CHAPTER 9 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Vocabulary
Summary
Complete each sentence, using each term once.
Section 1: Minority, Race, and Ethnicity a. minority j. assimilation
Main Idea: Sociologists have specific definitions b. stereotype k. de jure segregation
particular to their field of study for minority, race, c. hate crime l. de facto
and ethnicity. Ethnic minorities have historically d. self-fulfilling segregation
been subjected to prejudice and discrimination. prophecy m. prejudice
e. race n. discrimination
Section 2: Racial and Ethnic Relations
f. institutionalized o. cultural pluralism
Main Idea: Patterns of racial and ethnic relations discrimination p. racism
take two forms: assimilation and conflict. Patterns g. ethnic minority q. genocide
of assimilation include Anglo-conformity, melting
h. underclass r. hidden
pot, cultural pluralism, and accommodation.
Conflict patterns include genocide, population i. subjugation unemployment
transfer, and subjugation.
1. An expectation that leads to behavior that
causes the expectation to become a reality is
Section 3: Theories of Prejudice and
called .
Discrimination 2. is a group identified by cul-
Main Idea: Prejudice involves attitudes, while tural, religious, or national characteristics.
discrimination is about behavior. Prejudice usually 3. A set of ideas based on distortion, exaggera-
leads to discrimination. Conversely, in some in- tion, and oversimplification is called
stances, discrimination creates prejudiced atti- .
tudes through stereotyping. Each of the three 4. is a group of people with
major perspectives looks at different aspects of physical or cultural characteristics different
prejudice. from the dominant group.
5. People living in poverty and either continu-
Section 4: Minority Groups in the ously unemployed or underemployed are
United States known as .
Main Idea: Discrimination in the United States has 6. The denial of equal access based on law is
caused some ethnic and racial groups to lag be- called .
hind the white majority in jobs, income, and edu- 7. A criminal act that is motivated by prejudice is
cation. Progress is being made, but gains remain called .
fragile. African 8. is a type of subjugation that
American, Latino, takes place outside the law.
Asian American, 9. People who share certain inherited physical
Native American, characteristics are known as .
and white ethnics 10. are unfair practices that are
are the largest mi- Self-Check Quiz part of the structure of a society.
nority groups in Visit the Sociology and You Web
site at soc.glencoe.com and click 11. Treating people differently because of their
this country.
on Chapter 9—Self-Check ethnicity, race, religion, or culture is called
Quizzes to prepare for the .
chapter test.
302
12. is the denial of equal access 10. From what part of the world did the ancestors
based on everyday practice. of white ethnics emigrate?
13. is best described as negative
attitudes toward some minority and its individ-
ual members.
Thinking Critically
14. is the blending or fusing of
minority groups into the dominant society. 1. Making Inferences Several years ago, a high
15. Extreme prejudice is called . school principal canceled his school’s senior
prom when it was brought to his attention that
16. is assimilation that maintains
perhaps a dozen students were planning to
element of ethnic roots.
bring dates from other races. A reaction this ex-
17. is unemployment that in- treme is rare, but strong cultural norms about
cludes people who are not counted in tradi- interracial dating do exist. These norms vary by
tional work categories. class and region. Recent studies have shown
18. The systematic effort to destroy a population is that over half of all teens in the United States
known as . have dated someone of another race, but inter-
racial marriages are not common. Why do you
think people might be willing to date but not
Reviewing the Facts marry outside their race?
2. Applying Concepts Recently, the students and
1. What is the name given to people who have administration at a largely Latino high school
some distinctive characteristic, are dominated by wanted to change the name of the school to
the majority, and are denied equal treatment? honor a deceased Hispanic community leader.
2. What is a feature that is characteristic of a mi- When the school had been built, the neighbor-
nority group? hood had been primarily Anglo. Many of the
3. Name the three patterns of assimilation. old graduates protested the name change, and
4. What is the name of the process that occurred the original name was kept. Can you use what
throughout American history when waves of you have learned in this chapter about the rela-
immigrants came to this country and eventually tionship between cultural group membership
became full members of the dominant class? and political power to explain why the decision
was made to keep the school’s old name?
5. What does the lyric of the following song sug-
gest about prejudice? “You’ve got to be taught 3. Drawing Conclusions A recent documentary
to hate and fear, it’s got to be drummed in your examined a suburb in the Midwest where the
dear little ear.” racial balance had gradually changed from
mostly white to mostly African American. Even
6. How would sociologists explain the fact that on
though statistics proved that school scores had
average, African Americans earn $64 for every
not dropped and that the quality of government
$100 earned by whites?
services remained the same, the perception was
7. What sociological perspective focuses on the that property values had declined. What do you
majority’s subjugation of minorities as a weapon think was responsible for this perception? What
of power and domination? can be done to avoid this type of thinking?
8. Examine Figure 9.7 on page 300. Which racial 4. Applying Concepts Many businesses, colleges,
minority has come the closest to achieving and schools have banned “hate speech” and
mainstream white status? “fighting words” that express views based on
9. How have white ethnics affected business in bigotry or racism. Some people believe that this
American society? ban is the same as censorship and that it vio-

303
CHAPTER 9 ASSESSMENT
lates First Amendment rights to freedom of race is stopped, Ayesha has run twelve miles. If
speech. Others say that the right to free speech you compensate Tony by moving him forward,
ends when speech causes psychological or Ayesha is likely to feel that the race is still not
emotional harm, or when society may be en- fair.
dangered. What is your opinion on hate a. Is there a way to make the race fair for all
speech? How would you handle an individual three runners? Remember, you cannot
who was routinely offensive about your race, restart the race.
gender, or nationality? b. How is institutional discrimination similar to
5. Implementing Solutions Read the following the race described in these questions? What
scenario, and then answer the questions that are the issues in both?
follow based on your best instincts and reason- 7. Evaluating Information Explain how the ex-
ing: Two people are in a twenty-mile race. The periences of various Native American tribes
winner will receive a prize of $100,000. Two of have been different from other racial and ethnic
the competitors—Lynn and Tony—are very minority groups in the United States. Discuss
good runners, and both are in good physical whether you think allowing gaming on Indian
condition. At the beginning of the race Tony is reservations is a long-term benefit or disadvan-
told to put a set of ten-pound ankle weights on tage for Native Americans.
each leg, but Lynn is not. In fact, Lynn does not
8. Making Comparisons How has the African
even know about the weights. When Lynn
American experience in the United States been
reaches the thirteen-mile marker, Tony is two
different from that of other racial and ethnic mi-
miles behind. He is not only exhausted but is
nority groups?
also experiencing a shortened running stride
and is off-rhythm because of the weights. The 9. Understanding Cause and Effect Use the dia-
judges decide to remove the ankle weights from gram below to show the cause-and-effect rela-
Tony. tionship between discrimination and poverty.
Incorporate the elements of unequal educa-
a. Is it fair to continue the race with each
tional opportunity, unfair hiring practices, and
runner finishing from his or her present
low-level jobs to complete your diagram.
position, or should Tony be moved forward
in the race? DISCRIMINATION
b. What is fair to both parties?
c. Assume that the race cannot be restarted.
How do we compensate the runner who
had to carry extra weights for over half of
the race?
d. Are there solutions to the problem?
e. Since the problem is difficult to solve, POVERTY
would it be fair simply to ignore it and
conclude that things will eventually work 10. Evaluating Information Have any of the
out? methods of role conflict resolution used by
6. Analyzing Information Suppose there was a African Americans and Latinos worked?
third competitor in the race described above.
Ayesha is almost as good a runner as Tony and
Lynn. Ayesha does not have to wear ankle Sociology Projects
weights, but both Tony and Lynn have high-
quality professional running shoes, and Ayesha 1. Race and Ethnicity Write a brief answer to
has to run in cheap “tennies.” At the time the each of the following questions.

304
 a. How would you describe yourself racially the economies of the surrounding areas as well.
or ethnically? Asian Americans have a significant presence in
b. How do you think others would California, where sushi bars serve fresh fish and
describe you? Chinese groceries cater to a large clientele.
c. How important is your race or ethnicity to Businesses, in attempts to win new customers
you personally? among these many ethnic groups, often tailor
their print, radio, and television advertising to
d. Do you believe that race or ethnicity is a
cater to immigrant tastes. To do so, advertising
factor in how your friends relate to you?
companies often employ ethnic Americans as
e. Is your community (neighborhood) a models and consultants. Work with one or two
reflection of your race or ethnicity? of your classmates to find information about im-
f. Do you place much importance on race or migrant and Native American cultures in your
ethnicity? community. Analyze changes such as those in
g. Do you think others put a lot of importance advertising, food, and business in your local cul-
on your race or ethnicity? ture that have resulted from adaptations to vari-
h. Is race an important issue in society, or do ous immigrant or Native American cultures.
we make too much of it? Is ethnicity an 4. Native Americans and White Ethnics This
important issue? chapter deals extensively with the effects of
After you have answered these questions, form American culture on various racial and ethnic
a group with two or three of your classmates groups. Minorities, of course, also affect American
and share your responses to questions a–h. Do culture. How have Native Americans and white
you believe their assessments were accurate? ethnics influenced American advertising and food?
2. Ethnic and Racial Heritage This project will Which of the two minorities has had the greatest
give you an opportunity to create a family tree. influence on each of these two aspects of
Ask parents and other relatives about your eth- American culture? Information may be found in
nic/racial heritage, going back as far as you can. print, online, in documentaries, and through inter-
Chances are you have relatives who have old views with a Native American and a white ethnic.
photos with dates and other pieces of informa-
tion. As you trace your family tree, note when Technology Activity
new cultures, races, or ethnicities join the family.
If this has happened several times in your family,
consider how it complicates assigning yourself to 1. The textbook describes a stereotype as a set of
a specific racial and ethnic category. You might ideas based on distortion, exaggeration, and
want to turn this project into an album that your oversimplification that is applied to all members
whole family can enjoy and pass on. of a social category. Popular media often use
stereotypes to convey assumed meanings about
3. Native Americans and Immigrant Cultures
characters and situations. The Movies Cliché List
This chapter deals extensively with the effects of
at http://www.moviecliches.com/ provides an
American culture on various racial and ethnic
abundant list of stereotypes used in films.
groups. Minorities, of course, also affect
American culture. For example, Mexican a. Select “Women” from the Cliché Topics.
Americans play a pivotal role throughout the Name some of the stereotypes about
Southwest, including in Texas, where Mexican women suggested by the list.
restaurants serving enchiladas and fajitas com- b. Do the same for “Men” and “Minorities.”
pete with those serving traditional Texas barbe- c. Based on what you have read in the text and
cue. In many parts of the nation, Native on these lists, do you think stereotypes are
Americans have opened tourist-based businesses. helpful in understanding social categories?
The profits from these businesses have benefited

305
306 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Chapter 9

Enrichment Reading
The Skin Color Tax
Patricia J. Williams

S everal years ago, at a moment when I only middle class but apparently match the cul-
was particularly tired of the unstable tural stereotype of a good white person. It is thus,
lifestyle that academic careers sometimes perhaps, that the loan officer of the bank, whom
require, I surprised myself and bought a real I had never met, had checked off the box on the
house. Because the house was in a state other fair housing form indicating that I was white.
than the one where I was living at the time, I ob- Race shouldn’t matter, I suppose, but it
tained my mortgage by telephone. I am a pru- seemed to in this case, so I took a deep breath,
dent little squirrel when it comes to things crossed out “white” and sent the contract back.
financial, always tucking away stores of nuts for That will teach them to presume too much, I
the winter, and so I meet the criteria of a quite thought. A done deal, I assumed. But suddenly
good credit risk. My loan was approved almost the transaction came to a screeching halt. The
immediately. bank wanted more money, more points, a higher
A little while later, the contract came in the rate of interest. Suddenly I found myself facing
mail. Among the papers the bank forwarded were great resistance and much more debt. To make a
forms documenting compliance with the Fair long story short, I threatened to sue under the act
Housing Act, which outlaws racial discrimination in question, the bank quickly backed down and
in the housing market. The act monitors lending I procured the loan on the original terms.
practices to prevent banks from redlining—redlin- What was interesting about all this was that
ing being the phenomenon whereby banks circle the reason the bank gave for its new-found
certain neighborhoods on the map and refuse to recalcitrance was not race, heaven forbid. No,
lend in those areas. It is a practice for which the it was all about economics and increased risk:
bank with which I was dealing, unbeknownst to The reason they gave was that property values in
me, had been cited previously—as well as since. that neighborhood were suddenly falling. They
In any event, the act tracks the race of all banking wanted more money to buffer themselves against
customers to prevent such discrimination. the snappy winds of projected misfortune.
Unfortunately, and with the creative variability The bank’s response was driven by demo-
of all illegality, some banks also use the racial in- graphic data that show that any time black people
formation disclosed on the fair housing forms to move into a neighborhood, whites are over-
engage in precisely the discrimination the law whelmingly likely to move out. In droves. In
seeks to prevent. panic. In concert. Pulling every imaginable re-
I should repeat that to this point my entire source with them, from school funding to garbage
mortgage transaction had been conducted by tele- collection to social workers who don’t want to
phone. I should also note that I speak a Received work in black neighborhoods. The imagery is aw-
Standard English, regionally marked as North- fully catchy, you had to admit: the neighborhood
eastern perhaps, but not easily identifiable as just tipping on over like a terrible accident,
black. With my credit history, my job as a law pro- whoops! Like a pitcher, I suppose. All that fresh
fessor and, no doubt, with my accent, I am not wholesome milk spilling out running away . . .
 Chapter 9 Inequalities of Race and Ethnicity 307

leaving the dark echoing, upended urn of the anxiety-stricken, middle- What Does it Mean
inner city. class black people make
In retrospect, what has remained so fascinat- grovelingly good cake-
ing to me about this experience was the way it baking neighbors when compliance
so exemplified the problems of the new rhetoric not made to feel defen- agreement with;
of racism. For starters, the new rhetoric of race sive by the unfortunate following the terms of
never mentions race. It wasn’t race but risk with historical strategies of creative variability of all
which the bank was so concerned. bombs, burnings or illegality
Second, since financial risk is all about eco- abandonment.) Rather, I cleverness of wrongdoers
nomics, my exclusion got reclassified as just a con- was being evaluated to get what they want
sideration of class. There’s no law against class based on what an criteria
discrimination, goes the argument, because that abstraction of White
standards on which
would represent a restraint on that basic American Society writ large thinks judgments or decisions
freedom, the ability to contract or not. If schools, we—or I—do, and that are made
trains, buses, swimming pools and neighborhoods imagined “doing” was
procured
remain segregated, it’s no longer a racial problem treated and thus estab-
if someone who just happens to be white keeps lished as a self-fulfilling obtained
hiking up the price for someone who accidentally prophecy. It is a dispirit- recalcitrance
and purely by the way happens to be black. Black ing message: that some reluctance; unwillingness
people end up paying higher prices for the attempt in society apparently not
unbeknownst
to integrate, even as the integration of oneself only devalue black peo-
not knowing; unaware
threatens to lower the value of one’s investment. ple but devalue them-
By this measure of mortgage-worthiness, the selves and their homes
ingredient of blackness is cast not just as a social just for having us as part of their landscape.
toll but as an actual tax. A fee, an extra contribu- “I bet you’ll keep your mouth shut the next
tion at the door, an admission charge for the high time they plug you into the computer as white,”
costs of handling my dangerous propensities, my laughed a friend when he heard my story. It took
inherently unsavory properties. I was not judged me aback, this postmodern pressure to “pass,”
based on my independent attributes or financial even as it highlighted the intolerable logic of it all.
worth; not even was I judged by statistical profiles For by “rational” economic measures, an invest-
of what my group actually does. (For in fact, ment in my property suggests the selling of myself.
Source: Patricia J. Williams, “Of Race and Risk,” The
Nation (December 29, 1997):10.

Read and React

1. What does the author mean when she
writes “All that fresh wholesome milk
spilling out running away . . . leaving
the dark echoing, upended urn of the
inner city”?
2. What are the main issues of what the
author calls the “problems of the new
rhetoric of racism”?
“Let’s just forget for a moment that you’re black.”
3. Why has the author titled this article The
© 1996 The New Yorker Collection, Skin Color Tax?
Mick Stevens. (Reprinted with permission.)
CHAPTER 10
Inequalities of
Gender and Age

308
 U
S Your Sections
I Sociological
N Imagination 1. Sex and Gender Identity
G 2. Theoretical Perspectives
on Gender

T rue or false? Women in the United

States lead the world in efforts to
achieve job equality with men.
Did you answer “true” to this statement?
If so, you may be interested in the follow-
3.
4.
Gender Inequality
Ageism
ing facts. Among industrialized nations, 5. Inequality in America’s
America is surprisingly near the bottom of
the list in ranking male/female income
Elderly Population
equality. Only Luxembourg and Japan have
wider gaps than the United States between
Learning Objectives
what men and women earn for doing the
same work. Swedish women in manufactur-
After reading this chapter, you will be able to
ing jobs, for example, earn about 90 per-
cent of the wages paid men, while females ❖ distinguish the concepts of sex, gender,
in the United States earn only 72 percent of and gender identity.
the wages paid men for the same work
(U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000a).
❖ summarize the perspectives on gender
Throughout history, men have dominated taken by functionalists, conflict theorists,
the social, political, and economic spheres and symbolic interactionists.
outside the home. Traditionally, women ❖ describe the status of women in the
have assumed responsibility for child care United States.
and household tasks. These domestic tasks
❖ compare and contrast the ways in which
are generally undervalued in industrial soci-
functionalism, conflict theory, and sym-
eties, where a person’s contributions to so-
ciety are pegged to monetary rewards.
bolic interactionism approach ageism.
Women—thought to be dependent, passive, ❖ discuss the inequality experienced by
and deferring—have usually been consid- America’s elderly.
ered subordinate to independent, aggres-
sive, and strong men. This division of labor
based on sex has almost always led to gen-
der inequality.
Chapter Overview
This chapter examines how various cul-
Visit the Sociology and You Web site at
tures view gender roles and also how
soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 10—
America looks at its aged population. Chapter Overviews to preview chapter
information.

309
310 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Section
Sex and Gender Identity
1 K e y

• sex
T e r m s

• biological determinism
• gender identity

Section Defining Male and Female

Preview What are little girls made of?
Sugar and spice
A ll societies expect peo-
ple to behave in certain
ways based on their sex.
And everything nice
That’s what little girls are made of.

Through socialization, mem- What are little boys made of?

bers of a society acquire an Snips and snails
And puppy dog tails
awareness of themselves as
That’s what little boys are made of.
masculine or feminine.
Behavioral differences be- As the above well-known nursery rhyme indicates, when it comes to
tween men and women are males and females, most Americans believe that anatomy is destiny. If men
culturally conditioned. and women behave differently, it is assumed to be because of their sex—
the biological distinction between male and female. Males are assumed to be
naturally more aggressive than women and to be built for providing and pro-
tecting. Thought of as being naturally more passive, females are believed to
be designed for domestic work. If this popular conception were true, men

sex
classification of people as male
or female based on biological
characteristics

Many Americans believe that

infant boys are just naturally
more active than infant girls.
Would you agree or not?
 Chapter 10 Inequalities of Gender and Age 311
and women in all societies would behave uniformly in their unique ways be-
cause of inborn biological forces beyond their control. This way of thinking
is called biological determinism—the belief that behavioral differences are biological determinism
the result of inherited physical characteristics. principle that behavioral
The theory of biological determinism lacks scientific proof. Significant be- differences are the result of
havioral differences between men and women have not been causally linked inherited physical
characteristics
to biological characteristics. Although biology may create some behavioral
tendencies in the sexes, such tendencies are so weak that they are easily over-
ridden by cultural and social influences (Ridley, 1996; Sapolsky, 1997).
From the moment of birth—on the basis of obvious external biological
characteristics—males and females are treated differently. Few parents in
American society point with pride to the muscular legs and broad shoulders of
their baby girls or to the long eyelashes, rosebud mouth, and delicate curly hair
of their baby boys. Rather, parents stress the characteristics and behaviors that
fit the society’s image of the ideal male or female, including modes of dress,
ways of walking, manner of talking, play activities, and life aspirations.
Girls and boys gradually learn to behave as their parents expect. From
this process comes gender identity—an awareness of being masculine or gender identity
feminine, based on culture. Sociologist Margaret Andersen succinctly cap- a sense of being male or
tured the difference between sex and gender. female based on learned
cultural values
The terms sex and gender have particular definitions in sociological
work. Sex refers to the biological identity of the person and is meant to
signify the fact that one is either male or female. . . . Gender refers to
the socially learned behaviors and expectations that are associated with
the two sexes. Thus, whereas “maleness” and “femaleness” are biologi-
cal facts, becoming a
woman or becoming a
man is a cultural
process. Like race and
class, gender is a social
category that establishes,
in large measure, our
life chances and directs
our social relations with
others. Sociologists dis-
tinguish sex and gender
to emphasize that gen-
der is a cultural, not a
biological, phenomenon
(Andersen, 1997).
Sociologists are part of
an ongoing debate con-
cerning the reasons for gen-
der differences. At the heart
of the debate is the so-
called nature versus nurture
issue: Does biology or so-
cialization play a greater
role in gender differences?
Today, research by sociolo-
gists and other investigators Gender identities go way back.
312 Unit 3 Social Inequality
is aimed at answering these questions scientifically. Definitions of masculinity
and femininity are now based on research rather than just on tradition and
“common knowledge.”

Biology, Culture, and Behavior

As noted earlier, there are obvious biological differences between males
and females. Biological differences between the sexes include distinctive
muscle-to-bone ratios and how fat is stored. The differences in reproductive
organs, however, are much more important, because they result in certain
facts of life. Only men can impregnate; only women are able to produce
eggs, give birth, and nurse infants. Throughout life reproductive hormones
influence development in both males and females.
Are male and female brains different? Recent research indicates that
the brains of men and women are slightly different in structure (Gur et al.,
1995). For example, men show more activity in a region of the brain thought
to be tied to adaptive evolutionary responses such as fighting. Women have
more activity in a newer, more highly developed re-
gion of the brain thought to be linked to emotional
expression. The female brain is less specialized than
the male brain. Women tend to use both sides of the
brain simultaneously when performing a task.
Whereas men tend to process verbal tasks on the left
side of the brain, women are more likely to use both
sides. Women tend to use both ears when listening
and men tend to use the right ear.
Do such biological differences lead to differ-
ences in social behavior? This is precisely the

Tennessee women’s
basketball coach Pat
Summitt does not fit the
popular stereotype of
womanly behavior. Neither
does Saturday Night Live’s
“Pat” character. In fact, no
one is quite sure what
gender SNL Pat is, anyway.
 Chapter 10 Inequalities of Gender and Age 313
question overlooked by biological determinists who, without evidence, as-
sume that physical differences result in biologically programmed differences
in social behavior. It is true that female babies are more sensitive to sound,
probably because they listen with both ears rather than one. And male infants
and children are more active in play—shouting, yelling, hitting—than females.
Biological determinists point to research that indicates men and women
in dozens of different cultures (at varying stages of economic development)
are associated with some distinctly different ways of behaving. For example,
men and women differ in what they look for in romantic and sexual part-
ners. Men value physical appearance more than women do. Women place
more emphasis on social class and income. Men tend to prefer slightly
younger mates, while women favor slightly older ones. In addition, males in
general tend more toward physical aggressiveness in conflict situations (Buss,
Malamuth, and Winstead, 1998).
The fact that such differences appear in many cultures suggests to some
people that they have a biological cause. However, we don’t yet know for
sure to what extent these differences result from biology or culture, and the
debate on this issue can be furious.
How do sociologists view behavior? The majority of sociologists
argue that gender-related behavior is not primarily the result of biology. They
look to culture for clues. In her classic study of three primitive New Guinean
peoples, anthropologist Margaret Mead (1950) demonstrated the influence of
culture and socialization on gender role behavior.
Among the Arapesh, Mead found that both males and females were con-
ditioned to be cooperative, unaggressive, and empathetic. Both men and
women in this tribe behaved in a way that is consistent with the more tradi-
tional concept of the female gender role. Among the Mundugumor, in con-
trast, both men and women were trained to be “masculine”—they were
aggressive, ruthless, and unresponsive to the needs of others. In the

Anthropologist Margaret Mead’s

research on primitive cultures
added greatly to our knowledge
of gender and human nature.
314 Unit 3 Social Inequality
Tchambuli tribe, the gender roles were the opposite of
those found in Western society. Women were domi-
nant, impersonal, and aggressive, and men were de-
pendent and submissive.
On the basis of this evidence, Mead concluded that
human nature is sufficiently flexible to rule out biologi-
cal determination of gender roles. Cross-cultural re-
search since Mead’s landmark work has clearly
supported her findings: gender roles are not fixed at
birth (Janssen-Jurreit, 1982; Montagu, 1998).
Case studies have also been examined on infants
whose parents intentionally treated their children as if
they belonged to the opposite sex. Apparently, indi-
viduals can fairly easily be socialized into the gender of
the opposite sex. What’s more, after a few years, these
children resist switching back. In general, research on
Males have proven that they can also
gender identity indicates that biological tendencies can
function successfully in careers that be greatly influenced by culture and society (Schwartz, 1987; Shapiro, 1990;
require a high degree of nurturing Ridley, 1996; Sapolsky, 1997).
and communication skills. What can we conclude from studies about male and female behaviors?
In general, researchers investigating behavioral differences between the sexes
have not been able to prove that any particular behavior has a biological cause.
One researcher’s findings tend to contradict another’s.
Any conclusions we reach should also take into account several difficul-
ties with the research. Many studies seek to find differences but ignore the
overriding similarities between males and females. To make matters worse,
researchers often fail to note the variation that exists within each sex. Some
men, for example, tend to be submissive and noncompetitive, and some
women are aggressive and competitive.
While biological characteristics exist, they can be modified through social
influences. In other words, men and women can learn to be submissive or
aggressive by mirroring the behaviors of influential role models, such as par-
ents or siblings. Also, this is a good time to remind ourselves that human be-
havior is the result of multiple causes.

Section 1 Assessment

“
1. How is gender different from sex?
2. How are gender traits acquired?
3. Researchers investigating behavioral differences between the sexes
Male and female personal- have now proven that several significant behaviors have a biological
cause. T or F ?
ities are socially produced.
Margaret Mead Critical Thinking
“
American anthropologist 4. Summarizing Information Suppose that, after your graduation, one
of your teachers invites you back to speak to the class on the
biological determinism versus socialization debate as it relates to
gender. How would you summarize the effects that scientific research
on gender has had on males and females of your generation?
 Chapter 10 Inequalities of Gender and Age 315

Another
Time Manly Hearted Women

I n the northern [Native American] Plains cul-

tures, certain women adopted elements of
male social behavior, acting aggressive and domi-
neering. The Blackfoot called them ninau-
poskitzipxe, which means literally “the manly
hearted women.” Women ordinarily were passive
and docile, but manly hearted women were ag-
gressive and outspoken in public affairs. At the
same time they were wives and mothers and were
involved in female tasks.
Manly hearted women were invariably wealthy,
due in large part to their own industry. They could
tan more buffalo robes and produce better quality
and greater amounts of quill and beadwork than
other women. Many were also medicine women,
which not only enhanced their status but also
brought them additional wealth. Their wealth was
a key factor in their relations with men, because
among the Blackfoot wealth and generosity were
more highly regarded than bravery and war deeds
in determining social status. The Blackfoot Indians thought manly hearted women
Because of their wealth and industry, manly made good wives.
hearted women were major economic assets to
their husbands, and thus desirable wives. These
same characteristics also made them independent. Whereas most women were retiring and quiet in
Within the family a manly hearted woman had an public discussions, manly hearted women joined
equal say, if not the dominant voice. As a in and even argued with others, “just as though
Blackfoot once commented . . . , “It’s easy to spot they were men.” Whereas other women were shy
a manly hearted woman; the husband simply has at dances, manly hearted women aggressively
nothing to say.” Not only did they retain control of chose their own partners. They were known for
their own wealth, but they frequently controlled their sharp and cutting remarks, and it was said
the property of their husbands as well. Because that a manly hearted woman would “take no lip”
they were economically more self-sufficient than from either a man or another woman.
other women, many manly hearted women chose Source: Excerpted from James Peoples and Garrick Bailey,
to divorce their husbands and support their chil- Humanity (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2000), pp. 164–165.
dren by their own industry.
Their public behavior also distinguished them. Thinking It Over
Their wealth made it possible for them always to
dress in the finest clothes. Whereas other women How would you use this manly hearted women
modestly covered themselves with shawls and story to argue that gender identity of American
blankets, manly hearted women usually did not. women is not biologically determined?
316 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Section Theoretical Perspectives

2 on Gender
K e y T e r m

• gender socialization

Section Functionalism
Preview and Gender

T he functionalist perspec-
tive focuses on the ori-
gins of gender differences.
F unctionalists argue that
any pattern of behavior
that does not benefit society
Conflict theory looks at the will become unimportant. Ac-
reasons gender differences cording to functionalism, the
continue to exist. Symbolic division of responsibilities be-
tween males and females sur-
interactionism attempts to
vived because it benefited
explain the ways in which
human living. Early humans
gender is acquired. found that the division of labor
based on sex was efficient. In
part because of their size and
muscular strength, men hunted
and protected. In addition,
men were assigned these dan-
gerous tasks because they were
more expendable than women.
One male was enough to en-
sure that the group’s chances
of surviving through reproduc-
tion; one woman was not. Thus,
it hurt the group’s chances of
survival less to lose a man.
Today, functionalists recog-
nize that the traditional division
of labor has created problems,
or dysfunctions, for modern
society. These dysfunctions are This family is structured along traditional gender
examined later, in the discus- roles. How would the functionalist interpret this
sion on gender inequality. arrangement?

Conflict Theory and Gender

According to conflict theory, it is to the advantage of men to prevent
women from gaining access to political, economic, and social resources. If
men can prevent women from developing their potential, they can maintain
 Chapter 10 Inequalities of Gender and Age 317
the status quo. By keeping the
traditional division of labor in-
tact, men can preserve the priv-
ileges they enjoy.
Perhaps the most recent
example of maintaining the gen-
der status quo was found in
Afghanistan, when the ruling
Taliban militia practiced “gender
apartheid.” This gender war
trapped women in a way of life
unknown elsewhere in the mod-
ern world (O’Dwyer, 1999). The
Taliban prohibited girls from at-
tending school and banned
women from all work outside the
home. Women who left home
without the protection of a male
relative were punished, and the
windows of houses were painted
black to prevent anyone from
catching a glimpse of the women. Women are moving into
In public, women remained mute; even the soles of their shoes were soft to traditional male roles in
business in greater numbers.
prevent wearers from making noise and drawing attention to themselves.
Not everyone appears to be
Conflict theorists see traditional gender roles as outdated. Although these ready for this.
conventional roles may have been appropriate in hunting and gathering, hor-
ticultural, and agricultural societies, they are inappropriate for the industrial
and postindustrial era.
Male physical strength may have been important when hunting was the
major means of subsistence, but work in modern society does not place
men at an advantage over women in that regard. In addition, demographic
characteristics make women today more available for work outside the
home. Women are marrying later, are having fewer children, are younger
when their last child leaves home, are remaining single in greater num-
bers, and are increasingly choosing to be single parents. (See Chapter 11
for more information on women and the family.) According to conflict
theorists, women who prefer careers in fields formerly reserved for men
have every right to make that choice, whether or not it is “functional” for
society.

Symbolic Interactionism and Gender

Symbolic interactionists focus on how boys and girls learn to act the way
they are “supposed to act.” This process is called gender socialization. gender socialization
Gender is acquired in large part from interaction with parents, teachers, and the social process of learning
peers. In addition, gender concepts are taught through the mass media. how to act as a boy or girl
Indeed, the effect of the media is very powerful.
How do parents contribute to gender socialization? Parents are vi-
tally important in gender socialization because they transfer values and at-
titudes regarding how boys and girls should behave. The learning of
gender begins at birth and is well established by the time the child is two
318 Unit 3 Social Inequality

World View Women in the Workplace

In most countries of the world, fewer women than
men are employed in the labor force. In addition, the
higher-paying jobs and better opportunities mostly
still go to men. This map shows the percentage of
women in various national labor forces.

North
Nor th Percent of Labor Force
Europe
Europe That Is Female
America
50% or more
Asia 40%– 49%
30%–39%
20%–29%
10%–19%
Less than 10%

Africa
South
America

Australia

Interpreting the Map

1. The countries with the highest percentage of women in the workplace include both highly de-
veloped countries such as the United States, Germany, and France and relatively undeveloped
countries such as Mongolia, Tanzania, and Ethiopia. Can you think of some reasons for this?
2. Create a graph representing any other patterns you may find in this map.

Adapted from The State of the World Atlas, 5th ed.

and a half years old (Davies, 1990). Immediately after birth, friends and rel-
atives give gifts “appropriate” to the child’s sex, such as blue or pink blan-
kets, baseball playsuits or frilly dresses, and trucks or dolls. (In fact, when
boys do play with dolls, they are called action figures to distinguish the
boys’ toys from “girl” toys.) Studies of infant care have found that girls are
cuddled more, talked to more, and handled more gently than are boys.
Parents expect boys to be more assertive than girls are, and they discour-
age them from clinging.
Gender is also taught and reinforced in the assignment of family chores.
In an investigation of almost seven hundred children between the ages of
two and seventeen, Lynn White and David Brinkerhoff (1981) found that
boys were often given “masculine” jobs, such as cutting grass and shoveling
snow. Girls were more often assigned “feminine” chores, such as washing
dishes and cleaning up the house.
 Chapter 10 Inequalities of Gender and Age 319
In what ways do schools reinforce gender socialization? Although
the most critical period of gender socialization occurs during early childhood,
gender socialization occurs through the schools as well (Martin, 1998).
Observation of preschool teachers reveals that many teachers encourage dif-
ferent behaviors from boys and girls. This pattern continues in the elemen-
tary school years.
Myra and David Sadker, in an extensive study of fourth-, sixth-, and
eighth-grade students, found boys to be more assertive in class. Boys were
eight times more likely than girls to call out answers, whereas girls sat pa-
tiently with their hands raised. The researchers linked this classroom behav-
ior to the differential treatment given boys and girls by teachers. Teachers
were more likely to accept the answers given by boys who called out an- Student Web Activity
swers. Girls who called out in class were given such messages as, “In this Visit the Sociology and
class we don’t shout out answers; we raise our hands.” According to Sadker You Web site at
and Sadker, the message is subtle and powerful: “Boys should be academi- soc.glencoe.com and click on
cally assertive and grab teacher attention; girls should act like ladies and Chapter 10—Student Web
keep quiet” (Sadker and Sadker, 1995). Activities for an activity on
Other areas in junior high school and high school where gender social- gender socialization in
ization is concentrated include clothing styles, school elections, social func- schools.
tions, and after-school activities.
In their book Failing at Fairness, the Sadkers examined sexism from ele-
mentary school through college. They concluded that, through differential
treatment, America’s schools often shortchange females. Academically, girls
typically outperform boys in the early years of school. Through the transmis-
sion of gender role values, well-intentioned teachers often dampen female
competitiveness. Girls, the study concludes, are subtly but systematically
taught to be passive, to dislike math and science, and to defer to boys.
Females tend to carry these attitudes into adult life and into the working
world.

Figure 10.1 Focus on Theoretical Perspectives

Gender Inequality. Each of the major theoretical perspectives can focus on gender inequality in its own
unique way. Explain why the examples given fit each theoretical perspective. How would each of the other
theories approach the same social arrangement differently?

Theoretical Social
Perspective Arrangement Example
Functionalism Gender-based division Women are expected to perform household tasks
of labor for the benefit of society.

Conflict Theory Patriarchy (male Women are denied high status occupations for the
domination) benefit of men.

Symbolic Favoring males over Few females believe they can become scientists.
Interactionism females in the
classroom
320 Unit 3 Social Inequality

These active girls do not fit the

stereotypical image of male football
player/female cheerleader. How do peers contribute to gender socialization? Adolescents want to
be liked, so acceptance or rejection by peers greatly influences their self-
concepts. Teens who most closely mirror traditional gender roles, such as male
football players and female cheerleaders, are generally given the greatest re-
spect, whereas “feminine” boys and “masculine” girls are assigned low status.
This peer group pressure encourages teenagers to try to conform to idealized
role models. To do otherwise is to risk rejection and a significant loss of self-

“
esteem (Erikson, 1964, 1982; Adler and Adler, 1998).

Women who seek to Section 2 Assessment

be equal to men lack
1. Why do functionalists believe that gender differences have survived?
ambition.
2. How do symbolic interactionists explain gender roles?
automobile
“ 3. How do teachers and peers influence the development of gender
bumper sticker concepts?

Critical Thinking
4. Analyzing Information Of the major factors influencing gender
identity, which do you think has had the most effect on your
development? Explain.
 Chapter 10 Inequalities of Gender and Age 321

Sociology Gender-Based
Today Hierarchy
In the not-too-distant past, most doctors were men, who worked closely on a daily basis with fe-
male nurses and receptionists who were clearly subordinate to them. This pattern has not disap-
peared despite the influx of women into the ranks of physicians. In many occupational settings
today, most of the executives, supervisors, or higher-level professionals are men, assisted by female
secretaries, clerks, aides, or lower-level managers. . . .
When women enter a workplace they frequently find a male hierarchy already established.
Whether a woman’s entry creates tensions for herself or others in the workplace presumably depends
on the level of the job she takes and the source of any authority inherent in the job. She may come in
at a subordinate level as a clerk or receptionist. But if she comes in at the same level as male co-
workers, she will be faced with the unaccustomed process of jockeying for position among them, and
competing with them for the attention and approval of the people higher up in the hierarchy. If she
comes in as a manager or supervisor who has male subordinates, she must learn how to deal with
people who may want her job, or who may find it difficult to adjust to being supervised by a woman.
Some men believe so strongly in male superiority that they resist women’s advancement up the work-
place hierarchy. Such men sometimes say quite explicitly that it would be “an insult to their intelli-
gence” to be supervised by a woman. . . . And there are fairly widespread male beliefs concerning the
“natural” (male-dominant) relation between the sexes. In adulthood there is a strong stereotype associ-
ating power with masculinity . . . just as there was in childhood, so that women in supervisory posi-
tions generate ambivalent reactions in men: are they to treat this woman as a powerful person or a
feminine person? If she is seen as feminine, then a man with traditional attitudes might feel it is ap-
propriate to be protective and chivalrous, or at least courteous, while at the same time failing to take
her seriously where work-related matters are concerned; clearly, he would expect to be the person
who “takes charge” when they interact. Can he forget that a female supervisor is female, and adapt
himself to a situation where she is the one who takes charge? It is much easier for men—and perhaps
for many women too—to slip into a traditional male boss/female secretary or male
doctor/female nurse kind of work relationship in which the “appropriate” power relationships be-
tween the sexes are maintained in the workplace hierarchy. Such traditional attitudes may be weaken-
ing, but they are still prevalent enough to impede the promotion of women in many situations.
Excerpted from Eleanor E. Maccoby, The Two Sexes: Growing Up Apart, Coming Together. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1998, pp. 247–248.

Doing Sociology
Talk to several men and women with work experience. Ask them a few open-ended questions that
you make up to test Maccoby’s contention. In your verbal or written report, be specific about simi-
larities or differences in male and female answers.
322 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Section
Gender Inequality
3 K e y

• sexism
T e r m s

• occupational sex segregation

Section Women as a Minority Group

Preview
M ost scientists consider biological determinism to be a moral threat be-
cause historically it has been used to rationalize the treatment of some

A lthough great progress

has been made, women
today are still subject to
people as inferior. This view, in short, has led to racism and sexism. Sexism
is defined as a set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, and values used to justify gen-
der inequality. Just as minorities suffer from the effects of racism, women are
prejudice and discrimination. hurt by sexism. Sexist ideology—the belief that men are naturally superior to
This imbalance of power is women—has been used and is still being used to justify men’s leadership and
seen most clearly in the power positions in the economic, social, and political spheres of society.
areas of economics, law, and Isn’t sex discrimination disappearing? The answer is yes and no.
politics. Some segments of American society now have more positive attitudes about
women. And a few women now hold key positions traditionally reserved for
men. In 1999, for example, Carleton Fiorina became the first female CEO
(chief executive officer) of one of the thirty companies that make up the
Dow Jones Industrial Average. In that same year, Eileen Collins became the
sexism first female NASA shuttle commander.
a set of beliefs, attitudes, Still, a careful examination reveals many gaps in social rights, privileges,
norms, and values used to and rewards for women in the United
justify sexual inequality States (Valian, 1998). These gaps, although
they have closed somewhat in recent years,
are reflected in the continuing inequality
experienced by American women (Bianchi
and Spain, 1996; Riley, 1997).

Occupational and
Economic Inequality
By far the most important labor devel-
opment in the United States over the last
thirty years has been the dramatic increase
in the number and proportion of women
in the workforce. In 1999, 65 percent of
women worked outside the home com-
pared with 77 percent of men. That same
year, women represented just under 50 Hewlett-Packard president and CEO
Carleton Fiorina has successfully
percent of the U.S. labor force. (See Figure battled sexism in her career.
10.2 on the next page.)
 Chapter 10 Inequalities of Gender and Age 323
1870 1900 1930
Male 85.2% Male 81.9% Male 78.1%
Female 14.8% Female 18.1% Female 21.9%

1960 2006 (projected)

Male 67.9% Male 52.5%
Female 32.1% Female 47.5%

Figure 10.2 Composition of the U.S. Labor Force, by Sex: 1870–2006.

As this figure demonstrates, the male-female composition of the U.S. labor force has
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steadily moved toward parity. The female percentage of the labor force has moved
and click on Textbook
from less than 15 percent in 1870 to just under 50 percent today. What do you think
Updates–Chapter 10 for
is the most important social consequence of this change?
an update of the data.
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001.

The greatest change in patterns of work involves married women with

children under six years of age. The proportion of women in this group who
work outside the home rocketed from 19 percent in 1960 to 37 percent in
1975 to 64.6 percent in 2000 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001). (A dis-
cussion of working women’s effects on the family appears in Chapter 11.)
What kinds of jobs are women doing? Although women are partici-
pating in the labor force at increasing levels, they are concentrated in lower-
status occupations. This is known as occupational sex segregation. Only occupational sex segregation
11 percent of engineer positions are held by women, and about 29 percent the concentration of women
of attorney jobs. By contrast, women occupy nearly all of the “pink-collar” in lower-status positions
jobs—secretaries, clerks, stenographers—whose purpose is to support those
higher up the occupational ladder (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000d).
Moreover, when women are in high-status occupational groups, they are
concentrated in lower-prestige, lower-paid jobs. Female lawyers in firms sel-
dom occupy the higher-level administrative positions. Even within female-
dominated occupations, such as public school administration, a
disproportionate share of higher positions are filled by men.
Do women earn less than men? As you read in the Using Your
Sociological Imagination feature at the beginning of the chapter, there is a
324 Unit 3 Social Inequality
wide discrepancy between the earnings of American women
and men. In 1999, women who worked full-time earned only
seventy-two cents for every dollar earned by men. To put it
another way, women now work about seven days to earn as
much as men earn in five days. The good news is that this
salary gap has decreased since 1980, when women were earn-
ing 60 percent as much as men. (See Figure 10.3 below.)
Are all occupations affected? In virtually every occu-
pational category, men’s earning power outstrips that of
women. The earnings gap persists, regardless of educational
attainment. Women in the same professional occupations as
men earn less than their male counterparts, as illustrated in
Figure 10.4 on the opposite page. This is true even for women
who have pursued careers on a full-time basis for all of their
adult lives. Furthermore, males in female-dominated occupa-
tions typically earn more than women.
How do American women fare globally? As noted in the
Using Your Sociological Imagination feature opening this chap-
These Japanese women are almost ter, women in the United States do not fare very well economi-
certainly not earning as much as cally compared with women in other developed countries. Here, of course, we
men in equivalent positions.
are talking about relative earning power, or what women earn compared to
men—not absolute dollar amounts. Although women in the United States are
not at the bottom of the equality list, they are closer to the bottom than the
top. In dramatic contrast is Australia, where women earn more than men! (See
Figure 10.5.)

100%
Women's earnings as a percentage

80% 74% 74%

71% 72%
64% 65%
61%
of men's earnings

60% 59% 59% 60%

60%

Visit soc.glencoe.com 40%

and click on Textbook
Updates–Chapter 10 for
an update of the data. 20%

0
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1999
1997

Figure 10.3 What Women Earn Compared to Men. This figure traces the
ratio of women’s to men’s earnings since 1955. Discuss two important conclusions you
can make from these data. Use material in the text to help.

Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001.

 Chapter 10 Inequalities of Gender and Age 325
Registered Nurses 94%

Pharmacists 90%

College Professors 93%

Schoolteachers 89%

Engineers 91%

Advertising Executives 95%

Human Resources Specialists 73%

Accountants 73%

Purchasing Agents 69%

Attorneys 73%

Insurance Agents 70%

0 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Women’s earnings as a percentage of men’s earnings

Figure 10.4 Female-to-Male Earnings: 2000. On average, women in the U.S. earn about 72 cents for every dollar a
man earns. In what way do the data in this figure support the contention that gender inequality is real?

Source: “The 21st Annual Salary Survey,” Working Woman (August, 2000).

Legal and Political South Korea 63%

Japan 65%
Inequality Brazil 75%
Supporters of women’s rights point United States 72%
to laws that show a bias against Costa Rica 84%
women. National, state, and local legal France 80%
codes, they claim, reflect a sexual bias
Botswana 97%
that results in important differences
between the levels of political power Egypt 93%
of women and men. Philippines 91%
Australia 102%
What are some biases in law?
An example that women’s groups 0 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
point to is the U.S. Supreme Court de- Women’s earnings as a percentage of men’s earnings
cision that refused to grant women the
legal guarantee of health insurance Figure 10.5 Women’s Wages
benefits for pregnancy-related medical costs. This was despite the fact that Compared with Men’s Wages
medical coverage for conditions unique to men—such as prostate problems in Selected Countries. This
and vasectomies—was routinely provided. figure compares what men and
Some states have traditionally refused women the right to keep their own women earn in various foreign
surnames after marriage. Other states have had protective legislation restrict- countries. The data only considers
the wages of nonagricultural workers.
ing women’s rights. Such protective legislation limited the number of hours What does the score of 102 percent
women could work. It also limited the conditions under which they could for Australia mean?
work, with actions such as barring women from toxic areas because of po-
tential birth defects in their children. It even limited the kinds of work they Source: International Labour
could do by regulating such matters as the amount of weight a woman could Organization, Yearbook of Labour
be permitted to lift (thirty pounds). Supporters of these laws viewed them as Statistics, 2000.
326 Unit 3 Social Inequality
30%

25%

22% 22% 22%

21% 21%
Percentage of women in

20% 17% 18 %
elective offices

16%
State Legislatures 15% 14%
15%
13%
12% 11% 12%
10% 10% 10%
10% 9%
8% U.S. Congress
6%
5% 5% 5%
5% 4% 4%
3% 3% 3%

0
1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001

Figure 10.6 Percentages of Women in Elective Offices. This graph shows the degree of female success in elective
politics from 1975 to today. Explain why the figures are still so low.

Source: Center for the American Woman and Politics, National Information Bank on Women in Public Office, Eagleton Institute
of Politics, Rutgers University.

safeguards against abuse and exploitation of women. However, the end re-
sult was that women were denied certain jobs, many of which are better paid
than more traditional occupations for women.
Passage of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 nullified such laws, but
their practice still lingers. Moreover, the Family and Medical Leave Act (1993),
which requires that employees be given up to twelve weeks without pay for
childbirth, adoption, personal illness, or caring for a family member with a
serious illness, still negatively affects women. Because women are more

“This woman’s place is in

the House—the House of
likely to take maternity leave than men are to take paternity leave, this leg-
islation gives employers another reason to give hiring preference to men.
There are differences by gender in criminal law as well. Certain crimes
are typically associated with one gender or the other. For example, laws
against prostitution are generally enforced against only the female prostitutes,
Representatives. while their male customers go free.

Bella Abzug How do American women stand politically? Women appear to be

“ participating in elective politics at an increasing rate. (See Figure 10.6
U.S. representative above.) Recently, the numbers of female governors, lieutenant governors,
attorneys general, and mayors have been growing. Some increases have oc-
curred at the national level as well. In 1984, Geraldine Ferraro became the
first female vice-presidential candidate in the history of the United States;
Madeleine Albright was named the first female secretary of state in 1996;
Elizabeth Dole campaigned for her party’s nomination for president before
the election of 2000.
Still, although women constitute more than half the population, they hold a
relatively small proportion of important political positions. (See Figure 10.7.)
 Chapter 10 Inequalities of Gender and Age 327

Figure 10.7 Women in National, State, and

Local Political Positions, 2002
This table contains the number and percentage of women today in selected political positions. Describe the
types of political offices in which women have been the most successful.

Number of Percentage
Position Women Female
Federal legislative branch
U.S. representative 60 14%
U.S. senator 13 13
House leadership post 6 1
Senate leadership post 5 5

Federal judicial branch

Supreme Court justice 2 22
U.S. Court of Appeals, chief judge 1 8
U.S. District Court judge 7 8

Federal executive branch

Cabinet member 3 21
Executive agency head 2 22
Principal advisor, office of the president 4 36

State executive branch

Governor 5 10
Lt. governor 17 34
Attorney general 8 16
Secretary of state 13 26
State treasurer 12 24

State legislative branch

State representative 1,668 23
State senator 403 20

Local executive branch

Mayors of 100 largest cities 12 12
Mayors of cities over 30,000 202 21
All mayors and municipal council members in cities over 10,000 4,513 21
Source: Center for the American Woman and Politics, Rutgers University, “Fact Sheet,” 2002.

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Updates–Chapter 10 for
an update of the data.
328 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Women occupied only 13.8 per-

cent of the seats in the U.S.
House of Representatives in
2001. And although the number
of female U.S. senators increased
from two to thirteen over the
1990s, women still represented
just 13 percent of the Senate in
2001 (Center for the American
Woman and Politics, 2001).
Women in Congress have seldom
risen to positions of power. Only
ten females chair House or
Senate standing committees.
The record for women in ap-
pointed offices is also poor.
Although there have been re-
cent increases in the number of
appointments, the total is ex-
Women are more likely than men tremely small. When President Jimmy Carter appointed two women to his
to take extended leaves of absence
cabinet in 1977, it was the first time two women had sat on the Cabinet at
for such things as maternity leave.
How does this affect their lifetime
one time. President Bill Clinton, almost twenty years later, appointed three
earnings? women to Cabinet posts. Still, the total number of women who have ever
served as Cabinet officers is very small. President Ronald Reagan appointed
the first woman Supreme Court justice, Sandra Day O’Connor, in 1981; and
President Clinton elevated Ruth Bader Ginsburg to the high court in 1993.
Only a small percentage of federal judges are women.
The number of women holding public office in the United States is among
the lowest in the Western world. With some notable exceptions, Western

“
European nations have much greater female political participation. In the
Scandinavian countries, for example, up to 20 percent of members of parlia-
ment are women.
If women want any rights Sociologists Richard Zwiegenhaft and William Domhoff (1998) do point
more than they’s got, out that women are now part of the power elite. The power elite is no longer
the exclusively male group it used to be. Still, women are seriously under-
why don’t they just take represented, and most of those women who do join the power elite come
them, and not be talking from upper-class backgrounds.
about it.
“
Sojourner Truth Section 3 Assessment
American abolitionist 1. Define sexism.
2. Give several examples of legal bias against women.

Critical Thinking
3. Evaluating Information Do you support or oppose affirmative
action programs for women in the workplace? Give reasons for your
answer.
 Chapter 10 Inequalities of Gender and Age 329

A lthough women are still subject to discrimination in some tech-

nical careers, such as computer programming and information
systems analysis, they are finding more and better opportunities in
Internet business fields than in any other area of business. Women
have founded and become chief executive officer (CEO) of many
high-tech companies, including Marimba, Oxygen Media, iVillage,
and Women.com. Kim Polese, CEO of Marimba, was featured on
more business magazine covers in 1998 than Bill Gates, founder and
CEO of Microsoft.
Men, These unanticipated opportunities for women are due to several
factors. First, whereas most American industries developed when
women were expected to stay at home, the system that would become
Women, the Internet was started only about thirty years ago. The Internet itself
did not become really popular until the mid-1990s. By that time,
women had already entered the workforce in large numbers and had
and the begun to occupy mid- and upper-level management positions.
Second, women are able to profit from the tremendous demand for
experienced marketing managers created by the Internet. Because
Internet women are responsible for some 85 percent of purchasing decisions in
non-Internet businesses, they have the experience to move into market-
ing management positions. Internet
companies have turned to these
women to fill important positions.
Third, the Internet has created an
astronomical demand for skilled high-
tech workers. American high-tech
firms are desperate for workers, and
they are turning to women as an
underutilized resource.
Of course, not all women entering
Internet businesses escape sexism.
This trend, nonetheless, is a step to-
ward greater workplace equality.
Because the Internet has rapidly be-
come such a large part of the U.S.
economy, and because it will only con-
tinue to grow, the information age
holds considerable promise for gender
equality.

The Internet is helping to open Analyzing the Trends

up greater gender equality in the
workplace. Choose one of the three major theoretical perspectives, and analyze
the rise of women in Internet businesses. Use information from this
chapter to support your analysis. Predict whether or not the rise of
women in Internet businesses will lead to improved gender equality
in other workplace arenas.
330 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Section
Ageism
4 K e y T e r m s

• age stratification
• ageism

Section Defining Ageism

Preview
C hronological age is another basis for social ranking. For this reason,
sociologists are interested in age stratification—when the unequal

T he relatively low social

standing of older people
is based on ageism. Each of
distribution of scarce resources (power, wealth, prestige) in a society is based
on age. Like inequality based on race, ethnicity, or gender, age stratification
must be socially justified. The rationale for aged-based inequality comes in the
the theoretical perspectives form of ageism—a set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, and values used to justify
has a unique slant on prejudice and discrimination against a particular age group. Although age can
ageism. Stereotypes are be an advantage or disadvantage for any group, sociologists are especially in-
often used to justify preju- terested in inequality among older people. As the median age of the U.S. pop-
dice and discrimination, ulation grows older, this form of ageism affects more and more people.
which can harm the self-
concepts of older people. Functionalism and Ageism
According to functionalists, elderly people in a given society are treated
according to the role the aged play in that society. In many societies, ageism
is not an issue. In fact, elderly people in many cultures are treated with great
age stratification respect and honor. (See the Focus on Research on page 334.)
the unequal distribution of In agricultural societies, elderly males usually play important roles, such
scarce resources based on age as the role of priest or elder. Donald Cowgill and Lowell Holmes give ex-
amples of societies in which the elderly are highly valued.
In all of the African societies, growing old is equated with rising status
ageism and increased respect. Among the Igbo,
a set of beliefs, attitudes, the older person is assumed to be wise:
norms, and values used to this not only brings him respect,
justify age-based prejudice and since he is consulted for his wisdom,
discrimination it also provides him with a valued
role in his society. The Bantu
elder is “the Father of His
People” and revered as such.
In Samoa, too, old age is “the
best time of life” and older
persons are accorded great
respect. Likewise, in Thailand,
older persons are honored and
deferred to and Adams reports
respect and affection for older
people in rural Mexico
(Cowgill and Holmes, 1972).
 Chapter 10 Inequalities of Gender and Age 331
80 Figure 10.8 U.S. Suicide Rates
70 White Male
by Age, Gender, and Racial
Black Male Group, 1997. This figure charts
Suicide rate per 100,000

60 White Female U.S. suicide rates by age, gender,

Black Female and racial category. Why do you
50
think suicide rates climb for males
40 at about age 65? Use material from
the textbook in your answer.
30
Source: National Institute of Mental
20
Health, September, 1999.
10

0
5-9 0-14 5-19 0-24 5-29 0-34 5-39 0-44 5-49 0-54 5-59 0-64 5-69 0-74 5-79 0-84 85
+
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8

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and click on Textbook
In early colonial America, no stigma was attached to age. In fact, to be el- Updates–Chapter 10 for
an update of the data.
derly brought respect along with the opportunity to fill the most prestigious
positions in the community. It was believed that God looked with favor on
those who reached old age. The longer one lived, the more likely he or she
was to have been chosen to go to heaven. The Bible linked age with living a
moral life: “Keep my commandments, for length of days and long life and
peace shall they add unto thee.” During the 1600s and 1700s, Americans even
tried to appear older than they actually were. Some people wore clothing that
made them appear older and covered their hair with powdered wigs. During
the 1700s, people often inflated their age when reporting to census takers.
Attitudes about aging changed greatly as industrialization changed the na-
ture of work. In a technical society, an adult’s value lessens when he or she
no longer contributes fully to the common good. Thus, aging tends to lead
to lower status. Because modern societies change rapidly, younger workers
are more likely to possess the current skills needed in the workplace. As in-
“When a man retires and
time is no longer a mat-
dividuals get older, their skills are more likely to be out of date in the work- ter of urgent importance,
place. Thus, they lack the “wisdom” that is most highly valued. his colleagues generally
This loss of status with older age might help explain the increase in the sui-
cide rate for men beginning at about retirement age. (See Figure 10.8.) Men present him with a watch.
may have greater difficulty in older age than women because they have been
socialized in a culture that encourages men to identify strongly with work
while they are younger, but denies them a sense of value after retirement.
“
R. C. Sherriff
American humorist

Conflict Theory and Ageism

Competition over scarce resources lies at the heart of ageism for the con-
flict perspective. Elderly people compete with other age groups for economic
resources, power, and prestige. In preindustrial societies, older people often
get a fair share of the scarce resources. This is because work in preindustrial
society is labor intensive, and all available hands must be utilized. Also, the
elderly are sources of valuable knowledge about practices and history.
Industrial society, in contrast, usually has more workers than it needs. In
addition, industrial societies save scarce resources by replacing high-priced
older workers with less costly younger ones. Forced retirement is one way
the more powerful age groups remove elderly competitors.
332 Unit 3 Social Inequality

According to conflict theory, prejudice and discrimination are used by the

dominant group as weapons in the control of minority groups. If older peo-
ple can be stereotyped as intellectually dull, closed-minded, inflexible, and
unproductive, forcing their retirement from the labor market becomes rela-
tively easy. This leaves more jobs available for younger workers.

Symbolic Interactionism and Ageism

Like racism, ageism involves creating negative stereotypes. According to
symbolic interactionists, children learn negative images of older people just
as they learn other aspects of culture. Through the process of socialization,
stereotypes of elderly people are often firmly implanted into a child’s view
of the world. Negative images of older people have been observed in chil-
dren as young as three years old (Hillier and Barrow, 1999).
What are some stereotypes of the elderly? By definition, stereotypes
are inaccurate, because they do not apply to all members of a group.
Stereotypes of older people are no exception, as much research has shown.
Most elderly people are not senile, forgetful, or “daft.” Old age is not a sex-
Many elderly people are realizing less period for the majority of those over sixty-five. There are few age dif-
that learning computer skills will
ferences on job-related factors. Most elderly people are able to learn new
help them keep in touch with
friends, keep updated on financial
things and adapt to change (Atchley, 1999).
and health issues, and allow them In summary, there is enough evidence to challenge the truth of popular
to find part-time work, if desired. stereotypes of elderly people. Of course, some older people do fit one or
more of these stereotypes (as some young people fit societal stereotypes),
and many individuals are likely to fit one or more of them as they reach age
seventy. This fact, however, does not justify applying the stereotypes to all
older people at any age or for mindlessly applying them to individuals in
their fifties and sixties.

Section 4 Assessment
1. How are sexism and ageism “two sides of the same coin”?
2. Below are several statements about older people. Identify each
statement with one major theoretical perspective: functionalism (F),
conflict theory (C), or symbolic interactionism (S).
a. Ageism results in part from an oversupply of labor.
b. Young people are uncomfortable around older people.
c. The stigma attached to aging promotes a low self-concept among
older people.
d. Ageism is associated with industrialization.
e. Older people are stereotyped.
f. Ageism exists in part because older workers are inefficient.

Critical Thinking
3. Evaluating Information Do you think ageism is a problem in
American society? Support your case with information.
 Chapter 10 Inequalities of Gender and Age 333

Section
Inequality In America’s
5 Elderly Population
K e y T e r m

• interest group

Elderly People as a Minority Group Section

Preview
B ecause early research tended to study older people in institutions,
studies focused on people with diminished mental and physical ca-
pacities. This perspective coincided with the American public’s negative view
of elderly people. Sociologists believe that the best way to expose this blam-
ing of older people for their situation is to view them as a minority (Hillier
T he poverty rate for
America’s elderly popula-
tion stands at 9.7 percent.
and Barrow, 1999). Members of racial and ethnic
Racial, ethnic, and religious groups have long been considered as minori- minorities are in the poorest
ties. As you have seen, women have recently been recognized as a minority ranks. The political process
group. Not until recently have researchers viewed older people as a distinct offers the major source of
segment of society subject to the same discrimination and stereotyping as
power for elderly Americans.
other minority groups.
Older people exert political
influence through their high
voting rate and their support
Economics of the Elderly of special interest groups.
The economic situation among America’s older people has improved since
1960, but as a group older Americans are far from being well off. Several fac-
tors make it hard to determine exactly how elderly people compare econom-
ically with other groups, however. For one thing, the way poverty
among older people is measured distorts the real picture.
Why is poverty measured differently for older people?
Despite the fact that elderly people spend proportionately
more on health care and housing than younger people, the
federal government assumes that older people require less
money to live. If the standard used for younger age cate-
gories were applied to elderly people, their poverty rate
would increase from 9.7 percent to 15 percent. Poverty
rates also fail to take into account the older people who
are officially considered to be “near poor.” These peo-
ple make up just over 6 percent of the elderly population.
Counting these at-risk elderly people, about 16 percent of those
over age sixty-five is poor (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000b).
Nor do official statistics include the “hidden poor” among the
elderly population. These older people live either in institutions or
with relatives because they cannot afford to live independently.
Inclusion of these people would
substantially raise the poverty Unfortunately, life is not this comfortable for a
rate for elderly Americans. large segment of America’s elderly population.
334 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Case Study:
A Town without Pity
In the mountains of Western Ireland lies the old agricultural town of
Ballybran. Power in this town traditionally lay in the hands of the “old
ones,” particularly the senior males. Here, sociologist Nancy Scheper-
Hughes spent a year doing fieldwork, studying the effects of modern-
ization on the society. She identifies the basic demographic shift that
has led to the death of the rural Irish gerontocracy [rule by elders], de-
scribes the negative consequences of this change for the elderly, and
discusses several areas in which the loss of social standing among the
elderly is reflected.
Scheper-Hughes found that with modernization and with depen-
dence on imported food came a lessening of respect for the skills and
knowledge of the old farmers.
Underlying this picture, of course, is the devaluating of the agricul-
tural way of life among these people. At an earlier time, the patriarchal
father delayed retirement and sparked intense competition among his
sons for rights to the family lands. Now heir selection is determined
more by the process of elimination than the choice of the father—“the
last one to escape (usually the youngest son) gets stuck by default with
an unproductive farm and saddled with a life of celibacy and greatly
resented service to the ‘old people’ ” (Scheper-Hughes, 1983:134).
The result of all this for the aged parents is fairly clear: They no longer
have the economic power base they once used to control the younger
generation and to maintain their superior status in the family and com-
munity. Because young people prefer to be “liberated” from the land, the
“old ones” control little that the youth want. The awe and respect for the
elderly that once characterized the community has, in many cases, been
replaced by not only pity but also contempt. The demise of the traditional
family farming–based culture leaves the elderly father, in Scheper-
Hughes’s words, a “broken figure.” Toleration from his adult children is
the most he can expect, open ridicule the worst. With the erosion of their
economic power, the elderly have also lost their cherished role as pre-
servers of the ancient Celtic traditions—the myths, stories, songs, prayers,
and proverbs. In fact, the young tend to reject these traditions. Worse, the
majority of high school students resent having to study the Irish language,
a “dead” language that they believe will be of no use to them in the com-
mercial and professional world outside the rural community.
 Chapter 10 Inequalities of Gender and Age 335
Ageism has had many negative effects on these older people. Without
a meaningful work identity, the once-proud leaders have no sense of
place in the community. Alcoholism, diminished self-esteem, and de-
pression are widely seen among those over age fifty. Many are single,
widows or widowers, without family or friends to take care of them.
Scheper-Hughes writes, “The Irish village of the west coast today em-
bodies a broken culture; a state of affairs most detrimental to the aged
who are unable to flee or accept new values, and who, consequently,
are left to contemplate the wreckage” (Scheper-Hughes, 1983:145).

As “progress” comes to both city and country, many of the

local elderly population find their skills are not needed and
that they have no role to play in the life of the community.

Working with the Research

1. Which research methods are best suited to a study like this?
Explain.
2. Which theoretical perspective do you think contributes most to
how we can understand what happened in this village?
336 Unit 3 Social Inequality
Figure 10.9 Poverty Rates
Among Americans Aged 65 35%
and Over: 1960–1999.
This figure documents the changing 30%
poverty rate among Americans aged
65 and over since 1960. Explain 25%

Percentage
why it would be misleading to cite
the current poverty rate as evidence 20%
that America’s aged population is
economically well off.
15%
Source: U.S. Census Bureau,
1966–2000. 10%

5%

0
1960 1966 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 1996
1992 1995 1999

The income gap among elderly people also distorts the economic picture.
Some older people have moderate to high incomes based on dividends from
assets, cash savings, and private retirement programs. Most elderly
Americans, however, do not have sources of income beyond Social Security
benefits. The existence of a small percentage of high-income older people
gives the false impression that most older people are economi-
cally well off. Figure 10.9 shows the poverty rate for elderly
people since 1960.
What other factors affect elderly Americans? Older peo-
ple who are members of racial or ethnic minority groups are gen-
erally in worse condition than older white Americans. The
poverty rate among older African Americans is three times that
for whites. For older Latinos, the poverty rate is more than two
and one-half times that of non-Latino white Americans. Problems
that racial and ethnic minorities face because of discrimination
become magnified in old age.
Elderly women constitute one of the poorest segments of
American society. Women over age sixty-five are twice as likely to
live in poverty than their male counterparts (U.S. Bureau of the
Census, 1996b). Elderly women most likely to be poor are single
women who either have never married or are divorced, sepa-
rated, or widowed. This is not surprising, because the roots of
poverty among older women lie in their work-related experi-
ences. Because older women were discouraged or blocked from
better jobs throughout their work lives, they are unable to support
themselves in their later years (Sidel, 1996).
This elderly man is part of
America’s “hidden poor.” What does Overall, what is the economic position of older people in the United
that mean? States? In summary, then, elderly people are economically better off than
they were four decades ago. Despite this improvement, large segments of
Americans over sixty-five years of age live either in poverty or near poverty.
This is especially true for elderly members of racial and ethnic minorities and
for elderly women.
 Chapter 10 Inequalities of Gender and Age 337

District of
Columbia

Percentage of
Population Aged Sixty-
five and Over
The graying of America refers to the
Percentage of the Population
growing elderly population. Improved Aged Sixty-five and Over
medical care, better nutrition, and health- More than 14%
ier lifestyles have all contributed to 13%
Source: The World Almanac of the 12%
longer life expectancies in the United U.S.A., Allan Carpenter and Carl
11%
States. This map shows the percentage of Provorse, Mahwah, NJ: World Almanac
Books, 2001. Less than 11%
the population that is aged sixty-five
years old and over in each state.

Interpreting the Map

1. Describe the distribution pattern of elderly people across the United States. Create a chart repre-
senting the distribution pattern.
2. Where is your state in this distribution?
3. Research the voting rate for elderly people in your state. Is it higher or lower than the national
average?

Source: The World Almanac of the U.S.A., 2001.

Political Power and the Elderly

Given the limited economic resources of older people, it is clear that any
power they hold is gained through the political process. Especially important
are the voting booth and political interest groups.
What is the voting turnout among elderly Americans? Voting
turnout in the United States increases with age. Since the mid-1980s,
Americans aged sixty-five and over have been the most active voters in pres-
idential and congressional elections. In 1996, for example, 67 percent of this
group voted in the presidential election, compared with just over 30 percent
of eighteen- to twenty-four-year-olds and just over 49 percent of twenty-five-
to forty-four-year-olds (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1997a).
338 Unit 3 Social Inequality
Figure 10.10 Selected
African
Socioeconomic Whites
Americans
Latinos Women Men
Characteristics of Elderly
Americans. From this figure,
some comparative statements can Median Income $14,374 $9,766 $8,780 $10,943 $19,079
be made about the economic
situation of elderly Americans. Percent in
What are two important statements 8.3% 22.7% 20.4% 11.8% 6.9%
Poverty
that can be supported by these data?

Source: U.S. Bureau of the

Census, 2000.
Does voting lead to political power? Most analysts believe that the
potential political power of elderly Americans as a group is not fully realized
because of the diversity of the older population. Because older people cut
across many important divisions in American society—social class, ethnicity,
race, geographic area, religion—they do not speak with a unified political
voice. In fact, they do not vote as a bloc on any political question, even on
issues related directly to their interests. This lack of unity weakens their po-
litical clout. As the population of the United States ages, however, and the
number of elderly voters increases, it is possible that “gray power” may be-
come a significant political force.
interest group What is the role of interest groups? Interest groups are organized to
a group organized to influence influence political decision making. Millions of Americans belong to interest
political decision making groups that target ageism, such as the American Association for Retired
Persons (AARP) and the Gray Panthers. These groups have been effective in
protecting programs that benefit older Americans, such as Medicare and
Social Security.

Section 5 Assessment
1. Of the following, which is an accurate statement?
a. Since 1960, the economic situation for elderly people in the United

“
The older I get, the more
I distrust the familiar
States has deteriorated.
b. The poverty rate for Americans over age sixty-five is lower than the
official count indicates.
c. Problems of older Americans who are members of racial or ethnic
minorities are generally more severe than problems of elderly
doctrine that age brings whites.
wisdom. d. Older Americans are politically vulnerable.
2. What can older Americans do to increase their impact on government
H. L. Mencken
“ policy and legislation?
American critic
Critical Thinking
3. Drawing Conclusions Create mini-profiles of five elderly people you
know. Identify them by racial, ethnic, gender, and occupational group.
Interview each of them briefly about their main concerns regarding
aging in America. What conclusions can you draw from these
interviews?
CHAPTER 10 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Vocabulary
Summary
Complete each sentence using each term once.
Section 1: Sex and Gender Identity a. gender identity f. ageism
Main Idea: All societies expect people to behave in b. sex g. biological
certain ways based on their sex. Through socialization, c. gender determinism
members of a society acquire an awareness of them- socialization h. age stratification
selves as masculine or feminine. d. sexism i. interest group
e. occupational sex
Section 2: Theoretical Perspectives on Gender segregation
Main Idea: The functionalist perspective focuses on
1. An organization that attempts to influence polit-
the origins of gender differences. Conflict theory looks
ical decision making is called .
at the reasons gender differences continue to exist.
Symbolic interactionism attempts to explain the ways in 2. is the unequal distribution of
which gender is acquired. scarce resources based on age.
3. The classification of people as male or female
Section 3: Gender Inequality based on biological characteristics is called
.
Main Idea: Although great progress has been made,
4. is the concentration of one
women today are still subject to prejudice and discrim-
gender in certain occupations.
ination. This imbalance of power is seen most clearly
in the areas of economics, law, and politics.
5. is a set of beliefs, attitudes,
norms, and values used to justify sexual in-
equality.
Section 4: Ageism
6. The belief that behavioral differences are due to
Main Idea: The relatively low social standing of older inherited physical characteristics is called
people is based on ageism. Each of the theoretical per- .
spectives has a unique slant on ageism. 7. is a set of beliefs, attitudes,
norms, and values used to justify age-based
Section 5: Inequality In America’s Elderly prejudice and discrimination.
Population 8. is an awareness of being mas-
Main Idea: The poverty rate for America’s elderly culine or feminine.
population stands at around 10 percent. Members of 9. The social process of learning how to act as a
racial and ethnic minorities are in the poorest ranks. The boy or girl is called .
political process offers the major source of power for
elderly Americans.
Older people exert
Reviewing the Facts
political influence
through their high 1. According to the functionalist perspective, what
voting rate and was the main result of the division of labor?
their support of spe- Self-Check Quiz 2. Which sociological perspective emphasizes the
cial interest groups. Visit the Sociology and You Web
effects of parents, teachers, and peers on gen-
site at soc.glencoe.com and
der socialization?
click on Chapter 10—Self-
Check Quizzes to prepare for
the chapter test.
339
CHAPTER 10 ASSESSMENT
3. How would you explain the increase in schoolwork would improve if you attended a
women’s participation in the labor force? girls-only or boys-only school? Do you think
4. Give one reason why the gap between men’s there are differences in the way that girls and
and women’s salaries persists. boys learn?
5. What segment of the poor population is often 5. Drawing Conclusions U.S. society has definite
not included in the statistics on elderly poor expectations about female and male roles. What
people? are the gender norms concerning personal ap-
6. According to the text, what is the best way that pearance? Do these norms work against
the elderly can effect social change on their women? Do they work against males?
own behalf? 6. Categorizing Information Elderly people re-
main a forgotten population in our society. We
place them in nursing homes, or we complain
Thinking Critically that they drive too slowly. How might our soci-
ety take advantage of the natural skills, knowl-
1. Analyzing Information A common phrase in edge, and wisdom of older people? Suggest
sociology is “you inherit your sex and learn three ways in which your community could
your gender.” What do you think this phrase benefit from programs and activities aimed at
means? utilizing these strengths. Use the diagram below
to summarize your suggestions.
2. Applying Concepts Physical strength is not as
important for males today as it was in past
STRENGTHS OF PROGRAM/ACTIVITY THAT
times. The nature of work has changed so that THE ELDERLY UTILIZES STRENGTH
not as many jobs require stamina or physical
strength. What impact do you think this devalu-
ing of muscle strength has on society? List five
attitudes or values that could be affected.
7. Making Inferences The text discusses some of
3. Evaluating Information Certain jobs, such as the stereotypes associated with older people.
firefighting, still require great physical strength Using recent research on these stereotypes, do
and stamina. Often, these positions have mini- you think the norms underlying ageism will di-
mum requirements to ensure that employees minish? Check your thoughts against the opin-
can fulfill all the necessary duties. Because of ions of a few elderly people.
biology, men generally find it easier to meet
many of these physical requirements. Some
cities have responded by lowering the standards Sociology Projects
for women to ensure that women are repre-
sented in these vocations. Other cities have re-
1. Advertising and the Image of Women Search
fused and have been subjected to discrimination
old magazines and newspapers to create a
lawsuits. What are some arguments for and
scrapbook of how marketers can use gender
against the policy of lowering standards to en-
negatively (to encourage stereotypes, for exam-
sure representation of women in certain jobs?
ple) or positively (to create new images).
Are there situations in which you would allow
different standards? Are there situations in Gather several magazines with lots of adver-
which you would not? Discuss your views. tising that you have permission to cut up.
(Waiting rooms in doctors’ and dentists’ offices
4. Making Inferences Some schools have experi-
and car repair shops are good sources—just be
mented with girls-only classes. Research seems
sure to ask permission!) Carefully cut out
to suggest that this situation helps to increase
twenty ads that feature women. Paste each ad
self-esteem in young girls. Do you think your
to a sheet of paper. Then label each ad accord-

340
 ing to one of the negative or positive criteria disadvantages?
listed below. Feel free to make up your own c. How were you affected by your retirement?
categories if needed. Was it a positive or negative experience?
a. reinforces a female stereotype d. What is your view of teenagers today?
b. uses sex appeal to sell a product 5. Observation Observe people of all ages in a
c. encourages a women to be beautiful variety of settings, such as restaurants, malls,
d. idealizes youthful appearance and offices. Do their clothing and actions fit
e. reinforces gender roles of children age-appropriate norms of our culture? What ex-
ceptions do you note?
f. generally offensive, degrading, or insulting
6. The Elderly and Advertising Analyze televi-
g. shows a woman in a leadership role
sion commercials for the way older people are
h. shows a woman in a nontraditional role portrayed. How frequently are older people
i. shows a minority woman in a professional represented in advertising material? What types
capacity of products do they normally market? Is a pat-
When you have completed your “scrapbook,” tern or stereotype being perpetuated by the
analyze the ads for negative and positive uses television advertising community?
of gender marketing. Write a brief paragraph
summarizing your findings.
2. Gender This activity is a thought problem and
Technology Activity
requires a great deal of imagination. What
would your day be like if you awoke one 1. The Center for the American Woman and
morning and suddenly found that you had Politics is a useful web site to find facts about
changed gender? As you go about your day, women elected to public office in the United
think of everything that would be different if States. Go to its web site at http://www.
you were a member of the opposite sex. Write rci.rutgers.edu/~cawp/. Select “State by State
down several things that stand out as you go Fact Sheets” and then click on your state in the
through the day. For example, if you are on a map that appears.
sports team, would you likely be on that team if a. How many women are currently serving in
you changed gender? Would you be playing a your state’s legislature?
different sport? b. Where does your state rank in comparison
3. Lifestyles for the Elderly Create a poster or to other states?
other visual aid that depicts how life has c. When was a woman first elected to a
changed for elderly people during the twentieth statewide office or to the U.S. Congress?
century. You may want to talk to grandparents
d. Now click on “Facts Main Page” and select
or others about what life was like for older
“Findings at a Glance” under the
people in the past. How do you think longevity
Publications heading. On page 4 of this
and health factors have changed lifestyle for
document, find the three issues where
older people?
gender differences in priorities were the
4. Create a Skit Instead of a visual aid as sug- greatest. What were they?
gested in the previous activity, interview an el-
e. On page 7, were women more or less likely
derly person and create a skit based upon his
to conduct legislative business in the public
or her remarks. Some of the questions you may
view?
want to ask include
f. Based on your review of the “Findings at a
a. What do you consider to be the joys or
Glance,” do you think women make
rewards of aging?
effective elected officials?
b. What are some of the problems or

341
342 Unit 3 Social Inequality

Chapter 10

Enrichment Reading
The Story of Baby X
by Lois Gould
“Once upon a time, a baby named X was born. This baby was named X so that nobody could
tell whether it was a boy or a girl.” So begins a children’s story by Lois Gould about gender
stereotypes.

X was given to Mr. and Ms. Jones, a fied burp.

couple carefully screened from thou- Finding toys for X was another problem. The
sands of applicants, as an experi- first trip to the toy store brought this immediate
ment. The Joneses were to follow only one rule: question from the store clerk: “Well, now, is it a
X was not to be socialized as masculine or femi- boy or a girl?” In the storekeeper’s mind, foot-
nine, but was to learn everything a child could. balls and fire engine sets were for boys and dolls
Assisted by a heavy Official Instruction Manual, and housekeeping sets were for girls. But the
the Joneses promised to follow this rule as Joneses knew that they had to be sure baby X
closely as possible. They agreed to take equal had all kinds of toys to play with, including:
turns feeding and caring for X, to spend as a boy doll that made pee-pee and cried
much time bouncing as cuddling the baby, and “Pa-Pa.” And a girl doll that talked. They
to praise X for being strong just as often as for also bought a storybook about a brave
being sweet. But trouble began almost right princess who rescued a handsome prince
away when the Joneses’ friends and relatives from his ivory tower, and another one
asked whether X was a boy or a girl. about a sister and brother who grew up to
When the Joneses smiled and said “It’s an be a baseball star and a ballet star, and
X!” nobody knew what to say. They couldn’t you had to guess which was which.
say, “Look at her cute little dimples.” And But the biggest problem came when X was old
they couldn’t say “Look at his husky little enough to begin school, where the children were
biceps!’ And they couldn’t even say just treated according to their sex. Boys and girls
plain “kitchy-coo.” In fact, they all thought lined up separately, played games separately,
that the Joneses were playing some kind of and, of course, used different bathrooms. The
rude joke. other children had never met an X before, and
The Joneses were, of course, being quite serious, just had to know what its sex really was. But the
but all the same, other people became irritated Joneses had raised X very carefully so that there
and embarrassed: was no easy answer:

“People will think there’s something You couldn’t tell what X was by studying
wrong with it!” some of them whispered. its clothes; overalls don’t button right-to-
“There is something wrong with it!” others left, like girl’s clothes, or left-to-right, like
whispered back. boy’s clothes. And you couldn’t tell
whether X had a girl’s short haircut or a
And what did baby X think about all the fuss? It boy’s long haircut. And it was very hard to
simply finished its bottle with a loud and satis- tell by the games X liked to play. Either X
 Chapter 10 Inequalities of Gender and Age 343

played ball very well for a girl, or else X school—as well as the Joneses—finally agreed to
played house very well for a boy. let X be examined.
The next day the psychiatrist arrived at the
The other children found X a very strange play-
school and began a long examination of X while
mate: one day it would ask boys to weave some
everyone waited anxiously outside. When the
baskets in the arts and crafts room, and the next
psychiatrist finally emerged from the examination
day it would ask some girls to go shoot baskets in
room, the results were not what most people ex-
the gym. But X tried very hard to be friendly to
pected. “In my opinion,” the psychiatrist told
everyone and to do well in school. And X did very
them, “young X here is just about the least mixed
well in school, winning spelling bees, athletic
up child I’ve ever examined!” The doctor ex-
events and coming in second in a baking contest
plained that by the time the X’s sex really mat-
(even X’s aren’t perfect). As other children noticed
tered, everyone would know what it was.
what a good time X was having in school, they
This, of course, made the Joneses very happy
began to wonder if maybe X wasn’t having twice
and delighted the scientists who had begun the ex-
as much fun as they were!
periment in the first place. And later that day, X’s
From then on, some really funny things friends (dressed in red-and-white checked over-
began to happen. Susie who sat next to X alls) came over to X’s house to play. They found X
in class, suddenly refused to wear pink in the backyard playing with a new tiny baby.
dresses to school any more. She insisted
“How do you like our new baby?” X asked
on wearing red-and-white checked over-
the other children proudly.
alls—just like X’s. Overalls, she told her
parents, were much better for climbing “It’s got cute dimples,” said Jim.
monkey bars. Then Jim, the class football “It’s got husky biceps, too,” said Susie.
nut, started wheeling his little sister’s doll “What kind of baby is it?” asked Joe and
carriage around the football field. He’d put Peggy.
on his entire football uniform, except for X frowned at them. Can’t you tell?” Then X
the helmet. Then he’d put the helmet in broke into a big mischievous grin. “It’s a Y!”
the carriage, lovingly tucked under an old
set of shoulder pads. Then he’d start jog- Source: Adapted from Lois Gould, “X: A Fabulous
ging around the field. He told his family Child’s Story,” Ms., Vol. 1 (December, 1972):74–76,
that X did the same thing, so it must be 105–106.
okay. After all, X was now the team’s star
quarterback.
But this kind of behavior in the children horrified
their parents. And when Peggy started using Joe’s Read and React
hockey skates while Joe enjoyed using Peggy’s
1. What was your first reaction to this story?
needlepoint kit, matters went from bad to worse.
X was to blame for all this! So the Parents’ 2. Summarize the underlying hypothesis in
Association at school demanded that X be iden- the Baby X story.
tified as a boy or a girl and be forced to act ac- 3. Could a scientific experiment be
cordingly. A psychiatrist was asked to conduct a constructed to test this hypothesis? If so,
full examination and report back to the parents. describe it. If not, explain why.
If, as most suspected, X was found to be a very 4. Discuss the ethical implications of such an
confused child, it should be expelled from experiment if one were conducted.
school altogether. 5. How does propaganda regarding
The teachers were puzzled by this; after all, X childrearing affect differences in the
was one of their very best students. But the socialization of males and females?
UNIT 4

344
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Chapter 11
The Family
Chapter 12
Education
Chapter 13
Political and Economic
Institutions
Chapter 14
Religion
Chapter 15
Sport

Enrichment Readings
Chapter 11 – David Popenoe
“Life Without Father,” page 384
Chapter 12 – Jonathan Kozol
“Savage Inequalities,” page 420
Chapter 13 – Katherine Newman
“No Shame in My Game,” page 460
Chapter 14 – Marvin Harris
“India’s Sacred Cow,” page 492
Chapter 15 – D. Stanley Eitzen
“We Don’t Like Football, Do We?,”
page 524

345
CHAPTER 11
The Family

346
 U
S Your Sections
I Sociological
N Imagination 1. Family and Marriage
G Across Cultures
2. Theoretical Perspectives

T est your knowledge about the

American family by identifying the
following statements as true or false.
1. About half of the couples in the United
3.
and the Family
Family and Marriage in
the United States
States who marry will divorce.
2. A new family structure develops after
divorce.
4. Changes in Marriage and
3. High school sweethearts who marry have Family
a less than 10 percent chance of being
together twenty years later.
4. In more than half of all marriages, both
Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
the husband and wife work outside
the home.
After reading this chapter, you will be able to
5. The divorce rate has been steadily climb-
ing since 1960. ❖ describe types of family structure and
If you thought the first four questions were norms for marriage arrangements.
true and the last question was false, then ❖ compare and contrast views of the family
you probably have a good sense of what is proposed by the three major perspectives.
happening with marriage and families in the
United States. It is true that the divorce rate
❖ outline the extent and cause of divorce in
is higher in the United States than in many America.
other industrialized nations. However, re- ❖ give an overview of family violence in the
cent data on divorce provide some grounds United States.
for optimism. Although the divorce rate rose ❖ discuss the future of the family in the
dramatically from 1960 to 1985, the last fif- United States.
teen years have actually seen a decline in
the rate of divorce.
The next five chapters in this unit will
look at family, education, economics, poli-
tics, religion, and sports. Sociologists refer Chapter Overview
to each of these as a social institution—a Visit the Sociology and You Web site at
system of statuses, roles, norms and social soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 11—
structures that are organized to satisfy some Chapter Overviews to preview chapter
particular basic needs of society. Chapter 11 information.
focuses on the most important of these
institutions—the family.
347
348 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Section Family and Marriage

1 Across Cultures
K e y

• family
T e r m s

• matriarchy • polygyny
• marriage • equalitarian • polyandry
• nuclear family • patrilocal • exogamy
• extended family • matrilocal • incest taboo
• patrilineal • neolocal • endogamy
• matrilineal • monogamy • homogamy
• bilateral • polygamy • heterogamy
• patriarchy

Section Defining the Family

Preview
I f asked to identify a family, most of us would say we know one when
we see one. We are surrounded by families wherever we go, and most

I n all societies, the family

has been the most impor-
tant of all social institutions.
of us live in family settings. However, families come in all shapes and sizes,
and defining the term family is sometimes difficult. Legally, the word family
is used to describe many relationships: parents and children; people related
It produces new generations, by blood, marriage, or adoption; a group of people living together in a single
socializes the young, pro- household, sharing living space and housekeeping. Since the word family
vides care and affection, reg-
ulates sexual behavior,
transmits social status, and
provides economic support.

If asked to describe this image, the first thought of most people would be that of a
happy family.
 Chapter 11 The Family 349
does not have a precise meaning, many laws define the term when they use
it. For example, zoning laws that set aside certain areas for single-family homes
define family one way. Laws involving insurance, social security, or inheritance
may define family in other ways. For sociologists, however, family is defined family
as a group of people related by marriage, blood, or adoption. While the con- a group of people related by
cept of family may appear simple on the surface, the family is a complex so- marriage, blood, or adoption
cial unit with many facets. Of all the social institutions, the family has the
greatest impact on individual behavior.
The family we are born into, or the family of birth, is called the family of
orientation. It provides children with a name, an identity, and a heritage. In
other words, it gives the child an ascribed status in the community. The fam-
ily of orientation “orients” (or directs) children to their neighborhood, com-
munity, and society and locates them in the world.
The family of procreation is established upon marriage. Marriage is a marriage
legal union between a man and a woman based on mutual rights and obli- a legal union based on mutual
gations. (Marriages between two persons of the same sex have been ruled rights and obligations
legally invalid by U.S. courts.) The marriage ceremony signifies that it is legal
(officially sanctioned) for a couple to have offspring and to give the children
a family name. The family of procreation becomes the family of orientation
nuclear family
for the children created from the marriage. family structure composed of
one or both parents and
children
Two Basic Types of Families
There are two basic types of families. The nuclear family, the smallest
group of individuals that can be called a family, is composed of a parent or extended family
two or more adult generations
parents and any children. The extended family consists of two or more
of the same family whose
adult generations of the same family whose members share economic re- members share economic
sources and live in the same household. Extended families may also contain resources and a common
close relatives, such as grandparents, children, grandchildren, aunts, uncles, household
and cousins.

Why would sociologists not call these

relatives an extended family?

“
The family is the essential
presence—the thing that
never leaves you, even if
you have to leave it.
“ Bill Buford
writer
350 Unit 4 Social Institutions

How did family structures develop? As discussed in Chapter 5, the

development of agriculture and industry shaped society. These developments
also shaped family structure.
In the earliest societies, hunting and gathering were the primary family
activities. Small bands of nuclear families followed herds of animals and
changing seasons, moving around constantly, never staying long in any one
place.
When humans domesticated animals to help with tilling the soil and cul-
tivating crops (about ten thousand years ago), they no longer needed to be
mobile to maintain a food supply. Families began to farm, settle down, and
establish roots. Large families were needed to plow and harvest. The growth
of family farms encouraged the development of the extended family. Agri-
culture became the basis of the economy, and the extended family was es-
sential for successful farming.
As societies moved from agricultural economies to industrialized ones, the
extended family was slowly replaced by the nuclear family. Large families
were no longer needed to work on the farm. Industrial and postindustrial
economies favor the nuclear family that has fewer mouths to feed and that
is easier to move (Goode, 1970; Nydeggar, 1985).

patrilineal Patterns of Family Structure

descent and inheritance is
passed through the male line
Whether nuclear or extended, families behave in similar ways across cul-
tures. These patterns of behavior relate to inheritance, authority, and place
of residence.
Who inherits? Determining who becomes head of the family—for pur-
matrilineal pose of descent—and who owns the family property—for inheritance—are
descent and inheritance is extremely important to families. Three arrangements are used.
passed through the female line
❖ In a patrilineal arrangement, descent and inheritance are passed from
the father to his male descendants. The people of Iran and Iraq and the
Tikopia in the western Pacific live in patrilineal societies.
bilateral ❖ In a matrilineal arrangement, descent and inheritance are transmitted
descent and inheritance are from the mother to her female descendants. Some Native American
passed equally through both tribes, such as the Pueblo peoples of the Southwest, are matrilineal.
parents
❖ In some societies, descent and inheritance are bilateral—they are
passed equally through both parents. Thus both the father’s and
mother’s relatives are accepted equally as part of the kinship structure.
patriarchy Most families in the United States today are bilateral.
the pattern in which the oldest
man living in the household Who is in authority? Similar patterns govern authority in a family.
has authority over the rest of
the family members ❖ In a patriarchy, the oldest man living in the household has authority
over the rest of the family members. We see this in many countries
around the world, such as Iraq and China. In its purest form, the father
matriarchy is the absolute ruler.
the pattern in which the oldest ❖ In a matriarchy, the oldest woman living in the household holds the
woman living in the household authority. So rare is matriarchal control that controversy exists over
has authority over all other whether any society has ever had a genuinely matriarchal family
family members structure.
 Chapter 11 The Family 351
❖ With equalitarian control, authority is split evenly between husband
equalitarian
and wife. Many families in the Scandinavian countries and in the
family structure in which
United States follow the equalitarian model. authority is evenly shared
between the husband and wife
Where do couples live? Where newly married couples set up their
households also varies from culture to culture.
❖ The patrilocal pattern, such as in premodern China, calls for living patrilocal
with or near the husband’s parents. refers to the pattern in which
❖ Residing with or near the wife’s parents is expected under a married couples live with or
matrilocal pattern. The Nayar caste of Kerala in southern India is an near the husbands’ parents
illustration of this type of arrangement.
❖ In the neolocal pattern (if finances allow) married couples establish
residences of their own. This is the Euro-American model. Extended matrilocal
families, of course, have different norms. refers to the pattern in which
married couples live with or
near the wives’ parents
Marriage Arrangements
Mention a wedding and Americans commonly think of a bride walking neolocal
down the aisle in a long white gown. She and the groom make vows that in- refers to the pattern in which
volve some form of loving, honoring, and (until recently, in some cases) newly married couples set up
obeying. In other cultures, the wedding ceremony looks very different. This their own households
is part of the ceremony among the Reindeer Tungus of Siberia:
After the groom’s gifts have been presented, the bride’s dowry is loaded
onto the reindeer and carried to the groom’s lodge. There, the rest of
the ceremony takes place. The bride takes the wife’s place—that is, at monogamy
the right side of the entrance of the lodge—and members of both a marriage consisting of one
families sit around in a circle. The groom enters and follows the bride man and one woman
around the circle, greeting each guest, while the guests, in their turn,
kiss the bride on the mouth and hands. Finally, the go-betweens spit
three times on the bride’s hands, and the couple is formally “husband
and wife.” More feasting and revelry bring the day to a close (Ember Although wedding ceremonies may
and Ember, 1999:310–311). vary, the basic social structures of
marriage are common to all societies.
Whatever form it takes, the
marriage ceremony is an impor-
tant ritual announcing that a
man and woman have become
husband and wife, that a new
family has been formed, and
that any children born to the
couple can legitimately inherit
the family name and property.
What forms do marriage
take? Monogamy—the mar-
riage of one man to one woman
—is the most widely practiced
form of marriage in the world
today. In fact, it is the only
form of marriage that is legally
352 Unit 4 Social Institutions

acceptable in the United States and in most Western societies. Some often-
married people practice serial monogamy—having several husbands or wives,
but being married to only one at a time.
polygamy In contrast to monogamy, polygamy involves the marriage of a male or
the marriage of a male or female to more than one person at a time. It takes two forms: polygyny and
female to more than one polyandry.
person at a time Polygyny is the marriage of one man to two or more women at the same
time. An obvious example of polygyny is found in the Old Testament. King
Solomon is reported to have had seven hundred wives and three hundred
polygyny
concubines. Although common in earlier societies and still legal in India,
the marriage of one man to
parts of Africa, and much of the Middle East, polygyny is not practiced
two or more women at the
same time widely in any society today. However, in 1999 the Muslim Russian republic
of Ingushetia legalized the practice of polygyny.
Polyandry—the marriage of one woman to two or more men at the same
polyandry time—is an even rarer form of marriage. It is known to have been common
the marriage of one woman in only three societies: in Tibet, in parts of Polynesia, and among the Todas
to two or more men at the and other hill peoples of India (Queen et al., 1985). Where polyandry has ex-
same time isted, it usually has consisted of several brothers sharing a wife.
You have been introduced to a lot of new terms that relate to family struc-
ture and marriage arrangements. Figure 11.1 illustrates several of the charac-
teristics of these family and marriage forms to help you understand and
remember them.

Figure 11.1 Families/Marriages

This chart summarizes possible variations in family and marriage forms. Describe the general nature of the
American family using terms from this table.

Nuclear Family parents and children

Composition

Extended Family parents, children, and other relatives

Composition

Inheritance patrilineal (inherit through the father) or matrilineal (inherit through the
mother) or bilateral (inherit through both)

Authority patriarchal (father rules the family) or matriarchal (mother rules the family)
or equalitarian (parents share authority)

Residence patrilocal (couple lives with or near husband’s parents) or matrilocal (couple
lives with or near wife’s parents) or neolocal (couple lives apart from both
sets of parents)

Marriage polygyny (one husband, many wives) or polyandry (one wife, many
Composition husbands) or monogamy (one husband, one wife)
 Chapter 11 The Family 353

World View Types of Marriages

Monogamy—the marriage of one man and one
woman—is the only legal form of marriage in all in-
dustrial and postindustrial societies. It is also the only
form of marriage allowed by law in the Western
Hemisphere. However, in many African and southern
Asian nations, where Islam is the predominant reli-
gion, polygyny—the marriage of one man to two or
more women at the same time—is legal. This map
shows the countries where monogamy and polygyny
are legal forms of marriage.

North
Nor th Europe
Europe
America
Asia

Africa
South
America

Australia
Marital Form
Law permits monogamy or polygyny
Law permits only monogamy

Interpreting the Map

1. Suggest one or more reasons for the widespread presence of polygyny in Africa, Southwest
Asia (the Middle East), India, and Southeast Asia.
2. Why do you think the caption explains that the map shows only the countries where polygyny
and monogamy are legal forms of marriage?

Choosing a Mate
Suppose you came home from school one afternoon and your parents asked
you to come into the living room to meet your future husband or wife. You
might wonder if you had somehow been beamed to another planet. Similarly,
you will probably never enroll in a college course entitled “Negotiating Dowries
with Prospective In-laws,” this being a skill not much in demand today. If, how-
ever, you assume that you have complete freedom of choice in the selection of
a marriage partner, you are mistaken. All cultures and societies, including the
United States, have norms and laws about who may marry whom.
354 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Exogamy refers to
exogamy
mate-selection norms re- All Marriages
the practice of marrying
quiring individuals to 5% Mixed
outside one’s group
marry someone outside Marriages
their kind or group. (Exo
is a prefix meaning “out-
side.”) The most important Non Mixed Marriages

norms relating to ex-

incest taboo ogamy are called incest
a norm forbidding marriage taboos, which forbid mar-
between close relatives riage between certain
kinds of relatives. In the
traditional Chinese cul- Mixed Marriages
ture, for example, two
people with identical fam-
ily names could not marry Latino/
unless their family lines White 53%
were known to have di- All Others 7%
verged at least five gener- Asian/
ations previously (Queen White 19%
et al., 1985). In the United Black/White 9%
States, you are not legally Native American/White 12%
permitted to marry a son
or daughter, a brother or Figure 11.2 Mixed Marriages and Intergroup
sister, a mother or a father, Married Couples in the United States.
a niece or nephew, or an Although only 5 percent of marriages in the U.S. are
aunt or uncle. In twenty- mixed, the number has quadrupled since 1980.
nine states, marriage to a Source: American Demographics, Population Reference
first cousin is prohibited. Bureau, 1998; Miliken Institute, 2001.
Furthermore, it is illegal to
marry a former mother-in-
law or father-in-law. Incest is almost universally prohibited, although excep-
tions were common among the royalty of ancient Europe, Hawaii, Egypt, and
Peru. Even in these instances, most members of the royal families chose
partners to whom they were not related by blood.
endogamy Endogamy involves mate-selection norms that require individuals to
marriage within one’s own marry within their own kind. (Endo is a prefix that means “inside.”) In the
group as required by social United States, for example, norms have required that marriage partners be
norms of the same race. These norms are not as strong as they once were.
Although they represent only five percent of all marriages in the United
States, mixed marriages have quadrupled since 1980. Figure 11.2 shows the
racial and ethnic breakdown of intergroup marriages today. Also, class lines
are crossed with greater frequency because more Americans of all social
classes are attending college together. Finally, norms separating age groups
have weakened.
Norms encouraging (rather than requiring) marriage within a group usu-
ally exist. And people are most likely to know and prefer to marry others like
themselves. For these reasons, people tend to marry those with social char-
homogamy acteristics similar to their own. This tendency, the result of the rather free ex-
the tendency to marry ercise of personal choice, is known as homogamy.
someone similar to oneself For example, in spite of what fairy tales and movies often tell us, it is rare
for the son or daughter of a multimillionaire to marry someone from a lower
 Chapter 11 The Family 355
class. Furthermore, most marriages in the
United States occur between individuals who

“
are about the same age. Most people who are
marrying for the first time marry someone
who also has not been married before.
Divorced people tend to marry others who Success in marriage is
have been previously married. Finally, peo- not so much finding the
ple tend to choose marriage partners
from their own communities or right person as it is being
neighborhoods. the right person.
Although it is still the excep-
tion in the United States, het-
erogamy is rising. In
“Anonymous

heterogamous marriages, part-

ners are dissimilar in some im-
portant characteristics. More
American marriages, for in-
stance, are crossing traditional heterogamy
barriers of age, race, social class, marriage between people with
and ethnicity. This trend results differing social characteristics
from several factors. America
has become more racially and
ethnically integrated, so that peo-
ple have an opportunity to mix
more freely. The television and
film industries help foster het- Are these two individuals in a
erogamy by the sympathetic por- homogenous or heterogamous
relationship? Explain.
trayal of couples and families from
different racial and social backgrounds. In addition, class lines are crossed
with greater frequency, and norms separating age groups have weakened.

Section 1 Assessment
1. What is the difference between a nuclear and an extended family?
Which type represents your household?
2. Why are nuclear families more common in industrial societies?
3. What is another term for the family of birth?
4. Indicate whether exogamy (Ex), endogamy (En), or homogamy (H) is
reflected in each of the following situations.
a. Catholics are supposed to marry Catholics.
b. A father is not permitted to marry his daughter.
c. Members of the same social class marry.
d. A brother and sister are legally prohibited from marrying.
e. People tend to marry others of the same age.
f. Rich people marry other wealthy people.

Critical Thinking
5. Synthesizing Information Write a paragraph based on personal
knowledge or experience that supports or refutes the idea that
homogamy dominates American society.
356 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Another Courtship and Marriage

Time Among the Hopi

Courtship and marriage customs among the Hopi her wedding blanket. Accompanied by the boy,
Indians of the southwestern United States are who carries the meal she has ground, she walks
quite different from those of the dominant U.S. barefoot to his house. There she presents the meal
culture. to her prospective mother-in-law and settles down
for a temporary three-day stay before the wed-
O nce the decision to marry is made by the
young couple, the boy goes in the
evening after supper to the girl’s house and there
ding. During this period the young couple may
see each other, but they [do not become intimate].
states his intentions to her parents. If he is accept- At some time during the three-day period the
able, he is told to go home and tell his parents groom’s house is visited, or “attacked,” by his pa-
about it. The girl then grinds cornmeal or makes ternal aunts, who break in on the bride and
bread, and carries it to the house of her prospec- shower her with [abusive language] and often with
tive groom. At this time the mother of the boy may mud. They accuse her of laziness, inefficiency, and
refuse the bread or meal, in which case the match stupidity. The boy’s mother and her clanswomen
is usually broken off. If, however, the food is ac- protect the girl and insist that the accusations are
cepted, it is given by the mother to her brothers unfounded. In spite of appearances all this is car-
and to her husband’s clansmen, and the wedding ried off in a good-humored way, and finally the
plans go forward. aunts leave, having stolen the wood their nephew
After this event the girl returns home to grind had brought his mother. The wood is used to bake
more meal with the help of her kinswomen, while piki, which is given to the mother, and thus all
the boy fetches water and chops wood for his damages are paid for.
mother. In the evening after these chores are com- On the morning of the fourth day the marriage
pleted, the bride dresses in her manta beads and is consummated. On this occasion the girl’s rela-
tives wash the boy’s hair and bathe him, while the
boy’s relatives do the same for the girl. The couple
may now sleep together as man and wife, but they
remain at the boy’s mother’s house until the girl’s
wedding garments are complete. These garments
are woven by the groom, his male relatives, and
any men in the village who wish to participate.
Source: Stuart A. Queen and Robert W. Habenstein,
The Family in Various Cultures, 4th ed. (Philadelphia:
Lippincott, 1974, pp. 54–55, 56–58. Copyright 1952,
© 1961, 1967, 1974 by J.B. Lippincott Company.)
Reprinted by permission of Harper & Row, Publishers.

Thinking It Over
1. What do you think the staged “fight” with the
groom’s aunts signifies?
2. What are some of the advantages Hopi society
gains by following these wedding customs?
Contemporary Hopi Indians play traditional roles during
a formal ceremony.
 Chapter 11 The Family 357

Section
Theoretical Perspectives
2 and the Family
K e y T e r m

• socioemotional maintenance

Functionalism Section
Preview
F or the functionalists, the family plays many roles, including socializ-
ing the young, providing social and emotional support, managing re-
production, regulating sexual activity, transmitting social status, and serving
as an economic center. Let’s look more closely at each of these functions. T he family is the very core
of human social life. It is
not surprising that each of the
How does the family socialize children? In addition to caring for an major perspectives focuses on
infant’s physical needs, parents begin the vital process of teaching the child
the family. Functionalism
what he or she must learn to learn to participate in society. During the first
year, the infant begins to mimic words and, later, sentences. During the sec- emphasizes the benefits of
ond and third years, parents begin to teach the child values and norms of be- the family for society. The
havior. By being role models and through training and education, the family conflict perspective looks at
continues the process of socialization in each new stage of development. the reasons males dominate
in the family structure.
What is the socioemotional
Symbolic interactionism stud-
function of the family? Another
major function of the family is ies the way the family social-
socioemotional maintenance. izes children and promotes
Generally, the family is the one the development of self-
place in society where an individ- concept.
ual is unconditionally accepted
and loved. Family members accept
one another as they are; every
member is special and unique.
Without this care and affection, socioemotional maintenance
children will not develop normally. provision of acceptance and
(See Chapter 4, pages 109–114, on support
children raised in isolation.) They
may have low self-esteem, fear re-
jection, feel insecure, and eventu-
ally find it difficult to adjust to
marriage or to express affection to
their own children. Even individu-
als who are well integrated into so-
ciety require support when
adjusting to changing norms and in
developing and continuing healthy
relationships. Here again, the fam-
ily can provide socioemotional
What do functionalists believe about the roles maintenance.
associated with this father and daughter?
358 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Figure 11.3 American Youths Grade Their Parents

In a national survey, Americans in the seventh through the twelfth grades were asked to “grade” their moth-
ers and fathers. The results are shown below. The left-hand column lists various aspects of child rearing, and
the remaining columns indicate the percentage of students who assigned each grade. For example, on the di-
mension “Raising me with good values,” 69 percent gave their fathers an A, 17 percent a B, and so forth.
Grading Dad
Assigned Grade
Aspect of Child Rearing A B C D F
Raising me with good values 69% 17% 8% 4% 2%
Appreciating me for who I am 58 21 11 8 2
Encouraging me to enjoy learning 58 24 12 4 2
Making me feel important and loved 57 22 13 6 2
Being able to go to important events 55 22 13 5 5
Being there for me when I am sick 52 20 16 8 4
Spending time talking with me 43 24 19 10 4
Establishing traditions with me 41 26 15 11 7
Being involved in school life 38 24 19 12 7
Being someone to go to when upset 38 22 15 12 13
Controlling his temper 31 27 20 10 12
Knowing what goes on with me 31 30 17 12 10

Grading Mom
Assigned Grade
Aspect of Child Rearing A B C D F
Being there for me when I am sick 81% 11% 5% 2% 1%
Raising me with good values 74 15 6 3 2
Making me feel important and loved 64 20 10 5 1
Being able to go to important events 64 20 10 3 3
Appreciating me for who I am 63 18 8 6 5
Encouraging me to enjoy learning 59 23 12 3 3
Being involved in school life 46 25 13 10 6
Being someone to go to when upset 46 22 13 8 9
Spending time talking with me 43 33 14 6 4
Establishing traditions with me 38 29 17 10 6
Knowing what goes on with me 35 31 15 10 9
Controlling her temper 29 28 19 12 11

1. Based on this data, what conclusions would you draw about the closeness of families in America?
2. Select the three aspects of child rearing you think are most important, and compare the grade you
would give your parent or parents on these aspects with the grades in this national sample.
Source: Ellen Galinsky, Ask the Children (New York: William Morrow & Co., Inc., 1999).
 Chapter 11 The Family 359
What is the reproductive function of the
family? Society cannot survive without new
members. The family provides an orderly means
for producing new members, generation after
generation. So important is this function that for
many cultures and religions, it is the primary
purpose for sexual relations. In many societies
in developing nations the failure of a wife to
bear children can lead to divorce. Residents of
places such as the Punjab region of North India,
for example, view children as an economic ne-
cessity. The significance of having children is
also seen in the hundreds of rituals, customs,
and traditions that are associated with preg-
nancy and birth in virtually all cultures around
What important functions are being
the world. (Later in the chapter, we look at the rise of marriages without chil-
fulfilled by this family?
dren in the United States.)
How does the family regulate sexual activity? In no known society
are people given total sexual freedom. Even in sexually permissive societies,
such as the Hopi Indians, there are rules about mating and marrying. Norms
regarding sexual activities vary from place to place. Families in a few cul-
tures, such as in the Trobriand Islands, encourage premarital sex. Other
societies, like those in Iran and Afghanistan, go to great lengths to prevent
any contact between nonrelated single males and females. The United States
has traditionally fallen somewhere between these two extremes. In the ideal
culture in the United States, adolescents would abstain from sexual activity.
In real culture, however, the abundance of sexual references directed at teens
by the advertising and entertainment industries make abstinence very diffi-
cult and even seem undesirable. Clearly, we are sending a mixed message to
young people today. One of the consequences of this cultural confusion is
the increase in teenage pregnancies and the number of teenagers having
abortions. But whatever the norms, it is almost always up to the family to
enforce them.
How does the family transmit social status? Families provide eco-
nomic resources that open and close occupational doors. The sons and
daughters of high-income professionals, for example, are more likely to at-
tend college and graduate school than are the children of blue-collar work-
ers. Consequently, the children of professionals are more likely as adults to
“Home is the place where,
when you have to go
there, they have to take
enter professional occupations. The family also passes on values that affect you in.
social status. The children of professionals, for example, tend to feel a greater
need to pursue a college degree than their counterparts from blue-collar fam-
ilies. In these and many other ways, the family affects the placement of chil-
dren in the stratification structure.
“
Robert Frost
American poet

What is the economic function of the family? At one time, families

were self-sufficient economic units whose members all contributed to the
production of needed goods. Every family member would join in such tasks
as growing food, making cloth, and taking care of livestock. The modern
American family is a unit of consumption rather than production. Adult mem-
bers—increasingly including working mothers—are employed outside the
home and pool their resources to buy what they need. But the end result is
the same. The family provides what is needed to survive.
360 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Conflict Theory
Conflict theorists focus on the way family members compete
and cooperate. Most family structure throughout history has
been patriarchal and patrilineal. Women have historically and
traditionally been considered the property of men, and the con-
trol of family members and property has typically passed
through male bloodlines. This male dominance has been con-
sidered “natural” and “legitimate.” Thus, most family systems
have had built-in gender inequality.
How does conflict theory explain gender relationships in
the family? According to conflict theorists, males are domi-
nant and in control; females have traditionally been expected to
be submissive helpers. In the traditional division of labor, males
work outside the home for finances to support the family.
Women remain at home to prepare meals, keep house, and care
for the children. Women are unpaid laborers who make it pos-
sible for men to earn wages. With men having control over the
money, the wives and mothers are kept in a dependent and
powerless role. According to the conflict perspective, families in
the past, then, have fostered social inequality.
How do the ideas of feminist writers fit with conflict
theory? Writers and activists who organize on behalf of
women’s rights and interests have come to be called feminists.
Feminist Betty Friedan is the Many feminists today view the family from the conflict perspective. They
godmother of the American women’s believe that family structure is the source of the inequality between men
movement. Many conflict theorists and women in society. They point out that men have had control over
study her writings.
women since before private property and capitalism existed. Women’s con-
tributions in the home (mother and homemaker) are not paid and are
therefore undervalued in a capitalist society. Attempts by women to gain
more power within the family structure can result in conflict.

Symbolic Interactionism
According to symbolic interactionism, a key to understanding behavior
within the family lies in the interactions among family members and the
meanings that members assign to these interactions.
How does the family help develop a person’s self-concept?
Socialization begins within the family. As family members share meanings
and feelings, children develop self-concepts and learn to put themselves
mentally in the place of others. Interactions with adults help children acquire
human personality and social characteristics. Children develop further as they
meet others outside the home.
According to symbolic interactionists, relationships within the family are
constantly changing. A newly married couple will spend many months (per-
haps years) testing their new relationship. As time passes, the initial rela-
tionship changes, along with some aspects of the partners’ personalities,
including self-concepts. These changes occur as the partners struggle with
such problem issues as chores and responsibilities, personality clashes, and
in-laws.
 Chapter 11 The Family 361

“
With the arrival of children comes a new set of adjustments. Parental views
may differ on child-rearing practices, number of children desired, and educa-
tion for the children. The situation is made even more complex by the new
member of the family, who must also become part of the interaction patterns. Children have more need
of models than of critics.
Section 2 Assessment Carolyn Coats
1. Match the following examples with the major theoretical perspectives:
functionalism (F), conflict theory (C), symbolic interactionism (SI)
“
author for young adults

a. fathers “giving away” brides

b. having children
c. development of self-concept
d. newly married partners adjusting to each other
e. child abuse
f. social class being passed from one generation to another

Critical Thinking
2. Finding the Main Idea Select a memorable family experience (such
as the Thanksgiving holiday) and interpret it from the viewpoint of one
of the three major perspectives.

Figure 11.4 Focus on Theoretical Perspectives

Perspectives on the Family. Both functionalism and conflict theory are concerned with the ways social
norms affect the nature of the family. Symbolic interactionism tends to examine the relationship of the self to
the family. How might functionalism and conflict theory focus on the self?

Theory Topic Example

Functionalism Sex norms Children are taught that sexual activity should be
reserved for married couples.

Conflict Theory Male dominance Husbands use their economic

power to control the ways
money is spent.

Symbolic Interactionism Developing self-esteem A child abused by her

parents learns to dislike
herself.
362 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Sociology Looking for

Today Mr. or Ms. Right
This activity will give you some ideas for eval-
I am looking
uating whether a current boyfriend or girlfriend for a partner
who . . .
Partner Self
is a good candidate for a successful long-term
1.
relationship. is honest and tru
2. thful.
From the list on the right, (and on a separate is fun to be with.
sheet of paper), list the ten most important qual- 3.
is of the same
educational ba
ities to you. (Number 1 as the most important, 4.
will take care of
ckground.
me.
number 2 the next most important, and so 5.
wants to have
children.
forth.) Then fold your paper in half. In the 6.
communicates
right-hand column, either have your partner fill 7. well with me.
will share hous
out the questionnaire or rank the characteristics 8. ehold jobs and
tasks.
is a good friend
yourself according to how you think your part- 9. with whom I ca
n talk.
is of the same
ner would. 10. religious backgro
und.
makes decision
11. s.
earns good mo
12. ney.
Evaluating Your Responses. Which of 13.
is physically att
ractive.
the items listed on the right do you think are 14.
is in love with me
and I with him/he
r.
the most important in predicting marital suc- encourages me
to be my own pe
15. rson.
cess? According to research, the last seven has interests lik
e mine in makin
16. g money and ha
items (17–23) are the most important. High makes me feel
important.
ving fun.
17.
compatibility between you and your partner is faithful.
18.
on these seven characteristics would proba- shares mutual
19. interests in home
bly increase your chances of marital success. has had a happ
, children, rom
antic love, and
religion.
y childhood wi
A low degree of matching does not, of 20.
is emotionally
th happily marri
ed parents.
mature.
course, ensure an unhappy marriage or a 21.
is prepared to
support a family
divorce, but it does suggest areas that may 22. .
is interested in
cause problems in the future. 23. waiting to marry
until age twenty-
wants a six-mon two or older.
th to two-year
engagement pe
Adapted from the Department of Human riod.

Development and Family Studies, Colorado State

University. F

Doing Sociology
Do you think that the qualities listed in the questionnaire are relevant to you in choosing a wife or a
husband? Why or why not? Are there characteristics more important to you and your friends?
Explain.
 Chapter 11 The Family 363

Section Family and Marriage

3 in the United States

K e y T e r m s

• divorce rate
• marriage rate

The Nature of the American Family Section

Preview
T he United States is a large, diverse society. Describing the “typical”
family might be impossible. There are, however, more similarities
than differences among American families. As the various ethnic groups
blend into life in the United States, their families tend to follow the American M odern marriages are
based primarily on love,
but there are many reasons
pattern described below.
for marrying—and as many
❖ Families are nuclear (a household contains only a set of parents and
reasons for divorce. Although
their children).
the American family provides
❖ Families are bilateral (they trace lineage and pass inheritance equally
social and emotional support,
through both parents).
violence in this setting is not
❖ Families are democratic (partners share decision making equally).
uncommon. Child abuse and
❖ Families are neolocal (each family lives apart from other families).
spousal abuse are serious
❖ Families are monogamous (each includes only one husband and one problems in too many
wife at a time).
American families.

Romantic Love and

Marriage
To Americans, it’s like the old
song—“Love and marriage go to-
gether like a horse and carriage.” In
a recent poll of the American public,
83 percent of both men and women
rated “being in love” as the most vital
reason to marry.
The relationship between love
and marriage is not always viewed in
this way. Among the British feudal
aristocracy, romantic love was a game
of pursuit played outside of marriage.
Marriage was not thought to be com-
patible with deeply romantic feelings.
In ancient Japan, love was considered
a barrier to the arrangement of mar- In the United States today, the norm is
riages by parents. Among Hindus in for love to precede the marriage vows.
India today, parents or other relatives Not all societies share this norm.
364 Unit 4 Social Institutions
Figure 11.5 Divorce and
Marriage Rates: 1940–1998.
16
Can you apply what you learned in

Marriages/divorces per 1,000 persons

history to interpret this chart?
(a) What happened in the mid-1940s 14
that caused the dramatic rise in
marriage rates during this period? 12
Marriage rate
(b) Why do you think the marriage
rate dropped so low in the 1950s? 10
(c) What are some possible reasons
that the divorce rate peaked in 1980? 8

Source: National Vital Statistics

6
Reports 47, 1999.
Divorce rate
4

0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year 1998

are expected to find suitable mates for the young. Criteria for mate selection
include caste, wealth, family reputation, and appearance. Love is not absent in
Hindu marriages, but love follows marriage rather than the other way around
(Cox, 1999).
While romantic love is almost always stated as a condition for marriage in
modern societies, it is seldom the only condition. People marry for many rea-
sons, and romantic love may be only one of many reasons. A person may
marry to enter a powerful family or to advance a career. One of the strongest
motivations for marriage is conformity. Parents expect their children to marry
after a certain age and worry about them—perhaps even pressure them—if
their children remain single very long. Peers are another source of pressure.
Since well over 90 percent of all adults in the United States do marry, confor-
mity must certainly be a motivating factor.
Americans typically believe that a marriage that is not based on romantic
love cannot last. It is more accurate to say that a marriage based only on ro-
mantic love is almost sure to fail. While love may be a good start, it is only
the beginning. For a marriage to last, a couple must build a relationship that
goes beyond romantic love (Crosby, 1985).
marriage rate The marriage rate—the number of marriages per year for every thou-
the number of marriages per sand members of the population—has fluctuated, in the United States, since
year for every one thousand 1940. As shown in Figure 11.5, the marriage rate peaked at over 16.0 imme-
members of a population diately following World War II. Since then, the marriage rate, with ups and
downs, has been cut in half.

Divorce
divorce rate The divorce rate is the number of divorces per year for every one thou-
the number of divorces per sand members of the population. Except for a peak and decline after World
year for every one thousand War II, the divorce rate in the United States increased slowly between 1860 and
members of the population the early 1960s. A dramatic increase occurred over the next twenty years, when
 Chapter 11 The Family 365

79.5
District of Columbia

Marriage Rates
As noted in the text, the U.S. mar-
riage rate overall has declined dra-
matically since 1940. Variation in
the marriage rate among individual
states is interesting. The lowest
Marriage Rate per 1,000
marriage rate occurs in New Jersey. of the Total Population (1998)
Nevada has far and away the high-
12.00 or more
est marriage rate. 10.00–11.99
8.00–9.99
6.00–7.99
Less than 6.00

Interpreting the Map

1. Create a chart comparing the marriage rate in your state with other states, keeping in mind that
the national average is just over 8.0. Pose a question for your classmates to answer describing
their reaction to your state’s position in the marriage rate ranking.
2. Would you expect the divorce rates of states to be correlated with their marriage rates? Make a
prediction before looking up the divorce rates for comparison. Report your findings to the class.

Source: PRIMEDIA Reference Inc., 1998.

the divorce rate more than doubled (from 2.2 percent in 1960 to 5.3 percent
in 1981). Since then, the rate has leveled off. In fact, it has declined slightly
since 1985. (See Figure 11.5 on page 364.)
What are the causes of divorce? Both personal and societal factors in-
fluence why people divorce. At the individual level, these factors include:
❖ the age of the people when they married. The later the age upon
marriage, the lower the chance of divorce.
❖ how many years the partners have been married. The longer the
marriage, the lower the chance of divorce.
❖ the nature and quality of the relationship. The more respect and
flexibility exists between the partners, the lower the chance of divorce.
Sociologists are most concerned with how larger forces in society affect
marriages. There are four main factors. First, the divorce rate rises during eco-
nomic prosperity and goes down when times are hard. This is probably
366 Unit 4 Social Institutions
30

28

26
Men

Age
24

22 Women

20 1998

18
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Year
Figure 11.6 Median Age at First Marriage. This figure shows changes in the
median age at first marriage in the U.S. since 1900. The marrying age for both men and
women has been on the increase since the 1960s. How might this trend affect the future
divorce rate?

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, March 1998.

because people are more likely to make changes and take chances when

“
they are not worried about basic survival.
Second, the rise in the divorce rate after 1960 followed the growing up of
the baby-boom generation. Baby boomers did not attach a stigma to divorce
No matter how many the way earlier generations did and so were more likely to leave unhappy
communes anybody marriages than to stay.
Third, the increasing financial independence of women means they are
invents, the family always more willing to end bad marriages. They are not as dependent (especially if
creeps back. there are no children) upon the husband’s willingness to support an ex.
Fourth, American values and attitudes about marriage and divorce are
Margaret Mead
“
anthropologist
changing. Society is much more forgiving of divorce and remarriage. Women,
especially, are no longer “punished,” as they were in the past, for leaving a
marriage.
What does the future for marriage look like? For several reasons,
there is a good chance that the recent decline in the U.S. divorce rate may
continue:
❖ The average age at first marriage in the United States is increasing. (See
Figure 11.6.) We know that the later people marry, the less likely they
are to divorce. (Mature individuals have more realistic expectations
about their mates and have fewer economic and career problems.) This
trend is likely to continue well into the twenty-first century.
❖ The average age of the population of the United States is increasing as
baby boomers grow older. This exceptionally large generation set
records for divorce in the late 1960s and 1970s. Baby boomers now
range in age from the mid thirties to the early fifties, which removes
them from the age bracket that produces the highest divorce rates.
❖ American couples are having fewer children, and the children are
spaced farther apart. This reduces pressure on marriages.
 Chapter 11 The Family 367

Tragically, violence has been a pattern of some family relationships throughout history.

Family Violence
Americans have traditionally denied the existence of widespread violence
in the family setting. Violent behavior has in the past mistakenly been asso-
ciated mostly with lower-class families. Part of the reason for this attitude was
the fact that the first research in this area used law enforcement and public
medical records. Because the police and hospitals dealt mostly with the
lower classes (middle and upper classes had lawyers and private doctors),
the statistics were skewed toward the lower class. We are learning that do-
mestic violence occurs at all class levels.
Is violence in the family common? Although the family provides a safe
and warm emotional haven, it can in some cases be a hostile environment.
Family violence, or domestic violence, affects all members of the family—
children, spouses, and older people. Celebrated trials during the 1990s brought
increased public attention to the issue of domestic violence. For more than a
year, media focus was centered on the trial of football superstar O. J. Simpson,
accused of the murder of his former wife Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald
Goldman. Evidence presented during the trial indicated that Simpson had
abused her when they were married. In another high-profile case, the wealthy
Menendez brothers were convicted of the murder of their parents. (Trial evi-
dence indicated that the brothers had been abused as children.)
According to a national survey, almost one-quarter of adults in the United
States report having been physically abused as children. In most cases, physi-
cal violence involves a slap, a shove, or a severe spanking. However, kicking,
biting, punching, beating, and threatening with a weapon are part of abusive
violence as well. Furthermore, according to estimates, one of every four girls
and one in ten boys are victims of sexual aggression, either within the home
368 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Country Reported Abuse

Industrialized Countries
Canada 29% of ever-married/common law–partnered women report being physically assaulted by a current or
former partner since the age of sixteen.
New Zealand 20% of women report being hit or physically abused by a male partner.
Switzerland 20% of women report being physically assaulted.
United Kingdom 25% of women had been punched or slapped by a partner or ex-partner in their lifetimes.
United States 28% of women report at least one episode of physical violence from their partner.

Asia and the Pacific

Korea 38% of wives report being physically abused by their spouses in the last year.
Thailand 20% of husbands acknowledge physically abusing their wives at least once in their marriage.

Middle East
Egypt 35% of women report being beaten by their husbands at some point in their marriage.
Israel 32% of women report at least one episode of physical abuse by their partners during the last twelve months;
30% report sexual coercion by their husbands in the last year.

Africa
Kenya 42% of women report ever being beaten by a partner; of those, 58% report that they were beaten often or
sometimes.
Uganda 41% of women report being beaten or physically harmed by a partner; 41% of men report beating their partners.

Latin America and the Caribbean

Chile 26% report at least one episode of violence by a partner, 11% report at least one episode of severe violence,
and 15% of women report at least one episode of less severe violence.
Columbia 19% of women have been physically assaulted by their partners in their lifetimes.
Mexico 30% report at least one episode of physical violence by a partner; 13% report physical violence within the last
year.

Figure 11.7 Events of

Domestic Violence against or outside (Heller, Kempe, and Krugman, 1999; Pryor, 1999). Reported child
Women in Selected sexual abuse in the United States has skyrocketed in recent years. Between
Countries. Levels of domestic 1976 and 1997, the number of reported child abuse cases rose from 662,000 to
violence against women clearly over 3 million. Statistics collected nationally indicate that 47 out of every 1,000
vary from country to country. children are reported annually as victims of child maltreatment (Wang and
Source: World Health Organiza- Daro, 1998). Child sexual abuse goes beyond physical contact. Some children
tion, 1997. are forced into pornography or are made to view pornography in the presence
of the abuser. What’s worse, the abuser is usually someone the child trusts—a
parent, friend of the family, child-care giver, brother.
At least four million women are battered by their husbands annually,
probably many more. Over four thousand women each year are beaten to
death. The extent of physical abuse is underestimated in part because three-
fourths of spousal violence occurs during separation or after divorce, and
most research is conducted among married couples.
Is abuse always directed against women? Husband abuse is fre-
quently overlooked in studies of physical abuse. Although marriages in the
United States are generally male dominated, it seems there is equality in the
 Chapter 11 The Family 369
use of physical violence. One set of researchers
found that almost one-third of the husbands in their
survey had acted violently against their wives and
that wives were almost as likely to have used phys-
ical violence against their husbands. Other studies
also show that husbands and wives assault each
other at about the same rate. Much of the violence
committed by women, however, involves self-pro-
tection or retaliation, and as a category, females are
not as violent as males (Gelles, 1997).
Is abuse always physical? Family violence is
not limited to physical abuse. Verbal and psycho-
logical abuse are also a part of many families.
Psychologists report that the feelings of self-hate and
worthlessness that are often the effects of abuse can
be as damaging as physical wounds. And more than
nine million children in the United States suffer from
neglect, a condition of being ignored rather than
abused.
What is the most common form of family
violence? Probably the most frequent and most
tolerated violence in the family occurs between chil-
dren. This sibling violence appears to be prevalent
and on the rise. Abuse among siblings may be based
on rivalry, jealousy, disagreements over personal Abuse directed against the elderly in
possessions, or incest. Although it declines somewhat as children get older, nursing homes has been a recent
concern of social activists.
it does not disappear.
Little is known about abuse of elderly people, because less research has
been done in this area. Abuse of older people usually takes the form of phys-
ical violence, psychological mistreatment, economic manipulation, or ne-
glect. Estimates of elder abuse range from 500,000 to 2.5 million cases
annually (Gelles, 1997). Some observers fear that abuse of older people will

“
increase as baby boomers age and the population grows older.

Section 3 Assessment All happy families resem-

ble each other; each un-
1. Choose the word from each pair that best describes the typical
American family. happy family is unhappy
a. nuclear or extended in its own way.
b. patrilineal or bilateral
Count Leo Tolstoy
“
c. neolocal or matrilocal
d. polygynous or monogamous
Russian writer
2. Identify three factors discussed in the text that are associated with
divorce.

Critical Thinking
3. Making Predictions What is your prediction for the divorce trend in
the United States in 2050? Use information in this section to support
your answer.
370 Unit 4 Social Institutions

A ccording to many experts, the influence of technology is just as

far-reaching in the home as in the office. Activities in the home are
changing dramatically because of recent technological innovations.
Because more American families are living farther from relatives,
more are using the Internet to stay in touch with each other. Birth an-
nouncements, reunion plans, gift registries for weddings, and funeral
arrangements are now being shared with families and friends on-line
(Bulkeley, 1997). Although somewhat impersonal, these social connec-
tions may reduce social isolation and friction in families.
Technology Many, however, see a darker side to new technology for the family.
For example, one critic offers this concern: “If we wish to raise our chil-
dren as androids who respond to Internet packets rather than parental
and the guidance, I can’t think of a better way to do that than to put computer
networks in homes” (Wingfield, 1998:R23).
Another critic believes that high-tech home equipment like cable
Family television, the Internet, and video games increasingly rules the lives of
American families. Children who spend a great deal of time alone with
these technological wonders are deprived of frequent and intense so-
cial contact with other children, their parents, and other adults in the
neighborhood. Consequently, the current generation of children could
very well be the first to grow up with highly deficient social skills.
Offering indirect support for this conclusion is the fact that almost
three-fourths of Americans say they do not know their neighbors. The
number of Americans who admit they have spent no time with the
people living next to them has doubled in the last twenty years
(Quintanilla, 1996).
Technology can also separate, socially, those
family members who use the new technology
from those who do not. For example, some cou-
ples who depend on web pages to inform their
relatives of family news have found that some
family members cannot share in this information.
Older members of the family who do not have ac-
cess to the Internet often feel cut off from the rest
of the family (Bulkeley, 1997).

Analyzing the Trends

A dark picture of the Internet has been presented
in this feature. Think of some positive conse-
quences of this technology for the family. Discuss
two of them.

The computer, to an even greater

degree than the television, is being
credited with isolating family members.
 Chapter 11 The Family 371

Section
Changes in Marriage and Family
4 K e y T e r m s

• blended family • cohabitation

• adolescents • boomerang kids
• dual-employed marriages

Blended Families Section

Preview
T he relatively high divorce rate in the United States has created the
blended family—a family formed when at least one of the partners
in a marriage has been married before and has a child or children from the
previous marriage. This type of family can become extremely complicated
(Ganong and Coleman, 1994; Barnes, 1998). Here’s an example: A former
M any new patterns of
marriage and family
living have emerged in the
husband (with two children in the custody of their biological mother) mar- United States. They include
ries a new wife with two children in her custody. They have two children of blended families, single-
their own. The former wife also remarries a man with two children, one in parent families, child-free
his custody and one in the custody of his former wife. That former wife has families, cohabitation, same-
remarried and has had a child with her second husband, who has custody of
sex domestic partners, and
one child from his previous marriage. The former husband’s parents are di-
families with boomerang
vorced, and both have remarried. Thus, when he remarries, his children have
two complete sets of grandparents on his side, plus one set on the mother’s children. In spite of these
side, plus perhaps more on the stepfather’s side (Cox, 1999). new arrangements, the tradi-
Blended families create a new type of extended family, a family that is tional nuclear family is not
not based strictly on blood relationships. As the example above shows, it is going to be replaced on any
possible for a child in a blended family to have eight grandparents. Of broad scale.

blended family
a family formed when at least
one of the partners in a
marriage has been married
before and has a child or
children from a previous
marriage

Americans knew the “Brady Bunch”

family long before the term blended
families became common.
372 Unit 4 Social Institutions

course, not all blended families are this complicated. But about 40 percent of
households in the United States contain biologically unrelated individuals.
Many blended families are successful, especially if they make adjustments
during the first few years. Children from previous marriages, however, are
one factor in the higher divorce rates among second marriages (Baca Zinn
and Eitzen, 1998).
What major problems face blended families? Sociologists point to
three major problems facing blended families—a lack of money, stepchil-
dren’s dislike of the new spouse, and uncertainty about roles played by step-
parents.
❖ Money difficulties. Financial demands from both the former and
present families generally result in lower incomes in stepfamilies.
Remarried husbands are often legally obligated to support children
from their previous marriages. Second wives may resent losing the
income spent on children from a previous marriage.
Student Web Activity ❖ Stepchildren’s antagonism. Hoping for a reunion of their original
Visit the Sociology and parents, stepchildren may try to derail the new marriage. Even five
You Web site at years after divorce, about a third of stepchildren continue to strongly
soc.glencoe.com and click on disapprove of their original parents’ divorce. This is especially true for
Chapter 11—Student Web teenagers, who can be very critical of their stepparents’ values and
Activities for an activity on personalities.
blended families. ❖ Unclear roles. The roles of stepparents are often vague and
ambiguous. A stepchild often doesn’t consider a parent’s new spouse
as a “real” father or mother. It is also not clear to stepparents or
stepchildren how much power the new spouse really has. Issues
involving control and discipline
reflect power struggles within
the family, especially with
teenagers involved.

Single-Parent
Families
Over one out of four American
families is a single-parent family. By
far the greatest proportion of these
households are headed by women.
Only 10 percent of children living
with one parent are in a male-
headed household.
Why do women head the vast
majority of single-parent house-
holds? Although courts today are
more sensitive to the fathers’ claims,
women in all social classes are still
more likely to win custody of their
children in cases of separation and A debate exists over the appropriateness of
divorce. Unwed mothers or women celebrities choosing to be single mothers.
 Chapter 11 The Family 373
abandoned by their husbands and/or the fathers of their children make up a
large part of poor single-parent households. Finally, poor women marry (or re-
marry) at a very low rate.
Though significantly fewer, there is an increasing number of well-educated,
professional women who head single-parent households. With the stigma of
unwed motherhood declining, more affluent unmarried women are choosing
to have children and to care for them alone. These women have the economic
resources to support an independent family. Finally, well-educated women are
adopting higher standards for selecting husbands (Seligmann, 1999).
What are the effects of single-parent families on children?
Approximately 30 percent of America’s children (defined as people under the
age of eighteen) live in households with one parent. African American and
Latino children are more likely than white children to live with only their
mothers because of high divorce and out-of-wedlock birth rates, and lower
rates of marriage and remarriage (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1998a). Figure
11.8 shows how the number of never-married and single parents increased
among African Americans and Latinos from 1970 to 1998. In general, the
chances are increasing that American children will live at least part of their
youth in a fatherless home.
Adolescents (persons from the ages of twelve to seventeen) who live adolescents
with one parent or with a stepparent have much higher rates of deviant be- youths from the ages of
havior, including delinquency, drug and alcohol abuse, and teenage preg- twelve to seventeen
nancy, than adolescents living with both natural parents (Dornbush et al.,
1985; Popenoe, 1999). A national sample of twelve- to seventeen-year-olds
indicates that arrests, school discipline, truancy, running away, and smoking
occur more often in single-parent and stepparent families, regardless of in-
come, race, or ethnic background.
These figures do not point to a lack of concern in single parents as much
as they show the built-in problems of single parenting. Single working par- Visit soc.glencoe.com
ents must struggle to provide their children with the time, attention, and and click on Textbook
guidance that two parents can give. Because the single mother typically Updates–Chapter 11 for
makes little money, she has added financial problems. Finding good child an update of the data.
care and adequate housing in a suitable neighborhood is often very difficult.

70% Figure 11.8 Percentage of

62% 61% Single-Parent Families:
1998
60% 1990 1970–1998. This graph compares
Percentage of single-family homes

1980 the percentage of African American,

52% 1970 Latino, and white families that have
50% never married or have one parent.
What generalization can you make
40% from this data?
36% 36%
33% *Note: Latino data not available
30% 27% for 1970.
26%
23% Source: U.S. Bureau of the
20% 17%
Census, 1998.

10%
10%

0
African American Latino* White
374 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Childless Marriages
In the past, married women without children were seen as failing
to fulfill their “duty” as wives. In fact, in many religions, the in-
ability to have children is still one of the few allowed rea-
sons for divorcing a woman. Historically, married childless
women were pitied and looked down upon, and single
women rarely achieved respectability outside the role of
“spinster aunt.”
Why are some married women now choosing not to
have children? Around 19 percent of American women
who have ever been married do not have children in
2000, compared with about 15 percent in 1970 (U.S.
Bureau of the Census, 2000d). It is unclear if this upward
trend will continue. Today, the reasons married women
give for choosing not to have children are varied. Social
stigmas against childless married women are disappear-
ing. It is no longer automatically accepted that having
children is the primary reason for marriage. Some women
have elected to pursue personal or career goals instead.
Other people, both men and women, have basic moral is-
About one-fifth of couples today sues about raising children in what they consider to be an immoral world.
remain childless. In this an upward Sometimes, having children is put off so long that it becomes hard for cou-
or downward trend? ples to make the adjustment to raising a family. Finally, it is important to
remember that not all couples without children have chosen to be that
way. Physical or psychological problems keep some couples from having
children.
Are marriages happier with or without children? The answer to this
question generally depends upon the couple’s decision about having chil-
dren. Among childless couples who want children, marital happiness is gen-
erally lower than for married couples with children. However, research
shows that couples who by choice have no children appear to be happier
and more satisfied with their marriages and lives than couples with children
(Cox, 1999).

Dual-Employed Marriages
In families where both parents are working outside the home, special
strains are put on the marriage. Women in these dual-employed marriages
dual-employed marriages are apparently expected to handle most of the household and child-care re-
marriages in which both sponsibilities in addition to their full-time jobs.
spouses work outside the
home What are drawbacks to the dual-employed family? Because they
must combine employment with child care and household tasks, married
working women work about fifteen hours more a week than men.
Sociologist Arlie Hochschild calls this home- and child-based work “the sec-
ond shift.” Although men spend an average of four to six hours per week in
household and child-care duties, women bear the larger burden.
In addition to this greater workload, women in dual-employed marriages
must cope with role conflict. They are torn between the time requirements of
 Chapter 11 The Family 375
their jobs and their desire to spend more time with
their children and husbands. Feelings of guilt may
arise from not being able to meet all expectations of
wife, mother, and breadwinner.
Men in dual-employed marriages are generally
unwilling to assume household responsibilities equal
to those of their wives. Even so, they feel the nega-
tive effects of role conflict and excessive demands on
their time. In addition, having an employed wife,
particularly if she earns more, may not fit with men’s
images of themselves as providers.
Is there a positive side to dual employ-
ment? Dual employment offers advantages as
well as disadvantages. On balance, the effects of
employment on the psychological well-being of
women have been beneficial (Moen, 1992; Crosby,
1993; Cox, 1999). Working outside the home pro-
vides a wider set of social relationships and
greater feelings of control, independence, and self-
esteem. Employment also appears to provide a so-
cial and emotional cushion for women when their
children leave home. Compared with women who
do not work outside the home, employed women
tend to have more outlets for self-expression A functionalist might suggest that this
(Adelmann et al., 1989; Wolfe, 1998). If a mother mother’s economic function is clashing
prefers working outside the home, other family with her socioemotional function.
members often benefit from her employment. With
two incomes, there is more money to spend for
purchases that raise the standard of living. Sons and daughters of work-
ing mothers also benefit in noneconomic ways. Daughters of working
mothers are more likely to see themselves as working adults, as capable
of being economically independent, and as benefiting from further edu-
cation. Sons are more likely to choose wives with similar attitudes toward
education and employment.
For men, benefits of a dual-employed marriage include freedom from the
responsibility of being the sole provider, increased opportunity for job
changes, and opportunities to continue education. Men with employed wives
can share the triumphs and defeats of the day with someone who is in the
same situation. If their wives are happier working outside the home, hus-
bands enjoy a better marital relationship. Those husbands who take advan-
tage of the opportunity can form a closer relationship with their children by
being more active parents (Booth and Crouter, 1998).

Cohabitation
Cohabitation—living with someone in a marriagelike arrangement with- cohabitation
out the legal obligations and responsibilities of formal marriage—has been a a marriagelike living
widely discussed alternative to traditional monogamy for some time. In fact, arrangement without the legal
the number of American adults cohabiting increased from about one-half obligations and responsibilities
million to over seven million between 1970 and 2000. According to a nationwide of formal marriage
376 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Survey Research:
Spanking and
Antisocial Behavior
Like many children in the United States, you probably experienced
spanking and other legal forms of physical corporal punishment from
your parents. In the mid-1980s, research revealed that over 90 percent
of parents used corporal punishment on young children, and more
than half continued its use during the early teen years. Although high,
this rate of corporal punishment was less than in the 1950s (99 percent)
and the mid-1970s (97 percent). The rate has declined further since
1985, but nearly all American children still experience some form of
corporal punishment.
The use of corporal punishment to correct or control the behavior of
children is widely accepted in American culture. “Spare the rod and spoil
the child” is a warning deep in our national consciousness. However,
Straus and his colleagues (1997) present evidence contradicting the no-
tion that corporal punishment improves children’s behavior.
These researchers used data from interviews with a sample of over
eight-hundred mothers of children aged six to nine years in a national
study. (This was a longitudinal study, one that follows respondents
over a period of time.) This study compared parents’ use of corporal
punishment with antisocial behavior in children. The study defined cor-
poral punishment as “the use of physical force with the intention of
causing a child to experience pain, but not injury, for the purpose of
correction or control of the child’s behavior” (Straus, Sugarman, and
Giles-Sims, 1997:761). Slapping a child’s hand or buttocks and squeez-
ing a child’s arm are examples. A measure of antisocial behavior was
based on the mothers’ reports of their children’s behavior: “cheats or
tells lies,” “bullies or is cruel or mean to others,” “does not feel sorry
after misbehaving,” “breaks things deliberately,” “is disobedient at
school,” and “has trouble getting along with teachers.”
Since this was a longitudinal study, information on the frequency of
parents’ use of corporal punishment was collected before reports on
subsequent antisocial behavior. Contrary to common expectations,
Straus found that the higher the use of corporal punishment, the higher
the level of antisocial behavior two years later.
At the end of their report, the authors move from being strictly so-
cial scientists to making a practical child-rearing recommendation. Straus
 Chapter 11 The Family 377
and his colleagues suggest that the reduction or
elimination of corporal punishment could lower
antisocial behavior in children. In addition,
given research indicating a relationship between
antisocial behavior in childhood and violence
and other crime in adulthood, society at large
could benefit from abandoning the use of cor-
poral punishment in child rearing. They state it
this way:
Thus, because almost all American children
experience [corporal punishment] in varying
degrees, our findings suggest that almost all
American children could benefit from a re-
duction or elimination of [corporal punish-
ment]. Moreover, considering research
showing that [antisocial behavior] in child-
hood is associated with violence and other
crime as an adult, society as a whole, not just
children, could benefit from ending the sys-
tem of violent child-rearing that goes under
the euphemism of spanking (Straus,
Sugarman, and Giles-Sims, 1997).

Spanking as a corrective for bad behavior was a norm

in the past, as evidenced by this popular 1899 woodcut.

Working with the Research

1. Does a link between childhood corporal punishment and anti-
social behavior surprise you? Explain.
2. Suppose that you are on a panel reporting on child rearing to
the President of the United States. Using the Straus study as a
model, describe the study you would conduct on a possible re-
lationship between childhood corporal punishment and adult
crime.
3. How do you anticipate these children will discipline their chil-
dren later in life?
4. Describe what you think would be more effective means of
discipline.
5. Do you think that social science evidence such as this has
affected teacher disciplining behavior in schools? Will it?
Should it? Explain.
378 Unit 4 Social Institutions

survey, over one-fourth of adults in the United States have cohabited (U.S.
Bureau of the Census, 1998a).
Cohabitation has risen among people of all ages and marital statuses, partic-
ularly among the young and the divorced. By 2000, about 53 percent of all un-
married-couple households were maintained by someone under thirty-five years
of age and about forty-one percent involved at least one child under age fifteen.
Is cohabitation a workable alternative to marriage? Research re-
ports on cohabitation are not encouraging. Only about 25 percent of cohab-
itating couples stay together more than four years, reflecting a lower level of
certainty about commitment than is true in married couples. This lack of
commitment is probably an important reason for the lower satisfaction
among cohabiting couples than among married couples (Nock, 1995).
Another factor is the higher rate of abuse among cohabiting women than
among married, divorced, or separated women.
Cohabitation has not fulfilled the promise of providing good experience for
future marriage (Cox, 1999). Cohabitation does not appear to improve the
quality of later marriage. Couples who cohabited have shown lower marital ad-
justment than couples who had not lived together. Finally, premarital cohabi-
tation is associated with a higher risk of divorce (Brown and Booth, 1996).

Same-Sex Domestic Partners

Because of the social stigma that surrounds homosexuality, it is impossi-
ble to know precisely what proportion of the American population is homo-
sexual. The Institute of Sex Research, founded by Alfred Kinsey, estimates that
homosexuals constitute about 10 percent of the U.S. population (13 percent
of the males, 5 percent of the females). Although estimating the number of
cohabiting same-sex couples is difficult, the number is known to be increas-
ing, both on college campuses and in the general public. It may have been in
recognition of that increase that Vermont passed a bill in April of 2000 recog-
nizing “civil unions” for same-sex partners. Same-sex couples united in civil
unions would qualify for the same state benefits as married couples (and be
held to the same burdens upon breakup). Same-sex unions are certain to re-
main a controversial issue confronting U.S. culture for many years to come.

Single Life
An increasing number of Americans are choosing to remain single rather
than to marry. More than 26 million Americans over the age of fifteen now
live alone, an increase of nearly 150 percent since 1970. Although many of
these people will eventually marry, an increasing percentage will remain sin-
gle all their lives (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000d).
Why are more Americans choosing to live alone? Remaining single
has always been a choice that has carried a stigma in the United States.
Historically, society frowned on men and women who did not marry. It was
seen as a form of deviance. England started taxing bachelors at the end of
the seventeenth century and Missouri followed suit in 1820. The stigma at-
While marriage is still a thriving tached to remaining single has faded over the past two decades, however.
institution, more people today are More single Americans are choosing to remain unmarried, pursuing careers
embracing the single life. or raising children from a former marriage.
 Chapter 11 The Family 379
Will the current trend toward remaining single continue? It is too
early to predict whether the increase in singlehood will lead to a decline in
marriage at all ages. Although singlehood is an increasingly popular alterna-
tive to traditional marriage, people are not necessarily rejecting marriage. The
implication is that many young adults wish to expand the period of “free-
dom” after leaving home and are unwilling to rush into the responsibilities
of early marriage and parenthood.
“
A majority of colonial
Americans probably
spent some time in a
stepfamily.
Boomerang Kids Stephanie Coontz
“
social historian
The boomerang is a weapon that, when thrown, returns in a wide arc to
its point of origin. The term boomerang kids is being applied to young
adults who either leave home and return or stay at home and live with par-
ents. American adults aged eighteen to thirty-four have a much higher prob-
ability of living in their parents’ home than Americans of the same age thirty
years ago. More than one-fourth of adults eighteen to thirty-four years old boomerang kids
now live with their parents (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1996a). adult children who return to
the home of origin or who
Why are more adult children returning home? Increasing numbers of continue to live with parents
adult children are living with their parents for several reasons. Because
young adults are marrying later, more stay at home longer. In addition, more
are continuing their education and find living at home the best solution to
the problem of supporting themselves and paying school expenses. Many
young adults return home even after completing their education because the
high cost of living outstrips their earning capacity. Also, since
parents tend to give their children a home after a failed mar-
riage, the high divorce rate is increasing the proportion of
young adults living at home.
What are some consequences of the boomerang
effect? Costs associated with education, day-to-day living,
and perhaps even a grandchild or two can create financial
strain for older parents whose adult children live with them.
Many parents complain that their adult children do not share
in expenses or help around the house. The children’s pres-
ence robs their parents of privacy and may prevent them
from developing relationships with spouses and friends. It is
not surprising that higher marital dissatisfaction among
middle-aged parents is associated with adult children living
at home.
Adult children who find themselves in this situation suffer
as well. Adult children who have returned home have nor-
mally been forced by circumstances to do so. They are likely
to be having difficulties balancing school and work, making
their way economically, forming a family, or surviving the af-
termath of a divorce. They know the burden they represent. “Can’t I just stay here with you and Mom? I don’t
like what I’ve seen of the real world.”
In addition, returning home usually means giving up some
freedom.
In spite of these problems, most families appear to adjust
well to the return of older children (Mitchell and Gee, 1996). The thoughts of a boomerang kid.
Mom and Dad are not buying it,
This is especially true when the returning older child is able are they?
to help with expenses and household duties.
380 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Looking Forward
In early 2000, Darva Conger and Rick Rockwell were big news.
This couple, who had never met before, married as part of a televi-
sion contest called “Who Wants to Marry a Multimillionaire?” Most
Americans shook their heads, wondering if this event marked the
final stages of deterioration of the family. While this was truly a
bizarre media event, thankfully, it is not representative of the state of
the American family.
What is the future of the American family? If the frequency
of marriage and remarriage is any indication, the nuclear family is
not disappearing. Over 90 percent of men and women in the United
States marry sometime during their lives. Although many Americans
have been experimenting with alternative living arrangements, the
nuclear family still remains the most popular choice (U.S. Bureau of
the Census, 2000). Contrary to a long-standing fear, many Americans
are not avoiding marriage permanently. They are simply postponing
it or sampling it more often.
The American family is changing, however. So-called traditional
households—those with a husband–wage earner, wife–homemaker,
Belief that the family will continue and two children—today account for less than one-fourth of all
is found even in the most futuristic American households, compared with over 60 percent in 1950. This propor-
views. tion is not expected to grow. Continued increases are expected for other fam-
ily lifestyles, such as the dual-employed family and the single-parent family.
The question, then, is not whether the family will survive. The question is
what forms will the family take.
Whatever else happens, the trend toward more working parents is likely
to continue. This trend promises increased strain for parents, children, and
society. We have already discussed problems for parents associated with bal-
ancing work and home responsibilities. A reduction in close and continuous
parental care for children during their early developmental years is another
important consequence. Also, as more parents work, parental supervision of
children and teenagers declines (Starting Points, 1994; Popenoe, 1999;
Popenoe, Elshtain, and Blankenhorn, 1996).

Section 4 Assessment
1. How does a blended family differ from a nuclear family?
2. Which group is increasing more rapidly: the number of white single-
parent families or the number of African American and Latino single-
parent families? What reasons are offered for this?
3. Is your family a dual-employed family? How do the cultural values of
your parents affect their economic behavior?
4. Is it true that Americans today are married for a smaller proportion of
their lives than were Americans of previous generations?

Critical Thinking
5. Making Predictions Some people believe that in the future the
nuclear family will be a reality for only a minority of Americans. Do you
agree or disagree? Explain.
CHAPTER 11 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Vocabulary
Summary
Complete each sentence using each term once.
Section 1: Family and Marriage Across a. monogamy g. patrilineal
Cultures b. polyandry h. blended family
Main Idea: In all societies, the family has been the c. polygyny i. dual-employed
most important of all social institutions. It produces d. exogamy marriage
new generations, socializes the young, provides care j. boomerang kids
e. endogamy
and affection, regulates sexual behavior, transmits so-
cial status, and provides economic support. f. homogamy

Section 2: Theoretical Perspectives and the 1. is a family formed with chil-

dren from a previous marriage.
Family
2. The marriage of one woman to two or more
Main Idea: The family is the very core of human so- men at the same time is called
cial life. It is not surprising that each of the major per- .
spectives focuses on the family. Functionalism
emphasizes the benefits of the family for society. The 3. The marriage of one man to two or more
conflict perspective looks at the reasons males domi- women at the same time is called
nate in the family structure. Symbolic interactionism .
studies the way the family socializes children and pro- 4. are young adults who live
motes the development of self-concept. with their parents.
5. A marriage in which both partners work for
Section 3: Family and Marriage in the United
pay is called .
States 6. is the marriage within one’s
Main Idea: Modern marriages are based primarily on own group as required by social norms.
love, but there are many reasons for marrying—and as 7. The marriage of one man to one woman is
many reasons for divorce. Although the American family called .
provides social and emotional support, violence in this
setting is not uncommon. Child abuse and spousal abuse 8. The tendency to marry someone similar to
are serious problems in too many American families. oneself is called .
9. is the practice of marrying
Section 4: Changes in Marriage and Family outside of one’s group.
Main Idea: Many new patterns of marriage and family 10. is the arrangement in which
living have emerged in the United States. They include descent is traced through the father.
blended families, single-parent families, child-free fami-
lies, cohabitation, same-sex domestic partners, and fami-
lies with boomerang Reviewing the Facts
children. In spite of
these new arrange-
1. Sociologists define three types of family struc-
ments, the traditional
nuclear family is not tures. List and describe those structures.
going to be replaced Self-Check Quiz 2. In addition to providing a warm and loving at-
on any broad scale. Visit the Sociology and You Web mosphere that fulfills social and emotional
site at soc.glencoe.com and needs, what are the other vital functions of the
click on Chapter 11—Self- family?
Check Quizzes to prepare for
the chapter test.
381
CHAPTER 11 ASSESSMENT
3. How would conflict theorists describe the 4. Analyzing Information Research on never-
family? married individuals shows that they believe
4. What is the most widely practiced form of mar- their marriages will be ideal. However, research
riage around the world today? on married couples suggests that their expecta-
5. Who are the victims of family violence? tions of marital bliss don’t last very long. Why
do you think people have expectations of mar-
riage that do not seem to reflect what marriage
Thinking Critically is really like? Areas to explore might include
portrayals of marriage in movies and on TV.
1. Analyzing Information According to 5. Summarizing Information Use a chart like
Hochschild’s second shift explanation, gender the one below to summarize the view of the
equity in the home does not exist. Why do family as proposed by the three theoretical
men, on average, still do less housework than perspectives.
women? Do attitudes about masculinity have
anything to do with this? Do women naturally
feel inclined to do the housework, given their Sociological Perspective View of the Family
role as nurturers and caretakers? How might Functionalism
gender stereotypes contribute to inequality in Conflict Theory
the household?
Symbolic Interactionism
2. Making Inferences One of the characteristics
of families is that family members spend time
together. As people grow busier and busier,
however, spending time together becomes more Sociology Projects
difficult. Predict the future: twenty years down
the road, what do you think will be a typical 1. Family Characteristics On a piece of paper,
amount of family time? Do you believe family rate your family members based on the follow-
time will disappear, or do you think family ing characteristics. Use a scale of 1 to 5, with 1
members will always make time for each other, being the lowest (weakest) and 5 being the
no matter what? Explain your views. highest (strongest).
3. Making Inferences A prominent sociologist • spending time together
who studies marital relationships says that he
• expressing appreciation for each other
can predict with 95 percent accuracy whether a
newly married couple will fail or succeed in • dealing with conflict
their marriage. He has newlyweds attend a re- • communicating with one another
treat and perform a series of tasks, videotaping • spiritual wellness
each couple’s interactions as they work on pro- • commitment and follow-through
jects together. At the end of the weekend, he You can total your scores and divide by 6 to
tells the couples what he observed and what it come up with a mean value for your family.
could mean for the future of their marriages. After completing the activity, you may want to
Remember, his accuracy rating is 95 percent. discuss your results with family members to see
a. What do you think he looks for while he if they agree with your evaluation or share your
watches couples’ interactions? perspectives. Are there other characteristics that
b. Do you believe his approach is ethical? are more important to your family than the
c. If you had the opportunity as a newlywed, ones on this list?
would you attend this retreat? Why or
why not?

382
2. Divorce The text listed several reasons why one week. Write down the number of hours
couples divorce. Working with a classmate, you see your mother (or stepmother) doing
brainstorm several additional factors contribut- housework each day. Then write down the
ing to divorce (for example, no-fault divorce number of hours your father (or stepfather)
laws in some states). Give at least one reason spends working in or around the house. In
why each of these factors has caused an in- class, compile the numbers logged by all your
crease in divorce over time. After you have classmates. Is the second-shift explanation valid
come up with a list of at least five factors, dis- for your class? (If you are living in a single-par-
cuss with your partner what would happen if ent family, keep track of the number of hours
the factors were eliminated (for example, if of housework performed by that parent, but not
conditions allowing divorce were made stricter). by any children in the household.)
Do you think these changes would improve so-
ciety? Why or why not? Be prepared to present
your findings to the class and to argue your Technology Activity
position.
3. Research Project Divide a sheet of paper into 1. Using your school or local library and the
three columns, labeled A, B, and C. In column Internet, research family violence over the last
A, write the number of children in your immedi- 30 years—1970 to 1980; 1980 to 1990; 1990 to
ate family. In column B, write the number of Present. Create a graph to show statistically the
children in your father’s immediate family (in- frequency of reported incidents of violence. In
clude siblings that are no longer living). In col- your own words, using correct grammar,
umn C, write the number of children in your spelling, punctuation, and terms learned in this
mother’s immediate family. One student should chapter, write an essay that summarizes your
collect all the papers and tabulate the results. graph. In the essay, consider reasons or
Has the number of children in the families rep- changes in society that you believe influence
resented in your class decreased since your par- the frequency of reported incidents of family vi-
ents’ generation? Prepare a graph of the olence. Consider the impact, if any, of hotlines
similarities or differences. and Public Service Announcements regarding
4. The Second Shift To see whether the second- family violence. Determine whether the infor-
shift explanation applies to your family, conduct mation that you have found on reported inci-
the following experiment over the course of dents is correct and complete. Support your
decision with at least two reasons.

383
384 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Chapter 11

Enrichment Reading
Life Without Father
by David Popenoe

“F athers should be neither seen nor many social revolutions in the past three
heard,” Oscar Wilde once wrote. decades—sex, women’s liberation, divorce—but
“That is the only proper basis for none more significant for society than the star-
family life.” With each passing year, American so- tling emergence of the absent father, a kind of
ciety has increasingly become an immense social pathological counterpart to the new father.
testing ground for this proposition. Unfortunately While the new father has been emerging grad-
for Wilde’s reputation as a social analyst, to say ually for most of this century, it is only in the past
nothing about the health of our society, the results thirty years that we have witnessed the enormous
have proved highly unsupportive. American fa- increase in absent fathers. In times past, many
thers are today more removed from family life than children were left fatherless through his prema-
ever before in our history. And according to a ture death. Today, the fathers are still alive and
growing body of evidence, this massive erosion out there somewhere; the problem is that they
of fatherhood contributes mightily to many of the seldom see much, if anything, of their children.
major social problems of our time. . . . The main reason for contemporary father ab-
The print pages and airwaves have been filled sence is the dramatic decline of marriage. . . .
with discussions of fatherhood in recent decades. What this means, in human terms, is that about
Yet most discussions have focused on just one half of today’s children will spend at least a por-
issue—how to get fathers to share their traditional tion of their growing-up years living apart from
breadwinner role and take up a new (for them) their fathers.
child-care-provider role. The call from younger As a society, we can respond to this new
women has been loud and clear: We need a new fatherlessness in several ways. We can, as more
conception of fatherhood, a “new father,” one and more of us seem to be doing, simply declare
who will help equally in the home just as women fathers to be unnecessary, superfluous. This is the
now strive to help equally in the workplace; one response of “single parents by choice.” It is the re-
who will share the “second shift” with his mate. sponse of those who say that if daddies and
The father’s role—what society expects of fa- mommies are expected to do precisely the same
thers—has indeed changed enormously in recent things in the home, why do we need both? It is
years. Fathers are expected to be more engaged the response of those who declare that unwed
with their children and involved with house- motherhood is a woman’s right, or that single-
work—if not nearly as much as most women parent families are every bit as good as two-parent
would like, certainly far more than the past gen- families, or that divorce is generally beneficial for
eration of fathers would have thought possible. children.
This role change has been highly positive in In my view, these responses represent a
most respects. But with all the concentration human tragedy—for children, for women, for
on “role equality” in the home, the larger and men, and for our society as a whole. . . . Fathering
more ominous trend of modern fatherhood has is different from mothering; involved fathers are
been mostly overlooked. We have been through indispensable for the good of children and soci-
 Chapter 11 The Family 385

ety; and our growing [trend in] national fatherless- ing meaning and What Does it Mean
ness is a disaster in the making. . . . strongly promulgates
No one predicted this trend, few researchers or such family values as
government agencies have monitored it, and it is responsibility, coopera- indispensable
not widely discussed, even today. But its impor- tion, and sharing. . . . absolutely necessary
tance to society is second to none. Father absence What the decline massive erosion of
is a major force lying behind many of the atten- of fatherhood and fatherhood
tion-grabbing issues that dominate the news: marriage in America great numbers of fathers
crime and delinquency; premature sexuality and really means, then, is not present in the home
out-of-wedlock teen births; deteriorating educa- that slowly, insidi- ominous
tional achievement; depression, substance abuse, ously, and relentlessly
dangerous; darkly
and alienation among teenagers; and the growing our society has been threatening
number of women and children in poverty. These moving in an ominous
issues all point to a profound deterioration in direction—toward the pathological counterpart
the well-being of children. Some experts have devaluation of chil- diseased opposite
suggested, in fact, that the current generation of dren. There has been profound deterioration
children and youth is the first in our nation’s his- an alarming weaken- very great decline
tory to be less well-off—psychologically, socially, ing of the fundamental
promulgates
economically, and morally—than their parents assumption, long at the
were at the same age. Or as Senator Daniel Patrick center of our culture, teaches
Moynihan has observed, “the United States . . . that children are to be second shift
may be the first society in history in which chil- loved and valued at work to be done at home
dren are distinctly worse off than adults.” the highest level of pri-
Along with the growing father absence, our ority. Nothing could be
cultural view of fatherhood is changing. Few more serious for our children or our future.
people have doubts about the fundamental im-
Source: Excerpted from David Popenoe, Life Without
portance of mothers. But fathers? More and more
Father (New York: The Free Press, 1996), pp. 1–2, 14.
the question is being raised, are fathers really
necessary? Many would answer no, or maybe
not. And to the degree that fathers are still
thought necessary, fatherhood is said by many to
be merely a social role, as if men had no inher-
ent biological predisposition whatsoever to ac-
Read and React
knowledge and to invest in their own offspring. 1. Briefly state the main point of Popenoe’s
If merely a social role, then perhaps anyone is reading. Is he correct? Is he too pessimistic?
capable of playing it. . . . Explain.
The decline of fatherhood and of marriage cuts 2. Explain why Popenoe thinks that Oscar
at the heart of the kind of environment considered Wilde’s statement that “fathers should be
ideal for childrearing. Such an environment, ac- neither seen nor heard” is wrong. Do you
cording to a substantial body of knowledge, con- think Wilde was wrong? Why or why not?
sists of an enduring two-parent family that engages
3. Discuss the reasons Popenoe gives for the
regularly in activities together, has many of its own
decline of the father’s presence in the
routines and traditions, and provides a great deal
contemporary American family.
of quality contact with their parents’ world of
work. In addition, there is little concern on the part 4. According to Popenoe, nothing could be
of children that their parents will break up. Finally, more serious for children than the trend
each of these ingredients comes together in the de- he sees toward “life without father.” Why
velopment of a rich family subculture that has last- do you agree or disagree?
CHAPTER 12
Education

386
 U
S Your Sections
I Sociological
N Imagination 1. Development and
G Structure of Education
2. Functionalist Perspective

C olumnist Ann Landers published this

letter from a teacher about the hid-
den realities of teaching in America.
Let me see if I have this right. . . . I am
also to instill a sense of pride in their
3.
4.
Conflict Perspective
Symbolic Interactionism
ethnicity, modify disruptive behavior
and observe them for signs of abuse.
I am to fight the war on drugs and
sexually transmitted diseases, check Learning Objectives
their backpacks for guns and knives,
and raise their self-esteem. I am to
teach them patriotism, good citizen-
After reading this chapter, you will be able to
ship, sportsmanship and fair play . . . I ❖ discuss schools as bureaucracies.
am to . . . maintain a safe environment,
write letters of recommendation for stu- ❖ outline the basic functions of education.
dent employment and scholarships, en- ❖ evaluate the merit-based nature of public
courage respect for the cultural diversity education.
of others, always making sure I give the ❖ describe the ways in which schools so-
girls in my class 50% of my attention. cialize students.
I am required to work . . . toward
additional certification and a master’s ❖ discuss educational inequality.
degree, to sponsor the cheerleaders or
the sophomore class (my choice); and
after school, I am to attend committee
and faculty meetings. . . .
I am to be a paragon of virtue,
such that my presence will awe my
students into being obedient and re-
spectful of authority. I am to do all of Chapter Overview
Visit the Sociology and You Web site at
this with just a piece of chalk, a bul-
soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 12—
letin board and a few books (some of
Chapter Overviews to preview chapter
which I may have to purchase myself). information.
And for doing this, I am to be paid a
starting salary that, in some states,
qualifies my family for food stamps.
Is that all?
(Excerpted from “A Lesson on the Realities of
Teaching,” The Los Angeles Times, January 28, 2000). 387
388 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Section Development and Structure

1 of Education
K e y

•
T e r m s

formal schooling • voucher system

• open classroom • charter schools
• cooperative learning • magnet schools
• integrative curriculum • for-profit schools

Section Bureaucracy in Education

Preview
S chool administration in the early 1900s was based on a factory model
of education. Educators believed that children could be and should be

S chools are becoming

more bureaucratic.
Advocates of open class-
educated in much the same way as cars were mass produced.
Schooling came to be seen as work or the preparation for work; schools
were pictured as factories, educators as industrial managers, and stu-
rooms and cooperative
dents as the raw materials to be inducted into the production process.
learning contend that The ideology of school management was recast in the mold of the busi-
bureaucratically run schools ness corporation, and the character of education was shaped after the
fail to take into account the image of industrial production (Cohen and Lazerson, 1972:47).
emotional and creative
Although teachers and administrators work hard today to personalize the
needs of individual children.
time you spend in school, public education in this country remains very
much an impersonal bureaucratic process. Schools today are still based on
specialization, rules and procedures, and impersonality.

The 1954 classroom on the left clearly reflects the traditional mass production approach to education. Recently, as seen in the
photo at the right, there has been more of an attempt to personalize education.
 Chapter 12 Education 389

52.3% 1970
All Races 1999
83.4%

54.5%
White
84.3%

31.4%
African American
77.0%

Asian or Pacific
Islander* 84.7%

32.1%
Latino
56.1%

0 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure 12.1 High School Graduates by Race (1970 and 1999). Displayed
in this figure are the percentages, by racial and ethnic category, of persons 25 years old
and older who have completed high school. Note that the proportion of high school
graduates in each group has increased sharply between 1970 and 1999. As a result,
each of these groups is placing more pressure on public schools to accommodate their
members.
*Note: No data available for Asian or Pacific Islander for 1970.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2001.

“
Why should schools be standardized? For administrators, there are
many advantages to following a bureaucratic model. For instance, in the dis-
cussion of formal organizations in Chapter 6, you read that one of the char-
acteristics of a bureaucracy is the tendency to specialize. Professional Bureaucracy is a
educators are specialists—administrators, classroom teachers, librarians, cur- challenge to be
riculum specialists who decide on courses and content, and so forth.
In the bureaucratic model, education can be accomplished most effi- confronted with a
ciently for large numbers of students when they are at similar stages in their righteous attitude, a
ability and development. (There were, in fact, approximately 60 million stu- tolerance for stupidity,
dents in the public school system in 2000. Figure 12.1 shows the increasing
percentage of young people from all races and ethnic groups who are com- and a bulldozer when
pleting high school.) In this way, a teacher can develop one lesson plan for necessary.
a number of students. Age-based classrooms, in which all students receive
the same instruction, reflect the impersonal, bureaucratic nature of schools.
Efficiency, the ultimate goal of a bureaucracy, is also increased when
“
Anonymous

teachers teach the same, or at least similar, content. Materials can be ap-
proved and purchased in bulk, and testing can be standardized. This prac-
tice also allows students to transfer from one school to another and continue
studying approximately the same things. Rules and procedures exist to en-
sure that all of this happens.
Schools are also part of a much larger bureaucratic system. This system
begins with the federal government and progresses layer by layer through
state and local governments. (See page 191 in Chapter 6 for an organizational
chart of a public school district.)
390 Unit 4 Social Institutions

What do critics of the bureaucratic model say? Critics claim that the
old factory, or bureaucratic, model is not appropriate for schooling. Children,
they point out, are not inorganic materials to be processed on an assembly
line. Children are human beings who come into school with previous knowl-
edge and who interact socially and emotionally with other students.
formal schooling According to critics of formal schooling, education that is provided and
education that is provided and regulated by society, the school’s bureaucratic nature is unable to respond to
regulated by society the expressive, creative, and emotional needs of all children. These critics
prefer several less rigid, more democratic alternatives.

Democratic Reforms in the

Classroom
Since colonial times, providing citizens with a
good education has been an important value in the
United States. The Puritans in Massachusetts in 1647 re-
quired towns with more than fifty families to hire a
schoolmaster. The Land Ordinance of 1785 required
that some of the income from land north of the Ohio
River be used to support public schools. The first
public schools were quite authoritarian, with firm
rules and sharp lines drawn between students and
teacher.
The American progressive education movement
of the 1920s and 1930s was a reaction to
the strict Victorian authoritarianism of early
nineteenth-century schools. Educational philosopher
John Dewey (1859–1952) led the progressive educa-
tion movement, which emphasized knowledge re-
lated to work and to individual student
interests. The progressive movement, with its child-
Working cooperatively in groups is
one of the more democratic school centered focus, almost disappeared in the 1950s but reappeared in the 1960s
reforms of the twentieth century. as the humanistic movement. The humanistic movement supported the elimi-
nation of restrictive rules and codes and the involvement of students in the
educational process. The aim of the humanistic movement was to create a
more democratic, student-focused learning environment (Ballantine, 1993). It
has proven to be an influential forerunner of classroom reform. Three ways to
express the humanistic educational impulse are the open classroom, coopera-
tive learning, and the integrative curriculum.
open classroom What is the open classroom? The open classroom is a nonbureau-
a nonbureaucratic approach to cratic approach to education based on democratic relationships, flexibility,
education based on and noncompetitiveness. Here educators avoid the sharp authoritarian line
democracy, flexibility, and traditionally drawn between teachers and students. The open classroom
noncompetitiveness drops the idea that all children of a given age should follow a standardized
curriculum. On the belief that competition is not a good motivator for chil-
dren, the open classroom abandons the use of graded report cards based on
comparison of student performance.
The open classroom, introduced in the 1960s, has resurfaced in the 1990s.
Cooperative learning and the integrative curriculum are two important ex-
tensions of the open-classroom approach.
 Chapter 12 Education 391
What is cooperative learning? Cooperative learning takes place in cooperative learning
a nonbureaucratic classroom structure in which students study in groups, instructional method that
with teachers as guides rather than as the controlling agents (the “guide on relies on cooperation among
the side” versus the “sage on the stage” approach). According to the coopera- students
tive learning method, students learn more if they are actively involved with
others in the classroom (Sizer, 1996). The traditional teacher-centered ap-
proach rewards students for being passive recipients of information and re-
quires them to compete with others for grades and teacher recognition.
Cooperative learning, with its accent on teamwork rather than individual per-
formance, is designed to encourage students to concentrate more on the
process of getting results than how their answers compare to those of other
students. Cooperation replaces competition. Students typically work in small
groups on specific tasks. Credit for completion of a task is given only if all
group members do their parts.
Using this approach successfully requires some expertise on the part of
the teacher and can initially discourage students who are motivated by letter
grades based on individual work. Nevertheless, some benefits of the coop-
erative learning approach have been documented (Children’s Defense Fund,
1991). For example,
❖ uncooperativeness and stress among students is reduced.
❖ academic performance increases.
❖ students have more positive attitudes toward school.
❖ racial and ethnic antagonism decreases.
❖ self-esteem increases.
What is the integrative curriculum? As you have seen, the curriculum
is predetermined for students in the traditional classroom. In the integrative integrative curriculum
curriculum, however, the curriculum is created by students and teachers an approach to education
working together. Since students are asked to participate in curriculum de- based on student-teacher
sign and content, the integrative curriculum is democratic in nature. Giving collaboration
students such power obviously deviates from the traditional subject-centered
curriculum. Students and teachers become collaborators (Barr, 1995).
Subject matter is selected and organized around certain real-world themes
or concepts. An example is a sixth-grade unit of study on
water quality in Washington State.

In an integrative curriculum,
students apply teachings from many
disciplines at the same time.
Students shown here are on a field
trip to explore mineral production
in a local community.
392 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Another Understanding Freedom and

Time Education in America

One hundred years ago, Russian immigrant Marie On our second day I was thrilled with the re-
Antin wrote about her first days at school in the alization of what this freedom of education meant.
United States. Reading about her reactions might A little girl from across the alley came and offered
make Americans more appreciative of the public to conduct us to school. My father was out, but
school system they often criticize.
we five between us had a few words of English by
this time. We knew the word school. We under-
E ducation was free. That subject my father
had written about repeatedly, as comprising
his chief hope for us children, the essence of
stood. This child, who had never seen us till yes-
terday, who could not pronounce our names, who
American opportunity, the treasure that no thief was not much better dressed than we, was able to
could touch, not even misfortune or poverty. It was offer us the freedom of the schools of Boston! No
the one thing that he was able to promise us when application made, no question asked, no exami-
he sent for us; surer, safer, than bread or shelter. nations, rulings, exclusions; no machinations, no
fees. The doors stood open for every one of us.
The smallest child could show us the way.
This incident impressed me more than anything
I had heard in advance of the freedom of educa-
tion in America. It was a concrete proof—almost
the thing itself. One had to experience it to under-
stand it.
Source: Excerpted from Marie Antin, The Promised Land
(New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1912).

Thinking It Over
1. Describe your thoughts and feelings about
your school experiences as you think about
Antin’s perspective.
In the past, schools played an important role in transmitting 2. Do you agree with the author that education
American culture to many immigrant children. Are schools is the chief hope for children? Explain.
today still carrying on that function?

The unit became a part of an actual water quality project that origi-
nated in the Great Lakes region of the United States but now spans the
globe. Lessons were organized around the actual work of determining
water quality in Puget Sound. These lessons culminated in students’ re-
porting to community groups about the quality of the water. In this
way learning was relevant to a real-world problem that the students
contributed to solving (Simmons and El-Hindi, 1998:33).
Instruction in this unit emphasized hands-on experience and utilized the
multiple intelligences of various students. The latter idea recognizes that not
all students in a classroom learn in identical ways. Students bring to any unit
of study a variety of learning styles, interests, and abilities. Different units of
study will engage students in varying ways.
 Chapter 12 Education 393

Back-to-Basics Movement
In the 1990s, the “back-to-basics” movement emerged alongside cooperative
learning and the integrative curriculum. Worried by low scores on achievement
tests, supporters of this movement pushed for a return to a traditional curricu-
lum (“reading, writing, and arithmetic”) based on more bureaucratic methods.
What started the back-to-basics movement? In 1983, America re-
ceived an educational wake-up call. The National Commission on Excellence
in Education issued a report dramatically entitled A Nation at Risk. Catching
the attention of politicians and the general public, it warned of a “rising tide
of mediocrity” in America’s schools. Because of deficiencies in its educational
system, the report claimed, America was at risk of being overtaken by some
of its world economic competitors (Gardner, 1983).
Unlike the recommendations of the progressive and humanistic reform
movements, most of the solutions offered by the commission were bureau-
cratic in nature. The report urged a return to more teaching of basic skills such
as reading and mathematics. High school graduation requirements should be voucher system
strengthened to include four years of English, three years of mathematics, three system in which public school
years of science, three years of social studies, and a half year of computer sci- funds may be used to support
ence. School days, the school year, or both should be lengthened. Standardized public, private, or religious
achievement tests should be administered as students move from one level of schools
schooling to another. High school students should be given significantly more
homework. Discipline should be tightened through the develop-
ment and enforcement of codes for student conduct.

Alternatives to the
Public School System
The debate over the most effective classroom methods contin-
ues. Meanwhile, educators and politicians are looking beyond the
classroom to how schools are organized, funded, and adminis-
tered. A new debate has arisen over school choice. The school
choice movement promotes the idea that the best way to improve
schools is by using the free enterprise model and creating some
competition for the public school system. Supporters of school
choice believe that parents and students should be able to select
the school that best fits their needs and provides the greatest ed-
ucational benefit. Methods used to accomplish this goal include
the voucher system, charter schools, magnet, and for-profit schools.
What is a voucher system? People in favor of a voucher
system say that the government should make the money spent
per child on public education available to families to use for pub-
lic, private, or religious schools. Families who chose a public
school would pay nothing, just as in the current system. Parents
who chose a religious or other private school would receive a gov-
ernment voucher to be used to pay a portion of the tuition equal
to the amount the government spends per child in the public This charter school in Harlem is
school system. Any additional tuition would be paid by the parents. A voucher one alternative to the public school
plan in Cleveland, for example, provided publicly funded scholarships of system.
394 Unit 4 Social Institutions

about $2,000 annually to around four thousand city children in the 2001
school year. Most parents have chosen to spend the money at private schools
rather than keep their children in public schools. The basic idea is that pub-
lic schools would have to compete for the students and thus would improve
their services. If parents were not happy with a school, they would have the
freedom to remove their children and place them elsewhere.
Public reaction to the voucher approach has been mixed. So far, public
vouchers affect only about one-tenth of 1 percent of American school chil-
dren. Large-scale public programs exist in only two cities—Cleveland and
Milwaukee. In 1999, Florida initiated the first statewide public voucher pro-
gram. African American and Latino parents tend to prefer a voucher system
because it provides some financial help to remove their children from pub-

“Education makes people

easy to lead, but difficult
lic schools that they believe have let their children down. Because most
whites seem to be satisfied with the public schools, they have not embraced
the voucher system in large numbers (Thomas and Clemetson, 1999).
Courts have generally treated voucher systems as unconstitutional be-
cause they may contradict the principle of separation of church and state.
On the other hand, in 1998 the U.S. Supreme Court let stand a ruling by
to drive; easy to govern,
the Wisconsin Supreme Court that allowed state money to go to low-
but impossible to income students for either private or parochial education schools. As of
enslave. early 2002, the U.S. Supreme Court has not ruled directly on the constitu-
tionality of school vouchers, but some state and federal judges have.
Lord Brougham
“ Vouchers have been declared unconstitutional by lower court judges in
Scottish statesman Florida, Ohio, Vermont, Maine, and Pennsylvania. The Supreme Court is ex-
pected to rule on this issue before the end of 2002.
Up to now the evidence on the effectiveness of the voucher system is in-
consistent. Although compared to public schools, some voucher programs
have improved student test scores, other programs have produced no im-
provement (Toch and Cohen, 1998).
Critics fear that if this system were implemented, inner-city schools would
suffer even more, since few inner-city parents could afford to make up the
difference between the amount of the voucher and the cost of the highest-
quality private schools. They also fear that national and local commitment
to public education would decline, leaving the public school system in worse
shape than it is now. Furthermore, the need to regulate private and religious
schools would increase bureaucracy.
charter schools What are charter schools and magnet schools? Charter schools
public schools that are are publicly funded schools operated like private schools by public school
operated like private schools teachers and administrators. Freed of answering to local school boards, char-
by public school teachers and ter schools have the latitude to shape their own curriculum and to use non-
administrators traditional or traditional teaching methods.
The Mosaica Academy (now called School Lane), which opened in 1998
in Pennsylvania, is deliberately not organized along public school lines. The
school day is about two hours longer than at public school and the school
year is also longer. This school created its own curriculum with the goal of
immersing students in the development of civilizations over 4,000 years
(Symonds, 2000). In 2002 there were approximately 2,400 charter schools
magnet schools across the United States. The success of these schools is tied to the commit-
public schools that focus on ment of the teachers, principals, and parents.
particular disciplines or areas, Magnet schools are public schools that attempt to achieve high stan-
such as fine arts or science dards by specializing in a certain area. One school may emphasize the
 Chapter 12 Education 395
performing arts while an-
other might stress science.
Magnet schools are designed
to enhance school quality
and to promote desegrega-
tion. They have become a
significant factor in improv-
ing urban education.
What is the nature of for-
profit schools? Some reform-
ers do not believe local or federal
government is capable of improv-
ing the educational system. Calvin expects to reap the rewards of education, but has a problem
with the effort of getting educated.
Government, they say, is too
wasteful and ineffective. Why not
look to business and market
forces to solve the problems fac-
ing schools today? For-profit schools would be supported by government for-profit schools
funds but run by private companies. By borrowing from modern business prac- schools run by private
tices, the argument goes, these schools could be efficient, productive, and cost companies on government
effective. Marketplace forces would ensure that the best schools will survive. funds
The most comprehensive for-profit organization is Edison, which launched
a $40-million, three-year campaign in 1992 to develop its program. Edison
schools feature challenging curriculums, along with a schedule that has chil-
dren in school almost a third longer than the average public school. Beginning
in the third grade, students are equipped with a computer and modem to take
home, in order to access Edison’s intranet system (Symonds, 2000).
Critics of this approach are bothered by the idea of mixing profit and pub-
lic service. What would happen to the students when their needs were
weighed against the profit margin? Would for-profit schools skimp on equip-
ment, services, and training? Another problem involves oversight. That is,
with a for-profit system, voters would lose the power to influence officials and
educational policy.

Section 1 Assessment
1. State three ways in which schools in the United States follow the
bureaucratic model.
2. Identify three specific types of reform in public education.

Critical Thinking
3. Analyzing Information Explain why such reforms as open
classrooms and integrative learning are characterized as more
democratic than the traditional or bureaucratic approach.
4. Summarizing Information First briefly summarize the ideas about
school choice presented in this section. Then evaluate them. Do you
favor one approach over another? Give reasons for your choice.
396 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Section
Functionalist Perspective
2 K e y T e r m s

• manifest function • tracking

• latent function

Section Manifest Functions of Education

Preview
A ccording to the functionalists, social institutions develop because they
meet one or more of society’s basic needs. Functionalists distinguish

F unctionalists see the emer-

gence of the educational
institution as a response to
between a manifest function, which is an intended and recognized result,
and a latent function, which is an unintended and unrecognized result.
(Refer to page 26 to review the meanings of these terms.) The educational
society’s needs. The manifest institution performs several vital manifest functions in modern society.
functions of education Schools teach obvious academic skills such as reading, writing, and mathe-
include transmission of cul- matics. They also transmit culture, create a common identity for members of
ture, creation of a common society, select and screen talent, and promote personal growth and develop-
identity, selection and screen- ment. Let’s look more closely at each of these functions.
ing of talent, and promotion How do schools transmit culture? Schools transmit culture by instill-
of personal growth and ing in students the basic values, norms, beliefs, and attitudes of the society.
development. Schools also The value of competition, for example, is taught through emphasis on
serve latent functions. grades, sports, and school spirit. Teaching the culture is absolutely essential
if a society is to survive from one generation to the next.

manifest function
an action that produces an
intended and recognized
result

latent function
an action that produces an
unintended and unrecognized
result

Is the teacher lecturing to these students fulfilling a manifest or latent function?

 Chapter 12 Education 397

World View Illiteracy Rates

One of the functions of education is to promote liter-
acy—the key to continued learning, problem solving,
and information analysis. This map shows rates of illit-
eracy among persons fifteen years of age and older in
various countries of the world. Because of cultural
norms and discrimination, more women than men are
illiterate.

Illiteracy Rates Among

People 15 Years and Older
> 70%
51%–70%
North Europe 31%–50%
America 11%–30%
≤ 10%
Asia No data

Africa
South
America

Australia

Interpreting the Map

1. Do you see a pattern in the rates of illiteracy? Explain.
2. How does the United States measure up?

Adapted from The State of the World Atlas, 6th ed.

How do schools help create a common identity? Although television

is now a strong competitor, the educational system remains the major force
in creating a common identity among a diverse population. Learning an of-
ficial language, sharing in national history and patriotic themes, and being
exposed to similar informational materials promote a shared identity. The re-
sult is a society with homogeneous values, norms, beliefs, and attitudes.
“ Education has in
America’s whole history
Schools in the United States contribute to this process. By attending local been the major hope for
schools, newly arrived immigrant children, without the ability to speak and improving the individual
write English, soon learn to participate in the American way of life.
The current debate in the United States over bilingual education touches and society.
on the role that schools play in creating a common identity. People who em-
Gunnar Myrdal
“
phasize recognizing and honoring cultural diversity usually support teaching
in the student’s own language, at least for some period of time. Opponents of Swedish economist
bilingual education argue that bilingual education hinders the development of
a common American identity and has not been proven to help students
398 Unit 4 Social Institutions

succeed academically. Conservative political efforts have led twenty-four

states to adopt English as their official language. The creation of a similar law
for the nation is being discussed in Congress.
How do schools select and screen students? For over fifty years,
scores on intelligence and achievement tests have been used for grouping
children in school. The stated purpose of testing is to identify an individual’s
tracking talents and aptitudes. Test scores have also been used for tracking—placing
placement of students in students in curricula consistent with expectations for the students’ eventual
programs according to occupations. (Tracking is discussed further in Section 3 when we look at in-
academic ability levels equalities in education.) Counselors use test scores and early performance
records to predict careers for which individuals may be best suited.
How do schools promote personal growth and development?
Schools expose students to a wide variety of perspectives and experiences
that encourage them to develop creativity, verbal skills, artistic expression, in-
tellectual accomplishment, and cultural tolerance. In this way, educa-
tion provides an environment in which individuals can improve the
quality of their lives. In addition, schools attempt to prepare students
for the world of work.

Latent Functions of Education

The educational institution has latent functions as well. Some are
positive; others are not. Educators do not usually think of schools as
day-care facilities for dual-employed couples or single parents. Nor
do parents vote for additional school taxes so that their sons and
daughters can find dates or marriage partners. Also, schools are not
consciously designed to prevent delinquency by holding juveniles in-
doors during the daytime. Nor are schools intended as training
grounds for athletes. Nonetheless, all of these activities are latent
functions of the school system.
Each of the latent functions just mentioned is considered a posi-
tive contribution to society. But some consequences are negative, or
dysfunctional. Tracking, for example, can perpetuate an unequal
social-class structure from generation to generation. In addition, evi-
dence suggests that tracking is harmful to those placed on “slower”
tracks (Hurn, 1993).
Do you consider the opportunity to
flirt a positive or negative latent
function of schools? Section 2 Assessment
1. List the essential functions of education described in the text.
2. What is the difference between a manifest and a latent function in
education?
3. What type of function do schools perform when they keep children for
their working parents?

Critical Thinking
4. Making Comparisons What do you think is the most significant
latent function schools perform? Consider the advantages and
disadvantages.
 Chapter 12 Education 399

Sociology Educating Yourself

Today for the Future
By the time you graduate from high school, the competition for well-paying entry-level jobs will
be stiffer than ever before. Here are some tips to keep you in demand—whether you are college
bound or going directly into the job market.
Career counselors urge job seekers to think in terms of lifelong learning. Never think of your ed-
ucation as coming to an end. The excerpt below is as true today as it was a generation ago.
For education the lesson is clear: its prime objective must be to increase the individual’s “cope-
ability”—the speed and economy with which he can adapt to continual change. . . . It is not
even enough for him to understand the present, for the here-and-now environment will soon
vanish. Johnny must learn to anticipate the directions and rate of change. He must, to put it
technically, learn to make repeated, probabilistic, increasingly long-range assumptions about the
future (Toffler, 1970:403).
Preparation for the future involves attempting to predict the future demand for particular occupa-
tions. The Occupational Outlook Handbook and the Occupational Outlook Handbook for College
Graduates can be very helpful in this regard. Each year in these volumes, the U.S. Department of
Labor publishes detailed predictions for specific occupations.
Educating yourself for the future also means being prepared to enter an occupation for which
you have no specific training. You must remain willing to retrain and to enter an entirely new occu-
pation—for example, to move from bank teller to computer programmer.
In spite of the fact that you will probably change occupations over the course of your work life,
you should try to determine your true job preference before you spend a great deal of time learning
a job that turns out not to be the one you want. Over half of all young people entering a chosen
field quit their jobs within one year. This fact has led some observers to argue that few young peo-
ple really understand the nature of the work for which they are preparing. How do you find out
what jobs you would really enjoy? Volunteering time in a specific work situation can help. For exam-
ple, hospitals usually have volunteer programs in which medical practitioners can be observed. If
you think you would like to be a physician, nurse, or other health-care worker, get involved in one
of these programs. You will not only help others but will help yourself, as well.
Finally, educating yourself for the future includes preparing for leisure choices. Careers have be-
come so specialized that they satisfy only a small part of people’s interests. Many high schools, col-
leges, and universities sponsor noncredit courses and seminars on such topics as personal
development, photography, fine arts, and alternative lifestyles. These courses permit you to either
pursue long-standing interests or develop new ones.

Doing Sociology
Make an informal survey of as many working adults as possible. Ask them what additional training,
if any, they have undergone since taking their first jobs. Then ask them what plans they have for
future training. Summarize your results, and bring the report to class to share.
400 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Section
Conflict Perspective
3 K e y

•
T e r m s

meritocracy • cultural bias

• competition • school desegregation
• educational equality • multicultural education
• cognitive ability • compensatory education

Section Meritocracy
Preview
C onflict theorists attempt to show that popular conceptions about the re-
lationship between schools and society are not entirely accurate.

I n theory, America is a meri-

tocracy in which social sta-
tus is achieved. Proponents
Schools and society often touch each other in complicated and unobvious ways.
In a meritocracy, social status is based on ability and achievement rather
than social-class background or parental status. In theory, all individuals in a
of the conflict perspective meritocracy have an equal chance to develop their abilities for the benefit of
identify flaws in this model themselves and their society. A meritocracy, then, gives everyone an equal
by pointing to inequality in chance to succeed. It is free of barriers that prevent individuals from devel-
our schools. Methods and oping their talents.
programs aimed at promot- Meritocracy is based on competition. For this rea-
ing educational equality have son, sport is seen as the ultimate meritocracy.
Although some sports have glar-
been developed.
ing shortcomings in this regard
(see Chapter 15), sport does
fit very closely with the def-
inition of competition. For
sociologists, competition
meritocracy
a society in which social status
is a social process that oc-
is based on ability and curs when rewards are
achievement given to people on the
basis of how their per-
formance compares with
the performance of oth-
competition ers doing the same task
system in which rewards are or participating in the
based on relative performance same event (Coakley,
1998).
Is America really a
meritocracy? Although
America claims to be a mer-
itocracy, sociologists have
Participating in academic contests, identified barriers to true merit-
such as building rockets, is one way based achievement, such as gender,
teachers can find those students race, and ethnicity. An example
who merit special recognition. (greatly simplified) is how the edu-
 Chapter 12 Education 401
cation system favors the wealthy. Schools in $60,000
wealthy neighborhoods are significantly better
than schools in economically disadvantaged Years of Schooling
$50,000
areas. It follows, then, that students attending Up to 8
9 –11
wealthier schools get a better education than 12
students attending poorer schools. Further- $40,000 13 –15
16 or more

Median annual income

more, students attending poorer schools do
not learn the values, manners, language, and
$30,000
dress of people in more affluent schools.
Because the majority of students in poorer Black
schools are members of racial and ethnic $20,000 males
minorities, they find themselves at a disadvan-
tage when applying for higher-level jobs that $10,000
lead to higher incomes. (See Figure 12.2.)
How do minorities perform on college en- 0
trance exams? There are related barriers to White African White African
achievement faced by racial and ethnic minori- males American females American
males females
ties. An important one of these is lower perfor-
mance on college entrance examinations. Figure 12.2 Median Annual
African Americans, Latinos, and Native Income by Gender, Race, and
Americans have lower average scores on the Education. Clearly, this graph
documents the income advantage that
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) than whites. (See
white males in the U.S. have over Visit soc.glencoe.com
Figure 12.3 on page 402.) Sociologists attribute white females and African Americans and click on Textbook
this fact, in part, to the differences in school of both sexes. Explain how this data Updates–Chapter 12 for
quality noted above. And both school quality challenges the existence of a true an update of the data.
and SAT performance are related to social class. meritocracy.
Children from upper-class and upper-middle-
class families attend more affluent schools. These
Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census,
children also have higher SAT scores. Social class
Income 2000.
clearly affects SAT performance.

Social class is a strong predictor of success on the SATs. How is race related to social class?
402 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Figure 12.3 SAT SCORES BY RACE AND ETHNICITY

An examination of this table reveals the gap in average SAT scores for whites and Asian Americans versus
African Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans. Interpret these data as a conflict theorist would in the con-
text of the U.S. as a meritocracy.

Racial/Ethnic SAT Verbal SAT Math

Category Mean Scores Mean Scores Totals
Native American or Alaskan Native 482 481 963

Asian, Asian American, or 499 565 1064

Pacific Islander

African American 434 426 860

Latino Background

Mexican or Mexican American 453 460 913

Puerto Rican 456 451 907

Latin American, South American, 461 467 928

Central American, or Other Latino

White (excluding Latino origin) 528 530 1058

Source: The College Board, 2001.

How do SAT scores influence economic achievement?

The SAT, created in 1926, was originally used to identify talented
youth, regardless of social class background, so they could at-
tend elite colleges and universities (Lemann, 1991). Ironically, as
we have just seen, social class is a major factor in SAT perfor-
mance. Consequently, social class (through SAT performance)
still influences who will attend the institutions that are the gate-
way to America’s higher social classes.
Don’t the rewards tied to high SAT scores mean that
America is a meritocracy? On the surface it does seem that
merit is being rewarded in the system just outlined. After all, it is
those who do better academically who enjoy higher levels of
success.
There are two problems with this conclusion. The first is the ad-
vantage some people have because their parents’ social class cre-
ates an unlevel playing field. Talent in the lower social classes often
Why are SAT scores does not get recognized and developed. Second is the assumption
considered vital to a that SAT performance measures academic ability and the likelihood
meritocratic American society? of success in both college and life. For example, African American
students who attend the most prestigious schools—including those
students with lower SAT scores (below 1000)—complete college at
 Chapter 12 Education 403
a higher rate than black students attending less rigorous institutions. They are
also more likely to go on to graduate or professional schools (Bowen and Bok,
2000). Apparently these students are succeeding because they attended better

“
schools, even if they don’t have high SAT scores.
At the least, these findings raise doubts about the ability of the SAT to
achieve a level playing field. Recognizing this, an official at the Educational
Testing Service (ETS)—developer and marketer of the SAT—announced in It is no longer correct to
1999 that ETS was creating a “strivers” score. The idea was to adjust a stu- regard higher education
dent’s SAT score to factor in social class as well as racial and ethnic charac-
teristics thought to place him or her at a competitive disadvantage. Any solely as a privilege. It is
student whose original score exceeded by 200 points the score predicted for a basic right in today’s
their social class, racial, or ethnic category would be considered a “striver.” world.
The strivers score would be made available to colleges and universities to
use, if they desired, in their admissions decisions (Glazer, 1999; Wildavsky, Norman Cousins
1999). The proposal was quickly withdrawn after a firestorm of criticism from
both privileged and disadvantaged sources.
“
American essayist

Equality and Inequality in Education

The situation for those disadvantaged by social class, racial, and ethnic
background is actually even more complicated. As already implied, it is tied to
the larger issue of educational equality and inequality. Educational equality educational equality
exists when schooling produces the same results, in terms of achievement and condition in which schooling
attitudes, for lower-class and minority children as it does for less disadvantaged produces the same results for
children. Results, not resources, are the test of educational equality (Coleman lower-class and minority
et al., 1966). children as it does for other
children
Do schools provide educational equality? Research has shown that
even the best teachers often evaluate students on the basis of their social
class and their racial and ethnic characteristics. This tendency to judge stu-
dents on nonacademic criteria is especially apparent in the practice of track-
ing. Researchers report that social class and race heavily influence student
placement in college preparatory, vocational, or basic tracks regardless of
their intelligence or past academic achievement (Oakes and Lipton, 1996;
Taylor et al., 1997). Once students are placed, their grades and test scores are

Would you expect to find

educational equality in these two
schools?
404 Unit 4 Social Institutions

District of
School Expenditures Columbia

Everyone has heard “You get what

you pay for.” Because of this idea,
many people use the amount of
money spent on public schools as a
measure of the quality of education.
The accompanying map shows that Public School Expenditures Per Pupil, 1999–2000
some states spend more than twice as More than $8,000
much per student as other states. $7,000–$7,999
$6,000–$6,999
$5,000–$5,999
$4,000–$4,999

Interpreting the Map

1. How does your state compare with other states in school expenditures?
2. Do you see a regional pattern in public school funding? Explain.
3. What other factors might you want to know to determine if the amount of money spent affected
the quality of education delivered?

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000.

influenced more by the track they are on than by their current performance.
Regardless of earlier school performance or intelligence, the academic perfor-
mance of college-bound students increases, whereas the performance of
those on a noncollege track decreases. In other words, schools are not suc-
cessfully providing educational equality for their students.

Cognitive Ability
cognitive ability The technical term for intelligence is cognitive ability—the capacity for
capacity for thinking abstractly thinking abstractly. Dating back to the turn of the twentieth century, there has
been a tradition in schools to attempt to measure cognitive ability.
Because cognitive ability testing is an important element in sorting and
tracking students, it contributes to educational inequality. Whenever cogni-
tive ability tests are discussed, the question of inherited intelligence always
arises.
 Chapter 12 Education 405
Is intelligence inherited? In the past, some people assumed that in-
dividual and group differences in measured intellectual ability were due to
genetic differences. This assumption, of course, underlies Social Darwinism.
(See pages 15–16 for a brief explanation of these assumptions.)
A few researchers still take this viewpoint. More than thirty years ago
Arthur Jensen (1969), an educational psychologist, contended that the lower
average intelligence score among African American children may be due to
heredity. A recent book by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray (1994),
entitled The Bell Curve, is also in the tradition of linking intelligence to hered-
ity. According to these authors, humans inherit 60 to 70 percent of their in-
telligence level. Herrnstein and Murray further contend that the fact of
inherited intelligence makes largely futile the efforts to help the disadvan-
taged through programs such as Head Start and affirmative action.
What are arguments against the inherited intelligence theory? Most
social scientists oppose the genetic explanation of intelligence differences be-
tween races because it fails to consider the effects of the social, psychological,
and economic environment on intelligence. Even those social scientists who
believe that genetics plays an important role in intelligence criticize both the
interpretations of the evidence and the public policy conclusions contained in
The Bell Curve. They point to the body of research that runs counter to
Herrnstein’s and Murray’s thesis. More specifically, they see intelligence not as
an issue of nature versus nurture but as a matter of genetics and environment
(Morganthau, 1994; Wright, 1996). We know, for example, that city dwellers
Do you think heredity or
usually score higher on intelligence tests than do people in rural areas, that
environment will have a greater
higher-status African Americans score higher than lower-status African
effect on these boys’ intelligence?
Americans, and that middle-class African American children score about as
high as middle-class white children. We also have discovered that as people
get older, they usually score higher on intelligence tests. These findings, and
others like them, have led researchers to conclude that environmental factors
affected test performance at least as much as genetic factors (Samuda, 1975;
Schiff and Lewontin, 1987; Jencks and Phillips, 1998). One of these environ-
mental factors is a cultural bias in the measurement of cognitive ability.
What are culturally biased intelligence tests? Many early social scien-
tists have argued that intelligence tests have a cultural bias—that is, the word-
ing used in questions may be more familiar to people of one social group than
to those of another group. Tests with cultural bias unfairly measure the cogni- cultural bias
tive abilities of people in some social categories. Specifically, intelligence tests the unfair measurement of the
are said to be culturally biased because they are designed for middle-class chil- cognitive abilities of people in
dren. The tests measure learning and environment as much as intellectual abil- some social categories
ity. Consider this intelligence test item cited by Daniel Levine and Rayna Levine:
A symphony is to a composer as a book is to what?
a. paper
b. a musician
c. a sculptor
d. a man
e. an author
According to critics, higher-income children find this question easier to an-
swer correctly than lower-income children because they are more likely to
have been exposed to information about classical music. The same charge was
made by critics of a recent SAT question that used a Bentley (a luxury-model
406 Unit 4 Social Institutions
automobile) as its illustration. Several studies have indicated that because most
intelligence tests assume fluency in English, minorities cannot do as well on in-
telligence tests. Some researchers have suggested that many urban African
American students are superior to their white classmates on several dimensions
of verbal capacity, but this ability is not recognized, because intelligence tests
do not measure those specific areas (Gould, 1981; Goleman, 1988; Hurn, 1993).
Some researchers have shown that the testing situation itself affects per-
formance. Low-income and minority students, for example, score higher on
intelligence tests when tested by adult members of their own race or income
group. Apparently children can feel threatened when tested in a strange en-
vironment by someone dissimilar to them. Middle-class children are fre-
quently eager to take the tests because they have been taught the importance
both of test results and of academic competitiveness. Because low-income
children do not recognize the importance of tests and have not been taught
to be academically competitive, they ignore some of the questions or look
for something more interesting to do. Other researchers report that nutrition
seems to play a role in test performance. Low-income children with poor
diets may do less than their best when they are hungry or when they lack
particular types of food over long periods of time.

school desegregation Promoting Educational Equality

the achievement of a racial
balance in the classroom Although it is difficult to completely overcome the barriers of economic and
social class, policy makers and educators are exploring ways to promote edu-
cational equality. Two methods are school desegregation and compensatory
education.
Does desegregation always pro-
mote equality? In this discussion,
school desegregation refers to the
achievement of a racial balance in the
classroom. Desegregated classrooms
can have either positive or negative
effects on the academic achievement
of minority children. Mere physical
desegregation without adequate sup-
port may actually harm both white
and African American children.
However, desegregated classrooms
with an atmosphere of respect and ac-
ceptance improve academic perfor-
mance (Orfield et al., 1992).
Minority students who attend de-
segregated public schools get better
jobs and earn higher incomes than mi-
nority students who attend segregated
schools. The formal education they re-
ceive is only part of the reason. Middle-
class students become models for the
The governor of Nebraska, Mike Johanns, is part of a program to educate school behavior, dress, and language often re-
students on the culture of minority groups in their state. quired by employers in the middle-
class hiring world.
 Chapter 12 Education 407
In addition, exposure to people of different backgrounds can lead to bet-
ter racial and ethnic relations (Hawley and Smylie, 1988). On this evidence
rests the promise of multicultural education—an educational curriculum multicultural education
that accents the viewpoints, experiences, and contributions of minorities an educational curriculum that
(women as well as ethnic and racial minorities). emphasizes differences among
gender, ethnic, and racial
What is the purpose of multicultural education? Among minorities, categories
school attendance and academic performance appear to increase with multi-
cultural education. Multicultural education attempts to dispel stereotypes and
to make the traditions of minorities valuable assets for the broader culture
(McLaren, 1997; Ladson-Billings, 1998).
Multicultural education has its critics, however. According to some oppo-
nents, encouraging people to think of themselves as culturally separate and
unique divides rather than unites American society. Some critics point to in-
stances in which multicultural programs, such as African American studies
programs, actually promote feelings of racial separation in schools.
Does compensatory education work? The term compensatory compensatory education
education refers to specific curricular programs designed to overcome defi- specific curricular programs
ciency. Special compensatory programs provided during early childhood, it designed to overcome a
appears, can improve the school achievement of disadvantaged children deficiency
(Zigler and Styfco, 1993; Campbell and Ramey, 1994).
The best-known attempt at compensatory education is Head Start. This fed-
erally supported program prepares disadvantaged preschoolers for public
school. Its goal is to provide disadvantaged children an equal opportunity to
develop their potential. Follow-up studies report positive long-term results.
Low-income youngsters between the ages of nine and nineteen who had been
in preschool compensatory programs performed better in school. They had
higher achievement test scores and were more motivated academically than
low-income youths who had not been in compensatory education programs
(Bruner, 1982; Etzioni, 1982). Later research also supports the benefits of Head
Start (Mills, 1998). For example, compared to their peers, a group of children
who scored lower on intelligence tests when they entered a Head Start pro-
gram later had better school attendance, completed high school at a higher
rate, and entered the workforce in greater proportion.

Section 3 Assessment

“
1. Do you think the United States is a meritocracy, as stated in the text?
2. What is meant by the term educational equality?
3. What role conflicts does multicultural education pose for teachers? Education is what
Critical Thinking survives when what has
4. Finding the Main Idea Students from higher social classes are more
been learned has been
likely to go to college than students from the lower classes. How does forgotten.
this fit with the idea of meritocracy?
5. Evaluating Information If schools fail to provide educational quality,
B.F. Skinner
“
what do you think will be the consequences in terms of role conflict? American psychologist
408 Unit 4 Social Institutions

I n a recent book, The Age of Spiritual Machines, author Ray Kurzweil

makes forecasts concerning life in the twenty-first century. He claims
that, by the end of the century, computers will be the most intelligent
“beings” on the planet. Specific predictions on education in 2009 in-
clude the following scenarios.
The majority of reading is done on displays, although the “installed
base” of paper documents is still formidable. The generation of paper
documents is dwindling, however, as the books and other papers of

School’s largely twentieth-century vintage are being rapidly scanned and

stored. Documents circa 2009 routinely include embedded moving im-
ages and sounds.

Out . . . Students of all ages typically have a computer of their own, which
is a thin tabletlike device weighing under a pound with a very high
resolution display suitable for reading. Students interact with their

Forever? computers primarily by voice and by pointing with a device that looks
like a pencil. Keyboards still exist, but most textual language is cre-
ated by speaking. Learning materials are accessed through wireless
communication.
Preschool and elementary school children rou-
tinely read at their intellectual level using print-to-
speech reading software until their reading skill level
catches up. These print-to-speech reading systems
display the full image of documents, and can read the
print aloud while highlighting what is being read.
Synthetic voices sound fully human. Although some
educators expressed concern in the early ’00 years
that students would rely unduly on reading software,
such systems have been readily accepted by children
and their parents. Studies have shown that students
improve their reading skills by being exposed to syn-
chronized visual and auditory presentations of text.
Learning at a distance (for example, lectures and
seminars in which the participants are geographically
scattered) is commonplace. This also helps to relieve
congested campuses and cut back on the burning of
gasoline in city limits.

Technology is changing the face of

education in this country. Some Analyzing the Trends
futurists predict that distance
learning technology may eventually 1. If Kurzweil’s predictions came true, how would education’s role in
replace the traditional school the socialization of students change?
building. 2. If Kurzweil’s predictions came true, would social stratification play
a more or less important role in education than it does now? Use
information from the chapter to support your answer.
3. If the predictions in the article came to pass, would we still need
schools? Why or why not?
 Chapter 12 Education 409

Section
Symbolic Interactionism
4 K e y T e r m s

• hidden curriculum • self-fulfilling prophecy

The Hidden Curriculum Section

Preview
S ymbolic interactionists are very interested in how schools transmit cul-
ture through the socialization process. Besides teachers and textbooks,
which we will discuss later, the most important agent of this socialization
process is the hidden curriculum. Modern society places considerable em-
phasis on the verbal, mathematical, and writing skills an adult needs to ob-
S ymbolic interactionists
emphasize the socializa-
tion that occurs in schools.
tain a job, read a newspaper, balance a checkbook, and compute income Through the hidden curricu-
taxes. However, schools teach much more than these basic academic skills. lum, children are taught val-
They also transmit to children a variety of values, norms, beliefs, and ues, norms, beliefs, and
attitudes. attitudes. Much of this social-
What is the hidden curriculum? ization helps young people
The hidden curriculum is the make the transition from
nonacademic agenda that teaches home to the larger society.
children norms and values such as
discipline, order, cooperativeness,
and conformity. These citizenship
skills are thought to be necessary for
success in modern bureaucratic soci- hidden curriculum
ety, whether one becomes a doctor, a the nonacademic agenda that
college president, a computer pro- teaches discipline, order,
grammer, or an assembly-line worker. cooperativeness, and
Over the years, schools, for example, conformity
socialize children for the transition
from their closely knit, cooperative
families to the loosely knit, competi-
tive adult occupational world. The
school provides systematic practice
for children to operate independently
in the pursuit of personal and acade-
mic achievement. The values of
conformity and achievement are em-
phasized through individual testing
and grading. Because teachers evalu-
ate young people as students, not
as relatives, friends, or equals, stu-
dents participate in a model for
Fire drills teach safety procedures, but future secondary relationships—
they also reinforce the importance of employer-employee; salesperson-
obedience and cooperation, part of the
customer; lawyer-client.
school system’s hidden agenda.
410 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Textbooks
A critical part of the hidden curriculum is the devel-
opment of patriotism and a sense of civic duty in future
adults. For this reason, courses such as history and gov-
ernment generally present a view of history that favors
the nation. Accounts of the American Revolution, for ex-
ample, are not the same in British and American text-
books. Because few societies are willing to admit to
their imperfections, schools tend to resist teaching criti-
cal accounts of history. For example, for many years U.S.
history textbooks failed to portray the U.S. government’s
harsh treatment of Native American peoples.
Textbooks convey values and beliefs as much by
what they omit as by what they include. While today’s
textbooks present a more balanced picture, surveys of
primary school textbooks written before the 1980s
found they almost always presented men in challenging
and aggressive activities while portraying women as
homemakers, mothers, nurses, and secretaries. Women
were not only placed in traditional roles but also ap-
peared far less frequently in the books than men did.
When women did appear, they were not initiators of ac-
tion, but played passive roles. Minority groups were
rarely present in textbooks, and when they were it was
often in a negative context.
What, in addition to academic Similarly, textbooks tended to portray all students as
content, do textbooks teach students? living in “little white houses with white picket fences.” That image may have
been part of the worldview of middle-class Americans, but parents of low-
income or inner-city children complained that such pictures of middle-class
life harmed their children. Poor children who compared their homes with
middle-class homes felt out of place (Trimble, 1988; Gibson and Ogbu, 1991).
Today, active parent groups, minority special interest groups, and state
boards of education work with textbook publishers to ensure that a more
balanced picture of society is presented to students. Problems arise, however,
when conflicts occur over whose view of society is the most accurate.

Teachers and Socialization

Classroom teachers have a unique and important role in socializing chil-
dren. Teachers are usually a child’s first authority figures outside the family,
and children spend a lot of time in school. In addition, most parents urge
their children to obey teachers, in part because their children’s futures are af-
fected by school performance.
How do teachers affect students’ performance? All teachers set aca-
demic tasks for their students, but teachers affect children unintentionally as
well. In a classic 1989 study, Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson explored
self-fulfilling prophecy
the self-fulfilling prophecy—a prediction that results in behavior that
a prediction that results in
makes the prediction come true. In their study, elementary school teachers
behavior that makes the
prediction come true were given a list of children in their classrooms who, according to the re-
searchers, were soon to blossom intellectually. Actually, these children were
 Chapter 12 Education 411

Figure 12.4 Focus on Theoretical Perspectives

Investigating education. This table illustrates differences in the ways the major theoretical perspectives in-
vestigate education as a social institution. It is, of course, possible for a theoretical perspective to study edu-
cation using one of the concepts associated in this table with another perspective. Explain, for example, how
conflict theory would interpret the hidden curriculum and tracking.

Theoretical
Perspective Concept Example

Functionalism Tracking Schools shape the occupational future of

children by placing them in educational
programs based on test scores and early
school performance.

Conflict Theory Meritocracy Students attending better

schools have an occupational
advantage over students from
poorer schools.

Symbolic Hidden curriculum Schools teach children the values of

Interactionism conformity and achievement.

picked at random from the school roster and were no different from other
children in the school. At the end of the year, this randomly selected group
of children significantly improved their scores on intelligence tests, while
their classmates as a group did not. According to Rosenthal and Jacobson,
the teachers expected the “late bloomers” to spurt academically.
Consequently, the teachers treated these students as if they were special. This Student Web Activity
behavior on the part of the teachers encouraged the students to become Visit the Sociology and
higher academic achievers. (See Focus on Research on page 298. Also see You Web site at
Chapter 9, page 288, for a more general discussion of the self-fulfilling soc.glencoe.com and click on
prophecy.) Chapter 12—Student Web
Another early study by sociologist Eleanor Leacock (1969) found the self- Activities for an activity on
fulfilling prophecy at work in a study of second and fifth graders in black sexism in schools.
and white low- and middle-income schools. And both studies demonstrate
that self-fulfilling prophecies can transmit negative self-impressions as well as
positive ones.
Do teachers foster sexism? As described in Chapter 10, children are
taught to adopt the “appropriate” gender identity in school (Martin, 1998).
Following a long line of earlier researchers, Myra Sadker and David Sadker
(1995) have contended that America’s teachers are often unfair to girls be-
cause they treat girls differently than boys based on assumptions and stereo-
types of what is appropriate behavior. Well-meaning teachers unconsciously
transmit sexist expectations of how male and female students should behave.
412 Unit 4 Social Institutions

High School District of

Columbia
Dropouts
High School Dropouts
For many jobs, a high school
6% or less
diploma is a minimum requirement. 7%
People who do not complete high 8–10%
school earn only about three-fourths 11–12%
13% or more
as much as high school graduates.
This map shows the percentage of Source: 2001 Kids Count Data Sheet. (Washington, DC:
teenagers (aged sixteen to nineteen) Population Reference Bureau, 2001).

in each state who are high school

dropouts.

Interpreting the Map

1. Compare this map with the Snapshot on page 404. Do you see a relationship between the money
spent per student and the percentage of high school dropouts?
2. Compare this map with the Snapshot on page 261. Do you see any relationship between the
percentage of high school dropouts and the percentage of the population living below the
poverty line?

Source: 2001 Kids Count Data Sheet (Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau, 2001).

Girls, for example, learn to talk softly, to avoid certain subjects (especially
math and science), to defer to the alleged intellectual superiority of boys, and
to emphasize appearance over intelligence. As a result, in a coeducational
setting boys are
❖ five times more likely to receive the most attention from teachers.
❖ three times more likely to be praised.
❖ eight times more likely to call out in class.
❖ three times more talkative in class.
❖ twice as likely to demand help or attention.
❖ twice as likely to be called on in class.
The conclusions seem to be incontrovertible: in general boys talk more,
move more, have their hands up more, do more, argue more, get more of
the teachers’ attention than do girls in a coeducational setting (Sadker and
Sadker, 1995).
 Chapter 12 Education 413
But, what about all the
progress that has been made?
Contrary to the expectation of
some, such inequalities are not
gone from the educational scene.
Writers who paint a rosier picture
have so far failed to produce con-
vincing evidence to support it
(Deak, 1998).
There is objective evidence
that girls are guided in school to-
ward traditional female jobs and
away from high-paying, powerful,
and prestigious jobs in science,
technology, and engineering
(Millicent, 1992). True, signifi-
cantly more high school girls
want to go into engineering today
than in the past. But five times
more men than women receive
bachelor’s degrees in engineering.
These gender-based discrep- What evidence has been presented
ancies cannot be explained by ability differences. Girls perform almost as about the advantages of single-
well as boys on math and science tests (O’Sullivan, Reese, and Mazzeo, gender schools?
1997). Girls score higher than boys at reading and writing at all grade levels
and are more likely to attend college (Greenwald et al., 1999). Moreover,
females fare better in single-gender schools and single-gender classes in
coeducational schools.
Girls in these situations, in general, get better grades, report that
they learn more and are more positive about the learning situation,
have higher self-esteem, and more often move on to advanced courses
than do girls in regular coeducational situations (Deak, 1998:19–20).

Section 4 Assessment
“Education is the trans-
mission of civilization.
Will and Ariel Durant
1. Cite an example from your earlier schooling that you believe presented
a viewpoint of history that was incomplete or slanted toward one
perspective.
“
authors/philosophers

Critical Thinking
2. Making Generalizations Besides parents and teachers, what
authority figures do young children meet?
3. Applying Concepts Describe a time when you were the subject of a
self-fulfilling prophecy.
4. Applying Concepts Provide examples from your own experience to
support or contradict the existence of the hidden curriculum.
414 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Case Study: Pygmalion

in the Classroom
Are your beliefs strong enough to affect your feelings or behavior? You
have probably experienced how your feelings and behavior change upon
receiving new information. A feeling of well-being usually follows learn-
ing that you did better on an important math exam than you thought you
could. You may even be encouraged enough to study math more enthu-
siastically in the future. If your own perceptions can affect your feelings
and behavior, is it possible that someone else’s beliefs about you can also
influence your feelings and behavior? The idea that this can happen is
called the self-fulfilling prophecy. As noted earlier, two social scientists,
Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson (1989), studied the self-fulfilling
prophecy in a school setting.
For their case study, these researchers chose Oak School, a public el-
ementary school located in a predominantly lower-class community. They
hypothesized that children whose teacher expected their IQ scores to in-
Students who are treated as if crease would in fact increase their scores more than comparable children
they are expected to perform at whose teacher expected no IQ gains.
high levels often do. At the beginning of the study, a
test was given to all of the Oak
School students. Although it was
falsely advertised as a predictor of
academic “blooming” or “spurt-
ing,” it was actually a non-verbal
intelligence test. Rosenthal and
Jacobson subsequently identified
for the teachers 20 percent of the
children who allegedly were
ready for a dramatic increase in
intellectual growth. In fact, the
researchers had selected the
names of these students by
using a table of random num-
bers. The difference in poten-
tial for academic growth
between the children said to
 Chapter 12 Education 415
be on the verge of “blooming” and the rest of the students existed only
in the minds of the teachers.
Intellectual growth was measured by the difference between a
child’s IQ score at the end of the previous school year and that same
child’s IQ score eight months after the next school year began. As
Rosenthal and Jacobson expected, the children in the “blooming”
group gained more IQ points than the other children (a 12-point gain
versus an 8-point gain). The IQ gain of the children in the “blooming”
group over the other students was the most pronounced among first
and second graders. First graders in the “blooming” group gained over
27 IQ points, compared with 12 points in the remainder of the class.
Among second graders, the advantage was 16.5 IQ points to 7.
Low teacher expectations do not necessarily prevent good students
from doing well in school. And high teacher expectations cannot spur
poor learners to the highest levels of achievement; however, high
teacher expectations can be a powerful motivator for low performers
who are capable of doing much better (Madon, Jussim, and Eccles,
1997). This occurs because teachers with high expectations for students
treat them in special ways—they tend to smile and look at them more
often, set higher goals for them, praise them more frequently, coach
them in their studies, and give them more time to study (Rendon and
Hope, 1996).
Operation of the self-fulfilling prophecy has been confirmed by
other researchers in many other social settings (Myers, 1999). Research
subjects behave as they think researchers expect, and a client’s
progress in therapy is influenced by the therapist’s expectation. People
who are expected by others to be hostile will exhibit more hostile
behavior.

Working with the Research

1. How do you think the self-fulfilling prophecy works? That is,
how are expectations transmitted from one person to another,
and how do these expectations produce behavior?
2. What are the implications of the self-fulfilling prophecy for
students? For teachers?
3. Explain why the self-fulfilling prophecy supports the labeling
process discussed on pages 214–217 in Chapter 7.
CHAPTER 12 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Vocabulary
Summary
Complete each sentence using each term once.
Section 1: Development and Structure of a. open-classroom e. educational
Education model equality
Main Idea: Schools are becoming more bureau- b. cooperative f. multiculturalism
cratic. Advocates of open classrooms and cooper- learning g. hidden curriculum
ative learning contend that bureaucratically run c. tracking h. self-fulfilling
schools fail to take into account the emotional d. meritocracy prophecy
and creative needs of individual children.
1. is a prediction that results in
behavior that makes the prediction come true.
Section 2: Functionalist Perspective
2. A nonbureaucratic classroom structure in which
Main Idea: Functionalists see the emergence of students study in groups is called
the educational institution as a response to soci- .
ety’s needs. The manifest functions of education 3. An educational curriculum that accents the
include transmission of culture, creation of a viewpoints, experiences, and contributions of
common identity, selection and screening of tal- minorities is called .
ent, and promotion of personal growth and de-
4. is equality defined in terms of
velopment. Schools also serve latent functions.
the effects or results of schooling.
5. Placing students in curricula consistent with ex-
Section 3: Conflict Perspective
pectations for their eventual occupations is
Main Idea: In theory, America is a meritocracy in called .
which social status is achieved. Proponents of the 6. is social status based on achieve-
conflict perspective identify flaws in this model by ment rather than social class or parental class.
pointing to inequality in our schools. Methods 7. includes discipline, order, co-
and programs aimed at promoting educational operation, and conformity.
equality have been developed.
8. did away with the sharp au-
thoritarian line between teacher and students.
Section 4: Symbolic Interactionism
Main Idea: Symbolic interactionists emphasize
the socialization that occurs in schools. Through Reviewing the Facts
the hidden curriculum, children are taught values,
norms, beliefs, 1. A student is told by teachers that he will not
and attitudes. amount to anything. He then begins to fail sub-
Much of this so- jects he has normally passed. What term would
cialization helps sociologists use to describe this occurrence?
young people 2. Explain the difference between a manifest func-
make the transi- Self-Check Quiz tion of education and a latent function of edu-
tion from home to Visit the Sociology and You Web cation. Give three examples of each function.
a larger society. site at soc.glencoe.com and
click on Chapter 12—Self- FUNCTION EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2 EXAMPLE 3
Check Quizzes to prepare for
Manifest
the chapter test.
Latent

416
3. What are the three agents that assist schools to Percent of
transmit culture through the socialization Family Income ACT Score Respondents
process? Less than $18,000 18.4 9%
4. What is the hidden curriculum and what pur- $18,000–$24,000 19.2 7%
pose does it serve? $24,000–$30,000 19.9 7%
5. What is compensatory education? Give an ex- $30,000–$36,000 20.5 7%
ample. $36,000–$42,000 20.8 8%
$42,000–$50,000 21.2 9%
6. What is the difference between a charter school $50,000–$60,000 21.6 10%
and a magnet school? $60,000–$80,000 22.1 13%
$80,000–$100,000 22.7 7%
Over $100,000 23.4 8%
Thinking Critically No data provided ––– 15%

1. Drawing Conclusions Most real-world work These respondents had a composite score of
situations involve a high degree of cooperation. 20.8. What conclusions might you draw about
Still, much of our educational system remains family income and ACT scores based on the
competitive. ACT and SAT tests are not taken “no response” group?
cooperatively, for example. As you read in the 6. Analyzing Information A recent study of high
chapter, cooperative learning has been offered school advanced placement (AP) courses re-
as an alternative to individual learning. Based vealed that students who had taken numerous
on your experience with cooperative learning, AP courses, in some cases fourteen or fifteen,
do you agree that it is a better way of learning? were admitted to the elite universities of that
Why or why not? state. Other students who had also taken AP
2. Analyzing Information Do you think that our courses, but had taken significantly fewer of
society benefits more from competitive situa- them, were denied entrance to those schools.
tions or cooperative situations? Can both ap- Does this finding support or weaken the claim
proaches be beneficial to society? In what that the United States is a meritocracy? Explain.
instances might one approach be preferred to 7. Understanding Cause and Effect An elemen-
the other? tary school teacher was given a list of her stu-
3. Applying Concepts On pages 20–21 in dents on the first day of class. Next to each
Chapter 1, you read about the McDonaldization student’s name was a number. One was 132,
of higher education. Using the concepts of effi- another was 141, and so forth. The teacher saw
ciency, calculability, predictability, and technol- these numbers and was tremendously excited to
ogy, discuss how high schools are becoming begin the school year. In fact, she went out and
McDonaldized. bought extra materials. At the end of the school
4. Making Inferences In the next column is a list year, her students had shown incredible
of student scores on the ACT test and family in- progress. When the principal came up to the
come. What might explain why students with teacher and congratulated her, the teacher
higher family incomes also have higher ACT thanked the principal for giving her so many
scores? Could intervening variables exist? How students with high IQs. The principal said,
might an understanding of poverty explain the “What do you mean?” “Well,” the teacher
discrepancy in scores related to income? replied, “on the first day of class, you gave me
5. Drawing Conclusions In the table in question that list of student names with their IQs.”
4, notice that 15 percent of the respondents did “Those weren’t IQ numbers; they were locker
not answer the question about family income. numbers!” The principal responded. Whether

417
CHAPTER 12 ASSESSMENT
this story is true or not, it is a good example of Work with classmates to fill these roles: school
the self-fulfilling prophecy (or the Pygmalion ef- board president (to act as a neutral moderator),
fect). What might have happened if the num- several school board members, several commu-
bers next to the students’ names had been 94 or nity members, and several students (to function
97? Do you think that teachers in your school as observers and take notes on what they see
do the same thing this teacher did? and hear). It would be a good idea for students
8. Analyzing Information To ensure that all stu- to spend some time researching the chosen
dents have a minimum standard of knowledge issue. Each school board member will be al-
before leaving school, several states now re- lowed a few minutes for opening remarks.
quire high school seniors to pass a comprehen- Community members must be allowed to ex-
sive exam. Passing the test would give press their views, and then a vote should be
employers and colleges some assurance that a taken on the issue.
certain standard of achievement was met. Some 3. School Issues Contact a student or students
parents are challenging the exam, claiming that from another high school in your area. (These
students with passing grades could fail to get might be students you have met through
into a good college if they failed the exam. church, sports, or other activities.) Compare
Others contend that students who have failed to how your schools function. Look at such issues
pass classes could pass the exam and get credit. as discipline and detention, attendance policy,
They argue that many students are unmotivated making up work, extra credit, and support for
learners but could pass such an exam. From a extracurricular activities. Identify two areas in
societal viewpoint, what position would you which your schools differ. Discuss these differ-
take? Would you favor the examination? Could ences with a counselor, your principal, or an as-
you propose a compromise solution that would sistant principal to see if you can explain why
satisfy both sides? the policy differences exist. (Are the differences
a result of the bureaucracy, or do they have
physical or geographical causes? Does anyone
Sociology Projects really know why things are done in a particular
way?) Offer explanations for the differences,
1. School Board Meetings Attend a school board and arrange to present your findings to the
meeting in your community. Obtain a copy of class.
the agenda from the board of education several 4. The Ideal School of the Future You are an ar-
days before the meeting. Choose one controver- chitect who has been hired by your school dis-
sial or proposed issue to research. After the trict to design the ideal school of the future.
meeting, approach one of the board members Money is no object, and property owners who
to interview on this issue and find out his or pay taxes have stated that they will spare no
her position. Report back to your class about expense to keep the project going. Your task is
the issue, giving an objective view from various to create a draft of the floor plan for the build-
perspectives. (As an alternative, you might want ing, outside space, ball fields, bathrooms, cafe-
to visit a PTO or PTA meeting and find out how teria, and so forth. Identify the purpose of all
parents and teachers view one particular issue.) the rooms (classrooms, labs, resource areas, ex-
2. Mock School Board Meeting Organize a mock ercise rooms, saunas, and so on). Submit your
school board meeting at your school. First, at- plan to your class (which will act as the com-
tend a regular school board meeting to become munity). Be prepared to redo the plan based on
familiar with the procedures. (Many communi- class members’ recommendations. Remember,
ties broadcast school board meetings on local you are working for them.
cable channels.) Select an issue that is of inter-
est to you or that will affect your high school.

418
5. School Handbooks Form a committee with 8. School Culture Do a study of your school cul-
some of your classmates to reevaluate your stu- ture, including norms, roles, statuses, groups
dent handbook. If your school prints such a and subcultures. Include information about
handbook, look at it and make recommenda- where people gather, common symbols and tra-
tions for change. If your school does not have a ditions, educational rites of passage, etc.
handbook, formulate one. In either case, con- 9. Stakeholders Stakeholders are people who
sider such issues as the following: description of have a vested interest in a process, or who are
the school day, length of class periods, atten- directly affected by a process. Identify the
dance policies, discipline policies, requirements stakeholders of American education: the stu-
for graduation, required courses for specific sub- dents, parents, colleges, technical schools, the
jects (the guidance office should have this infor- military, employers, etc. What are their compet-
mation), extracurricular activities, student rights, ing perceptions of the functions of education?
and map of the building. If your school’s hand-
book is missing any of these, make a recom-
mendation that it be added. Research other Technology Activity
schools to see what their policies are. Ask your
teacher if your committee can present its find- 1. The Center for Education Reform maintains a
ings to a school administrator. web site devoted to information about charter
6. Observing Classrooms This mock experiment schools. Visit this site at http://www.
will you give some experience in recording data edreform.com/charter_schools/. Select “Reform
and formulating a conclusion. You should con- FAQS” and then click on “Charter Schools” that
duct the experiment for at least five days. As is colored blue.
you sit in your classes throughout the day, dis- a. What are the three principles that govern
creetly keep track of what happens when stu- charter schools?
dents raise their hands. Can you determine a
b. Be prepared to discuss the advantages and
pattern for who is called upon? Do the teachers
disadvantages of charter schools.
tend to call on boys more than girls? On noisy
students more than quiet ones? On conservative c. Based on your review of this web site, do
dressers more than radical dressers? Summarize you feel that the Center for Education
your findings. Remember to remain objective Reform presents an unbiased picture of
and to respect individuals’ privacy at all times. charter schools?
(Don’t feel bad if you can’t seem to identify a d. Now use your favorite search engine and
pattern—it just means your teacher is sensitive see if there are any charter schools in your
to his or her students. This is still good re- area with web sites. If there are, visit the
search.) site and find out about them. Do any of
7. Schools in 2020 Design a school that will them sound attractive to you?
function in the year 2020, taking into account
predicted advances in technology and pre-
sumed changes in social relationships and
social roles.

419
420 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Chapter 12

Enrichment Reading
Savage Inequalities
by Jonathan Kozol
Jonathan Kozol is sociology’s best known and most consistent advocate of educational reform.
Kozol (1992) sees the roots of educational inequality in social inequality: Poor neighborhoods
have poor schools. In the passage below, Kozol describes East St. Louis High School, an African
American school located in “the most distressed small city in America.” There are few jobs, no
regular trash collection, and little protection from the pollution spewed from two chemical plants.

E ast St. Louis, says the chairman of the In the wing of the school that holds vocational
state board [of education], “is simply the classes, a damp, unpleasant odor fills the halls.
worst possible place I can imagine to The school has a machine shop, which cannot be
have a child brought up. . . . The community is used for lack of staff, and a woodworking shop.
in desperate circumstances.” Sports and music, The only shop that’s occupied this morning is the
he observes, are, for many children here, “the auto-body class. A man with long blond hair and
only avenues of success.” Sadly enough, no mat- wearing a white sweat suit swings a paddle to get
ter how it ratifies the stereotype, this is the truth; children in their chairs. “What we need the most
and there is a poignant aspect to the fact that, is new equipment,” he reports. “I have equipment
even with class size soaring and one quarter of for alignment, for example, but we don’t have
the system’s teachers being given their dismissal, money to install it. We also need a better form of
the state board of education demonstrates its egress. We bring the cars in through two other
genuine but skewed compassion by attempting classes.” Computerized equipment used in most
to leave sports and music untouched by the over- repair shops, he reports, is far beyond the high
all austerity. school’s budget. It looks like a very old gas sta-
Even sports facilities, however, are degrading tion in an isolated rural town. . . .
by comparison with those found and expected at The science labs at East St. Louis High are
most high schools in America. The football field 30 to 50 years outdated. John McMillan, a soft-
at East St. Louis High is missing almost every- spoken man, teaches physics at the school. He
thing—including goalposts. There are a couple shows me his lab. The six lab stations in the
of metal pipes—no crossbar, just the pipes. Bob room have empty holes where pipes were once
Shannon, the football coach, who has to use his attached. “It would be great if we had water,”
personal funds to purchase footballs and has had says McMillan. . . .
to cut and rake the football field himself, has In a seventh grade social studies class, the only
dreams of having goalposts someday. He’d also book that bears some relevance to black con-
like to let his students have new uniforms. The cerns—its title is The American Negro—bears a
ones they wear are nine years old and held to- publication date of 1967. The teacher invites me to
gether somehow by a patchwork of repairs. ask the class some questions. Uncertain where to
Keeping them clean is a problem, too. The start, I ask the students what they’ve learned about
school cannot afford a washing machine. The the civil rights campaigns of recent decades.
uniforms are carted to a corner laundromat with A 14-year-old girl with short black curly hair
fifteen dollars’ worth of quarters. . . . says this: “Every year in February we are told to
 Chapter 12 Education 421

read the same old speech of Martin Luther King. What Does it Mean
We read it every year. ‘I have a dream. . . .’ It does
begin to seem—what is the word?” She hesitates
and then she finds the word: “perfunctory.” austerity
I ask her what she means. hardship; severity
“We have a school in East St. Louis named for egress
Dr. King,” she says. “The school is full of sewer act of coming out; exiting
water and the doors are locked with chains. Every
perfunctory
student in that school is black. It’s like a terrible
joke on history.” routine; without
enthusiasm
It startles me to hear her words, but I am star-
tled even more to think how seldom any press re- poignant
porter has observed the irony of naming deeply affecting; touching
segregated schools for Martin Luther King. skewed
Children reach the heart of these hypocrisies slanted; distorted
much quicker than the grown-ups and the ex-
perts do.
Source: Excerpted from Jonathan Kozol, Savage
Inequalities (New York: Harper Collins, 1992), p. 35.

Jonathan Kozol, a long-time social activist, is

author of seven award-winning books which
focus on the plight of the disadvantaged
children of our nation. Savage Inequalities:
Children in America’s Schools, shows the
disparities in America’s public school system.

Read and React

1. What does Kozol mean by “educational
inequality”? Do you agree or disagree with
his view? Why?
2. Does Kozol believe there is a link
between economic resources and
educational inequality? Explain. Discuss
why you agree or disagree.
3. If Kozol were going to speak to your local
school board, what would you like to say
to him regarding educational inequality?
4. Is educational inequality a problem in
your school? In other schools in your
community? Elaborate.
5. Imagine yourself in the school Kozol
describes. How would it affect your
education, view of life, and future?
CHAPTER 13
Political and Economic
Institutions

422
 U
S Your Sections
I Sociological
N Imagination 1. Power and Authority
G 2. Political Power in
American Society

N ot so long ago, Americans looked at

workers in Japan with “half-horrified
awe.” Rumors of workers slaving
away ten hours a day, six days a week,
made the rounds of corporate America.
3.
4.
Economic Systems
The Modern Corporation
“You’re so lucky to be working here,” 5. Work in the Modern
crowed U.S. bosses. “If you worked in
Japan, you wouldn’t be taking long lunches
Economy
or two-week vacations. You’d sleep at the
office and see your family on Sunday.” Learning Objectives
Management theorists likened the relation-
ship between Japanese workers and supervi-
sors to that of the family. A new After reading this chapter, you will be able to
management style based on the Japanese
model was proposed. Where Type X was a ❖ distinguish among power, coercion, and
worker needing close supervision and Type authority.
Y was a creative, self-directed worker, the ❖ identify three forms of authority.
new Type Z was an individual whose culture ❖ discuss differences among democracy,
was focused entirely on work.
totalitarianism, and authoritarianism.
Today the reality is that Americans put in
more hours than workers in any other in- ❖ explain how voting is an exercise of
dustrialized country, including Japan. power.
Between 1977 and 1997, the average work ❖ list characteristics of capitalism and
week among salaried American workers socialism.
lengthened from forty-three to forty-seven
hours. In that same period, the number of
❖ describe America’s changing workforce.
workers putting in more than fifty hours per ❖ discuss the consequences of corporate
week went from 24 percent to 37 percent. downsizing.
In fact, Americans work an equivalent of
eight weeks longer every year than Western
Europeans. Given these figures, it is even
more surprising that over 80 percent of Chapter Overview
people at work say they are satisfied with Visit the Sociology and You Web site at
their jobs. Where, why, and how Americans soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 13—
work are just some of the issues examined Chapter Overviews to preview chapter
in this chapter on political and economic information.
institutions in the United States.
423
424 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Section
Power and Authority
1 K e y

•
•
T e r m s

economic institution
political institution
•
•
traditional authority
rational-legal authority
• power • representative democracy
• coercion • totalitarianism
• authority • authoritarianism
• charismatic authority

Section Definitions of Power and Authority

Preview
I n 1997, the powerful Teamsters Union went on strike against United
Parcel Service (UPS) to protest the company’s cost-cutting policy of

A uthority is the sanc-

tioned use of power.
Political systems can be
eliminating permanent positions and replacing them with part-time or tem-
porary positions. When UPS asked President Clinton to intervene in the dis-
pute (on the grounds that the company provided an essential national
based on three types of au- service), it demonstrated the close connection between business and gov-
thority: charismatic, tradi- ernment in modern American society.
tional, and rational-legal. The set of functions that concern the production and distribution of
Democratic, totalitarian, and goods and services for a society is called the economic institution.
Because economic decisions affect how valuable resources are shared be-
authoritarian are types of po-
tween organizations and the general public, conflicts inevitably arise. The re-
litical systems. In democra-
sponsibility for handling these conflicts is the institution through which
cies, power lies with elected power is obtained and exercised—the political institution. These two in-
officials. Totalitarian political stitutions are so closely interrelated that it is very hard to think of them as
systems have absolute rulers
who control all aspects of
political and social life.
Authoritarian rulers possess
absolute control but often
permit some personal
freedoms.

economic institution
institution that determines
how goods and services are
produced and distributed

political institution
institution that determines
how power is obtained and
exercised These prison inmates are subject to the power of the political institution
that convicted them.
 Chapter 13 Political and Economic Institutions 425
separate. For a beginning study of sociology, however, we can think of eco-
nomics as the distribution of resources and politics as the exercise of power.
This chapter will look first at how politics affects group behaviors and then
at the economic scene.
What is power? As stated in Chapter 1, Max Weber profoundly influ-
enced sociological theory. You read about him again in Chapter 6, which ex-
amined formal organizations and bureaucracies. Weber’s contribution to
political sociology deals with his identification of different forms of power
and authority. Weber defined power as the ability to control the behavior of power
others, even against their will. Power takes various forms. Some people, for the ability to control the
example, wield great power through their personal appeal or magnetism. behavior of others
John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Jr., and César Chávez were able to in-
fluence others through the force of their charismatic personalities.
Weber recognized another form of power that he called coercion. coercion
Coercion is the use of physical force or threats to exert control. A blackmailer control through force
might extort money from a politician. A government might take, without
compensation, the property of one of its citizens. In such cases, the victims
do not believe this use of power is right. In fact, they normally are resentful
and want to fight back. Weber recognized that a political system based on
coercive power is inherently unstable; that is, the abuses of the system itself
cause people to rise against it.
What is authority? Weber also believed that a political institution must
rest on a stable form of power if it is to function and survive. This more sta-
ble form of power is authority. Authority is power accepted as legitimate by authority
those subject to it. For example, students take exams and accept the results power accepted as legitimate
they receive because they believe their teachers have the right (authority) to by those subject to it
determine grades. Most citizens pay taxes because they believe their gov-
ernment has the right (authority) to collect money from them.

The authority that belongs to teachers is a stable form of power because most students
accept a teacher’s right to control certain processes.
426 Unit 4 Social Institutions

César Chávez, John F. Kennedy, and Martin Luther

King, Jr., were charismatic leaders. What does
charismatic mean?

Forms of Authority
Weber identified three forms of authority—charismatic, traditional, and
rational-legal. People who live under governments based on these forms
recognize authority figures as holders of legitimate power.
charismatic authority What is charismatic authority? Charismatic authority arises from a
authority that arises from the leader’s personal characteristics. Charismatic leaders lead through the power
personality of an individual or strength of their personalities or the feelings of trust they inspire in a large
number of people. In addition to Kennedy, King, and Chávez, Nelson
Mandela and Fidel Castro have strong personalities that make them highly
charismatic leaders.
For modern nation-states, however, charismatic authority alone is too un-
stable to provide a permanent basis of power. It is linked to an individual
and is therefore difficult to transfer to another. When charismatic leaders die,
the source of power is removed. Adolf Hitler, himself a charismatic leader,
made an attempt at the end of World War II to name his successor. But as
historian John Toland has noted
 Chapter 13 Political and Economic Institutions 427
Hitler’s death brought an abrupt, absolute end to National Socialism.
Without its only true leader, it burst like a bubble. . . . What had ap-
peared to be the most powerful and fearsome political force of the
twentieth century vanished overnight. No other leader’s death since
Napoleon had so completely obliterated a regime (Toland, 1976:892).
So even governments controlled by charismatic leaders must eventually
come to rely on other types of authority. The two alternatives to charismatic au-
thority identified by Weber are traditional authority and rational-legal authority.
What is traditional authority? In the past, most states relied on
traditional authority, in which the legitimacy of a leader is rooted in cus- traditional authority
tom. Early kings often claimed to rule by the will of God, or divine right. forms of authority in which
The peaceful transfer of power was possible because only a few individu- the legitimacy of a leader is
als, such as offspring or other close relatives, were eligible to become the rooted in custom
next ruler. The kings in eighteenth-century Europe, for example, counted on
the custom of loyalty to provide a stable political foundation. Tradition pro-
vided more stability than charismatic authority could have provided. rational-legal authority
form of authority in which
What is rational-legal authority? Most modern governments are the power of government
based on a system of rational-legal authority. In this type of government, officials is based on the offices
power resides in the offices rather than in the officials. Those who hold gov- they hold
ernment offices are expected to operate on the basis of specific rules and
procedures that define and limit their rights and re-
sponsibilities. Power is assumed only when the individ-
ual occupies the office. Many leaders in religious
organizations fall under this category of authority.
Since rational-legal authority is invested in positions
rather than in individuals, persons lose their authority
when they leave their formal positions of power. When a
new president is elected, for example, the outgoing pres-
ident becomes a private citizen again and gives up the
privileges of the office. Furthermore, leaders are expected
to stay within the boundaries of their legal authority. Even
presidents (Richard Nixon, for example) can lose their
power if their abuse of power is made public. Thus, legal
authority also limits the power of government officials.

Types of Political Systems

As societies have evolved through the centuries, so
have different forms of political systems (Nolan and
Lenski, 1999). In hunting and gathering societies, there
was very little formal government. Political leaders were
typically chosen on the basis of exceptional physical
prowess or personal charisma. Formal governmental
King Jigme Singye Wangchuck rules
structures emerged with the development of agricultural economies and the
Bhutan through the exercise of
rise of city-states. As societies became more diversified with the development traditional authority.
of commerce, industry, and technology, government began to take the form
of the national political state. The first strong nation-states, including France,
Spain, and England, appeared in the late 1400s. Gradually, traditional author-
ity was replaced by rational-legal authority. Contemporary nation-states can be
classified into three basic types: democratic, totalitarian, and authoritarian.
428 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Democracy
Democracy in its pure form, as practiced by the ancient Greeks, involves
all citizens in self-government. This type of direct democracy is similar to that
practiced in New England town meetings, where the citizens debated and
representative democracy voted directly on various issues. More familiar to us today is representative
a system of government that democracy, in which elected officials are responsible for fulfilling the
uses elected officials to fulfill wishes of the majority of citizens.
majority wishes
What assumptions are made in a representative democracy?
Representative democracy operates under two assumptions. The first is that
realistically, not everyone in modern society can be actively involved in all
political decision making. Thus, although citizens are expected to vote, most
citizens are not expected to be deeply involved in politics. Second, political
candidates who fail to satisfy the wishes of the majority are not expected to
win reelections.

“Power tends to corrupt,

and absolute power cor-
With the major two-party system of the United States, we have a “winner
take all” form of representative democracy. Here, the party with the most
votes wins the election. In other countries, as in Europe where third-party
systems are common, political parties participate in the government to the
extent that they win representation in general elections. For example, one
rupts absolutely. party might win 40 percent of the vote and control 40 percent of the legisla-
ture. Three other parties might take 20 percent each and control a combined
Lord Acton 60 percent of the legislature. This proportional representation system seems
“
English historian to be more democratic as it tends to encourage compromises and coopera-
tion in forming governments. Governments formed under this system can be
fragile, however, and shifting political alliances may be able to force new
elections after short periods of time.

Germany’s parliamentary system is a representative democracy.

 Chapter 13 Political and Economic Institutions 429

World View Political Freedom

Democracy is unevenly distributed worldwide. The
accompanying map classifies countries according to
three degrees of political freedom: free, partly free,
and not free.

North
Nor th Europe
Europe
America
Asia

Africa
South
America

Australia
Political Freedom
Free
Partly free
Not free

Interpreting the Map

1. Do you see any pattern in the degree of political freedom around the world?
2. Predict how political freedom around the world will change in the next fifty years. Explain your
predictions.

Source: Freedom House, Washington, D.C., 1998.

Is democracy spreading? The collapse of Soviet communism and the

end of the Cold War have created opportunities for more societies to adopt
democratic forms of government. Still, there is little evidence that democratic
societies are on the rise (Karatnycky, 1995; Vanhanen, 1997). Nearly 80 per-
cent of the world’s people live in countries classified as “partly free” or “not
free.” (See World View above.) “Free” political systems are primarily associ-
ated with advanced economic development and are found mainly in a few
nations: the nations of Western Europe, Canada, Australia, the United States,
some Latin American countries, Japan, and a few African nations.
430 Unit 4 Social Institutions
Figure 13.1 The Political Political Continuum
Continuum. Political
institutions offer varying degrees of Pure Representative
freedom for their members. Authoritarianism Totalitarianism
Democracy Democracy

New United Fidel Adolf

England States Castro Hitler
Town (Cuba) (Nazi
Germany)

Totalitarianism
totalitarianism Totalitarianism lies at the opposite end of the political spectrum from
a political system in which a democracy. In this type of political system, a ruler with absolute power attempts
ruler with absolute power to control all aspects of a society. Characteristics of totalitarian states include
attempts to control all aspects
of a society ❖ a single political party, typically controlled by one person.
❖ a well-coordinated campaign of terror.
❖ total control of all means of communication.
❖ a monopoly over military resources.
❖ a planned economy directed by a state bureaucracy.
Examples of totalitarian states in-
clude Iraq under Saddam Hussein,
the former Soviet Union, and Nazi
Germany.

“
Hitler’s National Socialist (Nazi)
government, which came to power
in Germany in the early 1930s, of-
Every nation has the fers an example of the way a totali-
tarian system works. Despite
government it deserves.
presenting a false image of democ-
Josef de Maistre racy to the world, Hitler and the
“
French diplomat
National Socialist Party held all the
power. The Nazis seized or shut
down nearly all news media. Hitler’s
four-year economic plans included
strategies for budgets, production,
organization of factories, and forced
labor. Hitler dominated the armed
forces. His absolute control was
strengthened by the Gestapo secret
police and SS troops, who terrorized
Hitler’s political enemies and private
citizens. The SS brutally and system-
atically put to death over six million
European Jews and others—a mass Why can we classify Adolf Hitler as a
totalitarian leader?
killing now known as the Holocaust.
 Chapter 13 Political and Economic Institutions 431
What category of leader does
Cuban President Fidel Castro
represent?

Authoritarianism
For sociologists, authoritarianism is a middle category between democ-
racy and totalitarianism, although it is closer to totalitarianism than to
democracy. Authoritarianism refers to a political system controlled by authoritarianism
elected or nonelected rulers who usually permit some degree of individual a political system controlled by
freedom but do not allow popular participation in government. Countless elected or nonelected rulers
governments have leaned toward totalitarianism but have fallen short of all who usually permit some
its defining characteristics. These governments are classified as authoritarian. degree of individual freedom
Examples include certain monarchies (the dynasties of the shahs of Iran),
and military seizures of power (Fidel Castro’s takeover of Cuba).

Section 1 Assessment
1. What is the difference between authority and coercion?
2. Which type of authority places the strongest limits on government
officials?
3. Explain how direct democracy differs from representative democracy.
4. Briefly describe the three major types of political systems.

Critical Thinking
5. Sequencing Information Like all organizations, high schools are
based on some form of authority. Explain, with examples, which form
or forms of authority you believe are applicable to high schools.
6. Synthesizing Information In which form of government would you
expect to find charismatic authority? Traditional authority? Rational-legal
authority?
432 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Another
Place China’s One-Child Policy

How much control a government has over daily life have abortions. According to the newspaper, the
varies greatly from one political system to another. family-planning workers marched the husbands one
The excerpt below describes one way in which a by one into an empty room, ordered them to strip
strict, authoritarian government exerts control. and lie on the floor and then beat them with a stick,
once for every day their wives were pregnant.
C hina’s communist government adopted the
one-child policy in 1979 in response to the
staggering doubling of the country’s population
Source: Excerpted from Daniela Deane, “The Little
Emperors,” Los Angeles Times Magazine (July 26, 1992):
during Mao Zedong’s rule. Mao, who died in 1976, 138, 140. © Daniela Deane.
was convinced that the country’s masses were a
strategic asset and vigorously encouraged the Thinking It Over
Chinese to produce even-larger families.
China’s family-planning officials wield awe- What types of propaganda might the Chinese
some powers, enforcing the policy through a com- government use to enforce its one-child policy?
bination of incentives and deterrents. For those Use material in the description above to bolster
who comply, there are job promotions and small your answer.
cash awards. For those who resist, they suffer stiff
fines and loss of job and status within the coun-
try’s tightly knit and heavily regulated communi-
ties. The State Family Planning Commission is the
government ministry entrusted with the tough task
of curbing the growth of the world’s most popu-
lous country, where 28 children are born every
minute. It employs about 200,000 full-time officials
and uses more than a million volunteers to check
the fertility of hundreds of millions of Chinese
women.
When a couple wants to have a child—even
their first, allotted one—they must apply to the
family-planning office in their township or work-
place, literally lining up to procreate. “If a woman
gets pregnant without permission, she and her hus-
band will get fined, even if it’s their first,” . . . “it
is fair to fine her, because she creates a burden on
the whole society by jumping her place in line.”
The official Shanghai Legal Daily last year re-
ported on a family-planning committee in central
Sichuan province that ordered the flogging of the China’s authoritarian government gave it the power needed
husbands of 10 pregnant women who refused to to institute strict population controls.
 Chapter 13 Political and Economic Institutions 433

Section Political Power

2 in American Society
K e y T e r m s

• political socialization • interest group

• pluralism • power elite
• elitism

Influence of the Vote Section

Preview
L ike all other democracies today, the United States emphasizes political
participation through voting. Voting is an important source of power
for citizens. It enables us to remove incompetent, corrupt, or insensitive of-
ficials from office. It also allows us to influence issues at the local, state, and
national levels.
T he two major models of
political power are elitism
and pluralism. Advocates of
How much real choice do voters have? In practice, the amount of the conflict perspective be-
real choice exercised through voting is limited. The range of candidates from lieve American society is con-
which to choose is restricted because of the power of political parties. trolled by elites. Pluralists,
Usually, only a candidate endorsed by a major political party has a chance whose view is associated with
of winning a state or national office. To get party support, a candidate must functionalism, depict power
appeal to the widest possible number of voters. As a result, candidates often as widely distributed among
resemble each other more than they differ. In addition, the cost of running a interest groups. Voting does
political campaign today limits the choice of candidates to those who have not seem to be an effective
party backing or are independently wealthy. George W. Bush, for example, means for nonelites to influ-
announced in August of 2000 that he had spent nearly $150 million to win ence political decisions in
the Republican Party nomination.
the U.S.

John McCain, Alan Keyes, and

George W. Bush all campaigned for
the 2000 Republican Party
presidential nomination. How
many African Americans have you
seen run for President of the United
States? What does this tell you about
the relationship between racial
membership and political power in
the United States?
434 Unit 4 Social Institutions
Political socialization helps to
determine what political battles we
choose to fight.

On what do we base our votes? Most attitudes and beliefs that are ex-
pressed as political opinions are gained through a learning process called
political socialization political socialization. This process can be formal, as in government class,
informal and formal processes or informal. The informal process interests sociologists because it involves
by which a person develops such factors as the family, the media, economic status, and educational level.
political opinions Studies have shown that most political socialization is informal.
A brief summary of the major agents of political socialization follows.
❖ The family. Children learn political attitudes the same way they learn
values and norms, by listening to everyday conversations and by
watching the actions of other family members. The influence of the
family is strong. In one study, more high school students could identify
their parents’ political party affiliation than any other of their parents’
attitudes or beliefs.
Student Web Activity
Visit the Sociology and
❖ Education. The level of education a person has influences his or her
political knowledge and participation. For example, more highly
You Web site at
educated men and women tend to show more knowledge about
soc.glencoe.com and click on
politics and policy. They also tend to vote and participate more often
Chapter 13—Student Web
in politics.
Activities for an activity on
political socialization. ❖ Mass media. Television is the leading source of political and public
affairs information for most people. Television and other mass media
can determine what issues, events, and personalities are in the public
eye. By publicizing some issues and ignoring others, and by giving
some stories high priority and others low priority, the media decide the
relative importance of issues. The mass media obviously play an
important role in shaping public opinion, but the extent of that role is
unclear. Studies indicate that the media have the greatest effect on
people who have not yet formed opinions.
 Chapter 13 Political and Economic Institutions 435
❖ Economic status and 100%
occupation. Economic 90%
status clearly influences

Percentage of eligible voters

80%
political views. Poor
people are more likely to 70%
favor government- 60%
assistance programs than
50%
wealthy people, for
example. Similarly, where 40%
you work affects how you 30%
vote. Corporate managers
are more likely to favor 20%
tax shelters and aid to 10%
businesses than hourly 0
workers in factories. 1924 1932 1940 1948 1956 1964 1972 1980 1988 1996
❖ Age and gender. Young 1928 1936 1944 1952 1960 1968 1976 1984 1992 2000
adults tend to be more Election year
progressive than older
persons on such issues as racial and gender equality. Women tend to be Figure 13.2 Voter
Participation in Presidential
more liberal than men on such issues as abortion rights, women’s rights,
Elections: 1924–2000 Is there
health care, and government-supported child care. any correlation between the
confidence level and the voter
participation rate? Explain.
How fully do Americans take advantage of the right to vote? In
2000, 51 percent of eligible U.S. voters exercised their right (see Figure 13.2). Source: Statistical Abstract of the
About one-fourth of the eligible voters voted for George W. Bush, a propor- United States, 2001 (Washington,
tion comparable to the 27 percent who elected President Reagan in 1980 D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau, 2001).
(Lewis, 2000). In fact, the United States has one of the the lowest voter
turnout rate in the industrialized world (Federal Election Commission, 2001).
The American public’s interest in voting is very low, partly because of a
relatively low level of confidence in political leaders. Another reason for
lower voter turnout is that political parties are no longer as instrumental in
getting voters to the polls as they once were. In general, minorities, the
lower class and the working class tend to vote in smaller proportions than
whites and the middle and upper classes. Members of minorities, people
with little education, and people with smaller incomes are less likely to vote
in both congressional and presidential elections.

pluralism
system in which political
Two Models of Political Power decisions are made as a result
of bargaining and compromise
In a democratic society, two major models of political power are evi- among special interest groups
dent—pluralism and elitism. According to pluralism, political decisions are
the result of bargaining and compromise among special interest groups. No
one group holds the majority of power. Rather, power is widely distributed
throughout a society or community. In contrast, according to elitism, a com- elitism
munity or society is controlled from the top by a few individuals or organi- system in which a community
or society is controlled from
zations. Power is concentrated in the hands of an elite group whose
the top by a few individuals or
members have common interests and backgrounds. The masses are very organizations
weak politically.
436 Unit 4 Social Institutions

District of
Columbia

Voter Turnout
It is commonly said that the voter holds
the power in American politics. What
often goes unsaid is that to exercise this
power, the voter must actually vote. This
map shows the voter turnout, as a per-
1996 Presidential Election
centage of the eligible voting population, More than 70%
in each state for the 1996 presidential 65–69%
election. 60–64%
55–59%
50–54%
Less than 50%

Interpreting the Map

1. Do you see any patterns in the voting rates? Describe them.
2. Identify some reasons for the distribution of rates.
3. What should be done to increase voter turnout rates?

Source: Federal Election Commission, http//www.fec.gov.

Functionalists think that pluralism based on the existence of diverse

interest groups best describes the distribution of power in America. While
recognizing competition among interest groups, functionalists contend that it
is based on an underlying consensus regarding the goals of the entire soci-
ety. Elitism is based on the conflict perspective. This theory of power distri-
bution assumes that the elites are constantly working to maintain their hold
on society’s major institutions. In so doing, elites force others to help them
reach their own goals. These two models are illustrated in Figure 13.3.

Functionalist Perspective: Pluralism

According to pluralists, major political decisions in the United States are
not made by an elite few. As an example, they point to the beneficiaries of
the 2001 tax-cut bill. Tax breaks came not only to the wealthy, such as
Microsoft’s Bill Gates, but also to groups with more modest resources, such
as churches and mental health care facilities.
 Chapter 13 Political and Economic Institutions 437

Figure 13.3 Focus on Theoretical Perspectives

Characteristics of Two Models of Political Power. This table illustrates the way the functionalist and con-
flict perspectives view political power. Several key features of the political system are compared. Which the-
ory do you think best describes power in the U.S.? Explain.

FUNCTIONALIST CONFLICT
PERSPECTIVE PERSPECTIVE
Characteristics (Pluralist Model) (Power Elite Model)

Who exercises power? Bargaining and compromising National political, economic, and
interest groups military leaders

What is the source of power? Resources of interest groups Leadership positions in major
institutions

Where is power located? Spread widely among interest Concentrated in hands of elites
groups

How much influence do Nonelites have considerable Nonelites have very little
nonelites have? influence on public policy influence on public policy

What is the Goals and values are shared Preferences of

basis for public by the general public the elites
policy decisions?

An interest group is a group organized to influence political decision interest group

making. Group members share one or more goals. The goals may be specific a group organized to influence
to the group’s own members—as in the case of the National Rifle political decision making
Association—or may involve a larger segment of society—as in the case of
ecology-oriented groups such as the Sierra Club. Figure 13.4 on page 438 lists
several current interest groups, sizes, and issues.
Pluralists contend that decisions are made as a result of competition
among special interest groups, each of which has its own stake in the issues.
In addition to reaching their own ends, interest groups try to protect them-
selves from opposing interest groups. Responsibility falls to government lead-
ers to balance the public welfare with the desires of various special interests.
Interest groups are not new to American politics. In the nineteenth cen-
tury they were active in extending women’s rights and promoting the aboli-
tion of slavery. The twentieth century saw such active interest groups as the
Women’s Christian Temperance Union and early labor unions. The 1960s, with
controversies surrounding civil rights, the Vietnam War, the environment, the
women’s movement, and corporate power, strengthened many interest groups
and led to the creation of a number of new ones (Clemens, 1997).
438 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Types of Interest Groups

Organization Membership Objectives

Business
U.S. Chamber of Commerce 3,000,000 businesses Lobby for businesses

National Association of Home Builders 205,000 members Represent the housing and building industry

Agricultural
ECONOMIC GROUPS

National Farmers Union 300,000 farm and ranch families Represent family farms and ranches

American Farm Bureau Federation Over 5 million members Lobby for agribusiness and farm owners

Professional
Represent physicians and improve the medical system
American Medical Association (AMA) Over 750,000 members

American Bar Association (ABA) Over 400,000 members Improve the legal system

Labor
AFL–CIO Over 64 affiliated unions Protect members from unfair
(Over 13 million members) labor practices

United Mine Workers 130,000 members Represent mine workers and others

Public Interest
League of Women Voters (LWV) About 1,000 local leagues; 130,000 Promote voter registration and election reform
members and supporters
NON-ECONOMIC GROUPS

Common Cause Over 200,000 members Advocate political reform

Public Citizen 100,000 members Focus on consumer issues

Single-Issue
Sierra Club Over 700,000 members Protect the natural environment

National Audubon Society 550,000 members Conserve and restore natural ecosystems

Greenpeace USA 250,000 members Expose global environmental issues

Ideological
Americans for Democratic Action (ADA) 65,000 members Support liberal social, economic, and foreign policies

Christian Coalition Over 1,000,000 members Promote Christian values

National Organization for Women (NOW) Over 500,000 members Eliminate discrimination and protect the rights of women

Figure 13.4 Types of Interest Groups. The United States government is influenced by a wide variety of interest groups.
This figure provides some examples of the most important types. Do you believe that the influence of all these interest groups
promotes or hinders democracy? Explain your answers, using conflict theory or functionalism.
 Chapter 13 Political and Economic Institutions 439
New interest groups are born all the time. The environmental lobby is a
good example. There were relatively few environmental interest groups be-
fore the passage of major environmental legislation (such as the Clean Water
Act) in the 1960s. The success of this legislation spawned additional groups,
now numbering three times the original total. This added clout produced ad-
ditional environmental legislation—for example, the 1990 Clean Air Act
Amendments—that subsequently led to the creation of other interest groups
(Schmidt, Shelley, and Bardes, 1999).

Conflict Perspective: The Power Elite

Sociologist C. Wright Mills was a leading proponent of the elitist per-
spective. In the 1950s, he claimed that the United States no longer had sep-
arate economic, political, and military leaders. Rather, the key people in each
area overlapped to form a unified group that he labeled the power elite. power elite
According to Mills, members of the power elite share common interests a unified group of military,
and similar social and economic backgrounds. Elites are educated in select corporate, and government
boarding schools, military academies, and Ivy League schools; belong to the leaders
Episcopalian and Presbyterian churches; and come from upper-class families.
Members of the power elite have known each other for a long time, have
mutual acquaintances of long standing, share many values and attitudes, and
intermarry. All this makes it easier for them to coordinate their actions to ob-
tain what they want.

Section 2 Assessment
1. What are the major agents of political socialization?
2. How do elitists differ from pluralists in explaining the relationship
between racial membership and political power in the U.S.?
3. According to C. Wright Mills, which of the following is NOT part of the
“
The ballot is stronger
than the bullet.
power elite?
Abraham Lincoln
“
a. military organizations
b. educational leaders
U. S. president
c. large corporations
d. executive branch of the government

Critical Thinking
4. Analyzing Information On page 435, the author writes: “Members of
minorities, people with little education, and people with smaller
incomes are less likely to vote in both congressional and presidential
elections.” Do you think that pluralists or elitists are more likely to use
advertising to change the political attitudes of individuals in these social
categories? Explain.
5. Drawing Conclusions Is America a pluralist society, or is it controlled
by a power elite? Support your conclusion with information from this
text and other classes.
440 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Section
Economic Systems
3 K e y T e r m s

• capitalism
• monopolies
• oligopolies
• socialism

Section Capitalism
Preview
E conomic systems, as suggested earlier, involve the production and
distribution of goods and services. Capitalism is an economic system

C apitalist economies are

based on private prop-
erty and the pursuit of profit,
founded on two basic premises: the sanctity of private property and the right
of individuals to profit from their labors.
Capitalists believe that individuals, not government, deserve to own and
and government, in theory, to control land, factories, raw materials, and the tools of production. They
plays a minor role in regulat- argue that private ownership benefits society. Capitalists also believe in un-
ing industry. In socialist restricted competition with minimum government interference.
economies, the means of How is capitalism thought to benefit society? According to Adam
production are owned collec- Smith, an eighteenth-century Scottish social philosopher and founder of eco-
tively, and government has nomics, a combination of the private ownership of property and the pursuit
an active role in planning of profit brings advantages to society. Because of competition, Smith stated,
and controlling the economy. individual capitalists will always be motivated to provide the goods and ser-
vices desired by the public at prices the public is willing and able to pay.
Capitalists who produce inferior goods or who charge too much will soon be
out of business because the public will turn to their competitors. The public,
Smith reasoned, will benefit through economic competition. Not only will the
capitalism public receive high-quality goods and services at reasonable prices, but also
an economic system based on capitalists will always be searching for new products and new technologies
private ownership of property to reduce their costs. As a result, capitalist societies will use resources
and the pursuit of profit efficiently.
Actually, no pure capitalist economy exists in the world. In practice, there
are important deviations from Smith’s ideal model. One of these deviations
involves the tendency to form monopolies and oligopolies.
What are monopolies and oligopolies? When capitalist organizations
experience success, they tend to grow until they become giants within their
monopolies particular industries. In this way, capitalism fosters the rise of monopolies,
companies that have control companies that control a particular market, and oligopolies, combinations
over the production or of companies working together to control a market. New organizations find
distribution of a product or it difficult to enter these markets, where they have little hope of competing
service on an equal basis. Thus, competition is stifled.
Among other problems, the creation of monopolies and oligopolies per-
oligopolies mits price fixing. Consumers must choose between buying at the “going
combinations of companies price” set by the sellers or not buying at all.
that control the production or A recent example of alleged monopolistic practices in the U.S. economy
distribution of a product or involves the Microsoft Corporation. Microsoft manufactures, among other
service
products, the Windows operating system—by far the most popular operating
 Chapter 13 Political and Economic Institutions 441
system for personal computers. Computer manufacturers typi-
cally include Windows on the machines they sell. In the 1990s,
Microsoft began to insist that manufacturers include its Internet
browser, Explorer, on their computers as well. The manufactur-
ers were also instructed not to install another browser in addi-
tion to Explorer. If they refused, Microsoft would withhold their
license to sell Windows on the machines. Because Microsoft had
so much power over computer manufacturers, other makers of
Internet browsers, such as Netscape, were essentially excluded
from the market (Chandbasekaran, 1999). Eventually, the federal
government took Microsoft to court, where it was ruled that
Microsoft did indeed engage in monopolistic practices. The case
is not resolved, however, and the corporation had some success
in its 2001 appeal of this decision.

The Role of
Government in Capitalism
Adam Smith is often misinterpreted as saying that government
should have a strictly hands-off approach where the economy is
concerned. While Smith strongly opposed overregulation by gov-
ernment, he reserved a place for some regulation. Because one of The enormous success of Bill Gates
the legitimate roles of government was to protect its citizens from injustice, and Microsoft led to a federal
Smith knew that the state might have to “step in” to prevent abuses by busi- investigation of the software giant’s
nesses. In fact, the U.S. government has always been involved in the workings business practices.
of the economy.
How does the government contribute to the U.S. economy? The
Constitution expressly provided a role for the national government in the pro-
motion of a sound economy. Government functions include the regulation of

The Federal Aviation Administration

(FAA) conducts jetliner crash tests as
part of the federal government’s
authority over private business. In
what way might cultural values
promote such government
involvement?
442 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Figure 13.5 Examples of Government

Economic and Regulatory Assistance
The government is extensively involved in the U.S. economy. What would Adam Smith say about this?

Public utilities are often owned and operated by state or local governments.

The agricultural industry feels the influence of government through price controls and embargoes on
exports to other countries.

Antitrust legislation exists to control the growth of corporations.

The federal government is heavily involved in the defense industry.

Business could not survive without publicly financed roadways, airports, and waterways.

Publicly funded public schools, colleges, and universities supply business with a skilled workforce and
provide basic research for product development.

The U.S. military protects American international business interests.

Government supports business through tax breaks.

Legislation requires labor and business to obey labor laws.

commerce, development of a strong currency, creation of uniform standards

for commerce, and the provision of a stable system of credit. In 1789,
Congress supported our shipping industry through a tariff on goods im-
ported by foreign ships. Since this initial move into the economy, the fed-
eral government has continued to help business, labor, and agriculture. For
example, the federal government aids private industry through loan guar-
antees—as in the 1979 government guarantee (up to $1.2 billion) to bail out
the Chrysler Corporation. Also, U.S. labor is supported by the government
through regulations on such matters as minimum wages, maximum working
hours, health and safety conditions, and unemployment support. Then there
are the small farmers and agribusinesses that receive financial assistance
amounting to billions of dollars each year (Patterson, 1999). See Figure 13.5
for additional examples of government economic and regulatory assistance.

socialism
Socialism
an economic system founded Socialism is an economic system founded on the belief that the means
on the belief that the means of production should be controlled by the people as a whole. The state, as
of production should be the people’s representative, should own and control property. Under a so-
controlled by the people as a
cialist system, government directs and controls the economy. The state is ex-
whole
pected to ensure all members of society a share in the monetary benefits.
 Chapter 13 Political and Economic Institutions 443
How is socialism thought to benefit society? Socialist theory points
to important benefits for workers. Workers under capitalism receive wages
below the value their labor produces and have little control over their work.

“
In theory, workers under socialism should profit because both the state and
the workplace exist for their benefit. As a result, workers should be able to
exert significant control over both their work organizations and the policy di-
Socialism works, but
rections of the society as a whole.
nowhere as efficiently as
Does socialism work this perfectly? Cases of pure socialism are as
rare as cases of pure capitalism. Strict socialist systems have not been suc- in the beehive and the
cessful in eliminating income inequalities nor have they been able to develop anthill.
overall economic plans that guarantee sustained economic growth. In the so-
cialistic economy of the former Soviet Union, for example, some agricultural Laurence Peter
“
and professional work was performed privately by individuals who worked U. S. business writer
for a profit. Significant portions of housing were privately owned as well.
Managers received salaries that were considerably higher than those received
by workers, and managers were eligible for bonuses such as automobiles
and housing. Private enterprise existed in Poland under Russian communist
rule. Service businesses, such as restaurants and hotels, had a significant de-
gree of private ownership. Hotels, in fact, were typically built and managed
by multinational chains. Because Poles could travel abroad, they formed
business relationships, learned about capitalist methods, imported goods to
fill demand, and brought back hard currency. They then used the hard cur-
rency earned abroad to create private businesses (Schnitzer, 2000).

Sweden has a socialist government. What types of market relationships would you expect
to find there?
444 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Mixed Economic Systems

Most nations fall between the extremes of capitalism and so-
cialism and include elements of both economic systems.
Countries in Western Europe, for example, have developed cap-
italist economic systems in which both public and private own-
ership play important roles. In these nations, highly strategic
industries (banks, transportation, communications, and some
others) are owned and operated by the state. Other industries
are privately owned but are more closely regulated than in the
United States (Harris, 1997; Ollman, 1998).
As the former Soviet Union lost control over its republics and
Eastern Europe, many of these formerly socialist countries began
to move toward capitalism. Czechoslovakia, in several ways, has
shifted from public to private ownership of businesses. Private
property nationalized after the Russians took over in 1948 has
been returned to the original owners or their heirs. These assets
moved from the public to the private sector are valued at about
$5 billion. Many small shops and businesses have been sold in
public auctions. In 1992, Czechoslovakia sold over 1,000 of its
bigger state enterprises to its citizens. During 1992–93 as it broke
into the Czech Republic and Slovakia, 25 percent of the nations’
assets were privatized. In Hungary, state-owned enterprises have
As this Shanghai Kentucky Fried been allowed to become privately owned companies. Over one
Chicken restaurant reflects, million Hungarians have been given the right to buy land, businesses, build-
elements of capitalism are being ings, or other property taken over by the Russians in 1949. Nearly all of the
introduced into China. state-owned small businesses are now in the hands of private owners.
Agricultural cooperatives have also been privatized (Schnitzer, 2000).
In 1993, Cuba’s communist party allowed some degree of capitalism by
permitting plumbers, carpenters, and other tradespeople to work for profit.
China has been incorporating moderate free market reforms into its economy
since the late 1970s (Muldavin, 1999).

Section 3 Assessment
1. Government policies are usually based on cultural values. Can you
identify important differences in the cultural values underlying
governmental policies that promote either capitalism or socialism?
2. How successful has socialism been as an economic system? Defend
your answer.
3. What is meant by a mixed economic system?

Critical Thinking
4. Making Comparisons Briefly compare and contrast the advantages
of capitalism and socialism.
 Chapter 13 Political and Economic Institutions 445

R eporting the news has been part of the United States since its
founding. Indeed, freedom of the press is one of the basic guar-
antees of the Bill of Rights. During the twentieth century, television dis-
placed newspapers as the primary source of news for most Americans.
Now, the Internet is promising to make much greater changes in the
way news is gathered and delivered.
Central to the changes is the fact that today anyone with access to
the Internet is free to “report” the news. Internet journalist Matt
Drudge says that now, “any citizen can be a reporter” (Trigaboff,
Cybernews 1998:55). Drudge portrays the Internet as a democratizing institution
eliminating differences between reporters and readers.
Many journalists, however, worry about the negative effects of in-
and stant reporting via the Internet. Sources for stories often go unchecked
as reporters sacrifice accuracy for speed. Reporters on the Internet
generally do not have editors reviewing their stories, in-house attor-
Democracy neys worrying about lawsuits, or publishers making judgment calls
about the appropriateness of news stories. Joseph C. Goulden, former
director of media analysis for Accuracy in Media, a nonprofit, grass-
roots citizens watchdog of the news media, describes the reporting
style on the Internet as “Ready, fire, aim” (Rust and Danitz, 1998:23).
In the United States, one of the justifications for the free-
dom of the press is its role in delivering accurate informa-
tion to voters. If Internet reporting represents a trend toward
greater inaccuracy, this traditional contribution of a free
press to American democracy could be weakened. What if
voters grew to distrust even more the information they re-
ceived and thus became increasingly cynical about the polit-
ical process?
At this time no one can be sure what the future holds for
Internet journalism. One thing, though, is certain: Internet
journalism will have a profound impact on the way news is re-
ported (Kinsley, 1998).

Analyzing the Trends

There is no question that the Internet will affect how democ-
racy is practiced in the U.S. Discuss some ways in which the
federal government currently uses the Internet to affect group
behavior.
Matt Drudge became the symbol of
Internet news reporting in the late
1990s. Is Internet journalism good or
bad for democracy?
446 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Section
The Modern Corporation
4 K e y T e r m s

• corporation
• interlocking directorates
• conglomerates
• multinationals

Section The Nature of Corporations

Preview
S ociologists study corporations because of their great importance in
modern economic systems. U.S. corporations, for example, not only

C orporations, especially
those with multinational
connections, have grown
dominate the American economic system but also influence the economies
of nations around the world. Corporations represent massive concentrations
of wealth. And because of their economic muscle, corporations such as
very powerful. Corporate Microsoft, IBM, and General Electric command the attention of government
managers affect domestic decision makers. As a result, government policies regarding such matters as
political decision making and consumer safety, tax laws, and relationships with other nations usually reflect
influence the political and corporate influence.
economic institutions of What are corporations, anyway? A corporation is an organization
countries around the world. owned by shareholders. These shareholders have limited liability and lim-
ited control. Limited liability means they cannot be held financially responsi-
ble for actions of the corporation. For example, shareholders are not
expected to pay debts the corporation owes. At the same time, they do not
have a direct voice in the day-to-day operations of the firm. Shareholders are
corporation formally entitled to vote regularly for members of the board of directors. But
an organization owned by in practice candidates are routinely approved as recommended by the exist-
shareholders, who have limited ing board. The real control of a corporation rests with the board of directors
liability and limited control and management.

Corporate Influence
Top corporate officials have tremendous influence on govern-
ment decisions. This is true for several reasons. Because of their per-
sonal wealth and organizational connections, corporate officials are
able to reward or punish elected government officials through in-
vestment decisions. For example, suppose a town depends on a sin-
gle large corporation for jobs and other economic advantages.
Corporate officials are deciding whether to increase their operation
in this town or move some of the facilities to another town, which
would endanger local jobs. Town officials are likely to do what they
can to make corporate officials happy so that new investment will
be made locally.

This agricultural worker is paid by a large corporation rather than a small

business/farmer. Which employer would be more secure?
 Chapter 13 Political and Economic Institutions 447
In what other ways do corporations wield power? Such political interlocking directorates
clout by large corporations is multiplied through interlocking directorates. directorates that result when
A directorate is another name for the board of directors. Directorates inter- heads of corporations sit on
lock when the heads of corporations sit on one another’s boards. Although one another’s boards
by law competing corporations may not have interlocking directorates, such
directorates are legal for noncompeting corporations. For example, various
members of the General Motors board of directors also sit on the boards of
many other corporations, including Sony, Sara Lee, and Marriott International.
It is not difficult to imagine the political power created by a web of interlocks
among already powerful corporations.
The political power of corporations is also enhanced through
conglomerates—networks of unrelated businesses operating under a sin- conglomerates
gle corporate umbrella. RJR Nabisco, Inc., for example, holds companies networks of unrelated
in such different areas as tobacco, pet foods, candy, cigarettes, food prod- businesses operating under
ucts, bubble gum, research, and technology. A listing of the company’s one corporate umbrella
North American subsidiaries covers nearly an entire page in Who Owns
Whom (1998).
multinationals
firms based in highly
Multinational Corporations industrialized societies with
operating facilities through-
The political influence of corporations is not confined to their countries out the world
of origin. The world is increasingly being influ-
enced by multinationals—firms based in
highly industrialized societies with operating fa- Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. Greece
vs.
$119.3 Billion $119.1 Billion
cilities throughout the world. Improvements in
communication and transportation technology
Volkswagen AG New Zealand
have allowed these companies to exert wide vs.
$65.3 Billion $65 Billion
control over their global operations.
How powerful are multinational corpora- IBM
Egypt
International Business Machines Corp. vs.
tions? Suppose we combined all the political $78.5 Billion
$75.5 Billion
and economic units in the world and then chose
the hundred largest units. Of these hundred Mitsubishi Corporation South Africa
vs.
units, fifty-one would be multinational corpora- $128.9 Billion $129.1 Billion
tions rather than countries. Several corporations
based in the United States—ExxonMobil, IBM, Sony Corporation
vs.
Czech Republic
General Motors, Ford Motor Company, AT&T, $55 Billion $54.9 Billion
Wal-Mart Stores, and General Electric—have
sales volumes exceeding the annual economic General Electric Company Israel
vs.
$90.8 Billion $92 Billion
output of some industrialized nations. Figure
13.6 compares some multinational corporations
Figure 13.6 Total Revenue of Multinational Corporations
with selected nations.
versus National Gross Domestic Products. This table
What are the effects of multinational cor- compares the revenue of selected multinational corporations to the
porations? Defenders of multinationals argue gross domestic product (value of all goods produced and consumed
that the corporations provide developing coun- domestically) of some countries in 1998. Were you surprised by any of
tries with technology, capital, foreign markets, the information?
and products that would otherwise be unavailable Source: John Stopford, “Think Again: Multinational Corporations,”
to them. Critics claim that multinationals actually Foreign Policy, 113 (Winter, 1998–99).
harm the economies of the foreign nations in
which they locate by exploiting natural resources, disrupting local economies,
introducing inappropriate technologies and products, and increasing the
448 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Sociology Employee Rights

Today
The Supreme Court of the United States has historically granted employers a great deal of power
over their employees. In 1878, a New York company posted a list of rules that told employees,
among other things, “On the Sabbath, everyone is expected to be in the Lord’s House” and “All em-
ployees are expected to be in bed by 10:00 P.M.” At the turn of the nineteenth century, Henry Ford’s
automobile workers were carefully watched by management for signs of bad character. Many Ford
Motor Company employees lost their jobs for smoking, drinking, or criticizing the firm.
Even today, some employee rights are curtailed at work. The Constitution, for example, protects
free speech for all citizens. Employees, however, can be prevented from printing and distributing a
critical newsletter to customers of their companies. Of recent concern is the right of employers to
track workers’ movements on the Internet and to read personal e-mails.
Today, a growing employee rights movement is pushing for greater political and legal protection
on the job. Here is a partial list of the rights that many workers feel should be theirs today.
❖ the right to a job ❖ the right to be informed of records and
❖ the right to protection from arbitrary or information kept and to have access to
sudden termination personnel files
❖ the right to privacy of possessions and ❖ the right to freedom of action, association,
person in the workplace, including freedom and lifestyle when off duty
from arbitrary searches, use of polygraphs, ❖ the right to freedom of conscience and to
surreptitious surveillance, and intrusive inform government or media about illegal or
psychological or medical testing socially harmful corporate actions
❖ the right to a clean, healthy, and safe ❖ the right to due process for grievances
environment on the job, including freedom against the employer
from undue stress, sexual harassment,
cigarette smoke, and exposure to toxic
substances
Many of these rights already exist; others need to be discussed with employers. There is one
thing most employees and employers agree on, however. If employees take a balanced approach to
pursuing their rights on the job, both individuals and organizations will benefit.

Doing Sociology
1. Some observers believe that violations of employee rights contradict the rational-legal basis of or-
ganizational authority. Do you agree? Why or why not?
2. Discuss the above list of workers’ rights with your parents or other adults who work outside the
home. Ask them if they know whether or not these rights exist in their workplaces. Are there
any rights not on the list that they believe should be added?
 Chapter 13 Political and Economic Institutions 449
Some multinationals are so
successful that their products are
widely (and illegally) copied. Here,
a “faked” Nike athletic shoe is
readied for sale in Shanghai, China.

“The modern corporation

is a political institution; its
purpose is the
creation of legitimate
power in the industrial
amount of income inequality. Multinationals, these critics note, rely on inex- hemisphere.
pensive labor or abundant raw materials in developing nations while returning
their profits to corporate headquarters and shareholders in rich nations. Peter Drucker
“
Multinationals’ domination of their industries has made it difficult for the eco- management author
nomically developing nations to establish new companies that can compete
with the multinationals. As a result, multinationals may slow rather than pro-
mote economic development in these nations.

Section 4 Assessment
1. Discuss limited liability and limited control in relation to the modern
corporation.
2. Describe the influence of the corporation in the world today. Identify
some of the benefits and negative consequences for society.

Critical Thinking
3. Drawing Conclusions Would you rather work for a large,
multinational corporation or for yourself as an independent
businessperson? Explain your choice.
450 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Section
Work in the Modern Economy
5 K e y

•
T e r m s

primary sector • core tier

• secondary sector • peripheral tier
• tertiary sector • downsizing
• occupations • contingent employment

Section The Changing Nature of Work

Preview
T o understand work in modern society you need to be familiar with
the three basic economic sectors. They are primary, secondary, and

W orkers today face a

changing job structure.
More corporations are down-
tertiary.
How do the economic sectors differ? The primary sector of an
economy depends on the natural environment to produce economic goods.
sizing and replacing full-time The types of jobs in this sector vary widely—farmer, miner, fisherman, tim-
employees with consultants ber worker, rancher. In the secondary sector, manufactured products are
or temporary workers. made from raw materials. Occupations in this sector include factory workers
Evidence indicates that this of all types, from those who produce computers to those who turn out
trend is having some nega- Pokémon cards. Those in the secondary sector are popularly known as blue-
tive consequences. collar workers. Employees in the tertiary sector provide services. If today
you went to school, filled your car with gas, stopped by the bank, and vis-
ited your doctor, you spent most of your time and someone’s money in the
tertiary (service) sector. Other service industries include insurance, real es-
tate, retail sales, and entertainment. More and more people in these indus-
primary sector tries are white-collar workers.
that part of the economy
producing goods from the
natural environment

secondary sector
that part of the economy
engaged in manufacturing
goods

tertiary sector
that part of the economy
providing services

To which sector of the economy does

this California logger belong?
 Chapter 13 Political and Economic Institutions 451
Figure 13.7 Changes in Labor
60% Force by Occupational
Category. This figure tracks
50% changes in the U.S. labor force from
1900 to 1999. Which labor division
Percent of labor force

40% is growing the fastest?

Source: U.S. Department of Labor,

30%
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1999.

20%

10%

0
1900 1930 1960 1970 1982 1994 1996 1997 1999

Occupational Category
Farm Blue collar White collar

How have the three sectors changed historically? Obviously,

the primary sector dominated the preindustrial economy. At that stage
of economic development, physical goods were made by hand. This
balance began to change with the mechanization of farming in the agri-
cultural economy. Mechanical inventions (cotton gin, plow, tractor),
along with the application of new scientific methods (seed production,
fertilization, and crop rotation), drastically increased production.
During the 1800s, the average farmer could feed five workers or so.
Today, the figure is eighty. At the same time production increased,
labor demands decreased. Primary sector workers have declined from
almost 40 percent of the labor pool in 1900 to about 2 percent today.
With other technological advancements in industry (power looms,
motors of all types, electrical power) came the shift of agricultural
workers from farms to factories, ushering in the secondary sector. As
Figure 13.7 indicates, the percentage of the U.S. labor force engaged
in blue-collar jobs reached almost 40 percent in 1900.
Just as in agriculture, technological developments permitted
greater production with fewer workers. Since World War II, the fastest-
growing occupations in the secondary sector have been white-collar—
managers, professionals, sales workers, clerical workers. In 1956,
white-collar workers for the first time accounted for a larger propor-
tion of the U.S. labor force than blue-collar workers. In manufacturing
industries, the number of white-collar workers is now three times the
number of blue-collar workers.
Technological progress did not stop with the secondary sector. As
relative growth in the proportion of workers in goods-producing jobs
was decreasing, the demand for labor in the tertiary section was in-
creasing. Fueled by computer technology, the United States economy
moved from a manufacturing base to a knowledge, or information, Blue-collar workers, such as the
longshore workers pictured here,
base. The current demand is for people who can manage information and de-
may be an endangered species.
liver services. Today, the proportion of white-collar workers in the U.S. is
about 70 percent, up from just below 30 percent in 1930. (See Figure 13.7.)
452 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Case Study:
The End of the Line
Because she grew up near Chrysler’s auto plant in Kenosha,
Wisconsin, researcher Kathryn Marie Dudley had a special interest in
studying the cultural fallout from the plant’s closing in 1988. Dudley’s
research is a case study of a large plant in a one-industry community
experiencing relocations, downsizings, and job eliminations. She offers
Kenosha as a typical example of the effect of changing work patterns
on midsize towns. As indicated in the excerpt below, the plant changes
over the past few decades are seen as part of the shift from an indus-
trial to a postindustrial society:
What was once a fundamental segment of the American eco-
nomic structure—heavy industry and durable goods manufac-
turing—has now become a marginal part of the national
portfolio. As this sector of the economy gives way to the new
“knowledge industries,” workers in this sector are being super-
seded as well. In America’s new image of itself as a postindustrial
society, individuals still employed in basic manufacturing indus-
tries look like global benchwarmers in the competitive markets of
the modern world (Dudley, 1994:161).
When the auto plant was finally shut down, Dudley did in-depth
follow-up interviews with autoworkers and with a wide variety of pro-
fessionals in the Kenosha area. Interview questions were open-ended
to give informants freedom to roam where their thoughts and feelings
took them. Dudley’s only restriction was that the interviews be geared
to the cultural meaning of what was happening to the community be-
cause of its declining employment base.
For Dudley, the demolition of the auto plant was a metaphor for the
dismantling of the way of life created since the early 1950s among U.S.
blue-collar workers in core manufacturing industries. These increas-
ingly displaced blue-collar workers, contends Dudley, find themselves
caught between two interpretations of success in America. On the one
hand, middle-class professionals justify their place in society by refer-
ence to their educational credentials and “thinking” jobs. Blue-collar
workers, on the other hand, legitimize their place in society on the
basis of the high market value society has traditionally placed on their
hard labor. One ex-auto worker, whom Dudley calls Al Tirpak, cap-
tured the idea beautifully:
 Chapter 13 Political and Economic Institutions 453
We’re worth fifteen dollars an hour because we’re producing a
product that can be sold on the market that’ll produce that fifteen
dollars an hour. . . . I don’t know if you want to [base a per-
son’s value] strictly on education. You
can send someone to school for twelve
years and they can still be doing some-
thing that’s socially undesirable and not
very worthwhile for society. I don’t
know if they should get paid just be-
cause they had an education. In my
mind, yuppie means young unproduc-
tive parasite. We’re gonna have an
awful lot of yuppies here in Kenosha
that say they are doing something
worthwhile when, really, they aren’t
(Dudley, 1994:169).
Due to the massive loss of high-paying
factory jobs, Dudley contends that the
blue-collar vision of success is coming to
“the end of the line.” These workers have
lost their cultural niche to a postindustrial
world where work is based on education
and the application of knowledge.
Dudley documents the blue-collar
workers’ view of this new reality. From her
extensive interviews, she constructs a por-
trait of their struggle to preserve their cul-
tural traditions in a world in which the
type of employment on which these tradi-
tions were built is decreasing. The penalty
for not creating new cultural supports for
a sense of social worth, Dudley concludes,
The shift from an industrial to a postindustrial economy will
will be life in a state of confusion with a necessarily result in plant shutdowns and layoffs.
sense of failure.

Working with the Research

1. What is the focus of Dudley’s research?
2. What does Dudley’s conclusion mean for blue-collar workers in
terms of their way of life?
3. Do you think Dudley’s research methods are strong enough to
support her conclusion?
4. Do you believe that Dudley can be objective in this study of
her hometown? Explain your answer.
454 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Occupational Structure
Occupations are categories of jobs that in-
volve similar activities at different work loca-
tions. For example, teacher, dental assistant,
film producer, and electrician are all occupa-
tions because each position requires similar
training and involves some standard opera-
tions. The United States Department of Labor
has identified over 500 occupations with more
than 21,000 various specialties within the
broader occupation categories.
What is the shape of the U.S. occupa-
tional structure? A two-tier occupational
structure has developed in the U.S. One tier—
the core—includes jobs with large firms hold-
To what tier of America’s ing dominant positions within their industries.
occupational structure do these Computer technology, pharmaceutical, and aerospace firms are prime exam-
California aircraft workers belong? ples. About 35 percent of U.S. workers are in the core. The other level—the
peripheral tier—is composed of jobs in smaller firms that either are com-
peting for business left over from core firms or are engaged in less profitable
industries such as agriculture, textiles, and small-scale retail trade. Most U.S.
workers—around 65 percent—are employed in the peripheral tier.

occupations
What is the nature of core and peripheral jobs? Historically, jobs in
categories of jobs that involve
the core paid more, offered better benefits, and provided longer-term em-
similar activities at different ployment. This is not surprising since the firms involved are large and highly
work locations profitable. Peripheral jobs are characterized by low pay, little or no benefits,
and short-term employment. These features follow from the weaker compet-
itive position and the smaller size of the employing firms.
core tier How are the core and peripheral tiers changing? The industries that
an occupational structure have supplied most of the core jobs in the U.S. have been scaling back dur-
composed of large firms
ing the last 20 years, laying off experienced workers and not hiring new
dominating their industries
ones. As early as 1983, for example, a steel mill in Hibbing, Minnesota, that
once employed 4,400 people had a payroll of only 650 (“Left Out,” 1983).
Since 1983, the Weirton Steele Company continued to cut its production ca-
peripheral tier pacity by another 30 percent and has laid off more than half of its workforce
an occupational structure
(Riederer, 1999). In fact, more than 43 million jobs have been eliminated in
composed of smaller, less
profitable firms
the United States since 1979. Over 570,000 job cuts were announced in the
United States in 1998, more than half of which occurred in manufacturing
plants (McNamee and Muller, 1998; Riederer, 1999). Of course, as these top-
tier jobs have been disappearing, peripheral jobs have become a larger share
of the total jobs.
The good economic news, fueled by microchip technology, is that the
U.S. economy continues its healthy growth and unemployment remains low.
The bad economic news is that the new jobs are not as good as the manu-
facturing jobs they are replacing. The newer industries provide few jobs
suited to the skills and backgrounds of laid-off manufacturing workers.
Moreover, most jobs in high-tech industries pay minimal wages and offer few
chances for promotion. Responsible positions with high pay are held by a
very small proportion of high-tech employees.
 Chapter 13 Political and Economic Institutions 455
Thus, reemployment of laid-off workers is a significant problem. While the
overwhelming majority of the over five million U.S. workers laid off between
1979 and 1992 had held full-time jobs, only half reported taking new full-time
jobs. Another third were either unemployed or were no longer in the labor
force. The rest were working part-time, running their own businesses, or oc-
cupied as unpaid family workers (Uchitelle and Kleinfield, 1996).
What difference does this make to U.S. workers? As has probably
already crossed your mind, this trend makes a huge difference. The U.S.
economy has been losing higher-paying jobs and gaining lower-paying jobs.
This helps explain why, since the 1970s, the majority of workers have been
losing economic ground. While thirty years ago one American worker alone
could support a family, the dual-employed married couple has become the
norm today.
This process, known as downwaging, is expected to continue in the
twenty-first century. Of the top ten job categories projected to grow between
1998 and 2008, four pay below the poverty level for a family of four. Only
two of the top ten shrinking job categories fall below the poverty threshold
(U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000d). Many sociologists believe that the job downsizing
loss and downwaging trends threaten the American dream (Newman, 1993; the process by which
companies reduce their
Barlett and Steel, 1996).
workforces

Downsizing and Contingent Employment

contingent employment
Clearly, the occupational structure in the United States has changed dra- the hiring of part-time,
matically over the last few decades. Downsizing and contingent employment, short-term workers
two strategies used by top management, reduce employment in core indus-
tries. A discussion of these related practices will help explain why the U.S.
occupational structure is changing.
Downsizing is the process by which companies
reduce the size of their full-time workforces.
Contingent employment involves hiring people on a
part-time or short-term basis. Although corporate
downsizing had been going on since the late 1970s, it
accelerated during the 1980s and 1990s. Since 1985, an
estimated four million people have lost their jobs to
downsizing alone. This trend is expected to continue
(Sloan, 1996; Belton, 1999).

Why are downsizing and contingent employment

taking place on such a large scale? Part of the mo-
tivation for downsizing is based on top management’s
belief that their companies employ a surplus of people
and that, thanks to computers and other labor-saving
technology, work can be done by fewer employees with-
out reductions in efficiency and effectiveness. Top man-
agement also points to lower profits caused by increasing
foreign competition. And it is true that about 20 percent
of all U.S. workers are directly exposed to foreign com- Corporate downsizing is
petition (McNamee and Muller, 1998). Companies have associated with lower pay.
responded to increased foreign competition by moving
456 Unit 4 Social Institutions
Figure 13.8 Evidence of
Declining Trust In In general, workplace policies are 59%
Management. According to this administered fairly. 56%
graph, employee trust in
The company fills jobs with the 55%
management declined between most-qualified candidates. 49%
1995 and 1997. Are any of these
factors affecting trust more In general, promotions 51%
important to you than others? are fair. 45%

Source: Towers Perrin Workplace Overall, the company considers 50%

Index (Boston, MA), 1998. my interests. 41%

48% 1995
Top performers receive more pay. 1997
44%

0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Percent Agreeing

operations overseas and by replacing full-time employees with part-time

workers hired to do a limited amount of work for a specified time period.
Contingent employment is a cost-cutting device. Unlike full-time employ-
ees, contingent workers receive lower pay and are not entitled to expensive
benefits such as vacation time, health insurance, and retirement benefits.
Does downsizing and contingent employment have a downside?
According to Robert Reich, former secretary of the U.S. Department of Labor,
downsizing and contingent employment will create greater polarization be-
tween those who control capital and those who do not. Some critics believe
the “disposable” workforce is the most important trend in business today.
They contend that it is fundamentally changing the relationship be-
tween Americans and their employers.
A survey of 2,500 employees across the United States confirms
that employees’ attitudes toward their employers are changing.
Although employees express high job satisfaction, their trust in
management appears to be eroding. Workers seem to be losing
some faith in management’s commitment to them. (See Figure 13.8.)
Trust and loyalty are difficult to maintain when employees do not believe
company policies treat them fairly. As time passes, additional research will
This unhappy worker has been
help to focus attention on the full effects of corporate downsizing and con-
caught in a corporate downsizing. tingent employment.
What negative effects is this
experience likely to have on him?
Section 5 Assessment
1. Why have white-collar jobs increased faster than jobs in other sectors
of the workforce since the 1930s?
2. What are some immediate benefits of downsizing? Some long-term
drawbacks?

Critical Thinking
3. Drawing Conclusions Would you like to spend your work life as a
contingent employee? Why or why not?
CHAPTER 13 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Vocabulary
Summary
Complete each sentence using each term once.
Section 1: Power and Authority a. charismatic authority h. primary sector
Main Idea: Authority is the sanctioned use of power. b. monopoly i. interest group
Political systems can be based on three types of authority:
charismatic, traditional, and rational-legal. Democratic, to-
c. downsizing j. corporation
talitarian, and authoritarian are types of political systems. d. traditional authority k. rational-legal
e. power elite authority
Section 2: Political Power in American f. pluralism l. power
Society g. elitism
Main Idea: The two major models of political power 1. The ability to control the behavior of others is
are elitism and pluralism. Advocates of the conflict per- called .
spective believe American society is controlled by elites.
Pluralists, whose view is associated with functionalism, 2. is the authority that arises
depict power as widely distributed among interest from the personality of an individual.
groups. Voting does not seem to be an effective means 3. The form of authority in which the power of
for nonelites to influence political decisions in the U.S. government officials is based on their offices is
called .
Section 3: Economic Systems
4. is the form of authority in
Main Idea: Capitalist economies are based on private which the legitimacy of a leader is rooted in
property and the pursuit of profit, and government, in custom.
theory, plays a minor role in regulating industry. In so-
cialist economies, the means of production are owned 5. A group organized to influence political deci-
collectively, and government has an active role in plan- sion making is called .
ning and controlling the economy. 6. is a system in which a com-
munity or society is controlled from the top by
Section 4: The Modern Corporation a few individuals or organizations.
Main Idea: Corporations, especially those with multi- 7. The process in which political decisions are
national connections, have grown very powerful. made as a result of competition and compro-
Corporate managers affect domestic political decision mise among special interest groups is called
making and influence the political and economic insti-
.
tutions of countries around the world.
8. A coalition of top military, corporate, and gov-
Section 5: Work in the Modern Economy ernment leaders is called the .
Main Idea: Workers today face a changing job struc-
9. is an organization owned by
ture. More corpora- shareholders who have limited liability and
tions are downsizing limited control.
and replacing full- 10. The reduction of a corporation’s workforce is
time employees with called .
consultants or tempo-
rary workers. Evi- 11. A company that has control over the produc-
dence indicates that Self-Check Quiz tion or distribution of a product or service is
this trend is having Visit the Sociology and You Web called a .
some negative con- site at soc.glencoe.com and 12. Economic activities such as farming, fishing, or
sequences. click on Chapter 13—Self- mining are known as the .
Check Quizzes to prepare for
the chapter test.
457
CHAPTER 13 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing the Facts children for social reasons? Should income and
educational levels be factors in how large fami-
lies should be? Under what circumstances, if
1. How did Max Weber define power? any, would government have a legitimate say in
2. What is elitism? Give an example. the size of families?
3. According to C. Wright Mills, who controls the 3. Analyzing Information The National Rifle
power in the United States? Use the diagram Association (NRA) is one of the most powerful
below to illustrate your answer. special interest groups in the country. Its mem-
CONTROL OF POWER IN THE UNITED STATES bership is close to three million (slightly more
ACCORDING TO C. WRIGHT MILLS than 1 percent of the U.S. population). Yet
many people in the organization report that
only a handful of the members are active and
vocal. Why does the NRA get so much attention
when only a small minority of its members ex-
press their opinions? How have these members
influenced politicians?
POWER 4. Analyzing Information According to conflict
theorists, members of the power elite control
4. What is socialism? Give an example. many aspects of not only politics but society at
5. The economic system of most nations most large. A recent book tried to examine the diver-
closely follows which system? sity of the power elite—that is, how many
women and minorities are in its membership.
6. What is downsizing? In general, what can be
Discuss the extent to which you think women
said about the relationship between the disad-
and minorities are represented in the power
vantages of downsizing and the advantages of
elite.
downsizing?
5. Evaluating Information Many individuals in
the history of the United States have been able
Thinking Critically to influence the political process because of
their personal wealth. Examples include
1. Making Inferences Charismatic leaders such Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, and—
as Adolf Hitler and Branch Davidian cult leader more recently—Microsoft founder Bill Gates.
David Koresh show us that the ability to exert Capitalism encourages the accumulation of
control over people has little to do with issues wealth. Do you think the government should
of right and wrong. Why do people embrace put limits on how much wealth any one indi-
men like Hitler or Koresh? What kind of training vidual or organization can control? Why or
or education is essential in a democracy to why not?
counter the effects of dangerous yet charismatic 6. Evaluating Information There is growing
leaders? concern about the accuracy of the news reports
2. Drawing Conclusions The topic of enforced that we receive daily, particularly from the
population control (see Another Place, page Internet. Inaccuracies and sensationalized sto-
432) is an intriguing one for many Americans. ries are becoming more and more common.
Only ten percent of American families in 2000 What could this do to the credibility of news re-
had more than two children. Does government porting? What does this say about the current
ever have a right to legislate how many chil- state of American society?
dren couples are allowed to have? Should
Americans be encouraged to have only two

458
Sociology Projects your parents’ political party affiliations. Next,
write down your views on some key issues that
you feel strongly about, such as immigration or
1. Political Influence As an extension of question minority rights. Write down your parents’ views
#5 above, instead of putting limits on how on these topics. Do you and your parents share
much wealth any one individual or organization the same political beliefs? You might also want
could accumulate, consider the options that the to try comparing your views with a friend’s. Are
government might use to limit the political in- your views and your friend’s views similar? If
fluence of wealthy individuals and organiza- so, do you think that this might explain why
tions. Using proper spelling, punctuation and you are friends? Do you think that people tend
grammar, write a brief essay listing and describ- to associate more with those who share similar
ing those options. political beliefs?
2. Employee Rights Review the list of employee
rights in the Sociology Today feature on page
448. If you have a job, try to find out which of Technology Activities
these rights your current employer recognizes.
You might want to ask your manager if your 1. One of the topics of debate about corporations
company has a brochure that lists employee in America is whether they have any responsi-
rights. If you don’t have a job, discuss this ac- bilities beyond making a profit for their share-
tivity with a friend who is working. holders. Some people say that corporations
3. Political Cartoons Look in the newspaper or have a “social responsibility” to make their
weekly newsmagazines for a political cartoon. communities better places. Two companies that
Analyze the cartoon, and write a brief summary act on their social responsibilities are Ben &
of the message you think the cartoonist is trying Jerry’s and The Body Shop. Go to their web
to get across. Does the cartoon have a political sites at http://www.benjerry.com/ and
agenda? Does it reflect the viewpoint of a spe- http://www.thebodyshop.ca/.
cial interest group or a specific branch of gov- a. Find their mission statements and read
ernment? Be sure to discuss the symbolism used them. What do these companies believe
by the artist in the cartoon. Be prepared to about social responsibility?
present your cartoon to the class for further b. What specific actions do they take to make
discussion. their communities better places?
4. Government at the Local Level Visit or call 2. Using your school or local library and the
your local city hall to find out the schedule for Internet, research and rank the 20 largest corpo-
city council or school board meetings. Arrange rations in the United States according to their
to attend the next meeting. Review the agenda net worth. Also, research and rank the ten
for the meeting, and record what happens at wealthiest individuals in the United States ac-
the meeting. Identify all the other social institu- cording to their net worth. Do you see any cor-
tions that were affected by the decisions made relation or affiliation between the wealthy
at the meeting the night you attended. (In many individuals and the powerful corporations (e.g.,
towns, local city council or board meetings are membership in one of the corporations, mem-
televised on cable channels. Check with the city ber on the directorate of one or more of the
or your local cable carrier to see if this is the corporations, etc.)? Create a database to record
case for your location.) your research. Summarize your research in a
5. Political Beliefs On a sheet of paper, write paragraph using proper spelling and grammar
down your own political party affiliation and construction.

459
460 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Chapter 13

Enrichment Reading
No Shame in My Game
by Katherine S. Newman
Katherine Newman has created a rich portrait of minimum-wage workers employed in four
fast-food restaurants in central Harlem. These are the “working poor”—they hold jobs and pay
taxes, but they do not earn enough money to buy the basic necessities of life. In the passage
below, Newman argues that the working poor share the same basic values as the rest of
American society. The shame referred to in the reading lies in society’s view that employment
in fast-food jobs is somehow degrading.

S wallowing ridicule would be a hardship nected subculture but because it is an intensified

for almost anyone in this culture, but it is version of a perfectly recognizable American
particularly hard on minority youth in middle-class and working-class fixation.
the inner city. They have already logged four or It is therefore noteworthy that thousands
five years’ worth of interracial and cross-class upon thousands of minority teens, young adults,
friction by the time they get behind a [Burger and even middle-aged adults line up for jobs that
Barn] cash register. More likely than not, they will subject them, at least potentially, to a kind of
have also learned from peers that self-respecting character assassination. They do so not because
people don’t allow themselves to be “dissed” they start the job-seeking process with a different
without striking back. Yet this is precisely what set of values, one that can withstand society’s
they must do if they are going to survive in the contempt for fast-food workers. They take these
workplace. jobs because in so many inner-city communities,
This is one of the main reasons why these there is nothing better in the offing. In general,
[fast-food] jobs carry such a powerful stigma in they have already tried to get better jobs and
American popular culture: they fly in the face of have failed, landing at the door of Burger Barn
a national attraction to autonomy, independence, as a last resort. . . .
and the individual’s “right” to respond in kind The stigma also stems from the low social sta-
when dignity is threatened. In ghetto communi- tus of the people who hold these jobs: minorities,
ties, this stigma is even more powerful because— teenagers, immigrants who often speak halting
ironically—it is in these enclaves that this English, those with little education, and (increas-
mainstream value of independence is most vigor- ingly in affluent communities afflicted with labor
ously elaborated and embellished. Film charac- shortages) the elderly. To the extent that the pres-
ters, rap stars, and local idols base their claim to tige of a job refracts the social characteristic of its
notoriety on standing above the crowd, going average incumbents, fast-food jobs are hobbled
their own way, being free of the ties that bind or- by the perception that people with better choices
dinary mortals. There are white parallels, to be would never purposely opt for a “McJob.” . . .
sure, but this is a powerful genre of icons in the There is no quicker way to indicate that a person
black community, not because it is a discon- is barely deserving of notice than to point out he
 Chapter 13 Political and Economic Institutions 461

or she holds a “chump change” job at Kentucky

Fried Chicken or Burger King. . . .
What Does it Mean
Ghetto youth are particularly sensitive to the
status degradation entailed in stigmatized em- display of deference
ployment. As Elijah Anderson . . . and others acting in a humble or
have pointed out, a high premium is placed on compliant way
independence, autonomy, and respect among embellish
minority youth in inner-city communities—par- to add to; to make more
ticularly by young men. No small amount of attractive
mayhem is committed every year in the name of enclave
injured pride. Hence jobs that routinely demand
a territory or cultural unit
displays of deference force those who hold within a foreign territory
them to violate “macho” behavior codes that are
central to the definition of teen culture. There gauntlet
are, therefore, considerable social risks involved ordeal or challenge
in seeking a fast-food job in the first place, one genre of icons
that the employees and job-seekers are keenly category or type of
aware of from the very beginning of their search symbols
for employment. incumbent
It is hard to know the extent to which this occupant, job holder
stigma discourages young people in places like
central Harlem from knocking on the door of a
fast-food restaurant. It is clear that the other
choices aren’t much better and that necessity
drives thousands, if not millions, of teens and
older job-seekers to ignore the stigma or learn to
live with it. But no one enters the central Harlem
job market without having to face this gauntlet.
Source: Excerpted from Katherine S. Newman, No
Shame in My Game, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999,
pp. 93, 95. Read and React
1. Who are the “working poor”? Give some
examples of the types of jobs the working
poor would hold.
2. According to Newman, the working poor
share the same values as the rest of
American society. Discuss the evidence
she gives for this. Is she convincing?
3. Why did Newman select No Shame in My
Game for her book title?
4. Do you think a stigma is attached to being
a fast-food worker? Explain.
5. What do you think Newman means by
“status degradation” in the context of her
research?
CHAPTER 14
Religion

462
 U
S Your Sections
I Sociological
N Imagination 1. Religion and Sociology
G 2. Theoretical Perspectives
3. Religious Organization
M ore than thirty years after the
Beatles’ last recording session, the
group’s tapes and CDs are still
being sold by the millions. But there was a 4.
and Religiosity
Religion in the United
moment—at the height of the Beatles’ pop-
ularity—when radio stations around the
States
United States banned their music and Learning Objectives
teenagers stomped on their records.
The angry reaction was the result of a
comment made by John Lennon in a 1966 After reading this chapter, you will be able to
London interview:
Learning Objectives
❖ explain the sociological meaning of
Christianity will go. It will vanish and
religion.
shrink. I needn’t argue with that; I’m
right and I will be proved right. We’re ❖ describe the different views of religion
more popular than Jesus now; I don’t as seen by the major theoretical
know which will go first—rock ’n ’roll perspectives.
or Christianity. ❖ distinguish the basic types of religious
When the remark was printed in the organization.
United States, the resulting uproar caught ❖ discuss the meaning and nature of
many by surprise. Lennon’s statement was religiosity.
quoted out of context. If the entire interview
had been printed, the response might have
❖ define secularization and describe its rela-
been less extreme. Nevertheless, efforts to tionship to religiosity in the United States.
explain the remark failed, and Lennon was ❖ discuss religious fundamentalism in
forced to apologize for saying something he the United States from the sociological
hadn’t really intended to say. Contrary to perspective.
popular belief, it appeared that many young
Americans took their religion seriously.
Today, many people fear that religious
influence in the United States is declining.
Evidence, however, reveals that America— Chapter Overview
compared with other industrialized na- Visit the Sociology and You Web site at
soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 14—
tions—remains fairly religious. This chapter
Chapter Overviews to preview chapter
views religion within the context of sociol-
information.
ogy, defines religion as an institution, and
explores the ways people express their
religious beliefs. 463
464 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Section
Religion and Sociology
1 K e y

• religion
• sacred
T e r m s

• profane

Section The Sociological Meaning of Religion

Preview
A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices concerned with
sacred things. This definition comes from Emile Durkheim, whose

R eligion is concerned with

sacred things. Durkheim
concluded that every religion
work was based on studies of the Australian aborigines in the late nineteenth
century. According to Durkheim, every society distinguishes between the
sacred—things and ideas that are set apart and given a special meaning that
separates the sacred from goes beyond, or transcends, immediate existence—and the profane, or
the profane. Sociologists nonsacred aspects of life. Profane in this context does not mean unholy. It
simply means commonplace and not involving the supernatural. Another
studying religion face some
word for profane is secular.
unique problems. They do
Sacred things take on a pub-
not judge the validity of vari- lic character that makes them
ous religions but rather look appear important in them-
at those aspects of religion selves; profane things do not.
that can be measured and The particular things consid-
observed in society. ered sacred vary from culture to
culture. For example, Bolivian
tin miners attach sacred mean-
ing to figures of the devil and of
religion bulls. Because Americans do
a unified system of beliefs and not share these religious beliefs,
practices concerned with these cultural items are part of
sacred things their nonsacred, or profane,
world. Moreover, some nonreli-
gious aspects of culture can as-
sacred sume a sacred character. Here,
holy; set apart and given a two sociologists illustrate the
special meaning that goes
difference between the sacred
beyond, or transcends,
immediate existence
and the profane:
When Babe Ruth was a liv-
ing idol to baseball fans, the
profane bat he used to slug his home
nonsacred runs was definitely a pro-
fane object. It was Ruth’s
personal instrument and
had little social value in it-
self. Today, however, one of Buddhas, like this one in a Korean temple, are
Ruth’s bats is enshrined in sacred objects in the Far East and Southeast Asia,
and wherever Buddhists live. What makes an
object sacred?
 Chapter 14 Religion 465
the Baseball Hall of Fame. It is no longer used by anyone. It stands,
rather, as an object which in itself represents the values, sentiments,
power, and beliefs of all members of the baseball community. What was
formerly a profane object is now in the process of gaining some of
the qualities of a sacred object (Cuzzort and King, 1976:27).
Babe Ruth’s bat illustrates two particulars about the so-
ciological study of religion. First, a profane object can be-
come sacred, and vice versa. Second, sociologists can
deal with religion without becoming involved in
theological issues. By focusing on the cultural and
social aspects of religion, sociologists avoid ques-
tions about the ultimate validity of any particular re-
ligion. This point is so important that it needs more
explanation.
Is this Ford Mustang convertible a
sacred or secular object? Why?

The Sociological Study of Religion

The sociological study of religion involves
looking at a set of meanings attached to a world
beyond human observation. Because this non-
physical world cannot be directly observed, this
task is particularly difficult. Sociologists have to
ask themselves hard questions: How can we find
evidence for something that can’t be seen? How
can we remain objective about such a value-
laden subject, especially when we have our own
beliefs? Is science really the proper tool to eval-
uate religion?
Obviously, sociologists cannot study the un-
observable. Consequently, they avoid the strictly
spiritual side of religion and focus on social as-
pects of religion that can be measured and ob-
served. Sociologists, then, are not in the business
of determining which religions people ought to
follow. Sociologists keep their own faith per-
Sociologists study the social aspects
sonal while investigating the social dimensions of religion. Like people in of religion. One such aspect is the
any other occupation, sociologists themselves follow a variety of religions. charitable work done by members
of different religious organizations.

Section 1 Assessment
1. How does the sociological definition of religion differ from how you
previously thought of religion?
2. How do sociologists manage to study religion if they can’t see the
spiritual world?

Critical Thinking
3. Evaluating Information Do you think religion can be studied
scientifically? Using the material just presented, make an argument for
or against this practice.
466 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Another
Place Religion at War

As part of studying the effects of religion on so- nic or national identity is experienced as a reli-
ciety, sociologists note that throughout history, gious war. This is so of the current unrest in the
religion has both promoted social stability and Punjab, created by Sikh demands for a separate
led to social conflict. In this excerpt from the ar- Sikh state.
ticle Religion at War, the conflict aspect is high-
Religion evokes powerful emotions and commit-
lighted.
ments. It is capable of producing believers whose
faith moves them to acts of great self-sacrifice and
In virtually every one of the world’s 480 major
wars since 1700, each side has imagined it-
self to be exclusively on the side of God, Gött,
charity. At the same time it can produce believers
who feel that their faith calls them to struggle vio-
Allah, Dieu or other names for the deity. lently in what they believe to be a just cause. One
Religion is often so closely linked with ethnic example is the Hindi/Muslim tension in India fo-
or national identity as to be seen as inseparable cused on Ayodhya. Here, a mosque built in the 15th
from them. Thus a struggle for expressions of eth- century was destroyed in 1992 by militant Hindus
because it is believed to have been built over the
birthplace of the Hindu god Rama. While the ma-
jority of Hindis and Muslims have lived together
peacefully for generations, extremists on both sides
are capable of arousing violence through use of
powerful religious symbols.
In many faiths, the issue of whether warfare is
permissible has given rise to various theories of
the just war. Such theories seek to define whether
believers can ever engage in the use of violence.
The usual conclusion is that violence—including
warfare—is only acceptable in pursuit of a greater
good. The problem, however, is who defines the
greater good?
Source: Joanne O’Brien and Martin Palmer, The State of
Religion Atlas. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993, p. 117.
Reprinted by permission.

Thinking It Over
Does functionalism or conflict theory best ex-
plain the link between strong religious conviction
and war? Why?

Activists of a Hindu religious sect demand the

right to build a temple on the site of a
demolished mosque. Why are wars and conflicts
often rooted in religious beliefs and values?
 Chapter 14 Religion 467

Section
Theoretical Perspectives
2 K e y

• legitimate
T e r m s

• Protestant ethic
• spirit of capitalism

Functionalism and Religion Section

Preview
R eligion exists in some form in virtually all societies. (See Figure 14.1 on
page 468 and World View on page 469 for a global distribution of major
religions.) The earliest evidence of reli-
gion and religious customs and taboos
has been traced as far back as 50,000
R eligion has several func-
tions. It legitimates the
structure of society, pro-
B.C. Humans had by then already begun motes social unity, and pro-
to bury their dead, a practice based on vides a sense of meaning
the belief in existence after death. and belonging. Marx argued
Evidence of religious practices appears
that religion is used to justify
in many ancient cultures. In Rome,
and maintain the group in
there were specific gods for objects and
events—a god of trees, a god of money, power. Weber believed that
a goddess of fever. While the early religion could promote social
Hebrews believed that pigs were un- change. He connected the
clean animals whose pollution would Protestant ethic and the rise
spread to all who touched or tasted of capitalism.
them, the tribes of New Guinea consid-
ered pigs holy creatures worthy of an-
cestral sacrifice (Harris, 1974).
Emile Durkheim, the first sociolo-
gist to examine religion scientifically,
wondered why it is that all societies

We know that religion is an

important part of almost all
societies because of the
religious symbols most have
left behind.
468 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Jewish 0.2%

Confucian 0.1%

Buddhist 5.6%

Protestant/Orthodox/Other Christian 16.9%

Hindu 13.7%

Muslim (Islamic) 19.4%

Roman Catholic 16.9%

Nonreligious/Atheistic 19.1%

Other 8.1%

0 5% 10% 15% 20%

Percent of world population
Figure 14.1 Division of World
Population by Religions. This have some form of religion. In one of his books, The Elementary Forms of
graph compares the number of all Religious Life (1915), Durkheim offered an explanation rooted in the function
religious believers belonging to a
religion performs for society. The essential function of religion, he believed,
particular religion to the total
estimated world population.
was to provide through sacred symbols a mirror for members of society to
see themselves. Through religious rituals, people worship their societies and
thereby remind themselves of their shared past and future existence.
Following Durkheim’s lead, sociologists have identified the following so-
cial functions of religion.
❖ Religion gives formal approval to existing social arrangements. Religious
legitimate doctrine and scripture legitimate the status quo. Religion, then,
to justify or give official justifies or gives authority to social norms and customs. A society’s
approval to religion explains why the society is—and should be—the way it is. It
tells us why some people have power and others do not, why some
are rich and others poor, why some are common and others elite.
Many social customs and rituals are based on religion. According to
Durkheim, legitimation is the central function of religion.
❖ Religion encourages a sense of unity. Religion, according to Durkheim,
is the glue that holds society together. Without religion, society would
be chaotic. As Cuzzort and King have stated (1976), Durkheim
“provided the greatest justification for religious doctrine ever
formulated by a social scientist when he claimed that all societies must
have religious commitments. Without religious dedication there is no
social order.”
In some cases, though, religion causes societies to fragment, even to
the point of civil war. Religion divides Catholics and Protestants in
Northern Ireland. Thus, while it is accurate to say that religion is usually
a source of social unity, it can also divide a society. (See Another Place,
page 466.)
❖ Religion provides a sense of understanding. Religion not only explains
the nature of social life and encourages social unity, it also provides
 Chapter 14 Religion 469

World View Religions of the World

This map displays the worldwide distribution of all
religions. Emile Durkheim showed that suicide rates
vary according to group characteristics. One of these
characteristics was religious background. For exam-
ple, Durkheim showed that the suicide rate is lower
among Catholics than among Protestants.

North
America Europe

Asia

Africa
South
America

Australia
Religion Based on 50 Percent of the
Population or Above
Christianity Others
Roman Catholicism Judaism
Protestantism Hinduism
Eastern Churches Buddhism
Islam Local Religions
Sunnite
Shiite

Interpreting the Map

1. Based on the information shown in this map, identify two countries where you would expect
to find lower rates of suicide than in England.
2. What information on the map did you use in your analysis?

individuals meaning beyond day-to-day life. People mark important

events in life—birth, sexual maturity, marriage, death—with religious
ceremonies and explain such events in religious terms. Religion gives
believers a sense of their place in the cosmos and gives eternal
significance to a short and uncertain earthly existence.
❖ Religion promotes a sense of belonging. Religious organizations provide
opportunities for people to share important ideas, ways of life, and
ethnic or racial backgrounds. Religion supplies a kind of group
identity. People usually join religious organizations freely and feel a
470 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Main Geographic Number of

Religion Origination Key Figure Beliefs Areas Followers

Hinduism Before 2000 B.C. Unknown Of many gods, Brahma is the creator of India 793,076,000
the universe. Life is determined by the law
of karma (the spiritual force generated by
one’s own actions, which determines one’s
next reincarnation).

Judaism Before 1200 B.C. Abraham The one true God has established a Israel, Eastern Europe, 13,866,000
covenant with the people of Israel, who USA
are called to lives of justice, mercy, and
obedience to God.

Buddhism About 500 B.C. Siddhartha Gautama The existence of God is not assumed. Far East, Southeast 325,275,000
Through adherence to the Eightfold Path Asia
(correct thought and behavior), one can
escape from desire and suffering and
achieve nirvana (a state of bliss reached
through extreme denial of the self).

Confucianism About 500 B.C. Confucius The Analects (sayings of Confucius) China 5,086,000
stress moral conduct and virtuous
human relationships.

Christianity About A.D. 1 Jesus Christ Jesus is the Son of the one true God. Europe, North America, 1,955,229,000
Through God’s grace and profession of South America
faith, people have eternal life with God.

Islam About A.D. 600 Muhammad Muhammad received the Koran (holy Africa, Middle East, 1,126,325,000
scriptures) from the one true God. Southeast Asia
Believers go to an eternal Garden of Eden.

Figure 14.2 Major World

Religions. This figure degree of influence within these organizations. For many people in
summarizes characteristics and
beliefs of the major world religions
modern society, membership in a religious organization provides a
being widely practiced today. sense of community. This feeling of belonging helps to counteract
depersonalization, powerlessness, and rootlessness.

Conflict Theory and Religion

“
Conflict theory focuses on how religion works to either inhibit or en-
courge social change. Two early and important sociologists who looked at
religion from these perspectives were Karl Marx and Max Weber.
Religions are many and
diverse, but reason and What did Marx say about religion? Marx believed that once people
have created a unified system of sacred beliefs and practices, they act as if it
goodness are one. were something beyond their control. They become “alienated” from the
religious system they have set up. People have the power to change (or, bet-
Elbert Hubbard
“ ter yet, in Marx’s mind, to abandon) the religion they have created. They
American writer don’t do so, however, because they see it as a binding force to which they
must conform. Religion, Marx wrote, is used by the ruling class to justify its
economic, political, and social advantages over the oppressed. Those in
power justify poverty, degradation, and misery as God’s will. To eliminate
inequalities and injustices is to tamper with God’s plan. Religion, then, gives
people a sense that all is the way it should be.
 Chapter 14 Religion 471

World View Gender Inequality in Religion

Women have been fighting for equal rights in all as-
pects of society—religion as well as government and
business. In some religions women have equal status
within their orders. Other religions see feminism as a
“Western” issue and irrelevant to their faiths. This
map shows how major denominations in each coun-
try view the status of women.

North
Nor th Europe
Europe
America
Asia

Africa
South
America

Australia
Status of Women within the
Denomination of the Majority
Equal at all levels
Working for equality
Subordinate by long-standing tradition
Increasingly restricted and oppressed

Interpreting the Map

1. Do you see any patterns of inequality in women’s rights in religion? Explain.
2. Where in the world would a woman be most likely to head an entire religious organization?
Support your answer. Do some research to see if this has occurred. If it has not, explain why.
3. How does the United States compare with the Scandinavian countries in terms of gender equal-
ity? Why do you think this difference exists?
4. How would you explain the mixed status of women in India?

Adapted from The State of Religion Atlas. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993.

How did Weber link Protestantism and capitalism? Whereas Marx

believed that religion works against social change, Max Weber suggested that
religion sometimes encourages social change. He pointed to the relationship
between Protestantism and the rise of capitalism. Weber wondered why cap-
italism emerged in northwestern Europe and America and not in other parts
of the world. A possible answer lay in what he termed the spirit of capitalism
 Unit 4 Social Institutions
472
and the Protestant ethic. With capitalism,
work became a moral obligation rather than a
mere necessity. If businesses were to grow,
money (capital) had to be put back into the
business rather than spent. Investment for the
future was more important than immediate
consumption. All of this Weber called the
spirit of capitalism spirit of capitalism.
the obligation to reinvest Most major religions did not define
money in business rather than hard work as an obligation or demand the
to spend it reinvestment of capital for further profits
(rather than for immediate enjoyment).
But some Protestant sects did. Here, then,
was a religion with a cluster of values,
norms, beliefs, and attitudes that favored
the emergence of modern capitalism.
Weber referred to this cluster of values,
norms, beliefs, and attitudes that stressed
the virtue of hard work, thrift, and self-
Protestant ethic discipline as the Protestant ethic.
a set of values, norms, beliefs,
and attitudes stressing hard What is the nature of the The theology of sixteenth-century
work, thrift, and self-discipline Protestant ethic? The Protestant theologian John Calvin formed the basis
ethic is often associated with John for the Protestant ethic.
Calvin (1509–1564), an early Protestant
theologian. Calvin’s followers were known as Calvinists. Calvinist beliefs il-
lustrate several features of the Protestant ethic.
❖ According to Calvin, God identifies his chosen by rewarding them in
this world. Therefore, the more successful people were in this life, the
more sure they were of being a member of God’s select few.
❖ Consumption beyond necessity was considered sinful; those who
engaged in self-pleasure were agents of the devil.
❖ Calvinists believed there was an underlying purpose of life: glorification
of God on earth through one’s occupational calling. Because
everyone’s material rewards were actually God’s, and the purpose of
life was to glorify God, profits should be multiplied (through
reinvestment) rather than used in the pursuit of personal pleasures.

Symbolic Interactionism and Religion

Sociologist Peter Berger (1990) captured the relationship between religion
and symbolic interactionism in his book, The Sacred Canopy. In this book,
Berger explored the idea that humans create from their religious traditions a
canopy, or cover, of symbolic meanings, to “lay” over the secular world.
These otherworldly symbolic meanings are used to guide everyday social in-
teraction. Religious beliefs, rituals, and ideas tell people the difference be-
tween the sacred and the profane and provide stability and security in a
changing and uncertain existence.
Symbolic interactionism, for example, helps us understand the expression
“there are no atheists in foxholes.” Insecurity and uncertainty, of course, are
at a peak in the life-and-death situation of war, and the desire to regain
 Chapter 14 Religion 473

Figure 14.3 Focus on Theoretical Perspectives

Religion. This table shows that in examining religion the three major perspectives focus on different aspects.
Discuss the conclusion of any one of the theories in light of your experience with the institution of religion.

Theoretical
Perspective Focus Conclusion

Functionalist Look at contributions Religion legitimates social arrangements.

of religion to society. It promotes social unity.
It provides a sense of understanding.
It encourages a sense of belonging.

Conflict Elites use religion to Religion is used by the most

Theory manipulate the masses. powerful to justify their
economic, political, and social
advantages.

Symbolic People create People use their socially created symbolic

Interactionism symbolic meanings meanings to guide everyday social interactions.
from their religious
beliefs, rituals, and
ideas.

security and certainty is a natural human response. Religious meanings, es-

pecially those related to an afterlife, can offer some relief. Japanese kamikaze
pilots in World War II and Middle Eastern terrorists infuse their sometimes
suicidal behavior with ultimate meaning by focusing on their reward beyond
life. Less dramatically, people enduring troubled marriages can be strength-

“
ened by their commitment to uphold their holy vows of matrimony spoken
in a place of worship.
Each of the three major theoretical perspectives aids in the sociological You have not converted a
study of religion. Figure 14.3 shows the unique light each perspective sheds. man because you have
silenced him.
Section 2 Assessment
John, Viscount Morley
“
1. How did Karl Marx view religion? English statesman
2. What was Weber’s contribution to the sociological study of religion?
3. What did Berger mean by the phrase “the sacred canopy”?

Critical Thinking
4. Analyzing Information Does the Protestant ethic still exist in
America today? Use Weber’s analysis to justify your position.
474 Unit 4 Social Institutions

A ldous Huxley’s 1932 novel Brave New World described a society in

which babies were created scientifically. Another novel—The Boys
from Brazil, written by Ira Levin and published in 1976—features a story
about German Nazis cloning Adolf Hitler. Both of these books play on
our fears about the effects and ethics of human cloning (a nonsexual
creation of a genetically identical copy). Although no human has yet been
cloned, the reproduction of a sheep called Dolly in February 1997, along
with several subsequent clonings of mice, sheep, and pigs, have made
the question much more pertinent today than it was a few years ago.
Is Cloning Even though the technology is not yet available to clone humans,
companies and scientists are already beginning to offer their services
to interested individuals. Dr. Richard Seed, an American physicist, an-
Humans nounced in 1998 that he plans to clone humans, using his wife as the
first subject. He also plans to open a for-profit clinic to assist childless
couples in cloning themselves. A company called Valiant Venture has
Ethical? been formed to offer cloning services to humans—for as “little” as
$200,000. Valiant Venture is owned by the Raelian Movement, an in-
ternational cult whose members claim that life on earth was created in
laboratories by extraterrestrials.
More traditional religious groups have expressed serious concerns
about cloning. According to the general argument of Judaism and
Christianity, human cloning allows the sacred process of generating life
to enter the profane realm. A group of scientists sponsored by the
Church of Scotland reached the following conclusions.
❖ If humans are cloned, people will be placing themselves in a
position only God has occupied.
❖ The basic dignity and uniqueness of each individual will be
violated.
❖ Political power could influence the creation of clones.
❖ Cloning will be limited to those who can afford it.
On the other hand, might it not be beneficial to clone Bill Gates,
Mother Theresa, or Michael Jordan? What about the potential contri-
butions from a new Christiaan Barnard, the South African physician
who did the first heart transplant in 1967? Human cloning is just the
latest in a long line of medical technologies that affect the length and
quality of life. Society will have to decide if cloning is so different from
other scientific advances that it should be legally prohibited.

Analyzing the Trends

What role, if any, should religion play in the debate over human
cloning? Include some information from this chapter to support your
answer.
 Chapter 14 Religion 475

Section Religious Organization

3 and Religiosity
K e y

• church
T e r m s

• cult
• denomination • religiosity
• sect

Religious Organization Section

Preview
I n Western societies, most people practice religion through some organi-
zational structure. For this reason, the nature of religious organization is
an important component of the sociological study of religion. Early scholars
identified four basic types of religious organization: church, denomination,
sect, and cult.
T he major forms of reli-
gious organization are
churches, denominations,
sects, and cults. Religiosity—
How do sociologists distinguish among the basic types of religious
organization? To sociologists, a church is a life-encompassing religious the ways people express
organization to which all members of a society belong. This type of religious their religious interests and
organization exists when religion and the state are closely intertwined. In convictions—can be
Elizabethan England, for example, Archbishop Richard Hooker of the Church analyzed in terms of five
of England wrote that “there is not any man of the Church of England but dimensions: belief, ritual,
the same man is also a member of the commonwealth; nor any man a mem- intellect, experience, and
ber of the commonwealth which is not also of the Church of England.” As consequences.
you can see, the sociological definition of church is different from the one
commonly used in American society. When Americans talk about “churches,”
they are actually referring to denominations.
A denomination is one of several religious organizations that most mem-
bers of a society accept as legitimate. Because denominations are not tied to church
the state, membership in them is voluntary, and competition among them for a life-encompassing religious
organization to which all
members of a society belong

denomination
one of several religious
organizations that most
members of a society accept
as legitimate

The Amish are a religious sect. How

does a sect differ from a church,
denomination, or cult?
476 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Sociology Understanding the

Today Danger of Cults
In late November 1978, news began to arrive in the United States that a semireligious, socialistic
colony in Guyana, South America, headed by the Reverend Jim Jones—founder of the California-
based People’s Temple—had been the scene of a shocking suicide-murder rite in which some nine
hundred people died from cyanide poisoning. Many Americans wondered how people could have
become involved in something like that.
Some dismissed the participants as ignorant or mentally unbalanced. But as more news came out,
it became known that many of the members were fairly well-educated young people and that Jones
was trusted and respected by some members of the California political establishment. We also
learned that such events, although rare, have occurred before.
Why are people willing to join extremist religious groups? Sociology can help us understand the
motivations.
❖ Most converts to extremist religious groups seek
friendship, companionship, acceptance,
warmth, and recognition. These groups can
provide a supportive community that helps
overcome past loneliness and isolation. They
can provide emotional ties that converts have
not found at home, school, church, or work.
Many groups even adopt kinship terms to give
recruits new identities to separate them from
their former lives.
❖ Most extremist religious groups emphasize
immediate experience and emotional
gratification. Converts “feel” religion rather
than merely think about it. Whether by
meditation, speaking in tongues, or singing
hymns, followers have frequent and intense
emotional experiences they have not found
elsewhere.
❖ Extremist religious groups emphasize security
through strict authority. Under a firm authority
structure and a clear, simple set of beliefs and
rules, converts have something in which they
can believe. Converts think they can exchange
The Reverend Jim Jones was the leader of a religious colony
in Guyana, South America, where some nine hundred people
were involved in a suicide-murder rite.
 Chapter 14 Religion 477

uncertainty, doubt, and confusion for trust and

assurance through absolute obedience.
❖ Extremist religious groups claim to offer
authenticity and naturalness in an “artificial”
world. By emphasizing such things as natural
foods, communal living apart from civilization,
and a uniform dress code, these groups attempt
to show they are not part of the flawed outside
world.
Religious movements may not actually be able
to meet their followers’ needs any better than the
outside world. Many of these religious groups lead
to disillusionment, frustration, and bitterness when
members realize that they cannot completely es-
cape the outside world, which is full of uncertainty,
confusion, fuzzy choices, and shades of gray.
Moreover, many of these religious groups have
joined the consumer society they profess to de-
plore, attractively packaging and selling themselves
to the public. Not only may the new religious
groups not solve the problems people in modern
society must face, many are as inauthentic as they
accuse society of being.
Some key questions exist to evaluate the au-
thenticity of any religious group’s claims. For pur-
poses of self-protection, these questions should be
answered carefully before committing to an extrem-
ist religious group.
❖ Does it require that you cut yourself off from
family and friends? Friends and family mourn the loss of loved ones who
❖ Does it consider drugs to be a major vehicle for died in Jim Jones’s People’s Temple mass suicide.
true religious experiences?
❖ Is corporal punishment or intensive, hours-long
psychological conditioning a part of its program?
❖ Does it claim to have special knowledge that can be revealed only to insiders?
If the answer to any one of these questions is yes, you stand a chance of getting “hooked.” If the an-
swers to several of these questions are positive, the chances of getting hooked increase dramatically.

Doing Sociology
1. Do you agree or disagree with the reasons given for why people join extremist religious groups?
Discuss each reason and explain why you agree or disagree.
2. Can you think of other reasons why people may be attracted to such groups? Show that any rea-
son you identify does not fit into one of the four reasons stated.
3. If you had a friend considering membership in an extremist religious group, how would you use
the information in this Sociology Today to discourage him or her?
478 Unit 4 Social Institutions

members is socially acceptable. Being one religious organization among many,

a denomination generally accepts the values and norms of the secular society
and the state, although it may at times oppose them. As mentioned, most
American “churches”—Methodist, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Baptist, Roman
Catholic, and Reform Jew, for example—are actually denominations.
sect A sect is a religious organization formed when members of an existing reli-
a religious organization that gious organization break away in an attempt to reform the “parent” group.
arises out of a desire to reform Generally, sect members believe that some valuable beliefs or traditions have
an existing religious been lost by the parent organization, and they form their own group to save
organization these features. Thus, they see themselves not as establishing a new religious faith
but as redeeming an existing one. The withdrawal of a sect from the parent
group is usually psychological, but some sects go farther and form communal
groups apart from the larger society. The Separatists, or Pilgrims, who landed at
Plymouth in 1620, wished to reform the Church of England from which they had
separated. Another example is the Amish, a sect formed in 1693 when a Swiss
bishop named Jacob Amman broke from the Mennonite church in Europe
(Kraybill and Olshan, 1994). Less extreme sects in the United States today in-
clude the Seventh-Day Adventists, the Quakers, and the Assemblies of God.
cult Unlike a sect, a cult is a religious organization whose characteristics are not
a religious organization whose drawn from existing religious traditions within a society. Whether imported from
characteristics are not drawn outside the society or created within the society, cults bring something new to
from existing religious the larger religious environment. We often think of cults as engaging in extreme
traditions within a society behavior. The world has been shocked twice in recent years. In 1997, reports
came of the ritualistic suicides of thirty-nine members of the Heaven’s Gate cult
in California (Thomas, 1997). Dwarfing this incident was the mass killing of ap-

Student Web Activity

Visit the Sociology and
You Web site at
soc.glencoe.com and click on
Chapter 14—Student Web
Activities for an activity on
religious organizations.

In 1997, thirty-nine members of the Heaven’s Gate cult in California committed

ritualistic suicide. Most cults are not this dangerous, however.
 Chapter 14 Religion 479

Calvin and Hobbes are engaged in a conversation about religiosity.

Their beliefs are clashing.

proximately 1,000 members of the Ugandan cult called the Movement for the
Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God in March 2000. Cults do not usu-
ally appear in such an extreme and bizarre form, however. More conventional
examples of cults are the Unification Church, the Divine Light Mission, and the
Church of Scientology (Clark, 1993).

Religiosity
Sociologists Charles Glock and Rodney Stark are two sociologists who have
studied religion and society. Their work has focused on religiosity—the types religiosity
of religious attitudes and behavior people display in their everyday lives. ways in which people express
their religious interests and
How do people display religiosity? Glock and Stark identify five dimen- convictions
sions of religiosity: belief, ritual, an intel-
lectual dimension, experience, and
consequences (Glock, 1965; Stark, 1968).
❖ Belief refers to what a person
considers to be true. People may,
for example, believe that Jesus is
the son of God or that there is no
God but Allah.
❖ A ritual is a religious practice that
the members of a religion are
expected to perform. A ritual may
be private, such as personal prayer,
or public, such as attending mass.
❖ The intellectual dimension of
religiosity may involve knowledge
of holy or sacred scripture or an
interest in such religious aspects of
human existence as evil, suffering,
and death. Religious persons are
expected to be knowledgeable The display of religious affiliation varies widely. Golfer Tiger Woods wears a
about their faith. Buddha image, and a Jewish boy reads from the Torah at his Bar Mitzvah.
480 Unit 4 Social Institutions

District of
Columbia

Religious Believers
Religion is common to all societies.
Although the majority of Americans
are Christian, many other faiths are
represented in the United States. This Religious Adherents as a
map shows the percentage of the pop- Percentage of State Population
ulation of each state who identify ≥ 70%
themselves as members of a faith or 60–69%
50–59%
religion. 40–49%
< 40%
No data
Interpreting the Map SS

1. Create a database comparing the number of religious believers in your state with other states in
your region.
2. What do you think this map says about the state of religion in the U.S.? Explain.
Adapted from The State of the U.S.A. Atlas. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994.

❖ Experience encompasses certain feelings attached to religious

expression. This dimension is the hardest to measure. For example, a
religious believer may feel “close” to the deity when praying.
❖ Consequences are the decisions and commitments people make as a
result of religious beliefs, rituals, knowledge, or experiences.
Consequences may be social, such as opposing or supporting capital
punishment, or personal, as when practicing sexual abstinence before
marriage or telling the truth regardless of the cost.

Section 3 Assessment
1. In your own words, describe the difference between a cult and a sect.
2. Give one example of each of the five dimensions of religiosity, using
examples not given in the text.

Critical Thinking
3. Summarizing Information Of the dimensions of religiosity discussed
in the text, which do you think is most important to denominations
today? Give reasons for your answer.
 Chapter 14 Religion 481

Section
Religion in the United States
4 K e y T e r m s

• secularization
• fundamentalism

The Development of Religion in America Section

The search for religious freedom was only one of many reasons Puritan Preview
colonists came to America—but it was an important one. From the outset, the
Puritans viewed themselves as a religious example for the world to follow
and admire. Sociologist Robert Bellah has described the American religious
connection this way:
T hrough the process of
secularization, the sacred
and the profane tend to be-
come intermixed. There has
In the beginning, and to some extent ever since, Americans have inter-
preted their history as having religious meaning. They saw themselves been a revival of religious
as being a “people” in the classical and biblical sense of the word. They fundamentalism in the United
hoped they were a people of God (Bellah et al. 1991:2). States. Religious faiths can
be analyzed by major social
characteristics such as class,
The U.S. guarantees religious freedom. Pictured clockwise from the bottom left are a and political tendencies.
Hindu priest in Ohio, an Islamic prayer group in Maine, a Baptist congregation in
Alabama, and a Jewish Chanukah celebration in Maryland.
482 Unit 4 Social Institutions

The framers of the U.S. Constitution seldom raised arguments against re-
ligious faith. They were, however, sharply critical of any entanglement be-
tween religion and the state. Indeed, the ideas of separation of church and
state and freedom of religious expression are cornerstones of American life.
Despite this tradition, people in the United States have experienced incidents
of religious persecution, including some directed at immigrant groups.
Religion has always been of great importance in American life; but histori-
cally, it has played a more active part in some periods than in others. There
have been several “Awakenings” in U.S. history when religious principles have
guided the development of culture and society. The 1830s, for example, saw
new life come to many religious reform movements, including those against
slavery and drinking alcohol. Later, the Protestant-led temperance movement
resulted in the outlawing of alcohol for a short period during the 1920s.

Secularization in the United States

secularization Countering the growth of religion in U.S. history is secularization.
process through which the Through this process, the sacred loses influence over society, or aspects of the
sacred loses influence over sacred enter into the secular (profane) world of everyday life. For example, for-
society mal education originally was a function of religion. Most early teachers and
professors were clerics and church members. Over time in the United States,
this function was taken over by the state, although many church-sponsored
schools still exist.
Is secularization destroying religion in the United States? Evidence is
mixed concerning the relative importance of religion in the United States
today. On the one hand, some findings indicate a decline in the importance of
religion. The percentage of Americans claiming that religion is very important
in their lives fell from 75 percent
100% in 1952 to 57 percent in 2001.
90%
(See Figure 14.4.) Scores on the
Princeton Religion Index, made
80%
Percentage of Americans

up of eight leading indicators,

70% have also declined since the
60% 1940s. In 1957, 14 percent of the
50% public indicated that they be-
40%
lieved religion was losing influ-
ence on American life. In 2001,
30%
55 percent of the public saw a
20% loss of influence (Gallup, 2001).
10% On the other hand, some re-
0
cent research has found
1952 1978 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 Americans today to still be
1965 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 highly committed to religion.
Whether measured by the num-
Figure 14.4 Percentage of Americans Saying Religion Is Very Important in ber of churches per capita, the
Their Lives: 1952–2001. This figure tracks changes in the percentage of Americans proportion of regular churchgo-
who say that religion is very important in their lives. Why do you think the percentage was
so high in the early 1950s? What prediction do you make for the next ten years?
ers, or financial support of the
churches, sociologist Theodore
Source: The Gallup Organization, Gallup polls on religion. Caplow observed a trend to-
ward greater involvement in re-
ligious affairs (Caplow, 1998).
 Chapter 14 Religion 483

Figure 14.5 Global Comparisons in Religiosity

This table compares the level of religiosity among selected industrialized countries. Which finding do you
think is the most important? Which finding is the most surprising to you? Explain in both cases.

Consider Selves Attend Church at Least Average Ratings of

Religious Persons Weekly Importance of God*
Italy 83% Ireland 82% United States 8.2
United States 81 United States 43 Ireland 8.0
Ireland 64 Spain 41 Northern Ireland 7.5
Spain 63 Italy 36 Italy 6.9
Great Britain 58 West Germany 21 Spain 6.4
West Germany 58 Czechoslovakia 17 Finland 6.2
Hungary 56 Ethnic Lithuanians 15 Belgium 5.9
France 51 Non-ethnic Lithuanians 12 Great Britain 5.7
Non-ethnic Lithuanians 50 Great Britain 14 West Germany 5.7
Czechoslovaks 49 Hungary 13 Norway 5.4
Scandinavia 46 France 12 Netherlands 5.3
Ethnic Lithuanians 45 Scandinavia 5 Hungary 4.8
France 4.7
Denmark 4.4

*“10” is of highest importance.

Source: Religion in America, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Religion Research Center).

In fact, as suggested in the Sociological Imagination opening this chapter,

America still appears to be a religious nation when compared with other in-
dustrialized countries (see Figure 14.5). Only 8 percent of the American pop-
ulation is without a religious preference. About 88 percent identify
themselves as Protestants, Catholics, Jews, or Mormons. There are now over
three hundred recognized denominations and sects and thousands of inde-
pendent congregations in the United States (Linder, 2000). About seven in ten
Americans belong to some church, and over half of these claim to be active
in their congregations. Four Americans in ten claim they have attended a
church or synagogue in a typical week. (In England, for example, the aver-
age weekly church attendance is 14 percent.) Furthermore, although the pro-
portion of Americans belonging to a church or synagogue has declined
slightly from a high of 76 percent in 1947 to 69 percent in 1995, church at-
tendance has changed very little over the years. Since 1939, weekly church
or synagogue attendance in the United States has remained relatively stable—
from 41 percent to 43 percent in 1995.
Americans also tend to support traditional religious beliefs. Ninety-six per-
cent of the American population believe in God or a universal spirit, 65 percent
believe in life after death, 90 percent believe in heaven, and 73 percent believe
484 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Survey Research:
The Electronic Church
Old-time religious evangelists traveled from community to
community and preached to the faithful in tents, open fields, or
rented meeting halls. Modern-day communications technology
has changed all that. To a great extent, radio, television, and
the Internet are replacing the traditional meeting places.
Although the “electronic church” (church attendance
through telecommunications) has attracted considerable atten-
tion, disagreement exists as to the actual size of its audience
and the extent of its impact. Many television evangelists claim
to have very large audiences, but most rating services estimate
the total religious television audience to be of a rather mod-
est size, approximately ten to thirteen million viewers.
William Stacey and Anson Shupe (1982) have advanced
sociological understanding of the electronic church by ex-
amining the characteristics of its viewers. They surveyed
residents of the Dallas–Fort Worth metropolitan area. This
area is often referred to as the “buckle” of the southern
Bible Belt.
Stacey and Shupe found regular viewers to have rela-
tively low incomes and less than a high school education. Viewers also
Along with the more tended to be female, to be over thirty-five years of age, and to have
“traditional” forms of radio
large families. Blue-collar workers were more likely than white-collar
and television, the Internet also
offers remote religious services.
workers to watch, but retired persons and homemakers were more
likely to be viewers than people with jobs.
People who attended church regularly tended to watch, an impor-
tant finding because it contradicted the claim that the electronic church
was depriving local churches of members. Fundamentalists were more
likely than reformed or moderate believers to tune in. The electronic
church preaches to the converted who are already predisposed, or self-
selected, to seek out its messages.

Working with the Research

1. According to Stacey and Shupe’s research, what demographic
groups are most likely to watch religious programming?
2. Would you predict that the electronic church will have greater
social impact in the future? Why or why not?
 Chapter 14 Religion 485
in hell. Seventy-two percent be-
Number
lieve in the existence of angels Religious Organizations in the U.S. of Members
(Gallup, 1996).
Roman Catholic Church 60,280,454
Southern Baptist Convention 15,663,296
Religious United Methodist Church 8,538,662
Jewish 6,840,000
Preferences Lutheran Church in America 5,190,489
Muslim 5,000,000
Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) 3,669,489
What are the religious
Episcopal Church 2,536,550
preferences in the U.S.?
Assembly of God 2,387,982
Although there are over three
United Church of Christ 1,472,213
hundred denominations and
Jehovah's Witnesses 966,243
sects in the United States,
Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) 929,725
Americans in the mid-1990s
Seventh-Day Adventist 790,731
were largely Protestant (58 per-
Church of the Nazarene 601,900
cent) and belonged to a few
Salvation Army 453,150
major denominations—Baptist
Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod 412,478
(20 percent), Methodist (10
Reformed Church in America 306,312
percent), Lutheran (6 percent),
Presbyterian (4 percent), and
Episcopalian (4 percent). Fourteen percent prefer various other Protestant de- Figure 14.6 Membership in
nominations. Catholics constitute a relatively large proportion of the Selected Religious
American population (25 percent) and Jews a relatively small proportion (2 Organizations in the United
percent). As noted earlier, only 8 percent of Americans have no religious States. On the basis of these
data, how would you describe the
preference (Gallup, 1996). Figure 14.6 lists many of the religious organiza- religious composition of the U.S.?
tions in the United States with memberships above 300,000.
Sources: Gale Research and
composite sources, 1995–1997.
Fundamentalism in America
Any careful observer of religion in the United States over the last twenty
years or so will note the rise of religious fundamentalism in the country, es-
pecially among Protestant denominations. Fundamentalism is based on the fundamentalism
desire to resist secularization and to adhere closely to traditional religious be- the resistance of secularization
liefs, rituals, and doctrines. It is, of course, inaccurate to limit fundamental- and the rigid adherence to
ism to Protestants alone. Fundamentalism is found in all religions, including traditional religious beliefs,
the Roman Catholic, Jewish, and Muslim faiths. This discussion, however, will rituals, and doctrines
focus on Protestant fundamentalism.
It is not surprising that most fundamentalists are politically conservative,
given that the roots of contemporary religious fundamentalism are in the lat-
ter part of the nineteenth century. Two issues disturbed the early fundamen-
talists. First, fundamentalists were concerned about the spread of secularism.
Science was challenging the Bible as a source of truth; Marxism was por-
traying religion as an opiate for the masses; Darwinism was challenging the
biblical interpretation of creation; and religion in general was losing its tra-
ditionally strong influence on all social institutions. Second, fundamentalists
rejected the movement away from emphasis on the traditional message of
Christianity toward an emphasis on social service (Johnstone, 1996).
Since the late 1960s, many of the largest American Protestant denomina-
tions—Methodists, Lutherans, Presbyterians, Episcopalians—have either been de-
clining in membership or fighting to hold their own. In contrast, contemporary
486 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Mainline Protestants fundamentalist denominations

National Baptist Convention, U.S.A. have been growing. Funda-
Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) mentalists exist in all Protestant
Episcopal organizations, but they are pre-
Evangelical Lutheran dominantly found in such reli-
Presbyterian (U.S.A.) gious bodies as the Mormons,
United Church of Christ the Assemblies of God, the
United Methodist Seventh-Day Adventists, the
Conservative Protestants Baptists, and the Jehovah’s
Assembly of God Witnesses. (See Figure 14.7.)
Church of the Nazarene
Seventh-Day Adventist
What is the nature of fun-
Southern Baptist Convention damentalism today? The
theological agenda of today’s
Roman Catholic fundamentalists is very close
to that of their forebears in the
– 0.4% – 0.2% 0 +0.2% +0.4% +0.6%
nineteenth century.
Percentage of change
Fundamentalists believe in
Figure 14.7 American Church the literal truth of the
Membership Trends: Scriptures, or in taking the Bible at “face value.” Protestant fundamentalism
1990–1999. Do you believe that involves being “born again” through acceptance of Jesus Christ as the Son of
this pattern will continue in the God who was sent to redeem mankind through his sacrifice. Fundamentalist
twenty-first century? Explain your doctrine includes belief in the responsibility of all believers to give witness
conclusion using text materials. for God, the presence of Satan as an active force for evil, and the destruction
Source: Yearbook of American and
of the world prior to the Messiah’s return to establish His kingdom on earth.
Canadian Churches, 1999. Are all fundamentalists alike? Religious organizations that share in
much of the fundamentalist theology have some unique beliefs and practices
of their own. An example is neo-Pentacostalism—or the charismatic move-
ment, as it is sometimes called—which has occurred for the most part within
traditional religious organizations, particularly the Roman Catholic and
Episcopal churches. Those involved in this movement often speak of receiving
“the baptism of the Holy Spirit.” But central to most neo-Pentecostal groups is
the experience of “speaking in tongues,” which believers claim is a direct gift
of the Holy Spirit (Cox, 1992, 1996; Hunt, Hamilton, and Walter, 1998).
Why is fundamentalism so strong today? Several reasons for the
growth of fundamentalism have been proposed.
❖ Many Americans feel their world is out of
control. The social order of the 1950s was
shattered by a string of traumatic events
beginning with the civil rights movement and
progressing through campus violence, political
assassinations, the Vietnam War, and Watergate.
Increases in substance abuse, illegitimate births,
divorce, and crime are taken as signs of moral
decline. Fundamental religion, with its absolute
answers and promise of eternal life, provides a
strong anchor in a confusing, bewildering world.

This charismatic minister in Atlanta is engaged in faith

healing.
 Chapter 14 Religion 487
❖ Fundamentalist churches, by emphasizing warmth, love, and caring,
provide solace to people who are witnessing and experiencing the
weakening of family and community ties. Mainline churches tend to be
more formal and impersonal.
❖ Fundamentalist churches offer what they consider a more purely sacred
environment, in contrast to mainline denominations that
fundamentalists see as accommodating to secular society.
❖ The electronic church, in its role as part of the mass media, has been
an important contributing factor in the growth of religious
fundamentalism. (See Focus on Research on page 484.)

Religion, Class, and Politics

Religious affiliation is related to social class. There are marked differences in
social class (as measured by education and income) among the various religions
in the United States. Generally speaking, Presbyterians, Episcopalians, and Jews
are at the top of the stratification structure. Below them are Lutherans, Catholics,
and Methodists, followed by Baptists. Because these are average figures, there
are, of course, many individual exceptions to these rankings.
Differences in religiosity exist between the upper and lower classes as
well. Religion is important at both ends of the stratification structure, but the
upper and lower classes express their beliefs in different ways. The upper
classes display their religiosity through church membership, church atten-
dance, and observance of ritual, whereas people in the lower classes more
often pray privately and have emotional religious experiences.
Political affiliation, too, is related to religion. Followers of the Jewish faith
are particularly aligned with the Democratic Party, followed in strength of
support by Catholics and Protestants. This is predictable, because Protestants
generally are more politically conservative than Catholics or Jews, and the
Democratic Party is generally not associated with political conservatism in the
United States today. Of the major Protestant denominations, the greatest sup-
port for the Republican Party is found among Episcopalians and
Presbyterians. This is hardly surprising, because the upper classes are more
likely to be identified with the Republican Party.
There are some contradictions in this general pattern. Despite their affili-
ation with the more conservative Republican Party, Episcopalians and
Presbyterians are less conservative than Baptists, who are the strongest sup-
porters of the Democratic Party of all Protestant denominations, especially in
the South.

Religion, Science, and Society

Both science and religion examine humanity’s relationship to the world,
but they examine it in very different ways. Religion involves matters beyond
human observation, while science is all about observation. These fields of
study are not mutually exclusive. Many scientists are religious individuals,
while many professional clergy appreciate and support the intellectual
achievements of the field of science.
Sometimes, however, these two institutions can appear to be in conflict.
Depending on the values and norms of the culture, society may favor religious
488 Unit 4 Social Institutions

or scientific explanations. In the United

States, following the principle of separation
of state and church, it has been common to
keep religion apart from government-
sponsored institutions. Scientific explana-
tions for natural phenomena, when
commonly accepted, have been taught in
the schools, leaving religious groups free
to teach other interpretations within their
organizations.
Strict fundamentalists do not believe
that scientific theories such as the theory
of evolution and the Big Bang theory of
creation should be presented in public
schools as facts, while Bible-based expla-
nations such as creationism are not even
discussed. In 1999, fundamentalists con-
vinced the Kansas Board of Education to
remove any questions about evolution
from the state high school exit examina-
tion. Until the decision was repealed in
2001, Kansas teachers were not required
Religion and science sometimes to teach the theory of evolution.
come into heated conflict. One Today, many people are questioning whether “pure science” can remain
famous case was the 1925 “Monkey
independent of cultural or social norms, as some scientists believe. Scientific
Trial” of John Thomas Scopes in
discoveries and processes, such as cloning and gene therapy, are moving
Tennessee.
into ever more ethically debatable areas. The result appears obvious: the in-
terface between science and religion is sure to increase. Society, in particu-
lar government, will need to learn how to deal constructively with apparent
contradictions in these two areas.

“
Science without religion
is lame; religion without
Section 4 Assessment
1. What is secularization and why is it an important process to explore?
2. Describe the relationship between religion and political allegiance in
the U.S.
science is blind.
Critical Thinking
Albert Einstein
“
Nobel Laureate physicist 3. Analyzing Information Analyze how progress in scientific research
will affect religious beliefs and practices over the next twenty-five
years.
CHAPTER 14 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Vocabulary
Summary
Complete each sentence using each term once.
Section 1: Religion and Sociology a. religion h. denomination
Main Idea: Religion is concerned with sacred b. sacred i. sect
things. Sociologists studying religion face some c. profane j. cult
unique problems. They do not judge the validity d. legitimate k. religiosity
of various religions but rather look at those as- e. spirit of capitalism l. secularization
pects of religion that can be measured and ob- f. Protestant ethic m. fundamentalism
served in society.
g. church
Section 2: Theoretical Perspectives 1. is the word used to describe
things and ideas that are set apart and given a
Main Idea: Religion has several functions. It le-
special meaning.
gitimates the structure of society, promotes social
unity, and provides a sense of meaning and be- 2. A religious movement based on the desire to
longing. Marx argued that religion is used to jus- adhere closely to traditional beliefs, rituals,
tify and maintain the group in power. Weber and doctrines is called .
believed that religion could promote social 3. The are the nonsacred as-
change. He connected the Protestant ethic and the pects of life.
rise of capitalism. 4. is the name given to a cluster
of values, norms, beliefs, and attitudes that fa-
Section 3: Religious Organization and vored the growth of capitalism.
Religiosity 5. means to justify or give offi-
cial approval to.
Main Idea: The major forms of religious organi- 6. A religious organization arising out of a desire
zation are churches, denominations, sects, and
to reform another religious organization is
cults. Religiosity—the ways people express their
called .
religious interests and convictions—can be ana-
lyzed in terms of five dimensions: belief, ritual, in- 7. is the obligation to reinvest
tellect, experience, and consequences. money rather than spending it.
8. is the name given to a life-
Section 4: Religion in the United States encompassing religious organization to which
all members of a society belong.
Main Idea: Through the process of secularization, 9. A unified system of beliefs and practices con-
the sacred and the cerned with sacred things is called
profane tend to be- .
come intermixed.
10. The ways in which people express their reli-
Religious faiths can
gious interests and convictions is called
be analyzed by
Self-Check Quiz .
major social charac-
Visit the Sociology and You Web 11. A is a religious organization
teristics such as
site at soc.glencoe.com and whose characteristics are not drawn from ex-
class and political
click on Chapter 14—Self- isting religious tradition within a society.
tendencies.
Check Quizzes to prepare for 12. The process through which the sacred loses
the chapter test. influence over society is known as
.
489
CHAPTER 14 ASSESSMENT
13. A is one of several religious tional segments of society. Sermons, for exam-
organizations that most members of a society ple, are aimed at the typical married family
accept as legitimate. arrangement (mother, father, two children).
What effect, if any, do you think this could
have on general attendance at gatherings?
Reviewing the Facts 3. Analyzing Information The United States has
one of the highest standards of living in the
1. Religious faiths can be analyzed by two major so- world. It also has one of the most materialistic
cial characteristics. What are those characteristics? cultures and societies. Do you think this says
2. Based on Figure 14.4 on page 482, has the per- anything about the religiosity of Americans?
centage of Americans who claim that religion is 4. Making Inferences About 96 percent of all
very important in their lives decreased over Americans say they believe in God.
time, increased over time, or showed no signifi- Nevertheless, defining who is or is not religious
cant change? is very difficult. Some people don’t go to
3. How does the upper social class define its reli- church yet claim to be religious, while others
giosity? Use the diagram below to record your go to church but don’t seem to be religious, for
answer. example. What dilemmas do all these issues
present for sociologists who want to study reli-
RELIGIOSITY AS DEFINED BY THE UPPER CLASS giosity? What variables could help to explain
what religiosity is? Why do you think sociolo-
gists should research this issue at all?
+ + = RELIGIOSITY 5. Analyzing Information Do you think that
economic decisions are influenced by
religiously based motivations? Elaborate.
4. In 1978, the Reverend Jim Jones led hundreds 6. Evaluating Information Based on scales de-
of people who belonged to his group in a mass veloped by sociologists, African Americans rate
suicide-murder. What term is used to describe higher in religiosity than other racial or ethnic
Jones’s religious organization? groups. Men like Martin Luther King, Jr., and
5. Which sociologist published The Elementary Ralph Abernathy and women like Aretha
Forms of Religious Life in 1915 and spoke of the Franklin have attributed their success to the role
functions of religion? religion played in their lives. What events in
this country’s history might have contributed to
the role that religion plays in the African
Thinking Critically American community?
7. Applying Concepts Many people appear to be
1. Making Inferences The crucifix is a widely less interested in religion during their teenage
known symbol even to non-Christians. How do years. This might be seen in falling church atten-
the various meanings attached to this symbol dance for this age group. Using your sociologi-
relate to an understanding of Durkheim’s con- cal imagination, suggest some reasons for this
cept of the sacred and profane? Could the cruci- apparent lack of interest. Consider developmen-
fix easily represent other things if it was not for tal (age) and social factors. Depending on your
its relationship to Christ? Explain your answer. answers, what suggestions might you make to
2. Drawing Conclusions Current research says religious organizations looking for ideas on how
that religion often reflects conventional (tradi- to keep teenagers involved and active?
tional) norms. Accordingly, religious clergy tend
to address their messages to the more tradi-

490
Sociology Projects in which this organization is involved. Pay close
attention to the various ways in which these
groups conduct charitable work. Report to the
1. Researching Religions Choose a religion, de- class on the effectiveness of your service—both
nomination, sect, or cult to research. You can for the recipient and for yourself. Then consider
learn about the group by talking with some of how your community would be affected if the
its members. You can also find excellent mater- group stopped providing this service. Would
ial in libraries and on the Internet. (Be sure to some political or non-governmental organiza-
consider the source of all information gathered tion continue it?
from the Internet. Check it for bias, accuracy, 5. Attitudes on Religion Design a survey that
and “hidden agendas.”) In your research, focus would allow you to conduct an “unofficial”
on the following aspects of the group: its ori- study of student attitudes toward religion. (You
gin; fundamental beliefs, important rituals or may want to refer back to the section on survey
ceremonies; internal social changes that oc- methods in Chapter 2.) Remember that your
curred over time; and membership demograph- questions are directed at social practices and
ics (social class, ethnicity, and so forth). You not at what or why individuals specifically be-
may want to work with a classmate. Based on lieve. Some topics you may want to ask about
your research, prepare a report with visual aids include attendance at religious services, prayer,
that can be given orally. (You may want to use and belief in an afterlife. Information about re-
a computer presentation package such as spondents’ ethnic and religious backgrounds
PowerPoint.) would prove useful as well. Compare your sur-
2. Sacred and Profane The chapter discusses the vey with the surveys created by your class-
concepts of sacred and profane. Any object by mates. Work with four or five students to
itself is profane; people give it sacred meaning. combine your questions into the best survey
Working with two of your classmates, select an possible, and ask twenty students to complete
object (profane), and create a skit in which you the survey for your group. Report your findings
show how the profane object might become a to the class. Do these results reflect the commu-
sacred object. nity you live in? Do you think that teens are
3. Defining and Analyzing Religion This exer- more or less outwardly religious than adults?
cise will help you understand the difficulty so-
cial scientists have when it comes to defining
and analyzing religion. Take out a piece of Technology Activity
paper and answer the following questions:
a. How do you define religion? 1. Using your school or local library and the
b. What does it mean to you? Internet, research information on the clergy dur-
c. Do you believe in the supernatural? ing the middle ages. Based on your research
d. If you do believe in the supernatural, how and the material you read in this chapter, how
do you imagine it to be? would you classify their religious organization?
Some of the characteristics of the clergy might
After everyone in class has completed these be regarded as a cult. Explain why the clergy in
questions, turn to your neighbor and compare the middle ages were not a cult. Using proper
your answers with his or her answers. Note the grammar, sentence structure, spelling, and
similarities and differences. Share your answers punctuation, write a paragraph defending your
with as many of your classmates as possible. conclusion.
4. Charitable Organizations Contact a religious
organization in your neighborhood, and arrange
to take part in some community service activity

491
492 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Chapter 14

Enrichment Reading
India’s Sacred Cow
by Marvin Harris
People often take their own religion for granted, overlooking its connections with the rest of
society. We are better able to see the link between religious beliefs and culture when we exam-
ine an unfamiliar setting. Marvin Harris’s analysis of the place of the cow in Hinduism pro-
vides such a backdrop.

N ews photographs that came out of the soul, even it if sometimes fails the body.
India during the famine of the late Religion orders the cosmos and explains our
1960s showed starving people stretch- place in the universe. Religious beliefs, many
ing out bony hands to beg for food while sacred would claim, have existed for thousands of years
cattle strolled behind undisturbed. The Hindu, it and have a life of their own. They are not un-
seems, would rather starve to death than eat his derstandable in scientific terms.
cow or even deprive it of food. The cattle appear But all this ignores history. There is more to
to browse unhindered through urban markets be said for cow worship than is immediately ap-
eating an orange here, a mango there, competing parent. The earliest Vedas, the Hindu sacred texts
with people for meager supplies of food. from the second millennium B.C., do not prohibit
By Western standards, spiritual values seem the slaughter of cattle. Instead, they ordain it as
more important to Indians than life itself. part of sacrificial rites. The early Hindus did not
Specialists in food habits . . . consider Hinduism avoid the flesh of cows and bulls; they ate it at
an irrational ideology that compels people to ceremonial feasts presided over by Brahman
overlook abundant, nutritious foods for scarcer, priests. Cow worship is a relatively recent devel-
less healthful foods. opment in India; it evolved as the Hindu religion
Cow worship . . . carries over into politics. In developed and changed.
1966 a crowd of 120,000 people, led by holy This evolution is recorded in royal edicts and
men, demonstrated in front of the Indian House religious texts written during the last 3,000 years
of Parliament in support of the All-Party Cow of Indian history. The Vedas from the first mil-
Protection Campaign Committee. In Nepal, the lennium B.C. contain contradictory passages,
only contemporary Hindu kingdom, cow some referring to ritual slaughter and others to a
slaughter is severely punished. As one story strict taboo on beef consumption. . . . [M]any of
goes, the car driven by an official of a United the sacred-cow passages were incorporated into
States agency struck and killed a cow. In order to the texts by priests of a later period.
avoid the international incident that would have By 200 A.D. the status of Indian cattle had un-
occurred when the official was arrested for mur- dergone a spiritual transformation. The Brahman
der, the Nepalese magistrate concluded that the priesthood exhorted the population to venerate
cow had committed suicide. . . . the cow and forbade them to abuse it or to feed
The easy explanation for India’s devotion to on it. Religious feasts involving the ritual slaugh-
the cow, the one most Westerners and Indians ter and consumption of livestock were eliminated
would offer, is that cow worship is an integral and meat eating was restricted to the nobility.
part of Hinduism. Religion is somehow good for
 Chapter 14 Religion 493

What Does it Mean

ascertain
determine
contemporary
modern, current
edict
official proclamation
or law
exhorted
strongly urged
ideology
a systematic body of
thought about human
culture or society
politically expedient
based on practical or
advantageous reasons
venerate
Anthropologist Marvin Harris contends that science and culture can explain the worship or revere
reason cows are sacred to Hindus. How does he attempt to support his claim?

By 1000 A.D., all Hindus were forbidden to eat

beef. Ahimsa, the Hindu belief in the unity of all Read and React
life, was the spiritual justification for this restric- 1. Summarize your understanding (prior to
tion. But it is difficult to ascertain exactly when reading this article) of the Hindu religious
this change occurred. An important event that belief about cows. Has your opinion
helped to shape the modern complex was the changed after reading it? Why or why not?
Islamic invasion, which took place in the eighth
century A.D. Hindus may have found it politically 2. How do non-Hindu people’s reactions to
expedient to set themselves off from the in- the sacred cow relate to ethnocentrism
vaders, who were beefeaters, by emphasizing the and cultural relativism? Explain in each
need to prevent the slaughter of their sacred ani- case, drawing on material in the reading.
mals. Thereafter, the cow taboo assumed its mod-
ern form and began to function much as it does
today.
Source: Excerpted from James M. Henslin, Down to
Earth Sociology: Introductory Readings, 10th ed., The
Free Press, 1999.
CHAPTER 15
Sport

494
 U
S Your Sections
I Sociological
N Imagination 1. The Nature of Sport
G 2. Theoretical Perspectives
and Sport

I
haven’t been the same since. I love it.
All of a sudden I find I’m stronger 3. Social Issues in Sport
than anyone else in the place—all
the girls and practically all of the guys. . . .
The boys respected me right away, and
that’s important. They all act like they’re
Learning Objectives
so tough, then you go in and lift more
than they can. They can’t ignore that
there’s a girl over in the corner doing After reading this chapter, you will be able to
more than them, and they hang their
heads. ❖ justify sport as an American institution.
As this young female power lifter tells us, ❖ compare and contrast sport in America
playing sport can positively affect the self- from a functionalist, conflict, and sym-
image of females, as well as improve gender bolic interactionist perspective.
relations. The desire to achieve such benefits ❖ understand the relationship between
was part of the motivation for the passage of
American sport and social mobility.
Title IX of the Educational Amendment Act
passed by the U.S. Congress in 1972. Title IX ❖ cite evidence of sexism and racism in
makes gender discrimination illegal in any American sport.
educational institution receiving federal
funds. Thanks to Title IX an increasing num-
ber of females have joined school athletic
teams. Critics of Title IX fear that shifting
funds from men’s sports places an unfair
strain on the most popular athletic programs,
but defenders of Title IX do not believe that
men’s programs must suffer for women to
gain opportunities (Nixon and Frey, 1996).
Some sociologists refer to social institu- Chapter Overview
Visit the Sociology and You Web site at
tions such as sport, health, and entertain-
soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 15—
ment as secondary institutions. These Chapter Overviews to preview chapter
institutions are less pervasive than the fam- information.
ily, education, politics, economics, or reli-
gion, but they also occur in every society.
This chapter will look at how sport con-
tributes to the functioning and nature of so-
ciety in the United States.
495
496 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Section
The Nature of Sport
1 K e y

• sport
T e r m s

• sport subculture

Section A Definition of Sport

Preview
F or most people, sport
consists of certain

A s a social institution,
sport fulfills some im-
portant societal needs. One
leisure activities, exercise,
and spectator events. It is ac-
tually more complex than
of these is helping individu- that. Sociologists define
als identify with other mem- sport as a set of competitive
bers of society. Sport activities in which winners
subcultures have developed and losers are determined by
physical performance within
around both team and indi-
a set of established rules.
vidual sports. For this reason,
While sport is an important
sport is a reflection of aspect of recreation, many
society. forms of recreation do not in-
volve sport. Sport sociologist
Jay J. Coakley (1998) sees a
spontaneous race between
two skiers as more of a con-
sport test than a sport. Although a
a set of competitive activities contest between skiers in-
in which winners and losers
volves physical activity and
are determined by physical
performance within a set of
competition, it does not in-
established rules volve definite rules or stan-
dardized conditions.

Sport as a Social Institution

Institutions fulfill certain basic needs and reflect the most important as-
pects of a society. The five most commonly recognized social institutions
have been examined in preceding chapters: family, education, government,
economic systems, and religion. Although these social institutions take dif-
ferent forms in different societies, they appear in every society because they
fulfill needs common to all societies.

What is the difference between a sport and a game?

 Chapter 15 Sport 497

Sport teaches basic values and aids

in socialization.

Because societies have additional needs,

there are additional social institutions. Sport
is one of these. Sport teaches some of the
basic values of society. It also promotes at-
tachment to society. For example, a society
requires that its members identify with it.
Members must feel that belonging to the soci-
ety is an important part of who they are. Sport
aids in this identification of self with society.
Chariot racing in ancient Rome is a clear
illustration of this social identification.
Athletes would risk their lives in this danger-
ous sport in part to reflect their self-identifica-
tion as Romans.
The individual, even when free, did not be-
long to himself; he was strictly subordinated
to the city. His life, his death, were only episodes in the history of the
group. To confront death was not an act of exceptional heroism; it was
the normal way of proving oneself a Roman (Auguet, 1972:198).

Sport, Culture and Society

Sport plays a central role in American society in part because it reflects
the culture’s emphasis on achievement.
People who visit the United States from other countries are often amazed
at the extent to which competition [in sport] is used to distribute rewards
and evaluate the work of human beings (Coakley, 1998:82).
498 Unit 4 Social Institutions

The prevailing American view of

sport is the one reportedly expressed
by the late Vince Lombardi, coach of
the Green Bay Packers of the National
Football League during the 1960s:
“Winning is not everything. It is the
only thing.” For the most part, sport
continues to be dominated by achieve-
ment-oriented values.
Sport reflects society, so it is not
surprising that males dominate the
sports world just as they do many other
aspects of American society. Females are
second to men overall in power, in-
come, and job opportunities in
sports just as they are in
business, education, medicine, and law (Eitzen, 1999).
Some progress toward equality is being made, however, es-
pecially on the college level. The Virginia Tech and Louisiana
Tech women’s basketball teams, for example, are currently
drawing more fans than the men’s teams. Women are making
inroads in professional tennis and golf, and a women’s pro-
fessional basketball league has been formed. The place of
women in athletics was given a healthy boost when Mia
Hamm and her teammates captured the 1999 World Cup in
soccer. But equality of opportunity for women in sports is a
distant goal, not one that is just around the corner.
As women’s place in American society
changes, their place in sport also changes.
Until only a few years ago, Virginia Tech
basketball standout Amy Wetzel and
World Cup soccer star Mia Hamm could
only dream of a sport spotlight.
 Chapter 15 Sport 499

Another
Time Racing in Rome

The chariot races of the Roman Empire, made fa- man was reduced to powder at full speed; the
mous in America by the movie Ben Hur, involved overheated axle collapsed and splinters flew in all
considerable skill and courage. Charioteers deliv- directions; the horses crashed into the sand head
ered the violence required to please the crowd. over heels in a clutter of straps or, seized with
panic, broke away from the harness which held
A t the end of a race, the charioteers drove
abreast, wheel against wheel, for the
whole length of the track, whipping their horses
them. Before the final catastrophe, the charioteer
had to draw the dagger at his waist and cut the
madly to gain the half-length which might assure reins which, wound about him, bound him to his
their victory. At this point skill turned into pure vi- team; if he succeeded in doing this he had a
olence; each charioteer was no longer content chance of emerging from the wreck merely
merely to hamper his adversary but took the risk bruised, his body full of splinters. But sometimes
of overturning him by driving his chariot against he was pitched out head first by the violence of
him in order to break its axle, or of destroying him the impact. Then he had no time for this simple
by whipping his horses into the rear of his char- act and, if the horses did not fall, was dragged
iot. To ward off his maneuver the charioteer so across the circus. As he wore nothing but a tunic
threatened no longer leaned forward but literally held by a set of straps across the chest, his only
“hung on the necks of his horses.” He had no protection was a leather helmet, insufficient to
need to turn round to see what was happening. save his life in such circumstances. But the ag-
He could already feel the breath of his pursuers gressor did not always emerge unscathed; at the
and the rhythmic shock of their hooves shaking moment of impact his horses reared up and came
the back of his chariot. A few seconds later, if he down again with their forefeet between the
had not succeeded in gaining a little ground, there spokes of the wheel of the damaged chariot which
would no longer be either rival, chariot or team, was turning in the air; they crashed down, their
but only an amorphous mass littering the middle bones broken, whinnying with pain, and the char-
of the track. ioteer, halted in full career, ran the same risks as
It was the most spectacular and most popular his rival.
of all the events of the circus; so much that chari- Source: Roland Auguet, Cruelty and Civilization: The
oteers did their utmost to involve their rivals in Roman Games (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.,
this maneuver in front of the imperial box. For a 1972), pp. 131–132. Reprinted by permission.
Roman it summed up all the poetry of the circus;
with a sharp, dry crack the fragile box carrying a Thinking It Over
Some athletes today engage in “extreme sports”
such as sky surfing, street luge, and snowboard-
ing. The criteria for an extreme sport is that it is
nonmotorized; has a sanctioning body; is
deemed as extreme or unusual; and requires
learned skills, conditioning, and practice. Do you
think chariot racing of ancient Rome is similar
to the extreme sports of today? Why or
why not?
500 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Sport Subcultures
The relationship between sport, society, and culture can also be seen in
sport subculture sport subcultures. A sport subculture is a group within the larger context of
a group with distinct roles, sport that has some of its own distinct roles, values, norms. These subcul-
values, norms, and beliefs that tures are organized around a sport activity and beliefs vary widely.
is organized around a sport Sociologist Michael Smith (1979) wanted to know if violence among hockey
activity players is due to involvement in a “subculture of violence.” In this kind of
subculture, violence is the expected response to a perceived challenge or in-
sult—a jostle, a glance, a derogatory remark. Following this norm is essential
in acquiring and maintaining honor, especially when challenges are associ-
ated with masculinity.
Smith found that hockey players favor violence
more than nonplayers. Because of the expectations
of coaches and teammates, many hockey players act
violently during games. In fact, players criticize
teammates who aren’t violent. As one National
Hockey League player put it:
I don’t think that there’s anything wrong with
guys getting excited in a game and squaring
off and throwing a few punches. That’s just
part of the game. It always has been. And you
know if you tried to eliminate it, you wouldn’t
have hockey any more. You look at hockey
from the time it was begun, guys gets excited
and just fight, and it’s always been like that
(Eitzen, 1996:165).
Kent Pearson (1981) researched subcultures in-
volving water-related sports in Australia and New
Zealand. He found major cultural differences be-
tween surfboard riders and surf lifesavers. Surfboard
riders avoid formal organizations, work with loose
and flexible definitions of the territory in which their
According to sport sociologists,
violence in a sport like hockey sport will occur, place a heavy emphasis on physical prowess and individu-
persists because it is part of a alism, and generally oppose the larger society. In contrast, surf lifesaving
subculture. Do you think some sport clubs are highly organized entities that stage competitions involving swim-
subcultures encourage violence? ming, boating, and lifesaving. The territory for such competitions is precisely
defined, and formal rules are employed.
Even in nonteam sports, subcultures emerge. Thoroughbred jockeys have
developed a subculture with a strong emphasis on displaying dignity, main-
taining integrity, and remaining cool. The ideal within the subculture of jockeys
is a fiery animal with a cool rider.
The cool jockey can wait patiently with a horse in a pocket and get
through on the inside, risking the possibility that there will be no open-
ing. Coolness is waiting far back in the pack, risking the possibility that
his horse will not “get up” in time. Coolness is sparing the whip on a
front-running horse when another animal has pressed into the lead,
risking the possibility that once his horse is passed he will not get
started again. All these activities are taken by observers as instances of
a jockey’s character. In short, moral character is coolness in risky situ-
ations (Scott, 1981:146–147).
 Chapter 15 Sport 501
What values are at the center of the
unique jockey subculture?

Jockeys take such chances partly because their subculture requires it. Jockeys

“
who fail to display gallantry, integrity, and coolness—qualities expected of
them by horse owners, trainers, and other jockeys—do not receive their
choice of horses and therefore win few races. Failing to take risks leads to
lost opportunities. There are several
differences between a
Section 1 Assessment football game and a
revolution. For one thing,
1. Do you agree that in order for an activity to be a sport, it should a football game usually
include a defined set of rules? Why or why not?
lasts longer and the
2. Which of the following is not an example of sport?
a. a baseball game between two major league teams participants wear
b. a baseball game between two minor league teams uniforms. Also, there are
c. a spontaneous race between two cyclists more injuries at a
d. a swim meet involving amateur athletes football game.
Critical Thinking Alfred Hitchcock
3. Analyzing Information Think about sports in your school. How is
the cultural value of achievement reflected in the behavior of athletes,
“
director and producer

peers, teachers, and parents? Give some specific examples.

502 Unit 4 Social Institutions

S port fulfills two functions. It teaches some of the basic values of so-
ciety, and it promotes attachment to society. During televised
sports events, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and
the National Football League (NFL) regularly show student athletes
and professional sports stars working with children and disadvantaged
persons, behavior reflecting both of these functions.
How do we square this positive picture of sport with the “dark” side
of sport that is continuously fed the public by the mass media? Much
of the media coverage of modern sports now focuses on the bad,
Mass tough-guy image of athletes, coaches, and owners. Not only is “win-
ning the only thing,” as Vince Lombardi, legendary coach of the Green
Bay Packers, said. Now, the winners are expected to have an attitude.
Media and Dennis Rodman, a forward in the National Basketball Association
(NBA), gained fame from media coverage of his cross-dressing and
physical assaults. Roberto Alomar achieved negative recognition when
Sports he spat on an umpire during the 1997 baseball season.
And these are the “respectable” sports! The newer sports on the
mass-media horizon—Gladiator Sports, Roller Derby, Wrestle
Mania—are going much farther. Look at the names of events that
the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) has recently sponsored:
“Road Rage Tour” and “War Zone.” Its biggest television draws
include individuals with stage names such as “Vic Venom,”
“Road Dog Jesse James,” “Bret ‘The Hit Man’ Hart,” and “The
Undertaker.” Women have also achieved star status in WWF
wrestling. Chyna, “the ninth wonder of the world,” and
Jacqueline, two-time WWF Women’s Champion, draw as many
fans as the men.
So, does mass-media sports coverage reflect basic social
values and promote societal identification? Where is the cov-
erage of teamwork, sportsmanship, and character develop-
ment? Do we simply celebrate with the media the message of
unrivaled competition and winning at any cost? At times, it ap-
pears the latter is the case, especially when everyday behavior
Some critics fear that the mass seems to mirror the negative presentation of sport.
media and entertainment If you want to witness such behavior on a daily basis, attend most
promoters are ruining the integrity any children’s athletic contest. Be sure to watch players, parents, and
of sport in America. coaches. In fact, when registering their children for a team, parents
across America are now being required to pledge themselves to a
code of good behavior.

Analyzing the Trends

1. Based on how they are presented in the media, would you ana-
lyze sports in America from the functionalist or the conflict theory
perspective? What perspective do you believe is reflected in the
media presentation of sports?
2. “Fake” wrestling is growing in popularity since it began being
marketed as sports entertainment. In what ways is the role WWF
wrestling plays in society similar to and different from the Roman
chariot races?
 Chapter 15 Sport 503

Section
Theoretical Perspectives

2 and Sport

Culture and Sport Section

Preview
S port is a major social activity through which culture is created and re-
inforced. As noted earlier, sociologists recognize this important aspect
of sport.
American sport embodies American values—striving for excellence,
F unctionalists see sport
positively, as a means for
socializing young people,
winning, individual and team competition, and materialism. Parents
want their children to participate in sport because participation promoting social integration,
teaches them the basic values of American society and builds character providing a release for ten-
(Eitzen, 1999:3). sions, and developing sound
character. Conflict theorists
Although sociologists agree that sport mirrors society, and that the relationship believe that organized sports
is complex, they disagree over the social implications of sport. Sport sociolo-
can be harmful to character
gist Stanley Eitzen has written a book on the paradoxes, or contradictions, of
sport in America. (See Figure 15.1 on page 504.) Functionalists, who tend to development. Symbolic in-
concentrate on the benefits of sport, are represented in Eitzen’s book. So are teractionists focus on the
conflict theorists, who see a social downside to sport. Symbolic interactionists self-concepts and relation-
focus on personal meanings derived from sport. ships developed through
sport activities.

Sport has long been an important basis for stratification in

high schools.
504 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Figure 15.1 Sport Paradoxes

Stanley Eitzen, a highly respected sport sociologist, argues that sport is inherently contradictory (Eitzen,
1999). Here are a few of the paradoxes Eitzen identifies. Do you agree with Eitzen that these paradoxes exist?

Social Integration
• Sport can unite different social classes and racial/ethnic groups
but
• sport can heighten barriers that separate groups.
Fair Play
• Sport promotes fair play by teaching the importance of following the rules
but
• sport’s emphasis on winning tempts people to cheat.
Physical Fitness
• Sport promotes muscle strength, weight control, endurance, and coordination
but
• sport can lead to the use of steroids and other drugs, excessive weight loss or gain, and injuries.
Academics
• Sport contributes to higher education through scholarships and fund raising
but
• sport takes money away from academics and emphasizes athletic performance over learning and
graduation.
Social Mobility
• Sport allows athletes who might otherwise not attend college to obtain an education
but
• only a few can achieve the promise of fame and wealth in the professional ranks.
Source: D. Stanley Eitzen, Fair and Foul (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. 1999), pp. 4–7.

Functionalism
How do functionalists view the role of sport in society? Functionalists
think sport is important primarily because it helps society work more smoothly.
It does this by performing the following functions (Eitzen and Sage, 1997).
❖ Sport teaches basic beliefs, norms, and values. Sport readies us for adult
roles. Games, for instance, prepare participating athletes for work in
organizations. Young people who are exposed to competitive sport
become more achievement motivated than those who are not. And the
earlier the exposure occurs, the higher the orientation towards
achievement. This is important because achievement-motivation is
essential to productivity in the modern economy.
❖ Sport promotes a sense of social identification. A team binds people to
their community and nation. Clevelanders are united in their love of the
Browns, Indians, and Cavaliers. Around midcentury, the United States at
times seemed to be divided into Dodger and Yankee fans. The Atlanta
Braves are trying to be “America’s team.” Higher social integration results.
 Chapter 15 Sport 505

Cleveland Browns fans identified so strongly with their city’s football team that the city
brought suit to keep the team name and colors from leaving town.

❖ Sport offers a safe release of aggressive feelings generated by the

frustrations, anxieties, and strains of modern life. It is socially
acceptable to yell and scream for an athletic team. Similar behavior
directed at a teacher, principal, parent, or employer can have negative
consequences.

“
❖ Sport encourages the development of character. Coaches, school officials,
and parents often draw a parallel between sport and “life.” “When the
going gets tough, the tough get going” is a sentiment expressed in most
locker rooms. The hard work, discipline, and self-sacrifice demanded by You give 100 percent in
team sports become part of an athlete’s value system. the first half of the
What are the social dysfunctions of sport? Functionalists have iden- game, and if that isn’t
tified some drawbacks to sport. Because sport reflects society, it draws on enough in the second
achievement-oriented values that can be intensified to an extreme degree
(Kohn, 1992). When achievement and winning come to be seen as the pri- half you give what’s left.
mary goals of sport, any method of winning—including violence and cheat- Yogi Berra
ing—may be encouraged. “
We need not look far to see examples of violence in sport. Coaches and baseball coach
fans expect athletes to place their physical well-being on the line. Players in
many sports are expected to resort to violence. In high school football, ag-
gressive behavior is defended as preparation for “real-life” competition.
Pressures are intensified at the professional level, where many sports have
developed the informal role of enforcer—a team member whose major re-
sponsibility is to intimidate, provoke, and even injure opponents (Coakley,
1998). Boston Bruins hockey player Marty McSorley used his hockey stick to
deliver a vicious blindside slash to the head of opposing player Donald
506 Unit 4 Social Institutions

World View Olympic Success

Sport also plays an important role in today’s global so-
ciety. For some time, the winning of Olympic medals
has been a source of regional and global prestige.
This map shows the number of medals earned by
each country in the 2000 Summer Olympic Games.

North
Nor th Europe
Europe
America
Asia

Africa
South
America

Australia
Number of Medals Earned
More than 20
11 to 20
1 to 10
No medals

Interpreting the Map

1. Why do you think there is such wide variation in the number of Olympic medals earned?
2. Do the Olympics illustrate a connection between sport and politics? Explain.

Source: Orbital Decisions, http://www.orbital.co.za/text/sydney2000/medals.htm.

Brashear in February of 2000. The attack was the culmination of a game

marked by injuries and was the result of the long-standing rivalry between
two “top enforcers.”
Cheating may not be as easy as violent behavior to identify, but is often
present, nonetheless. Cheating was no doubt involved when American
Olympic skater Nancy Kerrigan was struck on the right leg with a metal rod
by an assailant later linked to her competitor, Tonya Harding. In 2000, the
Atlanta Braves were penalized for signing a player before his sixteenth birth-
day. They had followed the precedent of the Los Angeles Dodgers in 1999.
Cheating can even extend beyond players, as when a Utah state committee
used illegal inducements to attract the 2002 Winter Olympics.
 Chapter 15 Sport 507

Conflict Theory
Some sociologists have raised disturbing questions about
the effects of sport on society. These questions are best un-
derstood through the conflict perspective. Conflict theorists
are interested in who has the power and how elites use power
to satisfy their own interests. To conflict theorists, sport is a
social institution in which the most powerful oppress, manip-
ulate, coerce, and exploit others. Conflict theorists highlight
the ways in which sport mirrors the unequal distribution of
power and money in society. They also emphasize the role of
sport in maintaining inequality (Leonard, 1998).
While functionalists see sport as contributing to the uni-
fication of society, conflict theorists do not. While people
from all major segments of a community or society may
join in cheering for the same team, their union is only
temporary.
When the game is over, the enthusiasm dies, the solidar-
ity runs short, and disharmony in other relations
reasserts itself. Much as one hour a week cannot answer
to the religious impulse, one game a week cannot answer
to the solidarity needs of a racist, sexist, or elitist society
(Young, 1986).
Basic social class divisions, in other words, will continue to
exist and to affect social relationships in a community even if
the local team has just won the World Series or the Super
Bowl.
The contribution sport makes in forming good character is
also questioned by conflict theorists. Among college athletes,
studies have shown that the degree of sportsmanship appar-
ently declines as athletes become more involved in the sports
system. As sociologist Stanley Eitzen (1993a) notes, nonschol-
arship athletes display greater sportsmanship than those with athletic schol- In some cultures, sport is so
arships, and those who have not earned letters exhibit more sportsmanship important lives may depend on it.
In 1994, Colombian soccer player
than letter winners.
Andres Escobar was gunned down,
Conflict theorists can point to any number of past and present scandals
apparently for scoring against his
in both the college and professional ranks. Americans are constantly reading own team in the World Cup soccer
in the sports section of the daily newspaper about athletes, from high school match against the U.S. (Colombia
to the professional level, who are taking drugs, cheating in school, or ac- lost, 2–1.)
cepting illegitimate cash “gifts.” One university after another is being investi-
gated and penalized by the National Collegiate Athletic Association. Coaches
as well as players are involved in misconduct.
Athletes may use performance-enhancing drugs such as steroids and
amphetamines to achieve a “competitive edge.” . . . Big-time college
coaches in their zeal to win have been found guilty of exploiting ath-
letes, falsifying transcripts, providing illegal payments, hiring surrogate
test takers, paying athletes for nonexistent summer jobs, and illegally
using government Pell grants and work study monies for athletes. So
much, I would argue, for the myth that “sport builds character”
(Eitzen, 1996:189).
508 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic interactionism also contributes to our understanding of sport as
a social institution. This theoretical perspective concentrates on personal
meanings, social relationships, and self-identity processes. Symbolic interac-
tionists are concerned with the symbols of sports. The meanings and inter-
pretations of these symbols are important because they affect the
self-concepts, as well as the relationships, of those involved.
The social context of Little League baseball illustrates this perspective. For
three years, Gary Alan Fine (1987) studied American adolescent suburban
males who played Little League baseball. He discovered and documented a
variety of ways in which the boys assigned meanings to their team activities.
In addition, he described how these meanings and interpretations influenced
the boys’ social interactions and affected their self-definitions.
What were these meanings? Much of the activity of coaches and par-
ents centered on teaching the rules of the game and teaching values, such as
team play, hard work, fair play, competition, and winning. But these ten- to
twelve-year-old boys formed their own interpretations of these messages. The
boys misinterpreted the adult values of hard work, competition, and so forth
as the “masculine” values of dominance, “toughness,” and risky behavior.
How were social interaction and self-concepts affected? In the first
place, the boys’ behavior convinced coaches and parents that the youngsters
understood and accepted their values. For example, the aggressive behavior
that the boys considered as evidence of their masculinity was seen by the
coaches and parents as evidence of “hustle,” dedication to competition, and
the desire to win. The boys were praised for this behavior, which encour-
aged them to continue it. “Weaker” peers, younger children, and girls in gen-
eral frequently experienced the disdain of these Little Leaguers. This
disrespect often led to a loss of self-esteem for children who suffered the
brunt of the Little Leaguers’ scorn.

This young boy might be

misinterpreting what his coach is
trying to teach him about
sportsmanship.
 Chapter 15 Sport 509

Figure 15.2 Focus on Theoretical Perspectives

Social Effects of Sport. This table illustrates how each theoretical perspective might study an issue involving
sport. For each assumption, provide a specific example from your own experience or from a team you follow.

Theoretical
Perspective Concept Assumption

Functionalism Social integration Athletic teams promote

togetherness and belonging in a
community.

Conflict Theory Social conflict Deep social conflict exists within a

community and persists despite widespread
attachment to athletic teams.

Symbolic Social concept Participation in a team sport may

Interactionism promote or harm self-esteem
depending upon factors such as
emphasis on winning and fair play.

What are some limitations of each perspective? The functionalist

perspective makes important points regarding the positive and negative role
of sport in society. Its critics, however, contend that many sports have be-
come so closely tied to elite interests that they contribute more to private
profit than to the general well-being of society. To investigate this point, the
conflict perspective concentrates on some major concerns of sport, such as
racism and sexism (discussed in the next section). On the other hand, con-
flict theorists tend to overlook the positive contributions of sport to society.
They are accused of placing too much emphasis on the extent to which sport
is manipulated and controlled by the elite. Their critics also claim that con-
flict theorists underestimate the character-building benefit of team sports.
Symbolic interactionism contributes greatly to understanding the socialization
process in sport. But, because it concentrates on social interaction, it fails to
“
[Knute] Rockne wanted
nothing but “bad
include the broader social and cultural context. For example, symbolic inter- losers.” Good losers get
actionism does not address the functions of sport in society or explore sport into the habit of losing.
within the context of power and social inequality.
George E. Allen
Section 2 Assessment “
American raconteur

1. What is the relationship between sport and achievement-oriented values?

2. Name three roles that sport plays in society, according to functionalists.
3. Summarize in one sentence the overall attitude of the conflict
perspective toward sport.

Critical Thinking
4. Finding the Main Idea Has your self-concept been affected by
sports? Explain the effects from the symbolic interactionist viewpoint.
510 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Case Study: Tough Guys,

Wimps, and Weenies
Remember Donna Eder’s study of middle-school strat-
ification? (See pages 66–67.) She also researched the na-
ture of middle-school sports. Using the framework of
symbolic interactionism, Eder assumes that the social
world of teenagers is constructed through interaction with
others. Thus, everyday exchanges—insults, greetings,
gossip—give teenagers a sense of their social world.
Middle-school coaches accented the value of tough-
ness. In the world of athletics, having a “mean” attitude is
masculine, and being nice is effeminate. Wrestlers, for ex-
ample, were told to make opponents “suffer.” Football
coaches did not tolerate fighting off the field, but as a
means to handle conflict among athletes, these same
“When are you gonna learn when coaches encouraged physical force on the field.
it’s necessary to use unnecessary
roughness?” I said that I had heard that Coach Paulson wasn’t
pleased with the way the team played. Walter and
Carl both agreed. Walter [the team manager] said
that the team didn’t hit like they should have and
that made the coach mad. Carl said, “Yeah, but I re-
ally socked that guy. Man, I threw him down on the concrete.
Did you hear Coach James yelling, “Way to go, Orville”? (Eder,
1995:62)
Evidence of weakness was greeted by derogatory names like
“wuss,” “wimp,” and “girl.” Ritual insults promoted stereotypically mas-
culine behavior, particularly among higher-status boys. Stories of phys-
ical force in sports were repeated with pride. Even soccer players
bragged about kicking opponents in the shins or throwing a ball into
an opponent’s face.
The most forcefully combative boys were the most respected.
Although the coaches tried to curb physical violence outside of games
and matches, many players considered fighting an appropriate way to
handle all peer conflicts.
[The] importance of being tough extended to behavior off the
playing field as well as on it. Boys were continually challenged to
develop more aspects of toughness, including the ability to deny
pain and suppress feelings as well as respond combatively to ver-
bal and physical attacks. Boys who rejected these messages were
 Chapter 15 Sport 511
sometimes subject to
ridicule by girls as well as
boys, showing the diffi-
culty boys faced when try-
ing to escape the pressures
of being masculine within
this school setting (Eder,
1995:72).
Insult exchanges could
be won by getting another
boy to become angry. By los-
ing his cool, the other boy
lost his image of toughness.
Some boys would insult an-
other boy just to look good
to others. An example is pro-
vided by one of the re-
searcher’s notes on Hank, the
highest-status boy in the sev-
enth grade, who had a repu-
tation for verbal assault. Future sociologists may study
the effect that team sports plays
Hank does seem to enjoy conflict or competition on a one-on-one on women’s aggression.
basis. A couple of times today he left the table just to go down and
abuse some kid at the end of the table, calling him a pud, a squirt,
or a wimp. Then he would come back and tell the group how the
guy had done nothing when he had said this. Hank would get a
big smile on his face and was really pleased (Eder, 1995:73–74).
Insults and counter-insults delivered several messages. First, boys
learned not to care about the feelings of others. Second, insulting, or
even humiliating, their peers was a socially approved means of achiev-
ing or displaying higher status. Third, boys who humiliated low-status
peers were rewarded with social recognition. This was true even if the
target of ridicule was handicapped or overweight.

Working with the Research

1. Do you think this study describes sports at your school?
Explain.
2. Do female athletes treat each other differently from the way
boys treat each other? Explain.
512 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Section
Social Issues in Sport
3 K e y

• stacking
T e r m

Section Sport and Social Mobility

Preview
T he autobiographies of star athletes often point to sport as their way
out of poverty. One educator once predicted that “football would en-

S port contributes to up-

ward mobility among col-
legiate athletes, but the
able a whole generation of young men in the coal fields of Pennsylvania to
turn their backs on the mines that employed their fathers” (Rudolph,
1962:378). Many athletes do use sport as a means out of their equivalent
opportunities are too few. “coal fields,” and many minority members work their way out of poverty
Minorities still face discrimina- through sport. It is also true that the average salaries of professionals are very
tion in sport. Women in sport high (Leonard, 1998). Even so, let’s examine this alleged relationship be-
suffer from gender-based tween sport and social mobility.
stereotypes. Intercollegiate Does sport really promote social mobility? Participating in sport in-
female athletes do not creases the likelihood of improving a person’s place in the stratification struc-
receive treatment equal to ture. Whatever sport they play, college athletes tend to be better educated,
the treatment received by earn more money, and have higher occupational prestige than their fathers.
males, although this situation This is the very definition of upward social mobility. And in these terms, col-
is slowly improving. lege athletes as a whole are more successful than college students who do
not participate in sports (Leonard, 1998). Although this finding is meaning-
ful, it has not settled the debate regarding how much sport promotes upward
mobility for minorities.

Sports have long been an important basis for stratification in high schools.
 Chapter 15 Sport 513
Does sport promote upward mobility for minorities? Some people
argue that sport is a social class escalator for minorities. They point to
Michael Jordan, Deion Sanders, and Sammy Sosa, among others. A dif-
ferent viewpoint argues that the emphasis on sport is harmful because it
diverts attention away from learning the academic and business-related
skills necessary for success in mainstream American society. Because
of the lure of high salaries and prestige, many aspiring minority ath-
letes fail to develop alternative career plans. Minority members who
spend their youth sharpening their athletic skills at the expense of
their general education will very likely be casualties of an unreal-
izable dream of wealth and glory (Lapchick and Matthews,
1999).
Some convincing evidence supports those who see
sport as a barrier to upward mobility for minorities. Figure
15.3 shows that there are over one million high school foot-
ball players. Just under 60,000 of these players become col-
lege football players. And 1,600 of these college players
become professional players. Thus, the probability that a high
school football player will make it to the pros is less than two-
tenths of one percent. Similarly, a high school baseball player
has a 0.2 percent chance of becoming a major leaguer. The odds
are even worse for a high school basketball player, who has a 0.1 percent The phenomenal success of Michael
probability of making it to the National Basketball Association. Moreover, Jordon is frequently used to prove
those who become professional athletes have short careers on the average: that sport is a path of upward
one to seven years for baseball players, four to six years for basketball play- mobility for minorities. Is Jordon a
ers, and four and one-half years for football players. typical example?
Of course, this does not mean minority athletes should not enjoy the ben-
efits of a collegiate sport. To be sure, some athletes have received good col-
lege educations who may otherwise not have had the chance. It does argue,
however, that no high school athlete—minority or white, for that matter—
should rely solely on sport as a ticket up the stratification structure.

Figure 15.3 High School

Percentage
Advancing Percentage Athletes’ Chances of
Percentage from Advancing Advancing to the Pros. This
Number of Advancing College Number of from High table shows the slim chance that
Players in from High Number of to Players at School to high school athletes have to play
High School to Players in Professional Professional Professional
School College College Level Level Level
a professional sport. Does this
surprise you?
MALES Sources: National Federation of
Football 1,002,734 6% 57,593 3% 1,643 0.16% State High School Associations,
Basketball 541,130 3% 15,874 2% 348 0.06% 1999–2000.
Baseball 451,701 6% 25,938 3% 750 0.17%
Ice hockey 27,245 13% 3,647 18% 648 2.38%
Total 2,022,811 5% 103,052 3% 3,389 0.17%

FEMALES
Basketball 451,600 3% 14,445 1% 132 0.03%
Golf 49,690 6% 3,108 2% 52 0.10%
Tennis 159,740 5% 8,314 2% 150 0.09%
Total 661,030 4% 25,867 1% 334 0.05%

Grand Total 2,683,841 5% 128,919 3% 3,723 0.14%

514 Unit 4 Social Institutions
White Players African American Players
Offense Offense

Quarterback Quarterback

Running Back Running Back

Wide Receiver Wide Receiver

Tight End Tight End

Offensive Tackle Offensive Tackle

Offensive Guard Offensive Guard

Offensive Center Offensive Center

0 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 0 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

White Players African American Players

Defense Defense

Cornerback Cornerback

Safety Safety

Linebacker Linebacker

Defensive End Defensive End

Defensive Tackle Defensive Tackle

0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 0 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
(Note: Scale of this graph is 60%, not 100%)

1998 1997 1993 1983

Figure 15.4 National Football League Positions, by Race. Do you think that
these data support the presence of stacking in the NFL?

Source: Northeastern University, Center for the Study of Sport in Society, 2001.

Sport and Racism

One sign of systematic discrimination shows up in what is called stacking.
stacking In stacking, players are assigned to less central positions on the basis of race
assignment of players to less or ethnicity. “Central” positions are those that involve leadership and decision-
central positions on the basis making responsibilities and thus offer a greater likelihood of influencing the
of race or ethnicity outcome of the game. Historically, minorities have more often been assigned
to positions requiring relatively little interaction and coordination with other
players. In football, for example, African American quarterbacks are rare,
while the proportions of African Americans in many defensive and other less
central positions are high. (See Figure 15.4.)
 Chapter 15 Sport 515
Such discrimination has important economic consequences, because the
positions occupied by most African Americans have high injury rates that cut
careers short. Both salaries and pension benefits are reduced as a result.
Is there salary fairness in professional sports? Discrimination in
salary at the professional level exists. African Americans in the major profes-
sional sports are, on the average, paid as much as or more than their white
counterparts. It is only when level of performance is controlled that discrimi-
nation appears—African Americans have lower average salaries than whites for
the same level of performance. In other words, African Americans must per-
form better than whites to avoid pay discrimination (Eitzen and Sage, 1997).
What other areas of discrimination have been found? Minority for-
mer athletes profit much less than their white colleagues from personal ap-
pearances and commercial endorsements. They also lose out in sports-related
careers when their playing days are over. While approximately 78 percent of Student Web Activity
players in the National Basketball Association (NBA) are black, only about 16 Visit the Sociology and
percent of radio and television NBA sports announcers are African American, You Web site at
and only about 3 percent of the announcers are Latino. soc.glencoe.com and click on
At the professional level, there are few minorities represented in the Chapter 15—Student Web
power structure—head coaches, general managers, owners, executives, com- Activities for an activity on
missioners. In 1989, Bill White became the first African American to head a sport and sexism.
major professional sports league. As of 2001, only one major sport franchise
in the U.S. was owned by minorities. And no minorities in either the NFL or
Major League Baseball were board chairs, presidents, or CEOs. In 2000,
Michael Jordan became president of basketball operations for the NBA’s
Washington Wizards. In the following year, despite the fact that the deal
would give him partial ownership of the team, Jordan resigned and signed a
player’s contract. There were only three African American head coaches in
professional football in 2001, six African American baseball managers, and
one Latino baseball manager. Only 21 percent of NBA head coaches were
members of minority groups in 2001.
Minorities are well represented as
players in major U.S. sports.
However, after their playing days
are over, minorities are
underrepresented in positions of
power within their sport.
516 Unit 4 Social Institutions

District of
Columbia
Who Are the Biggest
Baseball Fans?
Baseball fans used to be young working-
class white males. Today’s fans are
older and more affluent but still pre- Regional Baseball
dominantly white and male. The rela- Viewership on Television
tive lack of African American fans High
might be traced to baseball’s traditional Above average
Below average
racist policies on the field and in the Low
front office.

Interpreting the Map

1. Do you see any regional patterns in the rates of baseball viewership? Describe.
2. How do you explain these patterns?
3. As a baseball fan, are you similar to or different from the general pattern in your state? Why?

Adapted from Latitudes and Attitudes: An Atlas of American Tastes, Trends, Politics, and Passions. Boston: Little, Brown.

Sexism in Sport
Racial and ethnic minorities have not been the only victims of prejudice
and discrimination in sport. Women have experienced sexism in athletics.
The cultural roots of sexism date back at least as far as the ancient Greeks.
Greek gods were depicted as athletic, strong, powerful, competitive, rational,
physical, and intellectual. Many Greek goddesses were passive, beautiful,
physically weak, supportive, unathletic, and sexually attractive. (The few ac-
tive, strong goddesses were usually not attractive to nor attracted by men. To
Greek males, women who were physically or intellectually superior to them
were unfeminine.) These gender definitions have survived in large part for
the past 2,500 years. Their influence is felt in sport just as it is in other as-
pects of social life.
 Chapter 15 Sport 517

What are some of the consequences of

sexism? Stereotypes have traditionally discouraged
females from playing sports. For centuries, the idea
that playing sports makes females more masculine has
been widespread. To be an athlete, females were told,
is to be unfeminine. This stigma discouraged many fe-
males from participating in athletics and tyrannized
many of those who did. Another barrier was the old,
discredited argument that sports harm a woman’s
health, particularly her ability to have children.
Sexism has denied females equal access to orga-
nized sports. At the local level, resistance to female
participation in sports continues to exist. It was not
until the mid-1970s that, under legal threat, the na-
tional Little League organization ended its males-only
policy. Only when the 1972 Educational Amendment
Act (Title IX) was passed were public high schools
and colleges required to offer females equal access to
sports. Originally, Title IX was interpreted as provid-
ing equal opportunity in “all” sport programs of insti-
tutions receiving federal funds. Ambiguities in Title IX
have led to many legal suits. Important issues remain
unresolved. Currently, the courts favor matching the
ratio of males and females in a school’s athletic pro-
grams to their proportionate numbers in the student
body of that school (Blum, 1993).
Why has the percentage of women coaching
women’s programs declined? Women are still
denied equal access to the power structure of sport
(Lapchick and Matthews, 2001). What’s more, al- Although sexism in sports has been
though Title IX increased equality for female athletes, it led to a decrease in decreasing, women athletes
continue to suffer from inequalities.
the number of coaching and administrative positions held by women. In the
early 1970s, women’s intercollegiate teams were headed almost entirely by
women. As of 2000, more than half of the NCAA women’s teams were
coached by men. (See Figure 15.5 on page 518.) Less than 25 percent of all
women’s programs were headed by a female administrator, and females held
518 Unit 4 Social Institutions
100% only one-third of all administrative
90% jobs in women’s programs (Acosta
and Carpenter).
Percentage of college teams

80%
Ironically, Title IX may be one
coached by women

70% reason for this decline. As the

60% money and prestige associated
with women’s programs have in-
50% creased, men have found these
40% coaching jobs much more attrac-
30%
tive. And conflict theorists believe
that men, who are overwhelmingly
20% in charge of athletic programs and
10% who have the power to make hir-
ing decisions, are more likely to
0
1972 1976 1979 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2000 choose men as coaches (Nixon and
Frey, 1996).
Figure 15.5 Percentage of
College Women’s Athletic Are women represented at the national level? Currently, profes-
Teams Coached by Women. sional sports for women include a Women’s National Basketball Association
What is most interesting to you (WNBA), a volleyball league, a golf tour, and a tennis circuit. As we have al-
about these data? ready seen, few women athletes make it to the professional ranks. Even
those women who become professionals earn significantly less than their
Source: Center for the Study of
male counterparts (Levin, 1996). Golf, for example, is one of the few profes-
Sport in Society, 2001.
sional sports offering significant opportunities for women. Still, the leading
money winner on the men’s tour typically earns more than twice as much as
the leading money winner on the women’s tour. This disparity is reflected in
the total prize money for the Professional Golfers’ Association (PGA) and the
Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA) tours—$185 million for men in
2001; $43.5 million for women.
There are some positive, if small, signs of change. In addition to her Nike
commercial, U.S. soccer star Mia Hamm has a lucrative deal with Gatorade.
Chamique Holdsclaw, an extremely talented female professional basketball

“
player for the Washington Mystics, obtained an unheard-of (for women ath-
letes) five-year contract with Nike, plus her own signature Holdsclaw shoe
(Hammel and Mulrine, 1999).
You don’t save a pitcher
for tomorrow. Tomorrow
Section 3 Assessment
it may rain.
1. What advice would you give to a young man or woman planning to
Leo Durocher
“ become a professional athlete? Use the information in this chapter in
baseball coach your response.
2. How did the Educational Amendment Act of 1972 (Title IX) affect
women’s sport programs?

Critical Thinking
3. Analyzing Information “American females experience more
prejudice and discrimination in sport than males.” Explain why you
agree or disagree with this statement.
 Chapter 15 Sport 519

Sociology How to Avoid

Today Bigotry in Sport
Sports sociologist J. Coakley supports the concerns of many
Native Americans on the issue of team names. He wrote the
following article about this issue.
Most of us are not very concerned about the use of
Native American names by many athletic teams. But to
Native Americans, war whoops and tomahawk chopping
portray negative stereotypes.
Using stereotypes to characterize Native Americans in the
U.S. is so common that most people don’t even realize they
are doing it. . . . When these stereotypes are used as a basis
for team names, mascots, and logos, sports become a way of
perpetuating an ideology that exploits, trivializes, and de-
means the history and cultural heritage of Native Americans.
If teachers, administrators, and students in U.S. schools had a deep knowledge of the rich and di-
verse cultures of Native Americans and realized the discrimination native peoples currently face, they
would not use names such as Indians, Redskins, Chiefs, Braves, Savages, Tribe, and Redmen for their
teams; they would not allow Anglo students to entertain fans by dressing up as caricatures of Native
Americans; and they would not allow fans to mimic Native American chants or act out demeaning
stereotypes of war-whooping, tomahawk-chopping Native Americans.
Schools should not use any Native American name or symbol in connection with sport teams un-
less they do the following:
1. Sponsor a special curriculum to inform students of the history, cultural heritage, and current liv-
ing conditions of the native group after which their sport teams are named. Unless 70 percent of
the students can pass annual tests on this information, schools should drop the names they say
are used to “honor” native people.
2. Publish two press releases per year in which information about the heritage and current circum-
stances of the native peoples honored by their team names is described and analyzed; publish
similar materials annually in school newspapers and yearbooks.
3. Once per year, during homecoming or a major sport event, sponsor a special ceremony designed
by and for native peoples in the local area, with the purpose of informing students and parents
about the people they say they honor with their team names.
Source: Jay J. Coakley, Sport in Society. 6th ed. Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill, 1998, pp. 272–273.

Doing Sociology
Is there a sport symbol in your community or state that might be offensive to Native Americans?
Has the existence of this offensive symbol hurt your community or state economically? Explain.
CHAPTER 15 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Vocabulary
Summary
Complete each sentence using each term once.
Section 1: The Nature of Sport a. sport interactionist
Main Idea: As a social institution, sport fulfills b. Title IX perspective on
some important societal needs. One of these is c. sports subculture sport
helping individuals identify with others members d. functionalist g. social mobility in
of society. Sport subcultures have developed perspective on sport
around both team and individual sports. For this sport h. stacking
reason, sport is a reflection of society. i. salary equity
e. conflict perspective
on sport j. sexism in sport
Section 2: Theoretical Perspectives and Sport
f. symbolic
Main Idea: Functionalists see sport positively, as
a means for socializing young people, promoting 1. The assumption that all athletes are paid
social integration, providing a releaser for ten- based on level of performance is known as
sions, and developing sound character. Conflict .
theorists believe that organized sports can be 2. The perspective that is most concerned with
harmful to character development. Symbolic in- the relationships of those involved is called
teractionists focus on the self-concepts and rela- .
tionships developed through sport activities.
3. Using sport to improve a position in the strati-
fication structure is known as .
Section 3: Social Issues in Sport
4. is the assigning of less central
Main Idea: Sport contributes to upward mobility positions to minorities.
among collegiate athletes, but the opportunities 5. is the perspective that empha-
are too few. Minorities still face discrimination in sizes the positive contributions of sport to
sport. Women in sport suffer from gender-based society.
stereotypes. Intercollegiate female athletes do not 6. A set of norms that surround a particular sport
receive treatment equal to the treatment received is called .
by males, although this situation is slowly
7. is the perspective that sees
improving.
sport as an institution in which the most pow-
erful oppress, manipulate, coerce, and exploit
others.
8. is a set of competitive activi-
ties in which winners and losers are deter-
mined by physical performance within a set of
established rules.
9. was established with the in-
Self-Check Quiz tent of increasing opportunity for female ath-
Visit the Sociology and You Web letes in school settings.
site at soc.glencoe.com and
10. The defining of sport as a masculine activity is
click on Chapter 15—Self-
known as .
Check Quizzes to prepare for
the chapter test.

520
Reviewing the Facts Or should teams be allowed to retain their tra-
ditional nicknames and mascots?
3. Making Generalizations Typically, the re-
1. Why does sport play an important role in wards associated with a particular skill or occu-
American society? pation tell us how much society values that skill
2. According to the functionalists, what is one pur- or occupation. Sports superstars are rewarded
pose of sport? very highly. Relatively few “superstars” in the
3. What is the conflict theorists’ view of sport as field of teaching or medicine make salaries
an institution? comparable to those of successful professional
4. Outline and summarize sport from the three so- athletes. Do you believe this indicates that U.S.
ciological perspectives. Create a diagram similar society doesn’t value education and health care
to the one below to record your answer. as highly as sports? What other factors might in-
fluence compensation and salary?
PERSPECTIVE SUMMARY 4. Making Inferences Nearly 80 percent of the
Functionalist players in the National Basketball Association
Conflict Theorist are African American, while over 90 percent of
Symbolic Interactionist the members of the National Hockey League
are white. Baseball and football are more
5. Identify the relationship between sport and so- evenly mixed. How would you explain the lack
cial mobility. of African Americans in hockey and their appar-
ent overrepresentation in basketball? (See also
Thinking Critically Activity 3 on the following page.)
5. Evaluating Information In the National
Basketball Association draft, the best players go
1. Drawing Conclusions High school athletes to the teams that completed the previous sea-
with superior skills are often given extraordi- son with the worst records. Why do you think
nary help in meeting college entrance require- the NBA uses this approach instead of allowing
ments, including coaching for achievement and the best players to go to the teams with the
aptitude tests. Many students feel this is unfair most prestige, status, and monetary resources?
to those who have higher grades but aren’t ac- 6. Applying Concepts Here’s a thought experi-
cepted. Others justify the practice. They point ment to try. Using your answer to number 5
out that athletics bring in lots of money for col- above, see if you can apply your reasoning to
leges. They also say that athletes have skills as the institution of the family. Imagine that NBA
rare as high intelligence and so deserve their teams are like families in various social classes
sports scholarships every bit as much as others and that each generation is like a season of
deserve academic scholarships. Do you think it professional basketball. Wouldn’t it be fair to
is fair for athletes to be given help meeting col- ask the winning families (those at the top of the
lege entrance requirements? social class ladder) not to pass on their advan-
2. Analyzing Information The use of mascots is tages to their offspring? In other words, for the
at the center of a current debate in sports. competition to be fair, wealthier families should
Some schools have made efforts to change their not be allowed to go to the best schools but in-
school nicknames and mascots so as not to of- stead should be sent to the schools with the
fend various groups that might have been nega- fewest resources. The logic used here is that the
tively portrayed by these mascots and best and most talented succeed anywhere. What
nicknames. Do you think that schools and is the fallacy in this argument?
teams have an obligation to take such actions?

521
CHAPTER 15 ASSESSMENT
7. Drawing Conclusions In referring to the way 2. The Home Court Advantage Interview athletes
a crowd of people can motivate a team of play- who participate in several of your school’s
ers, Emile Durkheim once said, “There are oc- sports. Ask the following questions.
casions when this strengthening and vivifying a. What are the advantages of playing at
action of society is especially apparent. In the home?
midst of an assembly animated by a common b. What are the disadvantages of playing on
passion, we become susceptible of acts and the road?
sentiments of which we are incapable when re-
c. What factors contribute to home court
duced to our own forces.” Do you believe that
advantage?
a home court or home field advantage really
exists? Do players rise to the occasion when d. What factors hinder better performances on
cheered on by the home crowd? Are there ever the road?
times when athletes might play better when not e. Do you ever prefer to play at home?
at home? f. Compare your notes with those of your
8. Evaluating Information Pretend that you are classmates to see if there is consensus.
attending a professional tennis match with an 3. The Cost of Sports Research suggests that par-
economist, a political scientist, a psychologist, ticipation in sports reflects geographic location
and a sociologist. Link each of the questions and economic conditions. For instance, basket-
below to the discipline most likely to give a ball is an urban game that does not require a
complete answer. lot of money to play. All one needs is a ball
a. How did the hot dogs get to be five dollars? and a place to shoot. Conduct research on
b. Why do some athletes fall apart after a other major sports—football, baseball, hockey,
bad call? skiing, tennis, and golf. Try to determine where
and by whom these sports tend to be played.
c. What is the socioeconomic status of the
How much does it cost an individual who is
players?
not professional to play these sports? Share your
d. Does tennis reflect mainstream values? results with the class.
e. How did Americans lose their dominance in 4. Minorities in Coaching and Management
this sport? The text discusses underrepresentation of mi-
f. Why does it seem that all tennis courts are norities in coaching and management positions.
located in wealthy neighborhoods? To find out whether this pattern still holds, con-
duct a quick survey of your own. (If your
teacher allows, you may want to work in
Sociology Projects groups.) Concentrating on professional sports,
what are the names of coaches and managers
1. Sports and Statistics The sports section is a from all the teams in a national league? Use the
great place to examine how statistics are used. Internet to find answers to these questions.
For one week follow a team in any sport that is (Most professional sports leagues include at
currently in season. Track several team and in- least twenty-five teams.) Identify as many of the
dividual statistics. Do dramatic changes occur in coaches and managers as possible by race and
the statistics, or are the changes insignificant? ethnicity. What is the proportion of minority
Can you offer any reason for the change or lack coaches and managers in your sample?
of change? Compare your team’s statistics with 5. Sports Apparel One way to see the impact of
those of a classmate’s team. Analyze the validity sports on U.S. society is to walk the halls of any
of the statistics. Do they accurately tell the American high school. (You may rather observe
story, or can statistics deceive us? people at a mall or shopping center if your
school does not allow clothes with commercial

522
 logos.) To get an idea how many people at Consider and list any perceived negative or
your school wear clothes that represent sports positive interactions. Analyze those interactions
teams or sports activities, sit in one place for fif- as either being constructive or destructive to the
teen minutes and simply count the number of development of desirable social interactions on
students and teachers wearing sports clothing. your planet.
Are many students wearing clothing represent- Write a one-page essay that summarizes your
ing their own high school teams? Or do most findings and supports your decision to recom-
favor logos from local college or professional mend or to not recommend that sport be estab-
teams? Do you think wearing team clothes fos- lished as an institution on your planet.
ters a sense of identification with the team?
6. Sports in Film Numerous movie videos deal
with sports themes. Select a video, and write a Technology Activity
report on it using concepts discussed in the
chapter. For example, the film Jerry McGuire 1. Using your favorite search engine, do a search
touches on player salaries and issues of race, for “sociology of sport.”
among other themes. Present your report to the a. How many web page matches did your
class. search find? What does that indicate to you
7. Sports as a Social Institution Imagine that about the importance of this subject?
you are a visitor from a planet where the insti- b. Go to the electronic journal Sociology of
tution of sport does not exist. The objective of Sport On-Line (sosol) at http://
your visit to Earth is to observe social interac- physed.otago.ac.nz/sosol/. Review the
tions in sport in order to determine whether table of contents of the most recent issue.
sport is an institution that should be established What types of topics are covered by the
on your planet. authors?
As a “visitor” you attend a game of basketball, c. Click on Overview. Where is this journal
football, volleyball and baseball. What conclu- published? Why was it started?
sions would you make regarding the social in-
teractions of those involved in the game?

523
524 Unit 4 Social Institutions

Chapter 15

Enrichment Reading
We Don’t Like Football,
Do We?
by D. Stanley Eitzen

If you grew up female in America, you heard and bonded with your male buddies. Or you
this: Sports are unfeminine. And this: Girls who didn’t play and risked ridicule.
play sports are tomboys. You got this message: Whether we were inspired by Babe Ruth or
Real women don’t spend their free time sliding Babe Didrikson or neither, and whether we
feet-first into home plate or smacking their fists played kickball with our brothers or sisters or
into soft leather gloves. both, all of us, female and male, learned to asso-
So you didn’t play or you did play and either ciate sports prowess and sports privilege with
way you didn’t quite fit. You didn’t fit in your masculinity. Even if the best athlete in the neigh-
body—didn’t learn to live there, breathe there, borhood was a girl, we learned from newspa-
feel dynamic and capable. Or maybe you fell pers, television, and from our own parents’
madly, passionately in love with sports but didn’t prejudices that batting, catching, throwing, and
quite fit in society, never saw yourself—basket- jumping are not neutral, human activities, but
ball player, cyclist, golfer—reflected in movies, somehow more naturally a male domain.
billboards, magazines. Insidiously our culture’s reverence for men’s
Or you took a middle ground, shying away at professional sports and its silence about
first but then later sprinting toward aerobics and women’s athletic accomplishments shaped, de-
weight lifting and in-line skating, relishing your fined, and limited how we felt about ourselves as
increasing endurance and grace and strength. women and men.
Even then, though, you sensed that something . . . You may have noticed that boys are no
was wrong: all the ads and articles seemed to longer the only ones shooting baskets in public
focus on weight loss and beauty. While those parks. One girl often joins the boys now, her hair
may have inspired you to get fit in the first place, dark with sweat, her body alert as a squirrel’s.
there are more important things, you now know, Maybe they don’t pass her the ball. Maybe she
than how you looked. No one seemed to be talk- grabs it anyway, squeezes mightily through the
ing about pride, pleasure, power, possibility. barricade of bodies, leaps skyward, feet flying.
If you grew up male in America, you heard Or she teams with other girls. Gyms fill these
this: Boys who don’t play sports are sissies or . . . days with the rowdy sounds of women hard at
[homosexuals]. And this: Don’t throw like a girl. play: basketballs seized by calloused hands,
You got this message: Sports are a male initiation sneakers squealing like shocked mice. The play-
rite, as fundamental and natural as shaving and ers’ high, urgent voices resonate, too—“Here!”
deep voices—a prerequisite, somehow, to be- “Go!”—and right then nothing exists for them ex-
coming an American man. So you played football cept the ball, the shifting constellation of women,
or soccer or baseball and felt competent, strong, the chance to be fluid, smooth, alive.
 Chapter 15 Sport 525

What Does it Mean

insidiously
developing in a stealthy
and harmful manner so
gradually as to become
established before being
apparent
prerequisite
required as a prior
condition to something
relishing
being pleased with or
gratified by

This West Virginia high

school student is a starter on
her school’s only varsity
basketball team.

What does this mean? What does it mean that Adapted from Mariah Burton Nelson. “We Don’t Like
everywhere, women are running, shooting bas- Football, Do We?” in D. Stanley Eitzen, Sport in
kets, getting sweaty and exhausted and eu- Contemporary Society: An Anthology, 5th ed., St.
phoric? What changes when a woman becomes Martin’s Press, Inc., 1996, pp. 25–26.
an athlete?
Everything.
On playing fields and in gyms across Read and React
America, women are engaged in a contest with 1. State briefly the main point of this article.
higher stakes than trophies or ribbons or even
2. What do you think is the author’s viewpoint
prize money. Through women’s play, and
on the relationship between gender and
through their huddles behind the scenes, they
sport? Do you agree with him?
are deciding who American women will be. Not
just what games they will play, but what role 3. Do you believe that attitudes in the United
they will play in this still-young nation. Not only States regarding female participation in
what their bodies will look like, but what their sport are changing? Explain.
bodies can do. 4. From which theoretical perspective is the
author writing? Use examples to illustrate
that perspective.
UNIT 5

526
SOCIAL CHANGE
Chapter 16
Population and
Urbanization
Chapter 17
Collective Behavior
and Social Change

Enrichment Readings
Chapter 16 – David Stipp
“Life Expectancy: Surprising
Demographic Trends”
page 564
Chapter 17 – Report: Falling
Through the Net
page 600

527
CHAPTER 16
Population and
Urbanization

528
 U
S Your Sections
I Sociological
N Imagination 1. The Dynamics of
G Demography
2. World Population

S uppose you read the following story in

your local newspaper.

On October 12, 1999, the United Nations of-

ficially declared that the world’s population
3.
4.
The Urban Transition
Urban Ecology
had reached six billion. United Nations
Secretary-General Kofi Annan was visiting
Sarajevo, Bosnia, when the historic mile-
stone was reached. To symbolize the event, Learning Objectives
he chose a baby boy born in a local clinic
at two minutes after midnight to be named
“Baby Six Billion.”
After reading this chapter, you will be able to
❖ identify the three population processes.
How big is six billion? If you counted a
hundred numbers every minute for eight ❖ relate the ideas of Thomas Malthus to
hours a day, five days a week, it would take population changes.
you five hundred years to reach six billion! ❖ predict world population trends.
According to Zero Population Growth ❖ trace the development of preindustrial
(ZPG), the world’s population is currently
and modern cities.
growing at a rate of 86 million people per
year. If asked about the reason for this rapid ❖ compare and contrast four theories of city
world population growth, what would you say? growth.
Like most people, you would probably refer to
the high birth rate in developing countries. You
could point out that every year, 94 million in-
fants are born—equal to the population of
Mexico—or that every time you watch a half-
hour TV program, 4,860 infants are born.
This explanation, however, is only half
of the story. It leaves out the other side of
Chapter Overview
the equation—the death rate. The popula-
Visit the Sociology and You Web site at
tion in these countries is growing rapidly soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 16—
because their birth rates remain high while Chapter Overviews to preview chapter
their death rates have dropped sharply, information.
thanks to modern medicine, improved sani-
tation, and better hygiene. In this chapter,
we look at demography and discuss why
this issue is important to sociologists.
529
530 Unit 5 Social Change

Section
The Dynamics of Demography
1 K e y

•
•
T e r m s

population
demography
•
•
fertility rate
total fertility rate
•
•
crude death rate
infant mortality rate
• fertility • mortality • migration
• fecundity • life span • gross migration rate
• crude birth rate • life expectancy • net migration rate

Section The
Preview Changing
Population
D emography is the scien-
tific study of population.
The collection of population
data is very important today,
in part because of its use by
S ociologists study
population
cause it affects social
be-

government and industry. structure, especially in

Demographers consider crowded areas. They
three population processes look for patterns that
when looking at population will help them under- Social structures reflect the ability of the land to support
change: fertility, mortality, stand and predict how people.
groups of people will
and migration.
behave. For example, they might examine the relationship between popula-
tion growth and politics. We know that historically the growth of minorities
in the United States has benefited Democrats more than Republicans
(Tilgrove, 1999). But the situation today is different with respect to Latinos.
Now the largest minority in the United States, Latinos are not firmly aligned
with either political party. Regardless of political affiliation, the growth of mi-
nority populations affects how congressional districts are drawn and is one
reason why census taking can be a controversial topic. Or sociologists might
study trends in population shifts, such as the aging baby boomers, to help
plan for hospitals and long-term nursing facilities.
population How do sociologists define population? A population is a group of
a group of people living in people living in a particular place at a specified time. The scientific study of
a particular place at a speci- population is called demography (demo is a Greek word that means
fied time “people”). To study population, demographers look at many factors, including
the number of people (size); how and where they are located (distribution);
what groups make up the population (composition); and the ages represented
demography in the population (age structure). Demographers also analyze three processes:
the scientific study of birth (fertility), death (mortality), and movement from one place to another
population (migration). Major changes in populations come from one or all of these three
processes. In the following sections, we look at the factors and processes that
affect populations.
 Chapter 16 Population and Urbanization 531
How might fertility drugs affect the
crude birth rate?

Fertility
Fertility measures the actual number of children born to a woman or to fertility
a population of women. Fecundity is the potential number of children that a measure of the number of
could be born if every woman reproduced as often as biology allowed. children born to a woman or a
Obviously, fertility rates are much lower than fecundity rates. The highest re- population of women
alistic fecundity rate you could expect from a society would be about fifteen
births per woman. The record fertility rate for a group probably is held by
fecundity
the Hutterites, who migrated a century ago from Switzerland to North and
the maximum rate at which
South Dakota and Canada. Hutterite women in the 1930s were giving birth women can physically produce
to an average of more than twelve children each (Westoff and Westoff, 1971). children
The Hutterites give us a good estimate of fecundity, because they are the best
example of natural fertility—the number of children born to women in the
absence of conscious birth control (Weeks, 1999).
How is fertility measured? The crude birth rate is the annual num- crude birth rate
ber of live births per one thousand members of a population. The crude birth the annual number of live
rate varies considerably from one country to another. The crude birth rate for births per one thousand
the United States is fifteen per one thousand. Niger, in West Africa, experi- members of a population
ences a very high crude birth rate of fifty-three per one thousand; and
Germany, a very low rate of nine per one thousand.
To calculate the crude birth rate, divide the annual number of live births
by the total population and multiply that number by 1,000.
Number of Live Births
TEXT ARTCrude
(to be inserted
Birth Rate = later) x 1,000
Total Population

The term crude in this case means rough, or approximate. The crude birth
rate is approximate because it is based on the entire population rather than fertility rate
just women of child-bearing age. It also ignores the age structure of the pop- the annual number of live
ulation. Both sex and age affect the number of live births in any given year. births per one thousand
women aged fifteen to
Consequently, in addition to the crude birth rate, demographers use the
forty-four
fertility rate—the annual number of live births per one thousand women
532 Unit 5 Social Change

District of
Columbia
Percentage of
Population Under 18
Many high school students feel that as
members of society they are not given
enough respect by society. One rea-
son could be that there are too few Percentage of Population Under 18
people in this age bracket to influ- 29% or more
ence policy makers. This map shows 28%–28.9%
the percentage of each state’s popula- 26%–27.9%
24%–25.9%
tion aged eighteen years of age. 23%–23.9%
< 23%

Interpreting the Map

1. Which states have the smallest concentrations of young people? Can you explain why?
2. From this map, can you make any generalization about the American population? What additional
information would help you to further describe the age structure of the U.S. population? Get that
information for your state.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2001.

aged fifteen to forty-four. The rate that is easiest to use is the total fertility
total fertility rate
rate, or the average number of children born to a woman during her life-
average number of children
born to a woman during her
time. Currently, total fertility rates in the world range from 5.2 in Africa to 1.4
lifetime in Europe.
What other factors influence birth rate? The birth rate of a popula-
tion is influenced by both health and social factors. For example, widespread
disease (especially rubella, or German measles) causes the birth rate to de-
cline because many pregnancies end in miscarriages. Social factors affecting
the birth rate include the average age at marriage, the level of economic de-
velopment, the availability and use of contraceptives and abortion, the num-
ber of women in the labor force, the educational status of women, and social
attitudes toward reproduction.
The U.S. birth rate in recent years has shown a steady decline. More cou-
ples today consider two children—or even one child—a desirable number.
Work patterns have affected the birth rate as well. More American women
today are postponing having children until their late twenties and early thir-
ties. As a result, women are having fewer children.
 Chapter 16 Population and Urbanization 533

Mortality
Mortality refers to death. To analyze patterns of mortality within a pop- mortality
ulation, sociologists look at life span and life expectancy. Life span is the deaths within a population
most advanced age to which humans can survive. We know for sure of a
Japanese man who lived nearly 121 years, but few people even approach this
age. Life expectancy is the average number of years that persons in a given life span
population born at a particular time can expect to live. World life expectancy the most advanced age to
is sixty-seven years (World Population Data Sheet, 2001). which humans can survive

How is mortality measured? The crude death rate is figured by divid-

ing the annual number of deaths by the total population and multiplying by
life expectancy
1,000. Like the crude birth rate, the crude death rate varies widely throughout
the average number of years
the world. The worldwide average crude death rate is nine per one thousand that persons in a given
persons. Looking at specific regions of the world, the death rate varies from a population born at a particular
low of six per thousand in Latin America to a high of fourteen per thousand time can expect to live
in Africa and Hungary. The death rate in the United States is about nine per
thousand (World Population Data Sheet, 2001).
Demographers are also interested in the variations in death rates for specific crude death rate
groups. They have devised age-specific death rates to measure the number of the annual number of deaths
deaths per thousand persons in a specific age group, such as fifteen- to nine- per thousand members of a
teen-year-olds or sixty- to sixty-four-year-olds. This allows them to compare the population
risk of death to members of different groups. Although death eventually comes
to everyone, the rate at which it occurs depends on many factors, including age,
sex, race, occupation, social class, standard of living, and health care.
The infant mortality rate—the number of deaths among infants under infant mortality rate
one year of age per one thousand live births—is considered a good indicator the annual number of deaths
of the health status of any group. This is because infants are the first to suffer among infants under one year
of age per one thousand live
births

This Brazilian mother attends a local clinic to get health care for her infant.
534 Unit 5 Social Change

Figure 16.1 World Population

Growth. This figure shows 11
estimated world population growth 10
to 2150. What factors do you think

Population (in billions)

9
led to the sharp rise in population
around 1850? 8
7
Source: Washington, DC: Population
6
Reference Bureau.
5
4
3
2
1
0
8000 B.C. A.D. 1 1650 1850 1950 2000 2025 2050 2100 2150

from a lack of good medical care and sanitation. Infants in developing coun-
tries are almost eight times more likely to die before their first birthday than in-
fants in the developed nations. Working together, the birth rates, fertility rates,
and mortality rates determine the world population growth. (See Figure 16.1.)

Migration
migration Migration refers to the movement of people from one geographic area
the movement of people from to another. Migration can occur within a country or between countries. An
one geographic area to example of migration from country to country is the resettlement of Asian
another refugees from Vietnam and Cambodia in countries around the world. Many
of the refugees who settle in the United States in one particular city or region
later move to another region, thus becoming internal migrants. Anyone who
moves from one part of the country to another—say, from New York to
Arizona—is engaging in internal migration.
gross migration rate How is migration measured? The gross migration rate into or out
the number of persons per year of an area is the number of persons per one thousand members of a popu-
per one thousand members of lation who enter or leave a geographic area in a given year. Net migration is
a population who enter or leave the difference between the number of people entering and leaving an area.
a geographic area Thus, the net migration rate is the annual increase or decrease per one
thousand members of a population resulting from movement into and out of
the population. In 1999, for example, the United States had a net migration
net migration rate rate of about 3.0 per one thousand population. That is, 3.0 more persons per
the annual increase or one thousand population entered the country than left the country. It is also
decrease per one thousand possible of course, to have a negative net migration rate showing more peo-
members of a population ple overall left an area than entered it.
resulting from migration into
When the U.S. Census Bureau reports migration rates, it refers only to the
and out of the population
number of legal immigrants. Many people violate immigration laws to enter
the United States. In the 1970s, the issue of illegal immigration—primarily
from Latin American and Caribbean countries—became a major concern and
continues to be controversial today. There are no precise statistics on either
the illegal immigration rate or the total number of illegal aliens living in the
United States. Estimates of the current number of illegal aliens range from
three million to six million persons.
 Chapter 16 Population and Urbanization 535

Another
Place The Graying of Japan

Birth rates and death rates have important social glow—if they truly ever had one. Among the more
and cultural consequences. In Japan, elders have sensational evidence cited are the supposedly high
traditionally been held in high esteem. This tradi- rate of suicide among elderly Japanese and the ex-
tion is threatened by a combination of two factors: istence of temples where the elderly go to pray for
People are generally living longer, and there are
a quick death. Also, in recent years, the number of
fewer young people to support the elders’ exis-
tence. As they lose respect, many older Japanese
activities for or honoring the elderly on their spe-
now pray in their temples for a quick death. cial day have been few and far between. For most
Japanese, September 15th is just another holiday.

T he population of Japan is aging faster than

any on earth, a result of declining birth and
death rates. The situation of the elderly of Japan is
The particularly rapid pace of aging in Japan
and the potential consequences have captured the
attention of policymakers and officials. [A major
like the proverbial glass of water that is either half government report] listed population aging along
full or half empty, depending on whether the pos- with internationalization and maturation of the
itive or negative aspects of their lives are empha- economy as the three major challenges for twenty-
sized. In some ways, elderly Japanese are better off first-century Japan. Japanese prime ministers have
than the elderly of the other developed countries. regularly referred to aging as they have set the pol-
They hold the position of “honorable elders,” a re- icy agenda, recognizing that population aging af-
flection of the Confucian precept of duty owed to fects many aspects of the society and the economy.
parents. Japan even has a national holiday,
Source: Linda G. Martin, “The Graying of Japan,”
“Respect for the Aged Day,” September 15th, when
Population Bulletin (Washington, DC).
most offices and factories are closed. Furthermore,
a relatively high proportion of elderly Japanese live
with their adult children, which is often cited as Thinking It Over
evidence of the reverence this country pays to Are the effects of the graying of Japan best ex-
the aged. plained by functionalism, conflict theory, or sym-
However, it can also be argued that elderly bolic interactionism? Defend your choice.
Japanese are not really so well off and that the
“ecstasy years” of old age are losing their rosy

Section 1 Assessment

“
1. What three major processes affect the way populations change?
2. How might data about age-specific death rates or population shifts be
of use?
3. Why is the infant mortality rate a key statistic for health workers? You have to enjoy
getting older.
Critical Thinking
4. Drawing Conclusions Why is demography increasingly important? Clint Eastwood
Think of a way in which the federal government could use some
specific piece of demographic data. State how this information would
“
actor and director
help the government make a policy decision.
536 Unit 5 Social Change

Section
World Population
2 K e y

• census
T e r m s

• population momentum
• doubling time • replacement level
• exponential growth • population control
• demographic transition • family planning
theory • population pyramid
• zero population growth • dependency ratio

Section The Problem of Population Growth

Preview
N o organization has actually ever counted all the people in the world.
World population figures are a composite of best estimates and na-

T homas Malthus (1798)

predicted that population
size would ultimately outstrip
tional census figures where available. While many countries count and cate-
gorize people living in those countries, the quality of census data varies a great
deal and can be very unreliable. Nevertheless, world population growth pat-
the food supply, resulting in terns can be identified.
mass starvation and death.
The demographic transition
theory looks at economic
development to predict
population patterns. While
the rate of world population
growth is slowing, the world’s
population will continue to
increase for many years.
Population control has be-
come a concern of many
governments worried about
providing for their future
citizens.

census
regularly occurring count of a
particular population

If the counting of the population is a problem in developed

societies, imagine the difficulty with obtaining accurate counts in
developing societies.
 Chapter 16 Population and Urbanization 537
Population Population Projection Figure 16.2 Population
2001 for 2050 Projections by Regions of the
(in Millions) (in Millions) World. This graph displays
North America 316 North America 450 population projections, by regions
of the world, from 2001 to 2050.
Asia 3,720 Asia 5,262 Note the dramatic difference in
Oceania 31 Oceania 46 population doubling time between
less developed areas and developed
Latin America 525 Latin America 815 areas.
Africa 818 Africa 1,800
Source: Adapted from World
Europe 727 Europe 662 Population Data Sheet, 2001.
Less Developed Areas 4,944 Less Developed Areas 7,794

Developed Areas 1,193 Developed Areas 1,242

World 6,137 World 9,036

0 2000 4000 6000 0 2000 6000 10,000 Visit soc.glencoe.com
and click on Textbook
Projected Population Updates–Chapter 16 for
Change Between Doubling Time an update of the data.
2001 and 2050 (in Years)

North America 43% North America 139

Asia 41% Asia 50

Oceania 49% Oceania 63

Latin America 55% Latin America 41

Africa 120% Africa 29

Europe –9% Europe *

Less Developed Areas 58% Less Developed Areas 43

Developed Areas 4% Developed Areas 693

World 47% World 53

–10 0 20 40 60 80 0 200 400 600
*
Doubling not projected to occur.

Rapid world population growth is a relatively recent phenomenon. In fact,

your grandparents have seen more population growth during their lifetimes
than occurred during the preceding four million years. An estimated 250 mil-
lion people were on the earth in A.D. 1. (Refer back to Figure 16.1 on page
534.) It was not until 1650 that the world’s population doubled, to half a bil-
lion. The second doubling occurred in 1850, bringing the world population to
one billion. By 1930, only eighty years later, another doubling had taken place.
Only forty-five years after that, in 1976, a fourth doubling raised the world’s
population to four billion. At the current growth rate, the world’s population
is expected to double again in about fifty years and will approach eight billion
persons by the year 2025. As you can see, the number of years between each
doubling of the population—called, for obvious reasons, the doubling time— doubling time
is getting shorter and shorter (World Population Data Sheet, 1999). Figure 16.2 number of years needed to
breaks down world population projections by region. Figure 16.3 on the next double the base population size
page looks at key demographic statistics by world regions.
538 Unit 5 Social Change

Figure 16.3 World Birth Crude Birth Rates Total Fertility Rates
Rates, Death Rates, and Russia 9 Russia 1.2
Infant Mortality Rates. Europe 10 Europe 1.4
Would you always expect to see a Canada 11 Canada 1.4
correlation between crude birth North America 14 North America 2.0
rates and total fertility rates for a United States 15 United States 2.1
country? Between crude death rates China 15 China 1.8
and infant morality rates? Oceania 18 Oceania 2.5
Asia 22 Asia 2.7
Source: Washington, DC: Population
Latin America 24 Latin America 2.8
Reference Bureau, 2001.
Africa 38 Africa 5.2
Developed Areas 11 Developed Areas 1.6
Developing Areas 28 Developing Areas 3.6
(excluding China) (excluding China)
World 22 World 2.8
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Visit soc.glencoe.com
and click on Textbook
Updates–Chapter 16 for
an update of the data.
Crude Death Rates Infant Mortality Rates
Russia 15 Russia 16
Europe 11 Europe 9
Canada 8 Canada 6
North America 9 North America 7
United States 9 United States 7
China 6 China 31
Oceania 7 Oceania 28
Asia 8 Asia 55
Latin America 6 Latin America 31
Africa 14 Africa 88
Developed Areas 10 Developed Areas 8
Developing Areas 9 Developing Areas 67
(excluding China) (excluding China)
World 9 World 56
0 3 6 9 12 15 0 20 40 60 80 100

Why is the world’s population growing so fast? The population has in-
creased so dramatically in part because of the way population increases. We are
accustomed to thinking in terms of linear growth, whereby amounts increase
arithmetically (as in the progression 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 . . .). Population, however, does
exponential growth not grow linearly. It follows the principle of exponential growth, and in-
growth in which the amount creases geometrically (as in the progression 2, 4, 8, 16, 32). With exponential
of increase is added to the growth, the amount of increase is greater each time period even though the
base figure each time period rate of increase remains the same. This is because each increase is added to the
base amount and becomes part of the calculation for the next rise.
A classic example of exponential growth follows: The story tells of a clever
minister who presented a beautiful chess set to his king. In return, he asked
only that the king give one grain of rice for the first square on the chessboard;
two grains, or double the amount, for the second square; four (doubling
again) for the third; and so forth. The king, not being mathematically minded,
agreed and ordered the rice brought forth. The eighth square required 128
grains, and the twelfth took more than a pound of rice. Long before reaching
 Chapter 16 Population and Urbanization 539
the sixty-fourth square, the king’s coffers were depleted. Even today, the
world’s richest king could not produce enough rice to fill the final square. It
would require more than 200 billion tons, or the equivalent of the world’s cur-
rent total production of rice for the next 653 years.
If a population is growing at 1 percent per year, it takes seventy years to
double. For example, suppose the population of a city was 50,000 in 1800.
At a growth rate of 1 percent, that population would grow to 100,000 in
1870. By 1940 it would reach 200,000; by 2010, 400,000. Recalling the chess-
board example, you can see that even a 1 percent growth rate can have se-
rious consequences. The number of people added each year becomes part
of the total population, which then increases by another 1 percent in the fol-
lowing year.

Malthus and Population Growth

Concern about population is not new. In 1798, Thomas
Robert Malthus, an English minister and economist, published
An Essay on the Principle of Population. In his essay, Malthus
described relationships between population growth and
economic development. Here are the key concepts in his
theory.
❖ Population, if left unchecked, will exceed the food
supply. This is because population increases
exponentially, while the food supply does not.
❖ Checks on population can be positive or preventive.
Positive factors are events or conditions that increase
mortality. They include famine, disease, and war.
Preventive factors decrease fertility and include sexual
abstinence and marrying at a later age. (Remember that
at the time Malthus wrote there was no reliable birth
control. For this conservative minister, sexual English minister and economist
abstinence was the only acceptable way to reduce Thomas Malthus wrote about the
the number of births.) ability of the food supply to keep up
❖ For the poor, any improvement in income is eaten with population growth.
up in additional births. This leads to lower per-
person food consumption, lower standards of living, and eventually
death.
❖ The wealthy and well educated already exercise preventive checks.
How did Malthus apply his theory to population control? Malthus be-
lieved that positive checks on population growth could be avoided through
education of the poor. With education, he wrote, the poor would raise their
standard of living and choose to have smaller families. That part of Malthus’s
theory is not generally known, however, because he is most remembered for
his dire predictions that overpopulation would result in famine and poverty.

The Demographic Transition

Although wrong in some of his key assumptions, Malthus had a lasting
impact on population study. His is not the only theory, however. Developed
540 Unit 5 Social Change
Figure 16.4 Stages of the
Demographic Transition. Beginning of
This figure illustrates the modernization Birth rate
demographic transition. Stage 1 Death rate
begins with small population growth Birth rate drops
sharply
due to a balance between birth rates
and death rates (both at high Birth rate high
levels). In Stage 2, population grows Death rate high
dramatically because the death rate
decreases so much faster than the
birth rate. Population growth begins
to slow in Stage 3, when the birth Birth rate remains
rate belatedly drops sharply. Stage 4 high Birth rate low
Death rate declines Death rate
is again a condition of smaller
sharply continues to
population growth because birth decline sharply
rates and death rates come into
balance (both at low levels). Death rate low

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

nations have followed a pattern of population growth different from that pre-
demographic transition theory dicted by Malthus’s theory. The demographic transition theory looks at
theory that population growth the stages of economic development in a country to make predictions about
is a function of the level of population growth. This theory takes into consideration two things Malthus
economic development in a did not predict—agricultural productivity and reliable methods of birth con-
country trol. Demographic transition theory describes four stages of population
growth. (See Figure 16.4 shown above.)
❖ Stage 1. Both the birth rate and the death rate are high. Population
growth is slow. No countries are at this stage today.
❖ Stage 2. The birth rate remains high, but the death rate drops sharply
because of modernizing factors such as sanitation, increased food
production, and medical advances. The rate of population growth is
very high. Most sub-Saharan African countries are presently at this stage.
❖ Stage 3. The birth rate declines sharply, but because the death rate
continues to go down, population growth is still rapid. Many Latin
American countries are currently at this stage.
❖ Stage 4. Both the birth rate and the death rate are low, and the
population grows slowly if at all. Anglo America, Europe, and Japan
are at this stage today.

Future World Population Growth

World population growth has reached a turning point. After more than two
hundred years of increase, the annual population growth rate is declining. The
current growth rate is 1.3 percent, compared with the peak of 2.04 percent in
the late 1960s. Moreover, the rate is projected to drop to zero by the year 2100.
But as we have seen, despite the reduction in the annual growth rate and
birth rate, the world’s population will continue to increase. Nearly seven bil-
lion people are expected to inhabit the globe by 2010. Throughout the first
 Chapter 16 Population and Urbanization 541
half of the twenty-first century, Three Possible Futures
the annual growth rate is ex- 30
pected to decline until world High Scenario
(2.6 children per woman)
population stabilizes at about 25
eleven billion people. (See

Billions of persons
Figure 16.5.) At this point, the 20
world will have reached zero
population growth—when 15 Medium Scenario
deaths are balanced by births so (2.0 children per woman)
that the population does not in-
10
crease (World Population Data
Sheet, 2001).
Contrary to popular belief, 5 Low Scenario
limiting the average family size (1.6 children per woman)
to two children does not imme- 0
1950 1970 1990 2010 2030 2050 2070 2090 2110 2130 2150
diately produce zero population
Year
growth. There is a time lag of
sixty to seventy years because Figure 16.5 Long-Range Projections of World Population: 2000–2150.
of the high proportion of young The United Nations’ estimate of future growth is based on three different assumptions.
women of childbearing age in The high scenario would push world population growth to over 27 billion. The medium
the world’s population. Even if scenario would result in a world population of about 11 billion. The low scenario would
each of these women had only leave the world population at about 4 billion.
two children, the world popula- Source: Population Reference Bureau, Washington, DC, 2001.
tion would grow.
The time lag is what demog-
raphers call population momentum. The growth of the world’s population,
like a huge boulder rolling down a mountain, cannot be stopped immedi- zero population growth
ately. But the sooner the momentum of current population growth is halted, situation in which deaths are
balanced by births so that the
the better. The sooner the world fertility rate reaches the replacement level population does not increase
(the rate at which people replace themselves without adding to the popula-
tion) the sooner zero population growth will be reached. The ultimate size
of the world’s population, when it does stop growing, depends greatly on population momentum
the timing of reaching replacement level. To state it another way, for each inability to stop population
decade it takes to reach replacement level, the world’s population will in- growth immediately because
crease by 15 percent. of previous high rate of
growth

Population Control replacement level

birth rate at which a couple
As discussed earlier, death rates in both developing and developed na-
replaces itself without adding
tions have already dropped dramatically. Any significant progress in curbing to the population
world population growth must concentrate on lowering birth rates.
Population control refers to the conscious attempt to regulate population
size through national birth control programs.
population control
Is government-sponsored population control new? Historically, attempts by government to
most societies were more concerned with increasing the population than control birth rates
with overpopulation. Many births were needed to offset the high death rates
from disease and poor hygiene. With surplus populations, aggressive nations
were able to maintain larger armies. Agricultural societies needed large num-
bers of people to work the land. Aging parents wanted to be more secure in
old age. High birth rates were also encouraged in countries with religious
laws against birth control.
542 Unit 5 Social Change
European countries, such as
Germany, have been very successful
in controlling population growth
through family planning.

Since the middle of the twentieth century, however, more (but certainly
not all) governments have come to view high birth rates as a threat to their
national well being. By 1990, most countries had in place formal programs
to reduce birth rates. Government policies for population control range from
voluntary to compulsory.
What is voluntary population control? The voluntary use of popula-
family planning tion control methods is generally known as family planning. Governments
the voluntary use of that support family planning provide information and services that help cou-
population control methods ples have only the number of children they want. Voluntary government poli-
cies range from indirect means such as family planning education to direct
means such as distributing birth control materials at health clinics.
Even when effective, however, family planning programs merely enable
families to achieve their desired family size. Unfortunately for effective pop-
ulation control, the desired family size in many nations is quite high. The
average preferred family size (number of children) in African nations is 7.1;
in Middle-Eastern nations, 5.1; in Latin American nations, 4.3; and in Asian
Pacific nations, 4.0. In European countries, the average preferred family size
ranges from 2.1 to 2.8.
How successful is voluntary population control? Family planning has
succeeded in Taiwan, where the birth rate had fallen below replacement level
by 2000. Taiwan’s family planning efforts were launched under very favorable
conditions. When the Japanese withdrew from Taiwan after World War II, they
left behind a labor force trained for industrial work. Consequently, the
Taiwanese were able to use this advantage to build an expanding economy.
With economic development came a decline in both birth and death rates. In
short, the Taiwanese went through the demographic transition fairly rapidly.
India was a different story. Family planning there got off to a very slow
start, and the country has been unable to reduce the rate of population
growth through voluntary means. Family planning efforts failed because gov-
ernment officials and family planners did not take the broader social context
 Chapter 16 Population and Urbanization 543
into account. For one thing, India did not have
Taiwan’s advantage of relatively rapid economic de-
velopment. In addition, the Indian officials and plan-
ners did not make enough efforts to overcome cultural
and religious opposition to birth control. Nor did they
find enough ways to effectively communicate birth
control information and technology. Finally, the na-
tional birth control program was left in the hands of
individual state governments to implement.
Efforts to control population began to succeed in
India only after the government turned to a steriliza-
tion program in 1976. Although the government did
not use the force of law, a system of disincentives had
the effect of compulsion. Those who could not pro-
duce official proof of a sterilization were denied such
things as business permits, gun licenses, and ration
cards for the purchase of basic goods (Weeks, 1999).
Have compulsory population control methods India’s population control programs
ever been used successfully? Both China and Singapore have forced have been only moderately
successful at best.
population control policies that seem to achieve their goals. China has been
successful in reducing its total fertility rate from 7.5 in 1963 to 1.8 in 2001
through a system of rewards and punishments that includes a “one-child”
policy. One-child families receive a larger retirement pension and enjoy
preference in housing, school
admission for their children, and
employment. Families with more
than one child are subject to an
escalating tax on each child, and
they get no financial aid from
the government for the medical
and educational costs of their
extra children.
The island city-state of
Singapore began formally dis-
couraging large families in 1969.
The government passed laws
that penalized parents with large
families (Weeks, 1999). These
measures included
❖ denial of a paid eight-week
maternity leave.
❖ loss of an income tax
allowance.
❖ diminished access to public
housing.
❖ increased maternity costs
for each additional child.
❖ a lower likelihood of China’s population control efforts have been
children’s entering good very effective. This poster of a mother and
schools. baby was designed to promote small families.
544 Unit 5 Social Change
These policies worked so well that the total fertility rate in Singapore
dropped from 4.5 children per woman to 1.4 between 1966 and 1985. In fact,
the government became worried about the reduction in population size and,
in 1987, reversed some of its earlier policies. The government of Singapore
now supports three or more children for people able to afford them (Yap,
1995). Despite this effort, Singapore’s total birth rate of 1.6 is still below re-
placement level.
Does one child make a difference? The importance of limiting family
size, even by one child, can be illustrated by population projections for the
United States. Even though the United States is unlikely to increase to a three-
child average in the future, the hypothetical American case can help us un-
derstand the importance of population control. Figure 16.6 contrasts the
projected population of the United States in the year 2070 for an average fam-
ily size of two children and an average family size of three children. When
small decreases in the death rate and net migration at the present level are as-
sumed, an average two-child family size would result in a population of 300
million in 2015. Taking the hypothetical average family size of three children,
the U.S. population would grow to 400 million by 2015. As time passed, the
difference of only one extra child per family would assume added signifi-
cance. By 2070, the two-child family would produce a population of 350 mil-
lion, but the three-child family would push the population close to one billion!
To say it another way, with an average family of two children, the U.S. pop-
ulation would not quite double itself between 1970 and 2070. But should the
three-child family have been the average, the population would have doubled
itself twice during this same period.
The consequences of limiting population in developing regions becomes
clearer when the effect of even one child added to the average number of
children in a family is recognized. Moreover, the addition of one child per
family has a greater effect as the population base gets larger; not only is one
extra person added, but theoretically that one person will be involved with
the reproduction of yet another three, and on it goes. The largest populations
are found in developing countries, which also have the largest average num-
ber of children per family.

Figure 16.6 Projected 900

Populations of the United Three-child average per family
800
States. This graph illustrates the Two-child average per family
importance of reaching the 700
Population (in millions)

population replacement level (two

children per family). Are you 600
surprised at the difference in U.S. 400 million
population growth caused by an 500 (2015)
average of three children per family 300 million
400
versus two children? (1995)
300 200 million
(1968)
100 million 300 million
200 (1915) (2015)

100

0
1870 1900 1970 2000 2070
 Chapter 16 Population and Urbanization 545

Population Developed Nations Less Developed Nations

85+ 85+
Pyramids 80–84
75–79
80–84
75–79
70–74 70–74
Population pyramids 65–69
Males Females 65–69 Males Females
allow you to see at a glance 60–64 60–64

Age in years
55–59 55–59
the age and sex composition 50–54 50–54
of a population. Age and sex 45–49 45–49
are key indexes to fertility and 40–44 40–44
35–39 35–39
mortality rates, which in turn 30–34 30–34
are used to project school and 25–29 25–29
20–24 20–24
housing needs, health re- 15–19 15–19
sources, and other key social 10–14 10–14
5–9 5–9
services. Population pyramids 0–4 0–4
illustrate the dependency ratio 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 300 200 100 0 100 200 300
that results from different rates Population in millions Population in millions
of population growth. The
dependency ratio is the ratio
of persons in the dependent Figure 16.7 Age-Sex Pyramids in Developed and Less Developed Countries.
ages (under fifteen and over This figure shows general population patterns by age and sex in developed and developing
sixty-four) to those in the countries. Using the dependency ratio, explain why children in developed countries are
“economically active” ages (fif- economically better off than those in the developing nations.
teen to sixty-four). The two as- Source: United Nations Population Division.
pects of the dependency ratio
are youth dependency and
old-age dependency. Developing nations have much higher youth dependency
than developed nations. Developed nations have significantly higher old-age population pyramid
a graphic representative of the
dependency. Figure 16.7 displays typical age-sex pyramids for developed and age and sex composition of a
developing nations. population
Why is the dependency ratio important? For developing countries
such as Mexico, a high youth dependency means that national income
must be diverted from economic development to provide food, housing, dependency ratio
and education for its large the ratio of dependent
persons to economically active
young population. In de-
persons
veloped countries such
as the United States,
rising old-age depen-
dency creates a
different set of
problems.
With a larger

America’s aging population is

raising the dependency ratio. Why
should that concern you?
546 Unit 5 Social Change
4.5

Ratio of working-age population to the elderly

4.0
1995
There were 4.1 2030
times as many 25- There will be 2.3
3.5
to 64-year-olds as times as many 25-
there were people to 64-year-olds as
65 and older. there will be people
3.0 65 and older.

2.5

2
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Figure 16.8 Ratio of Working-Age Population to the Elderly in the U.S.

25-to-64-Year-Olds vs 65 and Older. This graph illustrates the rising old-age
dependency occurring in the U.S.

Source: Reference Bureau, Washington, D.C.

older population, there are fewer young people in the labor force to sup-
port the growing number of older people. For example, in the United
States in 1995 there were just over four times as many 25-year-olds as 64-
year-olds. By 2030, there will be only 2.3 times as many. (See Figure 16.8.)
This shift will increase the burden on the young to pay for Social Security
and Medicare. Other problems will include the need for increasing health
care services and institutional arrangements for the long-term care of el-

“
Mankind owes to the
child the best it has
derly people.

Section 2 Assessment
to give. 1. Briefly explain the difference between exponential and linear growth.
2. What are positive checks?
“
UN declaration 3. How does the demographic transition theory reflect the development of
Western nations?
4. Which of the following figures is the world’s population most likely to
reach before it stops growing?
a. four billion c. eleven billion
b. eight billion d. twenty-five billion

Critical Thinking
5. Evaluating Information Given the exponential rate at which
population grows, discuss the effect of zero population growth on the
size of the world’s population in 2020.
 Chapter 16 Population and Urbanization 547

Sociology Demography for

Today Businesses
Businesses have discovered that they can grow bigger by targeting smaller groups of consumers.
These groups, called generations, or cohorts, are defined by important life experiences. Events occur-
ring when people first become economic adults (usually between ages 17 and 21) affect their life-
long attitudes and values. These attitudes and values are unlikely to change as a person ages. So the
kind of music that is popular during these formative years often remains the preferred type of music
for life. Similarly, early lifetime experiences influence preferences in many other product and service
categories.
Studies of the U.S. population have identified seven distinct groups described in the table below.
Which cohort are you? Your parents?
Cohort Description Born Popular Music Styles
The Depression cohort The G.I. generation 1912–1921 Big band
The World War II cohort The Depression generation 1922–1927 Swing
The Postwar cohort The silent generation 1928–1945 Frank Sinatra/Rat Pack
The Boomers I cohort The Woodstock generation 1946–1954 Rock and roll
The Boomers II cohort The zoomer generation 1955–1965 Rock and roll, disco
The generation X cohort The baby-buster generation 1966–1976 Grunge, rap,
country western
The Boomlet cohort The echo-boom generation 1977– Retro-swing, Latin

Doing Sociology
Have short interviews with members
of at least two of the demographic
business cohorts profiled above.
Identify a number of differences in
preferences for products between the
members of different cohorts.
Source: Berkowitz, Kerin, Hartley, and
Rudelius, Marketing, 5th ed. Chicago:
Irwin, 1997.

The products in this mall store have been

selected by taking into account the buying
preferences of teenagers.
548 Unit 5 Social Change

Section
The Urban Transition
3 K e y

• city
T e r m s

• central-city dilemma
• urbanization • gentrification
• overurbanization • edge city
• suburbanization

Section Defining a City

Preview
W hen does a village become
a city? In Denmark and

T he first preindustrial cities

developed in fertile areas
where surplus food could be
Sweden, an area with 200 inhabitants
officially qualifies as a city. Populous
Japan uses a much higher number—
grown. With the Industrial 30,000. The cutoff point used by the
Revolution came a major in- U.S. Census Bureau to define a city is
crease in the rate of urbaniza- a population of 2,500. This number
tion. The development of was set at a time when urbanization
had just begun and population con-
factories was an especially
centrations were small. It is obvi-
important influence on the lo-
ously low for modern times.
cation of cities. Urbanization A city is more than just a reason-
in developed and developing ably large number of people, how-
nations has occurred at differ- ever. Cities are also long-lasting. The
ent speeds. The United periodic Woodstock rock festivals
States is now primarily a sub- gather a large number of people in
urban nation. one place, but only for short periods
of time. Clearly, large gatherings alone
do not make a city. Cities also have a
centralized economic focus. That is,
they provide people with a chance to
work in commerce, industry, or ser-
vice. In summary, a city is a dense
and permanent concentration of peo- Crowded inner cities and sprawling suburbs
city ple living in a limited geographic area appear in all American cities.
dense and permanent who earn their living primarily
concentration of people living through nonagricultural activities.
in a specific area and working
primarily in nonagricultural jobs
Urbanization
urbanization The world has been greatly changed by urbanization—the process by
process by which an which an increasingly larger portion of the world’s population lives in or very
increasingly larger portion of near to cities. Urbanization has been so common that it is now taken for granted
the world’s population lives in
in many parts of the world. Today, almost as many people live in urban areas
cities
as in rural areas. This is a fairly recent development in human history.
 Chapter 16 Population and Urbanization 549
What were early cities like? The first cities appeared about five or six
thousand years ago and were quite small by modern standards. One of the
world’s first major cities was Ur, located at the point where the Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers meet (in modern-day Iraq). At its peak, Ur held only about
24,000 people. Later, during the time of the Roman Empire, it is unlikely that
many cities had populations larger than 33,000. The population of Rome it-
self was probably under 350,000.
In addition to their small size, the cities of ancient and medieval periods
contained only a small portion of the world’s population. As recently as 1800,
less than 3 percent of the world’s population lived in cities of 20,000 or more.
By contrast, today, 46 percent of the world’s population live in urban areas.
In North America, 75 percent of the population live in cities (World
Population Data Sheet, 2001). How did cities develop so quickly and why
have cities replaced rural living for most people?

Preindustrial Cities
The first urban settlements were located in Mesopotamia and were estab-
lished around 3500 B.C. This was after people learned how to cultivate plants
and domesticate animals, a period known as the agricultural revolution.
The Mesopotamian region is among the world’s most fertile areas and the
farmers in the area were able to provide enough extra, or surplus, food to
feed people in the cities. A surplus food supply is necessary for urbanization
to occur.
Who lived in preindustrial cities? Besides available food, people
needed other reasons to gather in cities. Cities tended to attract four basic
types of people: elites, functionaries, craftspeople, and the poor and desti-
tute. For elites, the city provided a setting for consolidating political, mili-
tary, or religious power. The functionaries were the political or religious
officials who carried out the plans of the elites. Their lives were undoubt-
edly easier than those of the peasant-farmers in the countryside.
Craftspeople, still lower in the stratification structure, came to the city to
work and sell their products to the elites and functionaries. The poor
came hoping to find work but were seldom able to improve their
condition.
Do preindustrial cities still exist today? Africa, Asia, and
Latin America are only partly industrialized. For this reason, many
of their cities still have some preindustrial characteristics. This is
particularly true in capital cities because they are a magnet to the
rural poor seeking a better life. Rural migrants are attracted to
these cities because there are limited opportunities for making a
living in the rural areas and the city promises a better life.
Unfortunately, most of those who migrate to the cities are dis-
appointed, because the expected employment opportunities do
not exist. The migrants end up living in terrible slums.
In Calcutta, India, for example, 12 million people are
crowded into a city whose last major sewer line was built in
1896. Epidemics are frequent, and disease is commonplace. Calcutta’s hous- Calcutta, India, remains essentially a
ing supply, waterworks, electrical system, and other facilities are not sufficient preindustrial city.
to cope with the city’s rapid growth.
550 Unit 5 Social Change

World View Urban Population as a

Proportion of Total
Population
As discussed in the text, the Industrial Revolution en-
couraged the rapid growth of cities. The map below
shows that many countries now have urban popula-
tions that comprise 60 percent or more of their total
populations.

North
Nor th Europe
Europe
America
Asia

Africa
South
America

Australia
Urban Population as a Percentage
of Total Population
> 79% 20%– 39%
60% –79% < 20%
40%–59% No data

Interpreting the Map

1. The map shows that countries such as England, Germany, and Sweden have urban populations
that make up over 80 percent of their total populations. This can be explained by the effects of
the Industrial Revolution, since these countries’ economies are highly developed. However,
other countries, such as Venezuela, Argentina, and Libya, which are not highly developed, also
have urban populations that comprise over 80 percent of their totals. Can you think of reasons
why this is so? Explain.
2. What effects will increased urbanization have on countries and the world?

Adapted from The State of the World Atlas, 5th ed.

The Rise of the Modern City

Beginning in the 1700s, the Industrial Revolution created major changes
in transportation, agriculture, commerce, and industry. Technological devel-
opments led to better agricultural productivity and more efficient transporta-
tion systems. Farm workers were free to leave rural areas and move into
cities. More important, however, was the spread of factories.
 Chapter 16 Population and Urbanization 551

Figure 16.9 Focus on Theoretical Perspectives

Urban Society. This table illustrates how functionalism and conflict theory might approach the study of
urban society. Symbolic interactionism was not included. Why do you think it was excluded? Can you suggest
a research topic in either population or urbanization for which symbolic interactionism would be appropriate?

Theoretical
Perspective Concept Sample Research Topic

Functionalism Urbanization Study of the relationship

between population
density and the
suicide rate

Conflict Theory Overurbanization Investigation of the

relationship between the
distribution of scarce
resources and social
class

Factories were not established to encourage the growth of cities, but they
had that effect. Factory owners tended to build in the same area to share raw
materials and to take advantage of natural features such as water power and
river transport. Machinery and equipment makers located their plants next to
the factories they would be supplying. All these businesses in turn attracted
retailers, innkeepers, entertainers, and a wide range of people offering ser-
vices to city dwellers. The more services offered, the more people were at-
tracted, maintaining the cycle of urban growth. The industrial world was
becoming an urbanized world.

World Urbanization
Urbanization is a worldwide movement. From 1800 to the mid-1980s, the
number of urban dwellers increased one hundred times, while the popula-
tion increased only about fivefold. Over 2.8 billion people—nearly 46 per-
cent of the world’s population—now live in urban areas. In developed
countries, 75 percent of the population lives in urban areas compared to 40
percent in developing countries. (See Figure 16.10 on page 553.)
What are the patterns for urbanization? Developed and developing
countries have distinct patterns of urbanization. Most of the urban growth in
developing countries before the turn of the century occurred through colo-
nial expansion. Western countries, which had been involved in colonial ex-
pansion since the late fifteenth century, held half the world under colonial
rule by the latter part of the nineteenth century. It has been only since World
War II that many of these colonial countries have become independent na-
tions (Bardo and Hartman, 1982).
552 Unit 5 Social Change

Since gaining independence, these former colonies have been experienc-

ing rapid urbanization and industrialization. In fact, urbanization in these
areas is now proceeding nine times faster than it did in the West during its
urban expansion period. The rate of urbanization for major industrial nations
in the West was 15 percent each decade throughout the nineteenth century.
In the 1960s, the rate of urbanization in major developing countries was 20
percent per decade (Light, 1983).
What are some other differences in the pattern of world urbaniza-
tion? In the first place, industrialization in developing countries, unlike the
Western experience, has not kept pace with urbanization. Cities of North
America and Europe had jobs for all migrants from rural areas. In the cities
of developing nations, the supply of labor from the countryside is greater
than the demand for labor in the cities. A high rate of urban unemployment
overurbanization is the obvious result. The term overurbanization has been created to de-
situation in which a city cannot scribe a situation in which a city is unable to supply adequate jobs and hous-
supply adequate jobs and ing for its inhabitants.
housing for its inhabitants Another difference between urbanization in developed and developing
countries is the number and size of cities. When grouped by size, cities in
developed countries form a pyramid: a few large cities at the top, many
medium-sized cities in the middle, and a large base of small cities. In the de-
veloping world, in contrast, many countries have one tremendously big city
that dwarfs a large number of villages. Calcutta, India, and Mexico City are
examples. Of the world’s ten largest cities, only two—Shanghai and
Calcutta—were in developing countries in 1950. By 2000, as you can see in
Figure 16.10 on the opposite page, seven of the top ten largest urban areas
were in developing countries. By the end of the twenty-first century, it is pre-
dicted that there will be twenty-one “megacities” with populations of ten mil-
lion or more. Eighteen of these will be in developing countries, including the
most impoverished societies in the world.
What are “push” and “pull” factors? In explaining why people in
developing countries move to large cities with inadequate jobs and housing,
urban sociologists point to the operation of “push” and “pull” factors. People
are pushed out of their villages because expanding rural populations cannot
be supported by the existing agricultural economy. They are forced to mi-
grate elsewhere, and cities are at least an alternative. Poor people are also
attracted to cities in the belief there are opportunities for better education,
employment, social welfare support, and good medical care. Unfortunately,
they are likely to be disappointed.

Suburbanization in the United States

Los Angeles drivers spend about 82 Unlike cities in the developing world, cities in the United States have re-
hours a year, two full weeks of work, cently been losing population, not gaining. Since 1950, the proportion of the
waiting in traffic. Does this mean population living in suburbs has more than doubled. Suburbanization oc-
that Los Angeles is overurbanized? curs when central cities lose population to the surrounding areas. The United
States is now predominantly suburban.

suburbanization
What makes suburbanization possible? Suburbanization has become
loss of population of a city to an important trend partly because of technological developments. Improve-
surrounding areas ments in communication (such as telephones, radios, and television and later
computers, fax machines, and the Internet) have allowed people to live away
 Chapter 16 Population and Urbanization
553
from the central city without 1950 2000
losing touch with what is New York 12.0 Tokyo 28.0
going on there. Developments
London 8.0 Sao Paulo 22.6
in transportation (especially
trains, highways, automobiles, Tokyo 6.0 Bombay 18.1
and trucks) have made it pos- Paris 4.5 Shanghai 17.4
sible both for people to com- Shanghai 4.5 New York 16.6
mute to work and for many Buenos Aires 4.5 Mexico City 16.2
businesses to leave the central
Chicago 4.3 Beijing 14.4
city for suburban locations.
Technology is not the only Moscow 4.3 Los Angeles 13.2
cause of suburbanization. Calcutta 4.2 Seoul 13.0
Both cultural and economic Los Angeles 4.0 Buenos Aires 12.8
pressures have encouraged 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
the development of suburbs.
Population (in millions) Population (in millions)
Partly because of America’s
frontier heritage, American Figure 16.10 World’s Largest
culture has always had a bias against urban living. Some Americans prefer Urban Areas: 1950, 2000.
urban life, but most report that they would rather live in a rural setting. Even This figure compares the world’s
those who choose to live in the city believe they are giving up some advan- largest urban areas in 1950 and
tages. Suburbs, with their low-density housing, have allowed many people to 2000. What is the most surprising
escape the problems of urban living without leaving the urban areas com- aspect of these data to you?
pletely. Suburbs are attractive because of decreased crowding and traffic con- Source: Population Division of the
gestion, lower taxes, better schools, less crime, and reduced pollution. UN Secretariat Estimate.
The scarcity and high cost of land in the central city also encourages sub-
urbanization. Developers of new housing, retail, and industrial projects often
find suburban locations far less expensive than those near the central city.
Finally, government policy has often increased the impact of economic
forces. Federal Housing Administration regulations, for example, have fa-
vored the financing of new houses (which can be built most cheaply in sub-
urban locations) rather than the refurbishing of older houses in central cities.
Among other things, this has led to the central-city dilemma.
What is the central-city dilemma? When suburbanization first be-
came noticeable in the 1930s, only the upper and middle classes could af- Student Web Activity
ford to leave the central city. Not until the 1950s did the white working class Visit the Sociology and
follow them. Despite federal legislation prohibiting housing discrimination, You Web site at
the suburbs remained largely white until the 1970s. Since then, central-city soc.glencoe.com and click on
minorities have moved to the suburbs in greater numbers. Still, the percent- Chapter 16—Student Web
age of African Americans living in central cities has declined only slightly Activities for an activity on
since 1970 (Farley, 1997; Palen, 1997). suburbanization.
The problem is not merely that minorities remain trapped in inner cities.
Businesses have followed the more affluent people to the suburbs where they
can find lower tax rates, less expensive land, less congestion, and their cus-
tomers who have already left the city. Accompanying the exodus of the mid-
dle class, manufacturers, and retailers is the shrinking of the central-city tax
base. As a result, the central city has become increasingly populated by the
poor, the unskilled, and the uneducated. This has created the central-city central-city dilemma
dilemma—the concentration of a large population in need of public services concentration of people in
(schools, transportation, health care) without the tax base to provide them. need of public services
without tax base–generated
Can the central-city dilemma be solved? Some countertrends exist. money to provide for them
There are city governments now requiring certain public employees to live in
554 Unit 5 Social Change

the city. Some parts of inner cities are being re-

stored through gentrification—the development
of low-income areas by middle-class home buy-
ers, landlords, and professional developers.
Finally, there is a fairly significant movement of
whites back to the central city. This movement is
particularly evident among baby boomers who
are remaining single or establishing childless or
two-income families. Because these people are
not as heavily involved in child rearing, they pre-
fer central-city living more than the previous gen-
eration did (Palen, 1997). The importance of these
countertrends for easing the central-city dilemma
remains to be seen. They certainly have not been
sufficiently important to stop the emergence of
edge cities.
What are edge cities? As stated, increas-
ing numbers of businesses and jobs have fol-
This view of Dallas was taken from lowed people to the suburbs. In fact, “suburban
the rooftop pool area of an old
downtowns” are changing the face of urban America. An edge city is a
garment factory converted into
luxury apartments.
smaller, more focused, version of an urban downtown. It is a suburban unit
that specializes in a particular economic activity (Garreau, 1991).
Employment in one edge city may focus on computer technology; employ-
ment in another, on financial services or health care. A specialized edge city,
of course, will have many other types of economic activities as well, such as
gentrification industrial tracts, office parks, distribution and warehousing clusters, and
the development of low-
home offices of national corporations. Edge cities are actually little cities in
income areas by middle-class
themselves with a full range of services, including schools, retail sales, restau-
homebuyers, landlords, and
professional developers rants, malls, recreational complexes, medical facilities, and hotels and motels.
Edge cities do not have legal and physical boundaries separating them
from the larger urban area in which they are located. This has not prevented
edge city names from being attached to several of them. Tyson’s Corner is located in
a suburban unit specializing in northern Virginia near Washington, D.C., Los Colinas is close to the Dallas-
a particular economic activity Fort Worth airport, and King of Prussia is northwest of Philadelphia. Some
edge cities bear the names of highways, such as Route 128 outside of Boston.

Section 3 Assessment

“
Our national flower is
the concrete cloverleaf.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Give a brief definition of urbanization.
What are two conditions necessary for the development of modern cities?
Where are preindustrial cities located today?
What term do sociologists use to describe mass migration to the
suburbs?
Lewis Mumford
“
U.S. novelist Critical Thinking
5. Analyzing Information Do you think preindustrial cities can
continue to exist? Why or why not?
 Chapter 16 Population and Urbanization 555

S ome people find life in the big city so impersonal that they feel no
sense of belonging to a community. Recently organizers in several
locations have been trying to use the Internet to rebuild community
relationships through electronic networks. These dedicated—special-
ized—virtual communities use communications technology to link peo-
ple who live in the same area, city, or neighborhood.
Organizers of community networks share the goals of local partici-
pation, community building, and democracy. As with the New England
colonies’ town meetings, the ideal of the new community networks is
Virtual to include everyone. Supporters of the new technology claim that elec-
tronic communications will allow people to reestablish more personal
relationships.
Communities As with all projects involving technology, though, the problem of
“electronic stratification” arises. Because of the costs
involved, access to technological advances is not
equally distributed throughout the community. Low-
income individuals and families cannot afford com-
puters or Internet access, and public agencies are
not ready to supply sufficient funding. Furthermore,
as computers become more sophisticated, people
who are not already computer literate (especially
lower-income people) will have an increasingly dif-
ficult time catching up. The technologically poor
will become technologically poorer.
The Boulder (Colorado) Community Network
(BCN), established in the mid-1990s, experienced
many of these problems. The founders of BCN
trained many different Boulder groups to use
community networks. They found that accep-
tance varied widely among the groups. For ex-
ample, residents at a local senior citizens’ home
became avid users of the community computers
placed in their facility. In contrast, a group of
low-income single parents virtually ignored the
existence of the computers and the Internet,
even after extensive training (Virnoche, 1998).
If community networks do become firmly
established, critics warn, the “human factor”
will still be lacking. When people meet through the Internet, they
have no social clues, such as body language and facial expressions, with
iVillage.com is a Web site offering a which to learn about their new acquaintances. No matter how much you
virtual community for women. learn about another person on-line, critics say, you have not met some-
one for real until you meet in person (Herbert, 1999).

Analyzing the Trends

What do you think will be the most significant effects of virtual com-
munities on social roles?
556 Unit 5 Social Change

Section
Urban Ecology
4 K e y T e r m s

• urban ecology • multiple nuclei theory

• concentric zone theory • peripheral theory
• sector theory

Section The Nature of Urban Ecology

Preview
A lthough every city is unique, patterns have been found in the way
humans interact with the cities they inhabit. Urban ecology is the

U rban ecologists have de-

veloped four major theo-
ries of city growth: concentric
study of the relationships between humans and their city environments.
In the 1920s and 1930s, sociologists at the University of Chicago studied
the effects of the city environment on city residents. They asked such ques-
zone theory, sector theory, tions as why there are differences between areas of a city, how do different
multiple nuclei theory, and areas affect one another, and what processes change an area. To answer
peripheral theory. Combining these and other questions, the University of Chicago sociologists developed
insights from all four theories theories of urban ecology, including theories of city growth (Flanagan, 1993;
is useful to our understand- Kleniewski, 1997; Micklin and Poston, 1998).
ing of how humans relate to
city environments.
Theories of City Growth
Sociologists focus on four major theories of city growth. Concentric zone
theory describes urban growth in terms of circular areas that grow from the
urban ecology
central city outward. Sector theory emphasizes the importance of transporta-
the study of the relationships tion routes in the process of urban growth. Multiple nuclei theory focuses on
between humans and city specific geographic or historical influences. Peripheral theory emphasizes the
environments growth of suburbs around the central city. The four approaches lead to quite
different images of urban space. (See Figure 16.11 on the facing page.) No
city exactly fits any of these images, however. Indeed, the theories tell us
more when considered together than they tell us separately. To understand
why this is so, we must first examine each theory.
What is concentric zone theory? Ernest Burgess (1925), like other
early sociologists at the University of Chicago, was interested in the causes
concentric zone theory and consequences of Chicago’s growth. His work led to the concentric
theory that describes urban zone theory, which describes city growth in terms of distinctive zones—
growth in terms of circular zones that develop from the central city outward in a circular pattern. Many
areas that grow from the northern cities that experienced a great deal of immigration and rapid growth
central city outward
developed this way.
As illustrated in Figure 16.11, the innermost circle is the central business
district, the heart of the city. This district contains major government and
private office buildings, banks, retail and wholesale stores, and entertain-
ment and cultural facilities. Because land values in the central city are high,
space is at a premium. The central business district contains a large pro-
portion of a city’s important businesses partly because the less important
 Chapter 16 Population and Urbanization 557

2
3
3 5
2 3 3
4
3 1 2
2
3 4 1 1 4
1 3 1 5
4 5 6 5
2 3 5
3 7
3 4
4 2 3 10 8
6
5 7
9 8 9
4
Concentric Zone Theory Sector Theory Multiple Nuclei Theory Peripheral Theory
1. Central business district 1. Central business district 1. Central business district 1. Central city
2. Zone in transition 2. Wholesale, light 2. Wholesale, light 2. Surburban residential area
3. Zone of workingmen’s manufacturing manufacturing 3. Circumferential highway
homes 3. Lower-class residential 3. Lower-class residential 4. Radial highway
4. Residential zone 4. Middle-class residential 4. Middle-class residential 5. Shopping mall
5. Commuter’s zone 5. Upper-class residential 5. Upper-class residential 6. Industrial district
6. Heavy manufacturing 7. Office park
7. Outlying business district 8. Service center
8. Residential suburb 9. Airport complex
9. Industrial suburb 10. Combined employment
and shopping center

Figure 16.11 Theories of City

Growth. This figure diagrams
ones are unable to compete for the expensive space in the central business the four major theories of city
district. growth. Discuss one important
The central business district strongly influences other parts of a city. Its contribution each theory makes to
influence is especially clear in the zone immediately surrounding it. Burgess our understanding of urban
called this the zone in transition because it is in the process of change. As growth.
new businesses and activities enter the central business district, the district Source: Adapted from Chauncy D.
expands by invading the next zone. This area may have been a residential Harris, Urban Geography, 1997.
area inhabited by middle- or upper-class families, who left because of the in-
vasion of business activities. Most of the property in this zone is bought by
those with little interest in the area. Rather than investing money in building
maintenance, landowners simply extract rent from the property or sell it at a

“
profit after the area has become more commercialized. Until the zone in tran-
sition is completely absorbed into the central business district (which may
never occur), it is used for slum housing, warehouses, and marginal busi-
nesses that are unable to compete economically for space in the central busi- The planner’s problem
ness district itself. In short, the invasion of business activities creates is to find a way of
deterioration for the zone in transition. creating, within the urban
Surrounding the zone in transition are three zones devoted primarily to
housing. The zone of workingmen’s homes contains modest but stable neigh- environment, the sense
borhoods populated largely by blue-collar workers. In the northern United of belonging.
States, the zone of workingmen’s homes is often inhabited by second-
generation immigrants who have had enough financial success to leave the Leo Marx
deteriorating zone in transition. Next comes a residential zone containing
mostly middle-class and upper-middle-class neighborhoods. Single-family
philosopher and culturist
“
dwellings dominate this zone, which is inhabited by managers, professionals,
white-collar workers, and some well-paid factory workers. On the outskirts of
558 Unit 5 Social Change

Secondary Analysis:
Gang Violence
Gangs have been a constant feature of the American urban landscape
during most of the twentieth century. James Hagedorn’s research (1998),
however, led him to propose that postindustrial society has changed patterns
of gang violence. Hagedorn’s conclusions are based on a combination of
three methods: a review of the research of others, secondary analysis of data
collected by other researchers, and original data gathered himself.
Gangs (mostly male) in the industrial period were tied to specific neigh-
borhoods and new immigrant groups. Gang violence primarily centered on
“turf” battles among neighborhood peer groups. Pride in violence came from
defending territory. Violence provided excitement and a sense of place in a
group. Nevertheless, these working- and lower-class boys would eventually
move on to hold decent jobs, have families, and live in better neighborhoods.
Gangs today still tend to form around racial and ethnic groups and neigh-
borhoods. Currently, gangs tend to be African American, Latino, or Asian, just
as earlier gangs were formed mostly by European immigrants, such as those
from Ireland, Italy, or Eastern Europe. According to Hagedorn, however,
postindustrial gangs are different in important ways. First, gang violence has
significantly increased. Second, gang-related homicides have risen dramati-
cally. Gang violence, he notes, skyrocketed at the same time American cor-
porations were moving well-paying jobs away from the central city. As
legitimate work disappeared in inner cities, gangs turned from their earlier
territorial emphasis to participation in the illegitimate drug market. The com-
mon outlook of gang members today is expressed by this gang member:
I got out of high school and I didn’t have a diploma, wasn’t no jobs,
wasn’t no source of income, no nothing. That’s basically the easy way
for a . . . young man to be—selling some dope—you can get yourself
some money real quick, you really don’t have nothing to worry about,
nothing but the feds. You know everybody in your neighborhood. Yeah,
that’s pretty safe just as long as you don’t start smoking it yourself
(Hagedorn, 1998:390).
Significantly, this gang member was not a teenager. While a minority of
gang members remain committed to the drug economy, most seek “legit”
jobs as they approach their thirties.

Working with the Research

1. Explain why urban gangs tend to form around minority groups.
2. Relate Hagedorn’s findings on urban gang violence, to
Merton’s strain theory, discussed in Chapter 7.
 Chapter 16 Population and Urbanization 559
the city, often outside the official city limits, is the commuter’s zone, which
contains upper-class and upper-middle-class suburbs.
What is sector theory? Not everyone agreed with Burgess’s theory of
how cities grow. The sociologist Homer Hoyt (1939) offered another
model—sector theory. Hoyt’s work indicated that growth patterns do not sector theory
necessarily spread out in rings from the central business district. Instead, theory that emphasizes the
growth is more strongly affected by major transportation routes. importance of transportation
As Figure 16.11 shows, sectors tend to be pie-shaped, with wedges radi- routes in the process of urban
ating from the central business district to the city’s outskirts. Each sector is growth
organized around a major transportation route. Once a given type of activity
is organized around a transportation route, its nature tends to be set. Thus,
some sectors will be predominantly industrial, others will contain stores and
professional offices, others will be “neon strips” with motels and fast-food
restaurants, and still others will be residential sectors, each with its own so-
cial class and ethnic composition.
As in concentric zone theory, cities are generally circular in shape. But be-
cause of the importance of transportation routes extending from the central
business district, the boundaries of many cities form a starlike pattern, rather
than a uniformly circular shape. The exact shape of a city, however, is not a
major issue in sector theory. Emphasis here is on how patterns of growth are
organized around transportation routes. Cities that follow this pattern include
Seattle, Richmond, and San Francisco.
What is multiple nuclei theory? Many cities have areas that cannot be
explained by either concentric zone or sector theory. Chauncy Harris and
Edward Ullman (1945) suggested that cities do not always follow a pattern
dependent on a central district. The multiple nuclei theory states that a city multiple nuclei theory
may have several separate centers, some devoted to manufacturing, some to theory that focuses on specific
retail trade, some to residential use, and so on. These specialized centers can geographic or historical
develop because of the availability of automobiles and highways. They re- influences on urban growth
flect such factors as geography, history, and tradition. The city of Boston fits
this model.
What is peripheral theory? The three theories of urban growth just peripheral theory
discussed were originally developed more than fifty years ago. Despite their theory that emphasizes the
age, the insights of each theory still help us to understand how cities have growth of suburbs around the
expanded from the center outward. This is especially the case for older cities central city
such as Chicago and San Francisco. Many cities today, however, no longer
have a central city core to which other parts of the metropolitan area are ori-
ented all of the time.
Dependence on shipping, railroads, and heavy manufacturing has been Explain which theory of urban
replaced by more flexible means of transportation, such as cars and trucks. growth best accounts for this
And large urban areas are now encircled by highways. New technologies (fax suburban office building.
machines, cell phones, computers, the Internet) are also loosening the ties of
most parts of the city to the central city core. As a result, many
cities are now oriented away from the older urban core.
As noted earlier, many Americans have moved from the city
to the suburbs. They have done so in part because many busi-
nesses—offices, factories, schools, retail stores, restaurants,
health centers—are also in the suburbs. To describe changes in
urban areas today, urban geographer Chauncy Harris (1997)
has formulated the peripheral theory. The dominant feature
of this model is the growth of suburbs (and edge cities) around
560 Unit 5 Social Change

and away from the central cities. (See Figure 16.11.) Peripheral theory brings
urban growth research up to date.
Which of these theories of city growth is correct? As suggested ear-
lier, no single theory covers the dynamics of city growth for all cities. But
each theory emphasizes the importance of certain factors that cannot be
overlooked by anyone interested in city growth.
❖ Concentric zone theory emphasizes the fact that growth in any one
area of a city is largely influenced by politics and economics.
According to this theory, the distribution of space is heavily influenced
by those with the money to buy the land they want for the purposes
they have in mind.
❖ Sector theorists have also contributed to an understanding of urban

“
growth. As they have noted, transportation routes have a strong
influence on cities. Decisions about the placement of railroad lines had
important effects on the growth of cities in the nineteenth and early
Men come together in twentieth centuries. Highways and major streets have an even larger
cities in order to live. They impact now.
remain together in order ❖ Although multiple nuclei theory is vague in its predictions, the types of
geographic and historical factors it emphasizes are also important for
to live the good life. understanding any specific city.
Aristotle ❖ Peripheral theory has brought urban growth research up to date by
“
Greek philospher
emphasizing the development of suburbs around the central city.

Section 4 Assessment
1. Provide a brief description of each of the following zones.
a. central business district d. zone in transition
b. commuters’ zone e. zone of workingmen’s homes
c. residential zone
2. What is the driving force behind the sector theory?
3. Why is the multiple nuclei theory considered more flexible than the
concentric zone theory or the sector theory?

Critical Thinking
4. Summarizing Information Summarize the evolution of cities,
focusing on the differences between life in preindustrial cities and life
in industrial and suburban cities.
5. Applying Concepts Discuss the major contributions the four theories
of city growth have made to our understanding of city growth.
CHAPTER 16 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Vocabulary
Summary
Complete each sentence using each term once.
Section 1: The Dynamics of Demography a. demography g. crude death rate
Main Idea: Demography is the scientific study of b. fertility h. infant mortality rate
population. The collection of population data is c. fecundity i. migration
very important today, in part because of its use by d. crude birth rate j. doubling time
government and industry. Demographers consider
e. fertility rate k. replacement level
three population processes when looking at pop-
ulation change: fertility, mortality, and migration. f. mortality l. urban ecology
1. is the number of children
Section 2: World Population born to a woman or a population of women.
Main Idea: Thomas Malthus (1798) predicted that 2. The annual number of live births per one
population size would ultimately outstrip the food thousand women aged fifteen to forty-four is
supply, resulting in mass starvation and death. called .
The demographic transition theory looks at eco- 3. refers to the deaths within a
nomic development to predict population pat- population.
terns. While the rate of world population growth 4. The annual number of deaths per one thou-
is slowing, the world’s population will continue to sand members of a population is called
increase for many years. .
5. is the annual number of
Section 3: The Urban Transition deaths among infants under the age of one
Main Idea: The first preindustrial cities devel- per one thousand live births.
oped in fertile areas where surplus food could be 6. The number of years needed to double the
growth. With the Industrial Revolution came a base population is known as the
major increase in the rate of urbanization. The de- .
velopment of factories was an especially impor- 7. is the birth rate at which a
tant influence on the location of cities. couple replaces itself without adding to the
Urbanization in developed and developing na- population.
tions has occurred at different speeds. The United 8. The scientific study of population is called
States is now primarily a suburban nation. .
9. The study of relationships between humans
Section 4: Urban Ecology and their city environments is called
Main Idea: Urban ecologists have developed four .
major theories of 10. is the movement of people
city growth: con- from one geographic area to another.
centric zone the- 11. The annual number of live births per one
ory, sector theory, thousand members of a population is called
multiple nuclei .
Self-Check Quiz
theory, and pe- 12. is the maximum rate at which
Visit the Sociology and You Web
ripheral theory. women can physically produce children.
site at soc.glencoe.com and
click on Chapter 16—Self-
Check Quizzes to prepare for
the chapter test.
561
CHAPTER 16 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing the Facts concerning population growth is whether there
is enough food to supply the world. Some
argue that, each year, tons of food supplies sit
1. Identify and describe the three population in bins waiting to be used but are wasted be-
processes. Use a diagram similar to the one cause there is no way to get the supplies where
below to record your answers. they are needed. Others argue that we can raise
Process Description
agricultural productivity no higher and will
soon be unable to feed the world. What factors
1.
affect the availability of food in developing na-
2. tions? In industrial and postindustrial societies?
3. 5. Drawing Conclusions Universal education,
according to Thomas Malthus, could be the
great equalizer in raising the quality of life for
2. What is suburbanization? all human beings. As a budding sociologist,
3. What was Thomas Malthus’ solution for over- would you agree with Malthus that education is
population? the only real solution to current world prob-
4. In your own words, explain population lems? Would universal education really level the
momentum. playing field for all? Explain your views.
5. What is the difference between replacement 6. Making Inferences Emile Durkheim was con-
level and zero population growth? cerned about the changes brought on by the
6. List and explain the four major theories of city Industrial Revolution. He studied suicide rates
growth. and found them to be higher in urban areas.
What factors might contribute to higher suicide
rates in urban areas that would not be factors in
Thinking Critically rural areas? Do you think Durkheim’s findings
hold today, or is the likelihood of suicide just
as great in rural and suburban areas?
1. Making Generalizations The United States is
actually nearing zero population growth— 7. Applying Concepts By U.S. Census Bureau
except for the influx of immigrants. Recall from definition, a population of 2,500 qualifies a
your history or government classes as many of community to be called a city. What are some
the benefits and disadvantages of open immi- factors that clearly distinguish communities of
gration as you can and discuss them in class. 2,500 from places such as Los Angeles and New
Do you think immigration should be a factor in York? Do you consider your community to be a
considering methods of controlling population? city in the modern sense? Why or why not?
Why or why not?
2. Drawing Conclusions Sometime in October Sociology Projects
1999, the world population reached six billion.
As you read in the chapter, the population is
expected to reach seven billion by 2010. How 1. Doubling Time Choose a country and find its
are technological improvements contributing to doubling time. Then, using the library or multi-
this rapid growth? media sources, identify reasons for that coun-
3. Analyzing Information Technology has been try’s doubling time. Consider some of the
credited with increasing population growth. In variables mentioned in the text, such as infant
what ways might it be employed to slow down mortality rate, wars, and epidemics. Be pre-
the rate of population growth? pared to give a brief oral report to the class on
your findings.
4. Making Inferences One of the great debates

562
2. The Effects of Doubling Time Review the about how the growing world population has
analogy of the chessboard given on page 538 of affected them. Ask them to identify some
the text. Now, get a calculator and draw a changes that have taken place since 1960
chessboard with sixty-four squares. Starting with (when the world population was only three bil-
one “person” on the first square, start doubling lion). Write down their comments in the form
the number of people for each square. At what of a script, as if you were interviewing them for
point do the numbers become unmanageable? a magazine article.
How does this little demonstration illustrate the 7. Urban Planning Choose three classmates to
effects of doubling time? join you as members of the Urban Planning
3. Demographic Transition Pick another country. Board of Betterville, USA. As members of the
Of the four stages of demographic transition de- Urban Planning Board, it is your task to jointly
scribed on pages 539–540, which one best re- design the city for redevelopment. Examine the
flects the country you chose? What are the factors four major theories of city growth. Determine
that caused you to place the country at this stage? which theory or combination of theories you
4. Theories of Urban Growth Obtain a map of a would use to design Betterville. Create a visual
large city in your area. (If you live in a fairly representation of your city design (e.g., blue-
large city, use a map of it.) By looking at the print, chart, artist rendering, etc.). Write a one-
map, can you determine if patterns of growth in page essay explaining the theory or
this city proceeded according to one of the the- combination of theories that you chose and the
ories of urban growth described in the chapter? rationale for your choice.
If so, take a marker and illustrate the patterns
on the map. You might also talk with people in
the city who have some knowledge of how the
Technology Activity
city changed over time, such as the local histor-
ical society, city clerks, or a local sociologist. 1. William Julius Wilson, a sociologist at Harvard
Try to find out what growth pattern the city University, has done extensive research on what
followed. the text calls the central-city dilemma. The
5. Social Institutions By definition, all communi- Public Broadcasting System (PBS) sponsored an
ties have the following social institutions: fam- on-line forum with Dr. Wilson, called “A Look
ily, education, science/technology, politics, at the Truly Disadvantaged.” Go to this web site
religion, sports, and economy. Locate a map of at http://www.pbs.org/newshour/forum/
your community (city hall is a good source for november96/wilson_11-29.html and select “Why
these maps). With two or three classmates, pick is inner city education so poor?”
a part of town for the focus of your project. In a. What is to blame for the poor results often
the part of town you chose, take a photograph obtained in inner city schools, according to
of at least one example of each type of institu- Dr. Wilson?
tion. For the family, for instance, you might b. Now select “How can inner cities be
take a picture of a house. Look to see how reconnected to the rest of American
many of the institutions are in your chosen society?” What are Dr. Wilson’s
neighborhood, and then bring back some item recommendations for solving the central-
or souvenir from each of the institutions, if pos- city dilemma?
sible. For example, if you select a restaurant c. Read some of the “Viewer comments.” Do
(economic institution) you might bring back a you agree or disagree with any of the
menu. Be sure to ask permission for everything comments shown there? What do you think
you take. Present your photos and souvenirs to could be done to solve the problems in
the class on a poster board. inner cities?
6. World Population Growth Talk with some
older people in your family or neighborhood
563
564 Unit 5 Social Change

Chapter 16

Enrichment Reading
Life Expectancy: Surprising
Demographic Trends
by David Stipp

B aby boomers have ushered in most threw in supporting data on the death rates of
every major trend over the past 50 old cars. The team demonstrated that mortality
years. But it was their grandparents can plateau and, strangely, even drop among the
who initiated the most radical demographic very old—as if the Fates were nodding off after
change of the past half-century—a dramatic de- a long wait.
cline in death rates at older ages. In fact, about Vaupel sees this “mortality deceleration” as a
the time boomers were rambunctiously burning subplot of a grand mystery that has preoccupied
draft cards, their elders quietly began nullifying demographers for over a decade: Why have the
actuarial tables. By 1990 there were more than elderly been living longer than their forebears
1.5 million Americans age 85 and over who since about 1970? Some of the causes are obvi-
wouldn’t have been alive if death rates had ous, such as the averting of millions of fatal
stayed at the 1960 level. heart attacks by blood-pressure drugs widely
Extrapolating this trend, demographer used since the 1960s. But many experts on aging
James Vaupel has made a bold prediction: Half of feel that such well-known factors can’t explain
the girls and a third of the boys recently born in the trend’s surprising speed and breadth. . . .
the developed world will live to be 100. Vaupel Casting about for explanations, some demog-
similarly expects millions of former flower chil- raphers theorize that deep, little-understood
dren to defy federal population forecasts and changes are afoot that will help sustain the trend
make good on their old chant, “Hell no, we for decades. Vaupel has stuck his neck out far-
won’t go!”—he has projected there could be ther than most by proposing that the aging
nearly 37 million boomers age 85 and over by process may actually slow down in very old peo-
2050, more than twice the government’s best ple, an idea based on his mortality-deceleration
guess. That would mean a much higher propor- work. That particular idea remains highly contro-
tion of senior citizens nationwide than Florida versial. But Vaupel’s bullish view that longevity
has today. . . . gains will continue apace is widely shared.
Vaupel [is] no shallow visionary. A few years Indeed, many demographers are now more bull-
ago many of his colleagues scoffed when he ish than the Social Security Administration, which
challenged a grim canon about aging. It holds projects that the decline in old-age death rates
that death rates rise exponentially with age in will slow to a crawl early in the next century.
adult animals, including humans—the older you The bulls’ predictions raise a burning issue: If
are, the theory goes, the more likely you are to we receive a gift of extra years, will it turn out to
die. Aided by other researchers, he marshaled be a Pandora’s box filled with hobbling dis-
data on everything from Swedish women to eases? For most of this century death rates and
Medflies to show it ain’t so; for good measure, he the prevalence of chronic diseases among the el-
 Chapter 16 Population and Urbanization 565

derly have dropped in tandem. But “we’re bal- What Does it Mean
anced on a razor’s edge,” says Eric Stallard, a de-
mography professor at Duke University. If
averting
medical advances make mortality fall faster than
disease, we’ll wind up spending costly extra turning aside; avoiding
years in nursing homes. Or worse: “We may face bullish
the gruesome prospect of poor, disabled, home- optimistic; encouraging
less older Americans living out the end of their canon
lives on city streets and in parks,” warns Edward
an accepted principle
L. Schneider, dean of gerontology at the or rule
University of South Carolina.
extrapolating
Source: Adapted from David Stipp, “Hell No, We Won’t projecting known data
Go,” Fortune, July 19, 1999: 102, 104. into an area not known or
experienced
nullifying actuarial tables
reversing current
population trends
This active older couple is enjoying
Pandora’s box
the increasing longevity in modern
society. What are some of the most source of many troubles
important consequences of this trend? (based on a Greek myth
about a box of evils
released by a curious
woman who had been
instructed not to open
the box)

Read and React

1. What is the surprising demographic trend
referred to in the title of this article?
2. What has happened to the death rates in
the United States since 1960?
3. What is meant by the term mortality
deceleration?
4. What are some positive and negative
effects an aging population would have on
the social structure of this country?
CHAPTER 17
Social Change and
Collective Behavior

566
 U
S Your Sections
I Sociological
N Imagination 1. Social Change
G 2. Theoretical Perspectives
on Social Change

W hen you see photos or films

showing the Plains Indians of the
Old West—Sioux, Crow, and so
forth—what do you think about the culture
of those Native Americans? If you’re like
3.
4.
Collective Behavior
Social Movements
most of us, you may assume that it had re-
mained unchanged for many centuries—that
these people dressed and acted in exactly
Learning Objectives
the same way as their ancestors.
We often assume that nonindustrial soci-
eties such as these stand still over time. After reading this chapter, you will be able to
Actually, though, sociology teaches us that
change comes to all societies. Whether by ❖ illustrate the three social processes that
borrowing from other cultures, discovering contribute to social change.
new ways of doing things, or creating inven-
❖ discuss how technology, population, nat-
tions that ripple through society, all peoples
ural environment, revolution, and war
experience social change.
Let’s return to the example of the Plains
cause cultures to change.
Indians. You may picture these tribes as ❖ describe social change as viewed by the
fierce, buffalo-hunting warriors. Perhaps im- functionalist and conflict perspectives.
ages of Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse astride ❖ discuss rumors, fads, and fashions.
fast horses attacking Custer come to mind,
leading you to think that their ancestors for
❖ compare and contrast theories of crowd
centuries had also ridden horses. In fact, behavior.
horses were a relatively recent introduction ❖ compare and contrast theories of social
to Plains Indian culture in the 1800s. The movements.
Spanish brought modern horses to North
America, and not until the late 1600s and
early 1700s were horses available in large
numbers to the Plains Indians. Early Native
American tribes on the Plains had been no- Chapter Overview
mads living more off wild food plants than Visit the Sociology and You Web site at
buffalo. This chapter will examine different soc.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 17—
ways change affects society. Chapter Overviews to preview chapter
information.

567
568 Unit 5 Social Change

Section
Social Change
1 K e y

•
•
T e r m s

social change
social processes
•
•
diffusion
technology
• discovery • revolution
• invention • war

Section Defining Social Change

Preview
C hange is one of the most constant features of American society. This
is so true that it is almost a cliché. In fact, all societies change—some
S ocial change refers to
new behaviors that have
long-term and relatively im-
rapidly, others more slowly. For sociologists, social change occurs when
many members of the society adopt new behaviors. The behaviors must
have long-term and important consequences.
portant consequences.
Discovery, invention, and dif-
How fast has social change occurred?
Scientists use an analogy to help people un-
fusion are the major social
derstand the pace of social change.
processes through which so- Imagine for a moment the entire history
cial change occurs. of Earth as a 365-day period. Midnight
Important agents of social of January 1 is the starting point.
change are technology, pop- Today’s date is December 31. Each
ulation, the natural environ- Earth “day” represents about twelve
ment, revolution, and war. million years. The first form of life,
a simple bacterium, appeared in
February. More complex life, such
as fish, appeared about November
social change
20. On December 10, the dinosaurs
new societal behaviors with appeared; by Christmas they were
important long-term extinct. The first recognizable human
consequences beings did not appear until the afternoon
of December 31. Modern humans
(homo sapiens) emerged shortly be-
fore midnight that day. All of recorded
history occurred in the last sixty seconds of the year (Ornstein and Ehrlich,
1991). In the scheme of history, then, human social changes occur in the
“blink of an eye.” Only when we look at social change from the perspective
of the human life span does it sometimes seem to be a slow process.
Can social change be predicted? It is difficult to predict how a so-
ciety will change. This is partly because the course of change in a society
depends on the nature of the existing culture. For example, two societies
that adopt a democratic form of government may develop in very different
ways. Both Britain and the United States are democracies. But their histo-
ries prior to becoming democracies were different, since Britain had a royal
tradition. As a result, democratic government took different forms in these
two nations.
 Chapter 17 Social Change and Collective Behavior 569

Figure 17.1 Key Assumptions in Predicting

Social Change in America
The most accurate predictor of trends in American society has been the Frenchman Alexis de Tocqueville.
Tocqueville’s Democracy in America, which was published in the 1830s, displayed an amazing grasp of
American society. Tocqueville’s success has been attributed to several key assumptions he made. Do you think
that any of these assumptions are less important today in predicting social change than the others?

1. Major social institutions would continue to exist. Unlike many of his contemporaries—and many of
ours—Tocqueville did not expect the family, religion, or the state to disappear or to be greatly changed.

2. Human nature would remain the same. Tocqueville did not expect men and women to become
much better or worse or different from what history had shown them to be.

3. Equality and the trend toward centralized government would continue.

4. The availability of material resources (such as land, minerals, and rich soils) limits and
directs social change.

5. Change is affected by the past, but history does not strictly dictate the future.

6. There are no social forces aside from human actions. Historical events are not foreordained by
factors beyond human control.
Adapted from Theodore Caplow, American Social Trends (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1991), p. 216.

In addition, change does not merely “happen” to people. People in a so-

ciety can consciously decide for themselves how change will occur. They can,
for example, deliberately avoid a predicted state of affairs (Caplow, 1991).
These facts should not discourage people from attempting to understand
changes in society. Alexis de Tocqueville was a Frenchman who published a
remarkably penetrating study of American society after a tour in the early
1830s. The accuracy of his predictions was based upon sound assumptions
“ The past is a foreign
country. They do things
differently there.
he made about American society. Figure 17.1 discusses these basic premises.
Why do some societies change faster than others? Understanding L.P. Hartley
why some societies change faster than others is another difficult task.
Sociologists have identified several important social processes that influence
the pace of social change. In addition, several specific factors play important
“
short story author

roles. We turn first to the social processes and then to the specific agents, or
factors, that affect rates of change.

Social Processes
A process is a series of steps that lead gradually to a result. As you get
closer to graduation from high school, you may decide to continue your for-
mal education. You will then begin a process of applying for acceptance to
various colleges. If you follow all the steps in the necessary order and meet
the colleges’ criteria for entrance, the end result of your application process
will be an acceptance letter.
570 Unit 5 Social Change

Cultures and societies experience social

processes that result in significant changes.
Three important social processes are discov-
ery, invention, and diffusion.
How does discovery promote social
change? In the discovery process, some-
thing is either learned or reinterpreted. When
early ocean explorers did not fall off the end
of the world, they changed what all but a few
people believed about the shape of the earth.
With this geographical knowledge came new
patterns of migration, commerce, and colo-
nization. Salt, another early discovery, was first
used to flavor food. Because it was so highly
valued, it also came to be used as money in
Rapid social change means that generations Africa and as a religious offering among early
do not share certain knowledge. Besides Greeks and Romans. Fire was used at first by
“snail-mail,” what are some other products or prehistoric peoples for warmth and cooking.
technologies that might become obsolete? Later, people discovered that fire could be
used to clear fields, to create ash for fertilizer,
and to melt ores to combine into new metals.
What is the role of invention in social change? Invention is the cre-
social processes
ation of something new from items or processes that already exist. Examples
series of steps leading to
change on a societal level
of physical inventions come easily to mind. Consider the airplane. It was not
so much the materials Orville and Wilbur Wright used—most of the parts
were available—but the way the brothers combined these materials that en-
abled them to make their successful flight at Kitty Hawk.
discovery The pace of social change through invention is closely tied to how com-
process by which something is
plex the society or culture already is. The greater the number of existing
learned or reinterpreted
items, or elements, the more ways they can be combined into inventions.
Thus, the more complex and varied a society, the more rapidly it will change.
This helps to explain why people reached the moon less than seventy years
invention after the Wright brothers’ first flight, even though scientists believe that sev-
the creation of something new
eral million years had passed between the appearance of the human species
from previously existing items
or processes
and the invention of the airplane. NASA was able to reach the moon relatively
quickly because the United States had become advanced in such areas as
physics, aerodynamics, and the manufacturing of specialized materials.
How important is diffusion in social change? When one group bor-
rows something from another group—norms, values, foods, styles of archi-
diffusion tecture—change occurs through the process of diffusion. The extent and
process by which one culture rate of diffusion depend on the degree of social contact. The more contact a
or society borrows from group has with another group, the more likely it is that objects or ideas will
another culture or society be exchanged. In other words, social contact has the same effect on diffu-
sion that complexity has on invention.
Borrowing may involve entire societies. The American colonists learned
methods of growing cotton that were first developed in India. Potatoes from
South America were transplanted across the Atlantic to become Ireland’s
most important food crop. Diffusion may also take place between groups
within the same society. African American musicians were the creators of a
jazz subculture that spread throughout white America (and into other coun-
tries as well).
 Chapter 17 Social Change and Collective Behavior 571
By which social process did this
image of Elvis reach Jerusalem,
Israel?

Before it is widely accepted, a borrowed element must harmonize with

the group culture. In spite of the fact that unisex fashion is popular in
America today, wearing a Scottish kilt on the job could get a construction
worker laughed off the top of a skyscraper. Wearing kilts still clashes with
the American definition of manhood. If skirts are ever to become as accept-
able for American men as pants are for women, either their form will have
to be modified or the cultural concept of masculinity will have to change.
Diffusion may involve using only part of a borrowed characteristic or trait.
The Japanese, for example, accept capitalism but resist the American form of
democratic government, style of conducting business, and family structure.
Diffusion almost always involves picking and choosing.
In modern society, most aspects of culture are borrowed rather than cre-
ated. The processes of discovery and invention are important, but usually far
more elements enter a society through cultural diffusion.

Technology
Besides the three processes for social change, sociologists have identified
some major forces that lead to change. Technology includes knowledge and technology
hardware (tools) that are used to achieve practical goals. The appearance of knowledge and tools used to
new technology is generally a sign that social change will soon follow achieve practical goals
(MacKenzie and Wajcman, 1998).
How important is technology to social change? Technology is a
prime promoter of social change. Time magazine’s selection of Albert
Einstein as the person of the century reflected the magazine’s conclusion that
the twentieth century will be remembered most for its advances in science
and technology (Golden, 1999).
The creation of the silicon chip, which led to the computer revolution,
has brought about technological change at an astounding rate. It took
more than a century for telephones to spread to 94 percent of the homes
572 Unit 5 Social Change
in the United States. In contrast, in less than five years the Internet had
reached over 25 percent of Americans. (See page 29 for a comparison of
the number of years it took for various technologies to be adopted in U.S.
households.)
The changes that resulted from the use of computers are almost impossi-
ble to list. In 1999, social historian Francis Fukuyama de-
scribed a workplace undergoing a transformation. The
effects of these changes, he claims, will be as great as
those of the Industrial Revolution. Telecommunications
technology, for example, will allow many to work from
their homes, but it will result in far less human interaction
(McGinn and Raymond, 1997–98). In the field of medicine,
computer technology has radically changed many surgical
techniques. Microsurgeries and radio wave therapy are ex-
amples (Cowley and Underwood, 1997–98). Drivers in
Germany can get real-time computer-generated informa-
tion on traffic problems on the autobahn by using cell
phones or electronic consoles in their cars.
These college students at a campus
cyber café seem very comfortable
with the fast pace of technological
change in American society. Population
Changing demographics are another important factor for creating social
change. A classic example is the huge increase in the birth of babies follow-
ing the return of American soldiers at the end of World War II (the so-called
baby boom). Americans born between 1946 and 1964 caused the expansion
of child healthcare facilities and created the need for more teachers and
schools in the 1950s and 1960s. On the other hand, the generation following
baby boomers now in their thirties and in the labor market are experiencing
increased competition for jobs and fewer opportunities to move up the career
ladder. As the baby boomers retire, problems of health care and Social
Security loom large. Longer working hours, retraining programs, and reedu-
cation for older people will probably become political issues for future elec-
tions. As America’s population continues to age, more attention is being paid
to our senior citizens. Already, there are more extended-care homes, an in-
crease in geriatric emphasis in medicine, and more television advertising and
programming targeting the aging elderly population.

The Natural Environment

Interaction with the natural environment has, from the earliest times, also
transformed American life. The vast territory west of the thirteen colonies per-
mitted the nation to expand, ultimately to the Pacific Ocean. This western
movement helped shape our cultural identity and values. It also caused untold
changes, most tragically the destruction of many Native American cultures.
The environment continued to shape historical events, especially when
In 1986, the Chernobyl nuclear
natural disasters occurred. The Great Depression of the 1930s was due in part
plant in Ukraine had a meltdown. to a long drought that hit the Midwestern plains states. Overplanting and
This event added to opposition in plowing had upset the fragile ecosystem and turned the prairies into a giant
the U.S. to using nuclear power as “dust bowl.”
an energy source.
 Chapter 17 Social Change and Collective Behavior 573

Another
Time The Horse Among the Plains Indians

Diffusion is one of the social processes that creates short, the horse quickly elevated the Plains tribes
social change. The society of the Plains Indians in to relative prosperity.
the west central United States was altered drasti- The horse also sharply altered the relationship
cally by the European introduction of the horse— between these peoples and the neighboring farm-
an example of diffusion.
ing tribes. The once relatively inoffensive nomads
were now transformed into aggressive, predatory
I n the nineteenth century, horses were the
primary means of transportation and as such
were an integral part of Plains Indian culture. The
raiders. The Plains tribes were now capable of
quickly assembling large parties of horse-mounted
modern horse, however, was not native to the warriors who could raid the sedentary farming vil-
Americas, but was first brought by the Spanish. It lages with impunity. The military balance of power
was not until the late 1600s and early 1700s that had shifted.
horses in any numbers became available to the In the decades immediately after the acquisition
tribes of the Great Plains. . . . of the horse, the original Plains tribes flourished.
The horse truly revolutionized life among the Attacks on the neighboring farming peoples had a
Plains tribes. The horse drastically altered the eco- devastating effect, and many villages were aban-
nomic base and changed the lifestyle of these peo- doned. It was not long, however, before many cul-
ples. On horseback a hunter armed with bow and tivators saw both the economic and the military
arrow could find and kill enough bison within a advantages derived from being horse-mounted no-
few months to feed his family for the year. Not madic bison hunters. The Cheyenne and some of
only could he kill larger numbers of game animals, the Dakota abandoned the life of settled farmers
but he could pack the meat onto horses and read- and moved westward to the plains to become no-
ily transport it vast distances. Horses also allowed madic, teepee-dwelling, bison hunters themselves.
for the transporting of increased quantities of ma- As they moved onto the plains, they came to chal-
terial goods. Teepees increased in size, and cloth- lenge directly the original Plains tribes for domi-
ing and other material items became increasingly nance over critical hunting resources, which
abundant and elaborate in decoration. For the first intensified warfare. As a result, warfare and the
time these widely scattered groups could gather warrior tradition became an integral part of Plains
together in large camps, sometimes numbering in Indian values, social organization, and behavior.
the thousands, for at least a portion of the year. In Source: Adapted from James Peoples and Garrick Bailey,
Humanity, 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2000, p. 284.

Thinking It Over
1. List at least five major changes that resulted
from the introduction of the horse to the cul-
ture of the Plains Indians.
2. Identify an item that has been introduced to
your culture from another place. (This item
could be food, clothing, an invention, or even
an idea.) What effect has it had on your life?
574 Unit 5 Social Change

World View Internet Connections

As this map shows, the number of people connected
to the Internet varies widely from country to country.
As of the late 1990s, nearly 60 percent of Internet con-
nections were on the North American continent. This
map shows the number of computers connected to
the Internet per 100,000 people.

North
Nor th Europe
Europe
America

Asia

Africa
South
America

Australia
Computers Connected to the
Internet per 100,000 People
Over 5000 250–499
3000–5000 50–249
1000–2999 Below 50
500–999 No data

Interpreting the Map

1. Do you see a pattern in the number of connections to the Internet? Explain.
2. What implications might this distribution have for future social change?

Adapted from The Macmillan Atlas of the Future. New York: Macmillan, 1998.

In the early 1970s, OPEC (an organization of oil-producing nations)

launched an embargo, refusing to sell its oil to other countries. Because of
the natural short supply of oil without the contribution of the oil-rich Mid-
eastern countries, oil products became scarce and expensive, contributing to
economic inflation in the United States in the 1970s and early 1980s. As a re-
sult, Americans began driving smaller, more fuel-efficient automobiles.

revolution
Revolution and War
sudden and complete Revolution and war are related factors that lead to social change. A
overthrow of a social or
revolution involves the sudden and complete overthrow of an existing social
political order
or political order. A revolution is often, but not always, accompanied by vio-
 Chapter 17 Social Change and Collective Behavior 575
lence. Most revolutionaries expect that the revolution will bring about fun-
damental changes. Marx, for example, expected workers’ revolutions to
eliminate class-based inequality and therefore to have a profound effect on
the social and economic structures of the societies in which they occurred.
Are revolutions normally followed by radical changes?
According to Charles Tilly, a revolution results in the replacement of one
set of power holders by another (Tilly, 1978, 1997). In the view of an-
other respected sociologist, a post-revolutionary society is eventually re-
placed by a society that looks much like the original one (Brinton, 1990).
Radical changes are rarely permanent because people tend to revert to
more familiar customs and behaviors. They do so in part because conti-
nuity with the past provides security and a blueprint for behavior.
What sorts of changes do follow revolutions? In most cases, the
new social order created by a successful revolution is likely to be a com- Wars often bring about social
promise between the new and the old. Consider the example of China, the change because culturally dissimilar
site of a communist revolution in 1949. The revolution did not result in the societies, such as the U.S. and
wholesale changes promised by its leaders. One of the revolutionary reforms, Kuwait, come into increased contact.
for example, promised liberation from sexism. The situation for Chinese
women has improved, but sexual equality is a far-distant dream in that coun-
try (“Closing the Gap,” 1995).
How does war promote social change? War is organized, armed con- war
flict that occurs within a society or between nations. Sociologist Robert Nisbet organized, armed conflict that
(1988) described how war brings about social change through diffusion, dis- occurs within a society or
covery, and invention. Social change is created through diffusion because between nations
wars break down barriers between societies, bringing people from different
societies together. This association leads to the adoption of new ways of
thinking, feeling, and behaving.
Wars also promote invention and discovery. For example, during World

“
War II (1939–1945), the pressure of war enabled the U.S. government to pro-
mote and finance the development of such technologies as the atomic bomb,
synthetic rubber, and antibiotics. Each contributed to a cultural revolution Every generation revolts
after the war. And America’s culture, both during and after World War I, was
imported by societies all over the world. against its fathers and
makes friends with its
Section 1 Assessment grandfathers.
Lewis Mumford
“
1. Briefly describe three important processes for social change.
2. Provide one example each (not given in the text) of how population
American author
and interaction with the natural environment have caused social
change.
3. Explain how war can be both a positive and a negative force for social
change.

Critical Thinking
4. Drawing Conclusions Identify a major social change that has
occurred in your lifetime. What do you think are the major sources of
this change—discovery, diffusion, or invention? Be careful to relate the
manner of change to the nature of the change itself.
576 Unit 5 Social Change

Case Study: Is the

American Dream Dying?
Americans have long expected to achieve a higher standard of liv-
ing than their parents. Instead, according to Katherine Newman (1994),
social and economic change are placing the American Dream in jeop-
ardy. The downscaling of jobs and pay that occurred during the 1980s
and 1990s has replaced earlier optimism with anger, doubt, and fear.
Newman spent two years conducting personal interviews with 150
Americans living in “Pleasanton,” a suburban community representative
of much of America. Pleasanton is a mix of skilled blue-collar workers
and white-collar professionals from a variety of ethnic and religious ori-
gins. Her respondents were schoolteachers, guidance counselors, and
sixty families whose children were then grown.
The residents of Pleasanton believed that the promise of America
had taken an unexpected wrong turn, and they were trying to make
sense of it. Newman attempted to understand the residents’ view of this
downward mobility. The stresses associated with changing economic
conditions, she believed, would bring cultural expectations, disappoint-
ments, and conflicts close enough to the surface for a trained social sci-
entist to see. As the study progressed, she did, in fact, see conflict
between parents and grown children, disagreements along lines of race
and ethnicity, and unhappy marriages. The following statement reveals
a baby boomer’s shattered confidence in the American Dream.
I’ll never have what my parents had. I can’t even dream of that. I’m
living a lifestyle that’s way lower than it was when I was growing up
and it’s depressing. You know it’s a rude awakening when you’re
out in the world on your own. . . . I took what was given to me and
tried to use it the best way I could. Even if you are a hard worker
and you never skipped a beat, you followed all the rules, did every-
thing they told you you were supposed to do, it’s still horrendous.
They lied to me. You don’t get where you were supposed to wind up.
At the end of the road it isn’t there. I worked all those years and then
I didn’t get to candy land. The prize wasn’t there . . . (Newman,
1994:3).
After a detailed and often personal exploration of what Newman calls
the “withering American Dream,” she turns to the larger social and polit-
ical implications for society. She explores the transition from a society of
upward mobility based on effort and merit to a society in which social
classes of birth increasingly dictate future social and economic positions.
 Chapter 17 Social Change and Collective Behavior 577
According to Newman, the soul of America is at stake. She raises
these questions: Will Americans turn to exclusive self-interest, or will
they care for others as well as themselves? Will suburbanites turn a
blind eye to the rapidly deteriorating inner
cities? Will the generational, racial, and eth-
nic groups turn inward, or will they at-
tempt to bridge the divides that threaten to
separate them further?
A partial answer to these questions is
reflected in public opinion about federal,
state, and local tax revenues. If the resi-
dents of Pleasanton are any guide,
Americans do not wish to invest in the
common good. Public schools, colleges,
universities, and inner cities, for example,
are receiving a rapidly declining share of
public economic support. In conclusion,
Newman states:
This does not augur well for the soul of the
country in the twenty-first century. Every
A former G.E. worker stands in
great nation draws its strength from a social contract, an unspoken
front of signs lamenting the
agreement to provide for one another, to reach across the narrow move of a plant from North
self-interests of generations, ethnic groups, races, classes, and gen- Carolina to Mexico. This thirty-
ders toward some vision of the common good. Taxes and budgets— year veteran of the closing
the mundane preoccupations of city hall—express this commitment, plant would agree that the
or lack of it, in the bluntest fashion. Through these mechanistic de- American dream is dying.
vices, we are forced to confront some of the most searching philo-
sophical questions that face any country: What do we owe one
another as members of a society? Can we sustain a collective sense of
purpose in the face of the declining fortunes that are tearing us apart,
leaving those who are able to scramble for advantage and those who
are not to suffer out of sight? (Newman, 1994:221)

Working with the Research

1. Think about your past experiences at home and in other social in-
stitutions (such as schools and churches). What is your conception
of the American dream, based on these experiences? Critically
analyze the ways in which society shaped your conception.
2. Newman’s research was done in the early 1990s. Do you be-
lieve that she is right about the fate of the American dream?
Explain.
3. If the American dream is withering, many social changes are in
store. Describe the major changes you foresee.
4. Suppose Katherine Newman had decided to place her study in
the context of sociological theory. Write a conclusion to her
book from the theoretical perspective—functionalist or conflict
theorist—that you think is most appropriate.
578 Unit 5 Social Change

Section
Theoretical Perspectives on
Social Change
2 K e y

• equilibrium
T e r m s

• urbanism

Section The Functionalist Perspective

Preview
B ecause functionalism emphasizes social stability and continuity, it
may seem contradictory to refer to a functionalist theory of social

T he functionalist and con-

flict perspectives view so-
cial change in very different
change. There are, however, two functionalist theories of social change—
proposed by William Ogburn and Talcott Parsons—that are especially inter-
esting. Both of these theories are based on the concept of equilibrium.
ways. The functionalist per- Close your eyes and imagine a tightrope walker inching his way across a
spective depicts societies as deep chasm on a narrow rope. If you have an active imagination, you will
relatively stable. Following a picture him continually shifting his body and using a pole to counterbalance
major change, these inte- the effects of the wind as well as the effects of his own motions. The tightrope
grated systems seek a new
walker is concerned with maintaining equilibrium. When used by sociologists,
equilibrium describes a society’s tendency to react to changes by making
equilibrium. According to the
small adjustments to keep itself in a state of functioning and balance.
conflict perspective, societies A society in change, then, moves from stability to temporary instability
are unstable systems that are and back to stability. Sociologists refer to this as a dynamic, or moving, equi-
constantly undergoing librium. For example, in 1972, a broken dam led to the destruction of the
change. Symbolic interac- community of Buffalo Creek, West Virginia. The physical destruction of the
tionism identifies decreasing community was accompanied by death and the loss of the old way of life.
shared values as a source of Despite the ensuing chaos, residents of the community slowly pulled their
social instability. lives together again. Although things were not the same as before, a new
equilibrium was built out of the physical, social, and human wreckage
(Erikson, 1976).

equilibrium
a state of functioning and
balance, maintained by a
society’s tendency to make
small adjustments to change

Social equilibrium was shaken for a

while, after an earthquake caused
the collapse of this Los Angeles area
freeway.
 Chapter 17 Social Change and Collective Behavior 579

Figure 17.2 Focus on Theoretical Perspectives

Social Change. This table provides one example each of how the functionalist, conflict, and symbolic in-
teractionist perspectives view social change. Describe how a functionalist would look at an interest group and
how a conflict theorist would view equilibrium.
Theoretical
Perspective Concept Example
Functionalism Equilibrium Continuity in the nature
of the presidency despite
scandals in the Nixon and
Clinton administrations
Conflict Theory Interest group Enactment of civil rights laws in the 1960s as a
result of the struggle over racial equality

Symbolic Urbanism The smaller proportion of social

Interactionism interaction in a large city
compared to a small town is based
on a decrease in the number of
shared meanings

The 1960s saw the norms of sexual behavior change radically. After sky-
rocketing, for example, teenage pregnancy is declining. Although Americans
do not follow the norms of the 1950s, a retreat from extremes is occurring as
new norms of sexual behavior are being established.

The Conflict Perspective

According to the conflict perspective, social change is the result of strug-
gles among groups for scarce resources. Social change is created as these
“
The single greatest
power in the world today
is the power to change.
conflicts are resolved. Many of the basic assumptions of the conflict per-
spective emerge from the writings of Karl Marx about social class conflicts Karl Deutsch
(see page 16). Marx wrote that “without conflict, no progress: this is the law
which civilization has followed to the present day.”
Sociologists such as Ralf Dahrendorf have adapted many of Marx’s ideas.
“
Harvard professor

Dahrendorf believes that the resources at stake are more than economic. The
quest for power is the source of social change in his view. Whereas Marx
saw conflict between two opposing social classes, Dahrendorf sees conflict
among groups at all levels of society. Social change thus comes from a mul-
titude of competing interest groups. These groups can be political, economic,
religious, racial, ethnic, or gender based. Society changes as power relation-
ships among interest groups change.
History seems to favor Dahrendorf’s viewpoint over Marx’s. Class conflict
has not occurred in any capitalist society; social classes have not been polarized
580 Unit 5 Social Change

into major warring factions. Rather, capitalist societies are composed of count-
less competing groups. In America, racial groups struggle over the issue of
equal economic opportunity, environmentalists and industrialists argue about
environmental protection and economic development, and so on, with many
other groups at odds with opposing groups over their own special issues.

Symbolic Interactionism
Human beings, according to symbolic interactionism, interact with others
on the basis of commonly shared symbols. The nature and frequency of so-
cial interaction are affected by the extent to which people share meanings.
As shared interpretations of the world decrease, social ties weaken and so-
cial interaction becomes more impersonal.
The relationship between shared meanings and the nature of social inter-
action can be illustrated within the context of the change from an agricultural
economy to an industrial one. Accompanying this shift is the emergence of
urbanization and its distinctive way of life. This distinctive way of life is
urbanism known as urbanism.
the distinctive way of life shared
by the people living in a city What is the way of life associated with urbanism? According to
German sociologist Ferdinard Tönnies (1957), social interaction prior to the
Industrial Revolution was based on shared tradition. In rural settings, daily
life revolved around family, common norms and values, and an interest in
the welfare of all community members. Tönnies thought that urbanization
creates a very different way of life. In urban society, he wrote, social inter-
action is impersonal and fragmented because most people with whom one
interacts are strangers who share little common tradition.
Sociologists have both agreed and disagreed with Tönnies ever since he
introduced this view of urbanism in 1887. According to Tönnies’s critics, the
way of life in urban society is much more varied than he described it (Gans,
Student Web Activity 1968). While some urbanites may have hardly any shared meanings on which
Visit the Sociology and to base social interaction with others (poor people, elderly people), many
You Web site at others share meanings on which they interact (members of ethnic neighbor-
soc.glencoe.com and click on hoods, members of artistic subcultures).
Chapter 17—Student Web We need not worry about the outcome of this ongoing debate. It has been
Activities for an activity on the subject of research for sociologists for a long time. What matters here is
urbanism. that this research is guided by ideas of symbolic interactionism.

Assessment–Section 2
1. Describe an area of your life that would benefit from having more
equilibrium. How might you achieve this?
2. How did Dahrendorf’s interpretation differ from Marx’s theory of social
change?
3. What theory of social change best explains the enactment of civil rights
laws in the 1960s?

Critical Thinking
4. Finding the Main Idea Are functionalism and conflict theory
compatible as explanations for social change? Clearly distinguish the
two perspectives in formulating your answer.
 Chapter 17 Social Change and Collective Behavior 581

Section
Collective Behavior
3 K e y

•
T e r m s

collective behavior • fad • mob

• collectivity • fashion • riot
• dispersed collectivity • mass hysteria • contagion theory
• rumor • panic • emergent norm theory
• urban legend • crowd • convergence theory

Defining Collective Behavior Section

Preview
C ollective behavior refers to the spontaneous behavior of people
who are responding to similar stimuli. Let’s look more closely at
some of the terms in this definition. First, what is meant by collective? When
sociologists use this term, they are referring to a large number of people who C ollective behavior de-
scribes how people be-
have when they are united by
do not normally interact and who do not necessarily share clearly defined
norms. Sociologists call such a gathering of people a collectivity. Stimuli are a single short-term goal.
outside events or persons that cause a response. Putting it all together, col- Rumors, fads, fashions, mass
lective behavior involves spontaneous social interaction in which loosely hysteria, and panics are exam-
connected participants influence one another’s behavior. ples of collective behaviors.
The study of collective behavior poses a large problem. Sociologists are Crowds gather and behave in
used to studying structured, not unplanned, behavior. How are researchers different ways depending on
going to investigate a social phenomenon that occurs spontaneously? In spite the stimuli and conditions
of this difficulty, sociologists have developed fascinating theories of collec- present. Contagion theory
tive behavior. It turns out that collective behavior involves more structure
and emergent norm theory
and rationality than appear on the surface. Sociologists identify several types
describe crowd behavior.

collective behavior
the spontaneous behavior of a
group of people responding to
similar stimuli

collectivity
collection of people who do not
normally interact and who do
not share clearly defined norms

Some twenty people were badly

injured following a 1947 panic in
Nice, France. Sociologists see some
structure even in such spontaneous
social behavior.
582 Unit 5 Social Change

of collective behavior. In the more structured forms, such as crowds and so-
dispersed collectivity
collectivity made up of people
cial movements, people are in physical contact. We will look at these inter-
who are not physically actions in the following sections. In a dispersed collectivity people are
connected but who follow widely scattered. Nevertheless, they are in some way following common
common rules or respond to rules or responding to common stimuli. Behavior among members of dis-
common stimuli persed collectivities is not highly individualized:
When people are scattered about, they can communicate with one an-
other in small clusters of people; all of the members of a public need not
hear or see what every other member is saying or doing. And they can
communicate in a variety of ways—by telephone, letter, Fax machine,
computer linkup, as well as through second-, or third-, or fourth-hand
talk in a gossip or rumor network (Goode, 1992:255).

Rumors, Legends, Fads,

and Fashions
People will typically respond to certain information in similar
ways, even when physically separated. Rumors, fads, and fashions
are collective behaviors characteristic of dispersed collectivities.
What is a rumor? A rumor is a widely circulating story of
questionable truth. Rumors are usually spread by people about
events or other people that are of great interest to themselves.
The mass media exploit the public’s fascination with rumors.
Entertainment magazines devote themselves exclusively to rock
idols and movie stars; tabloid newspapers are loaded with sug-
gestive guesswork, half-truths, and innuendos; even mainstream
news publications offer accounts of the rich, famous, and off-
beat. As these examples suggest, rumors and gossip are closely
related.
You probably heard many rumors about what would happen
Swing dancing (shown here in when the clock struck midnight on the last day of 1999. According
1950s style) has become popular to these rumors, power grids would fail, elevators would stop working, and
again. the stock market would crash as the year 2000 began. According to another
rumor, a fast-food restaurant chain was increasing the protein content of its
hamburgers by adding ground worms. Then there was the warning about
combining a soft drink and a popular candy—a combination that would sup-
posedly cause the stomach to explode. None of these rumors proved true;
but they were spread and believed, in part, because they touched on peo-
rumor
a widely circulating piece of
ple’s insecurities, uncertainties, and anxieties.
information that is not verified How are urban legends started? Related to rumors are what Jan
as being true or false Harold Brunvand calls urban legends (Brunvand, 1989). Urban legends are
moralistic tales passed along by people who swear the stories happened to
someone they know or to an acquaintance of a friend or family member.
Instead of fairy tales that take place in the far-distant past, urban legends take
place in shopping malls, on city subways, and in schools. The tales often
urban legend
a moralistic tale which focuses
focus on current concerns and fears, such as AIDS and inner-city gangs. A
on current concerns and fears typical story tells about a man who wakes up in a hotel room missing a kid-
of the city or suburb dweller ney. Another describes alligators roaming the sewer systems of big cities. As
cautionary tales, urban legends warn us against engaging in risky behaviors
 Chapter 17 Social Change and Collective Behavior 583
by pointing out what has supposedly happened to others who did what we fad
might be tempted to try. Like rumors, urban legends permit us to play out an unusual behavior pattern
some of our hidden fears and guilt feelings by being shocked and horrified that spreads rapidly and
at others’ misfortune. disappears quickly
Are fads long lasting? A fad is an unusual behavior pattern that
fashion
spreads rapidly, is embraced zealously, and then disappears after a short
a widely accepted behavior
time. The widespread popularity of a fad rests largely on its novelty. Students pattern that changes
in the early 1970s introduced the “streaking” fad—running naked across col- periodically
lege grounds or through occupied classrooms. More recent fads include
body piercing, tattoos, retro-swing dancing, and snowboarding.
What are fashions? Fads are adopted by a particular group; fashions
are much more widespread. A fashion is a behavior pattern that is widely
approved but is expected to change periodically. In the United States today,
the “in” fashions for clothing are introduced seasonally and usually involve
changes in such features as skirt length and lapel width. High school stu-
dents wishing to be fashionable wear the labels of Tommy Hilfiger, FUBU,
Abercrombie & Fitch, Gap, and Nike.
Fashion changes show up most often in items that involve personal ap-
pearance such as clothing, jewelry, and hairstyles; but automobile design,
home decorating, architecture, and
politics are also subject to fashion.
Slang is a language-based fashion.
Slang terms go in and out of favor
very quickly (Lofland, 1993). Cool,
the cat’s pajamas, groovy, tubular,
neat, tough, fine, awesome, rad,
bad, phat, and sick are all slang
terms of approval that were popu-
lar among young people of various
decades.

Fashion in dress is constantly

changing. Can you identify each of
these styles with a decade between
1960–2000?
584 Unit 5 Social Change

Sociology Terrorist Attacks and

Today Disaster Myths
You fail a test, lose a boyfriend, have a minor September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade
auto accident, or suffer defeat by an archrival’s bas- Center in New York City and the Pentagon in
ketball team. You might well describe each of these Washington, D.C.? It was neither natural nor an acci-
occasions as a “disaster.” For sociologists, however, dent. But, it had all the characteristics of a disaster.
the term disaster is limited to events with the follow- In fact, terrorism is introducing a new type of disas-
ing characteristics: ter, one that involves technology and is intentionally
• Extensive damage to property caused by humans.
• Great loss of human life The World Trade Center and Pentagon attacks
obviously met the criteria of a disaster. Less obvi-
• Massive disruption to everyday living
ously, they also exposed as false many popular be-
• Unpredictability and suddenness of a short-term liefs about human behavior in disasters. Let’s
event consider four such myths within the context of this
Researchers typically divide disasters into “natural national tragedy.
disasters” such as floods, earthquakes, hurricanes • Victims of disasters panic. Contrary to this
and “technological accidents” such as airline crashes, myth, disaster victims do not generally panic.
nuclear plant melt- While some individuals in disasters may panic
downs, and ship and while mass panics may follow disasters, the
sinkings. But how prevailing response is one of general composure
can we classify the and problem-solving behavior. Some inside the

Mass Hysteria and Panics

Mass hysteria exists when collective anxiety is created by acceptance of
one or more false beliefs. Orson Welles’s famous “Men from Mars” radio broad-
cast in 1938, though based entirely on H. G. Wells’s novel The War of the
Worlds, caused nationwide hysteria. About one million listeners became fright-
ened or disturbed, and thousands of Americans hit the road to avoid the invad-
ing Martians. Telephone lines were jammed as people shared rumors, anxieties,
fears, and escape plans (Houseman, 1948; Cantril, 1982; Barron, 1988).
A classic example of mass hysteria was the response to imagined witches
Firefighters raising the flag at the in seventeenth-century Salem, Massachusetts, chronicled in Arthur Miller’s fa-
World Trade Center rescue site.
mous play, The Crucible. Twenty-two people labeled witches died—twenty
by hanging—before the false testimony of several young girls began to be
questioned. The mass hysteria dissipated only after the false beliefs were dis-
credited. There has been some hysteria in the United States regarding AIDS.
A 1987 Gallup poll showed that a substantial proportion of Americans held
 Chapter 17 Social Change and Collective Behavior 585

World Trade Center did respond with incapacitat- firefighters who were playing golf on Staten
ing emotion. One secretary in shock, for exam- Island saw the first mass
planehysteria
hit the north tower.
ple, had to be carried out by a fellow worker. Three of those fourcollective
lost their anxiety
lives in created
rescue ef-
by
Some people jumped from the towers. But the forts, and they werethejust a few of the
acceptance hundreds
of one or more
disaster failed to set off a widespread panic. of firefighters who false
died beliefs
after entering the disas-
Many who heeded the first building-wide in- ter site. To help rescuers searching for survivors
structions died after calmly remaining in their of- under the rubble, ironworkers, many of whom
fices. And many of the survivors remained as had built the World Trade Center, labored to-
interested observers, forcing police to broadcast gether in 12-hour volunteer shifts clearing away
an urgent plea for them to hurry away for their twisted steel.
own safety. • Crime is prevalent during disasters. Rather
• Disaster victims respond as isolated individ- than increasing, crime actually decreases after a
uals. Typically, we picture disaster victims as in- disaster. While some isolated instances of crimi-
dividuals trying to save only themselves. nal behavior occur, the crime rate in a disaster
Actually, according to research, people immedi- falls. After the World Trade Center disaster, some
ately engage in group efforts to help others. looting in surrounding buildings was reported,
People in the World Trade Center with cell and a Picasso drawing valued at $320,000 was
phones offered them to other victims desperate stolen from a Madison Avenue art gallery. More
to call family or friends. Scores of New York po- importantly, the overall crime rate in New York
lice and over 300 firefighters died while working City declined 34 percent in the week following
together to rescue trapped victims. the disaster. According to the NYPD, arrests were
• Disaster victims leave the scene as soon as down 64 percent compared to the same seven
possible. Contrary to this myth, the majority of days the previous years.
victims remain near the disaster site. Rather than
fleeing, most victims of the World Trade Center Doing Sociology
disaster remained to help others, to witness the
fire and rescue efforts, or to think about return- 1. Think of some event you formerly considered a
ing to their offices. In addition, large numbers of disaster. Explain why it was not a disaster from a
volunteers and off-site emergency personnel ac- sociological viewpoint.
tually rushed to the scene. So many New Yorkers 2. Do you think that the behavior following the ter-
offered to donate blood that many were turned rorist attack on the World Trade Center is best ex-
away. Bellevue Hospital at one point had five plained by functionalism, conflict theory, or
doctors for each emergency ward patient. Four symbolic interactionism? Explain your choice.

false beliefs regarding the spread of AIDS—30 percent believed insect bites
could spread the disease, 26 percent related the spread to food handling or
preparation, 26 percent thought AIDS could be transmitted via drinking
glasses, 25 percent saw a risk in being coughed or sneezed upon, and 18 per-
cent believed that AIDS could be contracted from toilet seats (Gallup, 1988). mass hysteria
These mistaken ideas persisted on a widespread basis despite the medical collective anxiety created by
the acceptance of one or more
community’s conclusion that AIDS is spread through sexual contact, by shar-
false beliefs
ing hypodermic needles, and by transfusion of infected blood. By the late
1990s, knowledge, tolerance, compassion, and understanding of AIDS had
increased enough that the frequency of these rumors dropped off.
What is the difference between mass hysteria and a panic? A panic
panic
occurs when people react to a real threat in fearful, anxious, and often self-
reaction to a real threat in
damaging ways. Panics usually occur in response to such unexpected events fearful, anxious, and often self-
as fires, invasions, and ship sinkings. Over 160 people, for example, died in damaging ways
the Kentucky Beverly Hills Supper Club in 1977 when a panic reaction to a
586 Unit 5 Social Change

fire caused a jamming of the escape routes. Interestingly enough, people often
do not panic after natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods. Although
panics may occur at the outset, major natural catastrophes usually lead to
highly structured behavior (Erikson, 1976; Dynes and Tierney, 1994).

Crowds
A crowd is a temporary collection of people who share an immediate
common interest. The temporary residents of a large campground, each oc-
cupied with his or her own activities, would not be considered a crowd.
crowd Sociologists would call this kind of gathering an aggregate. But if some stim-
a temporary collection of ulus, such as the landing of a hot-air balloon or the sudden appearance of a
people who share an bear, drew the campers together, the aggregate would become a crowd.
immediate common interest People in a crowd often have no predefined ideas about the way they
should behave. They do, however, share the urgent feeling that something
either is about to happen or should be made to happen.
Are there different types of crowds? Sociologist Herbert Blumer
(1969a) has distinguished four basic types of crowds.
1. A casual crowd is the least organized, least emotional, and most
temporary type of crowd. Although the people in a casual crowd share
some point of interest, it is minor and fades quickly. Members of a
casual crowd may gather with others to observe the aftermath of an
accident, to watch someone threatening to jump from a building, or to
listen to a street rap group.
2. A conventional crowd has a specific purpose and follows accepted
norms for appropriate behavior. People watching a film, taking a
chartered flight to a university ball game, or observing a tennis match
are in conventional crowds. As in casual crowds, there is little
interaction among members of conventional crowds.
3. Expressive crowds have no significant or long-term purpose beyond
unleashing emotion. Their members are collectively caught up in a
dominating, all-encompassing mood of the moment. Free expression of
emotion—yelling, crying, laughing, jumping—is the main characteristic
of this type of crowd. Hysterical fans at a rock concert, the multitude
gathered at Times Square on New Year’s Eve, and the some 250,000
Americans at the Woodstock music festival in 1999 are all examples of
expressive crowds.
4. Finally, a crowd that takes some action toward a target is an acting
crowd. This type of crowd concentrates intensely on some objective
and engages in aggressive behavior to achieve it. Protestors at the
1999 World Trade Organization (WTO) meeting in Seattle were an
acting crowd. Although the protests involved many groups with
various objectives, they all shared the goal of placing “people before
profits” (Klee, 1999). A conventional crowd may become an acting
crowd, as when European soccer fans abandon the guidelines for
Each of these photos can be spectators in order to attack the officials. Similarly, an expressive
associated with a type of crowd. crowd may become an acting one, as in the case of celebrating Super
Which photo shows an acting
Bowl fans who wind up overturning cars and destroying property.
crowd?
Mobs are acting crowds, as are crowds engaging in riots.
 Chapter 17 Social Change and Collective Behavior 587
What are mobs and riots? A mob is an emotionally stimulated, disor-
mob
derly crowd that is ready to use destructiveness and violence to achieve a
emotional crowd ready to use
purpose. A mob knows what it wants to do and considers all other things violence for a specific purpose
distractions. In fact, individuals who are tempted to deviate from the mob’s
purpose are pressured to conform. Concentration on the main event is main-
tained by strong leadership. riot
Mobs have a long and violent history. Many students are familiar with the episode of largely random
destruction and violence
scenes of mob actions described by Charles Dickens in the classic story A
carried out by a crowd
Tale of Two Cities. The formation of mobs is not limited to revolutions, how-
ever. During the mid-1700s, American colonists mobbed tax collectors as well
as other political officials appointed by the British. During the Civil War, hun-
dreds of people were killed or injured as armed mobs protested against the
Union Army’s draft. Mobs in the United States have acted as judges, juries,
and executioners in the lynching of African Americans (as well as some
whites) since the end of the nineteenth century.
Some acting crowds, although engaged in deliberate destructiveness and
violence, do not have the mob’s sense of common purpose. These episodes
of crowd destructiveness and violence are called riots. Riots involve a much
wider range of activities than mob action. Whereas a mob surges to burn a
particular building, to lynch an individual, or to throw bombs at a govern-
ment official’s car, rioters often direct their violence and destructiveness at
targets simply because they are convenient. People who participate in riots
typically lack power and engage in destructive behavior as a way to express
their frustrations. A riot, usually triggered by a single event, is best understood
within the context of long-standing tensions.
Ghetto riots tore through many large American cities during the summer
of 1967. The riots occurred against a background of massive unemployment,
uncaring slum landlords, poverty, discrimination, and charges of police bru-
tality. In 1989, thousands of angry citizens stormed the secret police head-
quarters in East Berlin. Although no one was killed or injured, the protest
aroused widespread fear that the country was about to drop into anarchy
(Bierman, 1990). In 1992 police officers charged in the beating of Rodney
King in Los Angeles were acquitted by a jury. In the aftermath of the acquit-
tals, Los Angeles experienced America’s deadliest riots in twenty-five years.
Two days of rioting left the City of Angels with at least 53 dead, over 2,000
injured, over 16,000 arrested, and an estimated $800 million in damage from Riots occurred in 1992 in Los
looting and burning (Duke and Escobar, 1992; Mathews, 1992). Angeles after the acquittals of four
white officers accused of the beating
of African American motorist
Rodney King. This looter took
Theories of Crowd Behavior advantage of the riot to add to her
wardrobe.
Theories have been developed to explain crowd behavior. The three most
important are contagion theory, emergent norm theory and convergence theory.
What is contagion theory? Contagion often refers to the spread of dis-
ease from person to person. Accordingly, contagion theory focuses on the contagion theory
spread of emotion in a crowd. As emotional intensity in the crowd increases, theory stating that members of
people temporarily lose their individuality to the “will” of the crowd. This crowds stimulate each other to
makes it possible for a charismatic or manipulative leader to direct crowd be- higher and higher levels of
havior, at least initially. emotion and irrational behavior
Contagion theory has its roots in the classic 1895 work of Gustave Le Bon
(originally published in 1895). Le Bon was a French aristocrat who disdained
588 Unit 5 Social Change

crowds made up of the masses. People in crowds, Le Bon thought, were re-
duced to a nearly subhuman level.
By the mere fact that he forms part of an organized crowd, a man de-
scends several rungs in the ladder of civilization. Isolated, he may be a
cultivated individual; in a crowd, he is a barbarian—that is, a crea-
ture acting by instinct. He possesses the spontaneity, the violence, the
ferocity, and also the enthusiasm and heroism of primitive beings
(Le Bon, 1960:32).
Herbert Blumer (1969a) has offered another version of contagion theory.
Blumer avoids Le Bon’s elitist bias but still implies that crowds are irrational
and out of control. For Blumer, the basic process in crowds is a “circular re-
action”—people mutually stimulating one another. This process includes
three stages. In milling, the first stage, people move around in an aimless and
random fashion, much like excited herds of cattle or sheep. Through milling,
people become increasingly aware of and sensitive to one another; they
enter something akin to a hypnotic trance. All of this prepares the crowd to
act in a concerted and spontaneous way.
The second stage, collective excitement, is a more intense form of milling.
At this stage, crowd members become impulsive, unstable, and highly re-
sponsive to the actions and suggestions of others. Individuals begin to lose
their personal identities and take on the identity of the crowd.
The last stage, social contagion, is an extension of the other stages.
Behavior in this stage involves rigid, unthinking, and nonrational transmis-
sion of mood, impulse, or behavior. We see such behavior, for example,
when fans at soccer games in Europe launch attacks on referees that disrupt
Riot police officers look at a fire set
by fans during a 1996 soccer game
games and leave people injured or even killed. Taking a less extreme case,
in Athens. How does contagion people at auctions can find themselves buying objects of little or no value to
theory describe the behavior that led them because they have become caught up in the excitement of bidding.
to the fire? What is emergent norm theory? Sociologists today realize that much
crowd behavior, even in mobs, is actually very rational (McPhail, 1991).
emergent norm theory Emergent norm theory stresses the similarity between daily social behav-
theory stating that norms ior and crowd behavior. In both situations, norms guide behavior (Turner,
develop to guide crowd 1964; Turner and Killian, 1987). So even within crowds, rules develop. These
behavior rules are emergent norms because the crowd participants are not aware of
the rules until they find themselves in a particular situation. The norms de-
velop on the spot as crowd participants pick up cues for expected behavior.
Contagion theory proposes a collective mind that motivates members of
the crowd to act. According to emergent norm theory, people in a crowd are
present for a variety of reasons. Hence, they do not all behave in the same
way. Conformity may be active (some people in a riot may take home as
many watches and rings as they can carry) or passive (others may simply not
interfere with the looters, although they take nothing for themselves). In Nazi
Germany, for instance, some people destroyed the stores of Jewish mer-
chants, while others watched silently.
What is convergence theory? Both the contagion and emergent norm
convergence theory theories of crowd behavior assume that individuals are merely responding to
theory that states that crowds those around them. It may be a more emotional response (as in contagion
are formed by people who
theory) or a more rational response (as in emergent norm theory). In other
deliberately congregate with
like-minded others
words, the independent variable in crowd behavior is the crowd itself. In con-
trast, in convergence theory crowds are formed by people who deliberately
 Chapter 17 Social Change and Collective Behavior 589
Police made mass arrests in 1992
when anti-abortion activists
attempted to blockade a Milwaukee
abortion clinic. How does this
behavior relate to convergence
theory?

congregate with others who they know to be like-minded. According to con-

vergence theory, the independent variable in crowd behavior is the desire of
people with a common interest to come together.
There have been many instances of crowds gathering in front of clinics to
discourage abortions. This behavior, say convergence theorists, does not sim-
ply occur because people happened to be at the same place and are influ-
enced by others. Such a crowd is motivated to form because of shared
values, beliefs, and attitudes (Berk, 1974).

Section 3 Assessment
1. How is a dispersed collectivity different from other types of
collectivities?
2. Some observers at a lynching do not participate but do not attempt to
stop the lynching. Which of the following theories of crowd behavior
best explains this?
a. contagion theory c. emergent norm theory
b. crowd decision theory d. convergence theory

Critical Thinking
3. Making Generalizations Rumors may or may not be true. Do you
think most rumors turn out to be false? Why or why not?
4. Applying Concepts Identify a current rumor, fad, or fashion. Explain
why it is part of a dispersed collectivity.
“The Mob has many
Heads, but no Brains.
Thomas Fuller
5. Applying Concepts Think of a crowd you have been part of, and
identify it as one of the four types of crowds described in the text.
Provide examples of behavior within the crowd (yours or someone
“
English minister

else’s) that illustrate why it was that particular type.

590 Unit 5 Social Change

E ven before e-mail and the Internet, rumors spread like wildfire.
Now, with instantaneous and multiple communications, there is vir-
tually no limit to how fast a rumor can travel. A recent example demon-
strates how quickly rumors can spread through the Internet.
The “gangsta” rapper Tupac Shakur was shot four times while rid-
ing in a car on the Las Vegas strip. A week after his death, a rumor sur-
faced that he was still alive. This rumor became so widespread on the
Internet that the television show Nightline reported it. Nightline gave
no credence to the story, but it found the rumor itself worth reporting.
Rumors at The rumor is still believed by many of Shakur’s fans.
The Internet has rumors, gossip, and conspiracy theories to satisfy
almost any taste. Conspiracy Nation, a magazine devoted to conspir-
Warp acy theories, has a web site that describes dozens of rumors about
plots. A recent offering, for example, explored efforts by the “new
world order” to clone human beings. Other articles have examined a
Speed variety of theories on political assassinations and suicides (Rust and
Danitz, 1998). E-mail chain letters spread rumors ranging from im-
pending doom caused by various computer
viruses to tales of free vacations and cash prizes
(Branscum, 1999). Clearly, the Internet can ac-
celerate and magnify the effects of such rumors.
And the effects of rumors can be serious. A
recent Internet rumor erroneously charged a
reputable on-line information publisher with
selling its customers’ credit and medical histo-
ries. Another rumor, originated by Internet
tabloid journalist Matt Drudge, charged a key
Clinton White House aide with wife abuse.
These types of rumors can have serious effects
on a person’s reputation or the financial stability
of a company.
Such damage can now occur overnight, be
long lasting, and even become irreversible.
“Now the Internet is taking hearsay global at
light speed, shaking up the media and blurring
fact and fiction like never before” (Rust and
Danitz, 1998: 22).

The rapper Tupac Shakur was widely

rumored to still be alive a week after Analyzing the Trends
he was shot to death on the Las Vegas
strip. This rumor was spread on the How much credibility do you give to information from an Internet
Internet. source? What criteria do you think should be used to evaluate the
validity of information?
 Chapter 17 Social Change and Collective Behavior 591

Section
Social Movements
4 K e y

•
T e r m s

social movement • alternative movement

• revolutionary movement • value-added theory
• reformative movement • resource mobilization
• redemptive movement theory

The Nature of Social Movements Section

Preview
T he social movement is the most highly structured, rational, and en-
during form of collective behavior. Several defining elements charac-
terize social movements. S ocial movements are
more permanent and
more organized than other
❖ a large number of people
types of collectivities.
❖ a common goal to
Theories to explain how
promote or prevent social
change social movements develop
include value-added theory
❖ structured organization
with commonly and resource mobilization
recognized leaders theory.
❖ activity sustained over a
relatively long time period
Examples of past and present
social movements include the social movement
American Revolution, abolition- movement whose goal is to
ism, the suffragette movement, promote or prevent social
the pro-life and pro-choice change; the most structured
movements, and the environ- and rational form of collective
mental movement. behavior
Most social movements are
started to stimulate change. As
the definition indicates, how-
ever, a social movement may
instead oppose change. Con- “Listen–just take one of our brochures and see
servative political and funda- what we’re all about . . . In the meantime, you
may wish to ask yourself, ‘Am I a happy cow?’”
mentalist religious organizations
for example, are engaged in a
A very human need to belong is a prime
concerted effort to oppose
motivator for joining social movements. What
abortion (Tax, 1999). The other motivations might be responsible for
National Rifle Association has causing a person to join a social movement?
focused its resources and mem-
bership on blocking certain gun
control legislation (Walsh and
Suro, 1999).
592 Unit 5 Social Change

Figure 17.3 Major Forms of Collective Behavior

Behavior Definition Example

Rumor A widely circulating piece of Continuously repeated prediction that

information that is not verified airplanes would crash on a massive scale
as being true or false on January 1, 2000

Urban legend A moralistic tale which focuses Fierce alligators in New York City’s sewer
on current concerns and fears system
of the city or suburban dweller
Fad An unusual behavior pattern Body piercing
that spreads rapidly and
disappears quickly (although it
may reappear)
Fashion A widely accepted behavior Nike shoes
pattern that changes
periodically
Crowd A temporary collection of New Year’s celebrants at Times Square in
people who share an immediate New York City
interest
Mob An emotional crowd ready to Lynch mob
use violence for a specific
purpose
Riot An episode of largely random Destructive behavior following the acquittal
destruction and violence carried of police officers who were filmed using
out by a crowd extreme force against Rodney King
Social movement Movement whose goal is to Civil Rights movement
promote or prevent social
change

Primary Types of Social Movements

Despite commonalities, various social movements have unique character-
istics. It is difficult to compare the civil rights movement with the environ-
mental movement. This has led sociologists to study differences between
social movements. David Aberle (1991) has identified four basic types of so-
revolutionary movement cial movements.
a social movement that
attempts to change the total ❖ A revolutionary movement attempts to change a society totally. The
structure of society American Revolution was one of the most successful revolutionary
movements in history. Another example is the revolutionary movement
 Chapter 17 Social Change and Collective Behavior 593
led by Mao Zedong in Demonstrators, with banners in
China. As a result of Mao’s hand, ride a truck en route to
revolutionary movement, a Tiananmen Square to protest for
communist government democracy and human rights in
Beijing, China, in 1989. Explain the
was instituted.
type of social movement this
❖ A reformative movement demonstration best illustrates.
aims to effect more limited
changes in a society. The
Women’s Christian
Temperance Union (an
antialcohol organization
founded in 1874) and the
antiwar movement of the 1960s illustrate this type of social movement.
❖ A redemptive movement focuses on changing people completely.
The religious cult of David Koresh (the Branch Davidians) was a
redemptive movement.
❖ An alternative movement seeks only limited changes in people. Zero
reformative movement
Population Growth, an organization that celebrated its thirtieth a social movement that
anniversary in 1998, illlustrates such a movement. It attempts to attempts to make limited
persuade people to limit the size of their families. It does not advocate changes in society
sweeping lifestyle changes, however; nor does it advocate legal
penalties for large families.
redemptive movement
a social movement which
Theories of Social Movements seeks to change people
completely
Because of the highly structured nature of social movements, sociologists
have been able to analyze this form of collective behavior. Two major theo-
ries of social movements have evolved. One is value-added theory, and the alternative movement
other is resource mobilization theory. a social movement that
focuses on bringing about
What is value-added theory? Before discussing value-added theory, we limited changes in people
need to understand the concept of adding value. In the value-added process,
each step in the creation of a product contributes, or adds value, to the final
entity. Neil Smelser, the sociologist who originated the value-added theory of
social movements, gives an example involving automobile production.
An example of [the value-added process] is the conversion of iron ore
into finished automobiles by a number of stages of processing. Relevant
stages would be mining, smelting, tempering, shaping, and combining
the steel with other parts, painting, delivering to retailer, and selling.
Each stage “adds its value” to the final cost of the finished product. The
key element in this example is that the earlier stages must combine ac-
cording to a certain pattern before the next stage can contribute its par-
ticular value to the finished product, an automobile. Painting, in order
to be effective as a “determinant” in shaping the product, has to “wait”
for the completion of the earlier processes. Every stage in the value-
added process, therefore, is a necessary condition for the appropriate
and effective condition of value in the next stage (Smelser, 1971:13–14). value-added theory
theory holding that certain
Smelser used this process as a model to understand social movements. conditions must exist for social
The value-added theory identifies six conditions that must exist in order for movements to occur
social movements to occur.
594 Unit 5 Social Change

1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s

Hot Topics Hot Topics Hot Topics Hot Topics Hot Topics
Vietnam War Clean Air and International Gay Rights Globalization
Civil Rights Water Human Rights Sweatshop Labor Corporate
Female Endangered Medical Use of Dominance
Empowerment Species Marijuana Immigration
Sexual
Harassment
F17 04
Figure 17.4 Hot Buttons for 1. Structural conduciveness. The environment must be social-movement
College Activists. According to friendly. The college student demonstrations in the 1960s and 1970s
Robert Merton, protest movements occurred because of the war in Vietnam, yes, but also because most
are reactions on structural strains college campuses had convenient sites for rallies and protest meetings.
of burning importance. College
activists have been moved to action
2. Structural strains. A second condition promoting the emergence of a
by different structural strains since social movement is the presence of conflicts, ambiguities, and
the 1960s. discrepancies within a society. Without some form of strain, there is no
stimulus for change. A key discrepancy in the antiwar movement case
Source: U. The National College was the government’s continued stance that there was no war (no legal
Magazine (February, 2000). war had been declared), despite the vast resources being devoted to
battle and the obvious combat casualties. (Figure 17.4 identifies major
structural strains that have mobilized college students since the 1960s.)
3. Generalized beliefs. Generalized beliefs include a general recognition
that there is a problem and agreement that something should be done
to fix it. Two shared beliefs were crucial to the antiwar movement. One
was the belief that the Johnson and Nixon
administrations were not telling the truth
about the war. Another was that the Vietnam
War was so morally wrong that it had to be
stopped.
4. Precipitating factors. One or more
significant events must occur to galvanize
people into action. On April 30, 1970,
President Nixon ordered the invasion of
the neutral country of Cambodia. This
event was a show of force to the North
Vietnamese government with which the
United States government was negotiating
to end the war.
5. Mobilization of participants for action.
Once the first four conditions exist, the
only remaining step is to get the people
moving. Massive demonstrations were
part of the political furor the Cambodian
invasion provoked. More than 100,000
This famous photograph of the opponents of the Vietnam War marched
tragic antiwar demonstrations at on Washington, D.C. Hundreds of
Kent State University in 1970
colleges were forced to close as a result
captured the attention of the nation.
of strikes by 1.5 million students.
 Chapter 17 Social Change and Collective Behavior 595

Women in the District of

Columbia
Workplace
The number of women in the U.S. work-
place is related to social change and so-
cial movements. The U.S. female
workforce shot up during World War II.
Once the soldiers returned home, how-
Percentage of Women
ever, a large percentage of those working in the Workforce, 1996
women quit work to raise families. Owing 68% or more
in part to the women’s movement, the 66%–67.9%
62%–65.9%
U.S. has seen a peacetime resurgence of 60%–61.9%
women entering the workforce. This map 55%–59.9%
shows the percentage of women in each Less than 55%
state who are active in the labor force.

Interpreting the Map

1. Relate strain theory, the women’s movement, and increased female labor force participation.
2. How does your state compare with other states in terms of female employment? Describe.

Adapted from The World Almanac of the U.S.A. 1998.

6. Social control. The sixth determinant of a social movement is ineffective

social control. Actions of the media, police, courts, community leaders,
and political officials can lead to the success or failure of a social
movement. If the right kind of force is applied, a potential social move-
ment may be prevented, even though the first five determinants are
present. Efforts to control the situation may block the social movement,
minimize its effects, or make matters worse. Efforts to control the antiwar
movement, for example, were actually counterproductive. During the
student antiwar protests following the Cambodian invasion, the Ohio
National Guard, mobilized by the governor of Ohio, killed four students
and wounded at least nine others on the Kent State University campus.
Two African American students were killed during an antiwar protest at
Jackson State University in Mississippi. Such heavy-handedness on the
part of politicians and law enforcement officials only stimulated further
protest that hastened the ending of the war.
596 Unit 5 Social Change

resource mobilization theory What is resource mobilization theory? Resource mobilization theory
theory of social movements focuses on the process through which members of a social movement secure
that focuses on the use of and use the resources needed to advance their cause. Resources include human
resources to achieve goals skills such as leadership, orga-
nizational ability, and labor
power, as well as material
goods such as money, prop-
erty, and equipment (Cress
and Snow, 1996; McCarthy and
Wolfson, 1996).
The civil rights movement
of the 1960s succeeded in part
because of the commitment of
African Americans and in part
because people of other races
contributed the money, en-
ergy, and skills necessary to
stage repeated protests. In
contrast, the gay movement in
the United States has experi-
enced difficulty partly because Muslim worshippers donate money to aid the relief
of a relative shortage of effort for Turkey, which was devastated by a
money, foot soldiers, and af- tremendous earthquake in 1999. Relate this
fluent supporters. behavior to resource mobilization theory.

Section 4 Assessment
1. How would a sociologist define the term social movement?
2. Which of the following is an example of a reformative social movement?
a. the French Revolution

“
b. Zero Population Growth
c. the Branch Davidians
One hundred and eighty- d. Women’s Christian Temperance Union
3. How is Smelser’s theory of social movements an example of the value-
one years ago, our fore- added process?
fathers started a revolution 4. Briefly explain the resource mobilization theory of social movements.
that still goes on.
Critical Thinking
Dwight D. Eisenhower
“ 5. Synthesizing Information If you wished to mount a social
U.S. president movement to change some U.S. policy (i.e., air pollution limits), which
theory of social change would most likely guide your strategy? Explain
why you would select a particular theory and how it would guide your
approach.
CHAPTER 17 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Vocabulary
Summary
Complete each sentence using each term once.
Section 1: Social Change a. social movement g. crowd
Main Idea: Social change refers to new behaviors b. contagion theory h. collective behavior
that have long-term and relatively important con- c. rumor i. emergent norm
sequences. Discovery, invention, and diffusion d. revolution theory
are the major social processes through which so- j. social change
e. fashions
cial change occurs. Important agents of social
f. fads k. technology
change are technology, population, the natural
environment, revolution, and war. 1. New societal behaviors with long-term and rel-
atively important consequences are called
Section 2: Theoretical Perspectives on Social .
Change 2. is the knowledge and hard-
ware used to achieve practical goals.
Main Idea: The functionalist perspective depicts
societies as relatively stable. Following a major 3. is a type of social movement
change, these integrated systems seek a new equi- that may involve the violent toppling of a
librium. According to the conflict perspective, so- political regime.
cieties are unstable systems that are constantly 4. The spontaneous and unstructured social be-
undergoing change. Symbolic interactionism iden- havior of people who are responding to simi-
tifies decreasing shared values as a source of so- lar stimuli is known as .
cial instability. 5. is a widely circulating story of
questionable truth.
Section 3: Collective Behavior 6. The unusual behavior patterns that spread
Main Idea: Collective behavior describes how rapidly, are embraced zealously, and then dis-
people behave when they are united by a single appear in a short time are called
short-term goal. Rumors, fads, fashions, mass hys- .
teria, and panics are examples of collective be- 7. are behavior patterns that are
haviors. Contagion theory and emergent norm widely approved but expected to change peri-
theory describe crowd behavior. odically.
8. A temporary collection of people who share a
Section 4: Social Movements common interest is known as a
.
Main Idea: Social movements are more permanent
9. emphasizes the irrationality of
and more organized than other types of collectives.
crowds, created when members stimulate one
Theories to explain
another to higher and higher levels of emo-
how social move-
tional intensity.
ments develop in-
clude value-added 10. stresses the similarity between
theory and re- Self-Check Quiz daily social behavior and crowd behavior.
source mobiliza- Visit the Sociology and You Web 11. The form of collective behavior that has the
tion theory. site at soc.glencoe.com and most structure is called .
click on Chapter 17—Self-
Check Quizzes to prepare for
the chapter test.
597
CHAPTER 17 ASSESSMENT
Reviewing the Facts can have only one orange. Why is that?”
Grandpa replied, “Because that’s the way it’s al-
ways been.” In what way is this story a
1. Use a diagram similar to the one below to show metaphor for society?
the cause and effect relationship between the
2. Analyzing Information Television shows
three major social processes and social change.
often mirror changes taking place in some seg-
SOCIAL PROCESSES ments of society. Sometimes, these changes
have not yet reached the mainstream culture.
(One popular program centers many of its
scenes in a unisex workplace bathroom.) What
role do you think television has in changing so-
ciety? Do you think its influence is more posi-
tive or negative?
3. Evaluating Information In this country, it is
SOCIAL CHANGE common to read about rumors circulated by the
media, especially tabloid newspapers and televi-
sion news magazine programs. How justified
2. Identify and describe the three theories of are newspapers and news reporters in publiciz-
crowd behavior. ing unverified information? Should viewers be
3. What are the five important agents of social responsible for evaluating the information them-
change? selves? Should the news sources be penalized
for not investigating or verifying rumors? What
4. In your own words explain the value-added
are the consequences for society if news
theory of social movements.
sources are not reliable?
5. List and describe the four primary types of
4. Drawing Conclusions Twenty years ago,
social movements.
body piercing (other than for earrings) was con-
6. Explain the resource mobilization theory of sidered deviant behavior. Today, it is fast be-
social movements. coming a social norm in many classes and
social categories. Do you think that body pierc-
Thinking Critically ing is a fad or a fashion? What factors might
cause a behavior that is not desirable in one
generation to become accepted just one genera-
1. Applying Concepts Once upon a time, a fam- tion later?
ily decided to grow orange trees. After several
years of hard work and struggle, the first or-
anges appeared on the trees. Every year after Sociology Projects
that, when the oranges appeared, the father
would say, “Everyone is entitled to choose one 1. Technology Over the next few days, look for
orange from the crop.” The business thrived new technologies that have initiated social
and expanded. The children were puzzled that changes within the last five years. For example,
even when the orange grove had grown to in- Web TV is a fairly new technological invention.
clude over a thousand trees, they were allowed Make a list of such items, including things that
only one orange a year. Finally, when the chil- you have heard are coming but have not yet
dren were grown and had children of their been released. For each item write down what
own, one of the grandchildren said, “Grandpa, earlier development made the new item possi-
every year we produce hundreds of thousands ble. For example, high-definition TV was a re-
of oranges, and every year you tell us that we sult of knowledge gained from aerospace

598
 satellite projects. Share your findings with class- and relatives. Comb through them looking for
mates. You will probably be amazed at how ex- examples of fads and fashions from different
tensive your list is. Post it in the classroom, and decades. Present your findings to the whole
add to it as you hear about more changes. class.
2. Fads Look through old and new magazines for 6. Rumors and the Media As an extension to
examples of fads that have appeared since you “Thinking Critically,” question number 3, con-
were born. (Examples might include retro plat- sider and list the options that a news reporter
form shoes and Beanie Babies.) Create a col- has when he or she receives unverified stories
lage illustrating those fads. Are some of the fads to report. Suggest possible consequences associ-
still around? Have they been replaced by similar ated with each option.
fads? Ask your parents or grandparents what
some fads were when they were teenagers.
Find pictures, or ask them if they can provide Technology Activity
you with examples. Make a poster or arrange
the pictures in a booklet format that explains 1. Jan Harold Brunvand coined the term urban
some of the unusual fads. legend to describe a type of rumor that is long
3. Crowd Behavior As an experiment in crowd lasting and widely believed. This term is com-
behavior, try to start a new fad or fashion in monly used now, and if you search the
your school. For example, get everyone in your Internet, you will find many sites devoted to
group or class to agree to start wearing neck- this subject.
laces with metal washers on them or un- a. Select a few of the web sites (two good
matched socks. If several of you do this, you ones are at http://www.urbanlegends.com/
might be able to convince others that a new fad and http://www.snopes2.com/) and review
has begun. If the fad does not catch on, list rea- them. Be prepared to share one or two of
sons why you think your peers were resistant to them with your class.
change in this case. b. What common elements do these
4. Rumors Search the library magazine catalog or urban legends have? Do your
Internet for rumors concerning a public figure. observations correspond with those of
Identify the source and evaluate its credibility. Urbanlegends.com?
Or, research a lawsuit filed by a public figure c. What role do you think the Internet plays in
over the publication of a false story. spreading these urban legends?
5. Fads and Fashions Working in groups, collect
some old high school yearbooks from parents

599
600 Unit 5 Social Change

Chapter 17

Enrichment Reading
Falling Through the Net

Computer technology is changing the face of American society. Access to personal comput-
ers and the Internet is even affecting the nature of social stratification. Digital technology
has become such an important tool for economic success that it threatens to create a new
divide between haves and have-nots.

❖
I nformation tools, such as the personal Urban households with incomes of $75,000
computer and the Internet, are increasingly and higher are more than twenty times
critical to economic success and personal more likely to have access to the Internet
advancement. “Falling Through the Net: Defining than those at the lowest income levels, and
the Digital Divide” finds that more Americans more than nine times as likely to have a
than ever have access to telephones, computers, computer at home.
and the Internet. At the same time, however, . . . ❖ Whites are more likely to have access to the
there is still a significant “digital divide” separat- Internet from home than Blacks or
ing American information “haves” and “have Hispanics have from any location.
nots.” Indeed, in many instances, the digital di- ❖ Black and Hispanic households are
vide has widened. . . . approximately one-third as likely to have
The good news is that Americans are more home Internet access as households of
connected than ever before. Access to computers Asian/Pacific Islander descent, and roughly
and the Internet has soared for people in all de- two-fifths as likely as White households.
mographic groups and geographic locations. At ❖ Regardless of income level, Americans living
the end of 1998, over 40 percent of American in rural areas are lagging behind in Internet
households owned computers, and one-quarter of access. Indeed, at the lowest income levels,
all households had Internet access. Additionally, those in urban areas are more than twice as
those who were less likely to have telephones likely to have Internet access than those
(chiefly, young and minority households in rural earning the same income in rural areas.
areas) are now more likely to have phones
at home. For many groups, the digital divide has
Accompanying this good news, however, is widened as the information “haves” outpace the
the persistence of the digital divide between the “have nots” in gaining access to electronic re-
information rich (such as Whites, Asians/Pacific sources. The following gaps with regard to home
Islanders, those with higher incomes, those more Internet access are representative:
educated, and dual-parent households) and the ❖ The gaps between White and Hispanic
information poor (such as those who are households, and between White and Black
younger, those with lower incomes and educa- households, are now more than five
tion levels, certain minorities, and those in rural percentage points larger than they were
areas or central cities). The 1998 data reveal sig- in 1997.
nificant disparities, including the following:
 Chapter 17 Social Change and Collective Behavior 601

35%
32.4%
What Does it Mean
30%
divide
25%
as a noun, something
21.2%
that separates two areas;
Percentage

20% a point or line of division

15% disparities
12.9%
11.7% marked differences in
10% 8.7% quality or character
7.7%
(usually where you would
5% not expect them)
irrespective
0 regardless; without
1997 1998 1997 1998 1997 1998
relation to
Whites African Americans Latinos

Increase in usage rate: 53% 52% 48%

Figure 17.5 Minorities and the Internet. This figure reveals the digital divide
in the United States between whites, African Americans, and Latinos. What do you think
are the most important consequences of this divide?

Source: “Report Finds Net Users Increasingly White, Well Off,” Washington Post, July 9,
1999, p. A20.
Read and React
❖ The digital divides based on education and 1. What is the main idea of this report on
income level have also increased in the last Internet access?
year alone. Between 1997 and 1998, the 2. What does the term information rich (in
divide between those at the highest and the third paragraph) mean?
lowest education levels increased 25 percent, 3. Who is more likely to have Internet
and the divide between those at the highest access, whites or Asian/Pacific Islanders?
and lowest income levels grew 29 percent. How can you tell?
Nevertheless, the news is not all bleak. For 4. Why do you think urban Americans are
Americans with incomes of $75,000 and higher, more than twice as likely to have Internet
the divide between Whites and Blacks has actu- access as rural Americans with the same
ally narrowed considerably in the last year. This income level?
finding suggests that the most affluent American 5. In what category has the gap between
families, irrespective of race, are connecting to African Americans and whites significantly
the Net. narrowed? What explanation would you
offer for this?
Source: “Falling Through the Net: Defining the Digital
Divide,” a Report on the Telecommunications and 6. Do you think the federal government is
Information Technology Gap in America (Washington, now (or should be now) attempting to
DC: National Telecommunications and Information bridge the digital divide in the U.S.? Why
Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, July 1999) or why not?