UNIT 3 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

I Contents

I 3.0 Objectives

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3.1 Introduction
3.2
3.3
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Social Stratification: Theoretical Understanding
Concept 6f Class .
II 3.4
3.5
Concept of Caste and its Characteristics
Caste and Social Change

I 3.6
3.7
Impact of Caste System on Indian Society
Lets Sum Up
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3.8 Key Words
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3.9 Suggested Readings
I 3.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
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3.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit will introduce to you the concept and consequences of social stratification
specially in the Indian context. We will be specially focusing on Indian society.
Differences in wealth and prestige in Indian society has been a major concern of
I social reformers, political leaders and policy makers.
After studying this unit you should be able to understand:
the concept of social stratification, class, caste and its various dimensions;
changes in the caste system and factors responsible for that; and
impact of caste on Indian society.

INTRODUCTION
Man has always desired an egalitarian society where sll human beings have equality
but this noble ideal has never been hlly achieved in recorded history and certainly
not in modern societies which are more concerned about equality than any other
societies. he indicators of development devised by national and international
organisations show that inequalities have, in fact, increased within countries and
between the countries during the last century.

A numb,er of agencies at different levels are engaged in reducing economic and

social equalities. The modem state has taken the major responsibility for reducing
social inequalities. International organisatiok like UNDP, World Bank, and Asian
Development Bank also play a major role in policy formulation and mobilization of
resources to reduce poverty. Voluntary organisations are increasingly involved in
the implementation of developn~entprogranmes whose major purpose is to reduce
povePty and empower people. Needless to say these efforts have been only partially
successful.

Social workers have a special interest in social stratification. Social work aims at
improving social functioning of individuals, groups and comrn~mities.The type and
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pattern of social stratificatiin,in a society grekly influences individual andgroup

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Social System and Social fears loss of status after a series of business losses. Infonilation on the,'class and
Sub-systems
caste status is this important to understand the social background of the individual.
Similarly groups for doing group work are often formed on the bas&' of these
criteria. In community organisation the need is even more as opportunities for
development in Indian society depend on the class and caste position of the respective
community.

3.2 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: THEORETICAL

UNDERSTANDING
Social stratification can be defined as the arrangement of groups of individuals in
hierarchical positions on the basis of criteria like wealth, prestige, ethnicity, gender
and power. Because of the similarity of their positions in the social structure the)
develop a coininoil co~lsciousilessof who they are, what their conlmon problems
are and what should be done to remove these problems. Social stratification is a
major fclrin of social inequality. Sociologists point out that in complex industrial
countries like U.S.A. the maill type of social inequality is individual based inequality
and profession based inequality. Lists have been prepared to show the public
perceptions of the relative prestige attached to various occupations. One such list
shows the medical doctor on the top with the sweeper the botto~n.The social
worker has a middle rank.
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f
The quick mobility of individuals disturbs the arrangement of status in the hiel-achy
and this prevents the development of group consciousness. For the developmeilt of
group consciousness it is important that there is stability in the social structure and
that individuals remain in a group for a considerable amount of time and that the
avenues for social mobility are limited. I11 India class and caste are the main factors
of social stratification, about which we will now learn.
There are two prominent social thinkers who have enriched our understanding of
the nature, types and consequences of social stratification: Karl Marx and Mas
Weber.

Marx7sanalysis of society gives an important role to the economic factor. According

to his theory of class, a class consists of a group of people who have similar
relations to the forces of production. For example, in modem societies, all indivMuals
who own factories are capitalists and all individuals who work in these factories for
wages are workers. Similarly in an agrarian society individuals who own land can
be called feudal lords and those who work for them are serfs or labourers. He also
believed that the interests of these different groups were irreconcilable, which means
that one gains at the expense of others. The result was that the workers, laborers
or slaves were always exploited by the capitalists, feudal lords or slave owners in
their respective societies. All other institutions in society, religious, political or
educational, helped the process of exploitation through various means. For example,
religion preaches fatalism, which convinces people that their suffering cannot be
prevented and that passive suffering can bring them heavenly rewards after their
deaths. Sin~ilarlythe government puts down with coercion, attempts by the poorer
sections to demand justice in economic opportunities by calling it a law and order
problem or rebellion. In the Indian context a Marxist analysis would interpret caste
and the karma theory associated with it asjustifiing the exploitative relations between
the landlord and serfs. They prevent the serfs from understanding that the landlord
is exploiting him and this prevents him from fighting the exploitative system. Thus
Marx places before us the theory of economic basis of social inequality.
 Max Weber, another prominent thinker, agreed with many ideas of Marx but Social Stratification

differed on others issues. He agreed with Marx that the most important dimension
of stratification is economic which results in formation of the hierarchical system of
dlass but he points out that there ai-e other factors which determine social stratification.
According to him there are three dimensions of stratification: wealth, status and
power. Weber also asserted that class formation did not depend solely on ownership
of productive forces, It depended on the market situation by which an individual
could realize his potential in competition with others. For example, a reputed lawyer

i1 or a doctor may not own a field or an industry but he has specialized skills, which
not many others have. That is why these professionals are paid lucrative salaries.
Weber points out that if the market situation of the individual is good then the
1 person can become wealthy and consequently gains membership into the upper
, class. Status is the second dimension of stratification and it is a measure of prestige
i the society gives to an individual and that depends on the lifestyle of the person.
A person who occupies a high ofice would be respected because of his status and
not because of his economic position. The third dimension is power which is the
ability of the individual to influence the actions of others against their own will. For
example a village community leader may neither be rich nor occupying a high office
but his position as leader of the community gives him power. Weber agrees that in
most cases, all three dimensions, wealth, status and power are interrelated. A
person who enjoys wealth and power is likely to enjoy high status. This is however
true of most cases but not in all cases. For example', a dalit may be skilled and well
to do but may not be given the respect he deserves because of his caste background.
Weber by adding these dimensions of stratification, has enabled a broader
I understanding of social stratification.
Check Your Progress I
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit. ,

1) What are the dimensions of social stratification according to Weber?

3.3 CONCEPT OF CLASS

A social class is a group of individuals who have more or less a similar wealth.
The possession of wealth enables the individual to obtain those goods and services
that are scarce and are valued by others. These goods and services differ from
society to society. In traditional society, the wealthy person may buy land and gold
while in modem society he may invest in the stock market or buy luxurious cars
or go abroad aboard for vacations. Wealth allows the person to create more
wealth if he invests it prudently.
.
Concept of Class and its Characteristics
Most modem societies have ~~~~~~based stratification. However many features of
traditional stratification may be observed in modem societies such as elements of
caste system and feudalism found in India. But with economic development, class
based stratification is hecomina i n c r ~ a s i n a l vi m n n r t ~ n t Snme nf ihp mainr
Social Systeln and Social Class is a Relatively Open Stratification System
Sub-Svstems
Any society is said to be relatively open or closed depending on the number of
opportunities available to its members for upward social mobility. Equally important,
is attitude of the society towards the mobility of its members. If the society offers
a large number of opportunities and encourages members to achieve higher positions
then the society can be called as an open stratification' society. ,On the other hand,
if the society has a limited number of opportunities for upward mobility and its
normative values prohibit its members from achieving higher positions, that society
is called a closed stratification society.
- Along with development the system of
stratification becomes open and achievement oriented.
The class system is a form of open stratification system. An individual with his
achievements can gain entry to a higher class and acquire prestige. There are
examples of individuals who by their hard work and achievements rose from poverty
and became millionaires. Modem society appreciates such individuals as they are
seen as models for others.

Social mobility in modem societies is based on intelligence, merit, competence and

achievement of individuals. However, ir. every society, inspite of the openness,
factors like socio-economic background, parental status and resources, social
networks and various ascribed factors play an important role in determining indivihl
motivation, achievement and the availability of opportunities. Since these factors h e
not in control of the individual and cannot be easily modified to his advantage it '

cannot be said that modern societies are fully achievement oriented and open.
hat is why we have said class based societies are relatively open, that is,in
relation to other societies. We will shortly study shortly the wste system, which
is a relatively closed stratification system.

Social hierarchy in traditional societies is formed by ascription while in class based

societies achievement plays an important role. In other words the difference between
traditional and modern social hierarchies, lies in the difference between (status
ascribed and status achieved being) the bases social stratification. Traditional social
hierarchies are based on ascribed states, while modern social hierarchies are based
on achieved status.

The level of competition in modem society is high and only the fittest can survive.
Social workers have to remember two consequences of an achievement based
society. Since achievement is stressed, failures of an individual are look down upon
by others and they lose their self-esteem. You nlay have read in newspapers about
school children committing suicide after failing in school exams. It is the desire for
high achievement and fulfilling the high expectations of others that pressurize
vulnerable students to take this extreme s t e t Secondly, an achievement based
society should provide the minimum facilities of health, education and housing to
individuals to make them fit for the competition. In countries like India, we find that
these essential facilities are not provided to all and many people are unable to
compete with others on an equal basis. This makes the social situation unfair to
these people. The government and voluntary organisations implement welfare and
development programmes to enable disadvantaged people to enter the mainstream
of society.

Impact of Class System in India

Membership of particular class groups influences the behaivor of its members. It
makes them conscious about their position in society. But in the Indian context
 7
more importance is given to caste and related issues ratherthan class factors. The Social Stratification
class character in India is quite different froin Western societies. Here class and
caste categories co-exist in India and class categories like upper, middle and lower
are parallel to caste categories. They joiiltly determine the class status, power and
prestige of the individual in the society. Studies have shown that the upper classes
'predominantly belong to the upper castes which are an ascribed status. There have
been significant changes in the last decades but the pattern still continues.

The accumulation and distributioil of resources including education is determined by

the social position of the individual. Those who are higher in terms of the class and
caste terms control available resources to a great extent, leaving behind a section
of the Indian population below and around the povei-ty line The forces of globalization
and liberalization seem to have widened the gap between the haves and have-nots,
between the rich and the poor, between urban people and rural people and the
upper caste and the lower class and lower caste.

3.4 CONCEPT OF CASTE AND ITS

CHARACTERISTICS
Caste is a much debated topic in India. The word 'cast7 refers to the Spanish
word 'Casta7 which means 'breed' in Spanish. In the Indian context it represents
caste and its related social practice. The caste system influences the social life of
the Indian in a number of ways, as it assigns ascribed status to its members.

According to the Rig Veda the oldest and most important of all the four Vedas,
there are four Varnas which are placed in a hierarchical order-the Brahmans,
the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas and the Shudras. The profession of brahrnans is that
of priests and teachers. The Kshatriyas are warriors and rulers. The Visahyas(Vis)
are traders and other common people. The Shudras occupy the lowest position in
the hierarchy and perform the menial tasks. According to some historians, there is
a fifth Varna, the untouchables, and they are not considered as a part of society.
The tribes and people of other religions are also considered outside the Varna
system.
Individuals are born into a caste and membership of a caste is determined by
birth. An individual cannot change his or her caste. But there are instances where
castes as a whole, after an improvement in economic status and changes in
lifestyles have claimed a higher status in society. Such claims may or may not be
accepted. The dominant castes might react adversely to the claim. But even if the
claim is accepted the caste system remains intact. However the process of
Sanskritization, inter caste marriage and advancement of education has changed the
degree of the rigidity of the caste system in India.
According to G.S. Ghurye, a noted anthropologist, caste has six characteristics:
Hierarchy: Hierarchy is superior-subordinate relationship between various individuals
and groups. Hierarchy in one forin or another exists in every society but the
principle of determining the hierarqhy differs from society to, society. In India caste
is the main bases of social hierarchy. The-degree of ritual purity and impurity
associated with a particular caste deternlines its position in the hierarchy. Wealth
and power are not the determiling factors. For example a Brahmin whose economic
status is lower than a Rajput is accorded a superior position because of his higher
ritual status.
Social System and Social In reality, however, political and economic factors do play a significant role in
Sub-systems
determining the position of the caste, sociolo~istshave pointed out that high ritual
status does not actually translate into higher social status. For example, while a
Rajput may not have as important a role in ritual matters as the Brahainins, it is
unlikely that he will give a highzr status to the Brahmin in other matters.

According to sociologist, M. N. Sriinivasan a dominant caste is that caste in the

community that has a sufficiently high ritual status, numerical strength. and material
resources like land. wealth and access to power. It is the combination of these
factors which keeps a caste high in the hierarchy. The dominant caste often has'a
major role to play in the village politics and its social life.

Segmented Division of Society: Castes are well-developed groups with

membership based on birth and not by selection. The rights and duties of the
individuals are controlled by caste councils, which exist in every caste. These
councils have large powers to regulate the social life of its members. They can
enforce order by punishing offenders for a variety of offences. Offences include
adultery, causing injury to others; killing and punislmnents can include the imposition
of fines, ordering corporal punishment and even the death sentence. Many castes
have their own gods and goddesses that are not a part of the larger religious
tradition. Thus caste has a sufficient degree of autonomy in dealing with the issues
related to its members, and is independent of the controls by the governnnent.

Restrictions on Feeclirtg artd Social Intercourse: The exchange of cooked

food between various castes is based on specific rules and conditions. Certain
castes accept only certain kind of foods fro111members of other castes. Food items
are divided into pc~kkaand kuchu. Pakku is cooked in glnee and are considejred
superior to kucha food which is cooked in water. A Brahmin can take only pakka
food from Kslnatriys and Vaishyas but not from Shudras and u~ntouchables.On the
other hand, Kshatriyas will take kacha food from Brahmin but only accept pakka
food from the Vaishyas who are lower than theinn. The distinctions in the offering
and taking of food are based on the positions of the caste involved.

Such kinds of differences are seen in the maintenance of social distance between
different castes. The physical distance between castes reflects the caste positions.
For example in traditional Kerala society, a Nayar may approach a ~ a m b u d ibut
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cannot touch him whereas a member of the Tiya caste (lower than the ~ a ~ a r
caste) has to maintain a distance of 36 steps from the Nambudri.

Civil and Religiolls Disabilities and Privileges of Diffrrent Castes: Different

castes in the hierarchy have different rights and privileges. The result is that social
life is segregated on the basis of caste. In north Indian villages impure castes are
segregated while pure castes live together. In South India all castes tend to be
segregated. In Tamil Nadu for example, we find that thc place where caste Hindus
live are called Ur and where dalits live are called Cht ri. The Cheri is situated
at a distance from the illag age.

Ghurye gives a number of iristances fiom the late ninetieth czntury and early twentieth
-century to show to how these disabilities were enforced. For instance in Vi+om,
a town in the princely state of Travancore, Shudras were c isallowed from walking
on the temple streets. A nationwide agitation by prominext leaders like Mahatma
Gandhi and Periyar against these discriminatory practices changed the situation.
Similarly in Pune, a Shudra.could not enter the city during the morning and evening
 Social Stratification
as their long shadows would pollute high caste members. We also find differential
treatment in the punishments for committing similar crimes. For example if caught
stealing a Brahmin had to pay only a fine but for the same crime, a Shudra had to
undergo corporal punishment.

The religious practices reinforced this hierarchy and Shudras had liabilities that were
attached to his caste status. They could not enter the most part of the temple, the
sanctum sanctorurn. Only Brahmins were allowed this privilege. In rural areas, even
now, there is discrimination against lower caste members. We often hear of caste
violence after lower caste members were disallowed by higher caste members to
take out a marriage procession or funeral procession on the main street

Lack of Unrestricted Cltoice of Occi~pation:Membership of the caste is

hereditary and each caste had a traditionally assigned occupation. Regardless of
the individual's aptitudes and skills he had to adopt the occupation of his caste. In
the same way every occupation was linked to a specific caste. So each caste has
one occupation and that occupation was the presence of that caste only. For
example, only a Brahmin could become a priest because of his birth in a Brahmin
family. Education was given on the basis of caste. Young members would be
attached to older members to train them in the occupation skills of the caste. There
was no universal and common education. However, sociologists have pointed out
that inspite of such restrictions on occupations there were certain occupations like
weaving, agriculture and military that were open to all castes.

In pre-modem times the economic relations between the various castes was in the
form of the jajmani system. Each service caste performed a particuiar function for
the landlords. They used to receive payment in kind and commonly on an annual
basis. The service castes and the higher castes had a client-patron relationship. In
modem times they relation has undergone a change.

Endogamy: Endogamy refers to the marriage practice in which the members of

a group marry from within the group members. Endogamy is an important
characteristic of the caste system. In many castes there is endogamy at the sub-
caste level. For example, Iyers and Iyengars may not marry between each other
even though both are Tamil Brahmins.

There are however exceptions to the rule. These exceptions pertain to hypergamy
and hypogamy. When a higher caste man marries a low caste women it is called
< hyper gamy and when a lower caste man marries a higher caste woman it is call
hypogarny. Hypergamy is allowed whereas hypogamy is strictly forbidden. It is a
matter of prestige for the lower caste fmlily if their daughter had been accepted by
a higher caste's man and family. An example of this practice is marriage between
a male Nambudri and a Nair woman.

Caste in other Religions

Among the major religions of the world caste exists only in Hinduism. But in India
adherents of virtually all religions seem to have caste- like divisions. The Muslims,
the Christians, the Buddhists and Sikhs, seems to follow the principle of inclusion
and hierarchy in different ways. Islam and Christianity believe in radical equality
between its members. However, t11e.existence of caste-like practices shows that in
some aspects the social milieu in which a religion is,practised influences it more
than its theology. Similar iscthe
. . case in Sikhism and Buddhism also.
Social System and Social Caste-like differences may be observed in religions other than Hinduism. In Sikhism,
Sub-systems
there are groups like Jat Sikhs and Mazhabi Sikhs. They do not intermarry. In Islam
four groups were identified that can be compared to castes: Syeds, Sheikhs, Pathans
and Mughals. Syeds claim that they are descendants of Prophet Muhammad while
Sheikhs claim that they are descendants of the tribe of Prophet Muhammad. Pathans
and Mughals are considered to be the warrior class comparable to Kshatriyas in
Hinduism. Other groups in Islam are based on professions they pursue like weavers
butchers, water carriers, etc. These groups are considered lower in status than
Syeds, Sheikhs, Pathans and Mughals. Most of these groups are endogamous.
There is limited social intercourse between these members. However anyone fiom
any social group, if competent in religious knowledge, can become a priest or
moulvi..

Christianity is also an egalitarian religion and has encouraged conversions of people

from all castes during different periods of history. Many of these castes have
retained their caste identities even after their conversioil to Christianity and this has
influenced their social behaivour. However, Islam and Christianity have no concept
of pollution and purity, which is central to Hinduism. Hence these religions were
less influenced by caste than Hinduism.

Check Your Progress I1

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.
1) What are the characteristics of the caste system in India?

3.5 CASTE AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Though caste is considered a static system, it has undergone changes because of
the forces of modernisation, as discussed below.

Caste and Industrialisation

The process of industrialization has affected traditional Indian society in a number
of ways. It has particularly affected the caste system. The most significant change
has been the gradual shift from caste categories to class categories, particularly in
the urban areas. The traditional form of exchange of goods in Indian society was
by the jajmani system. The Jajmani system was based o I client-patron relations
in which the lower castes provided services to the upper caste members in exchange
for annual payment in form of goods.
Industrial development has increased the use of inanimate sources of energy and
increased the size of the market. The growth of industries illcreased the employed
workers who exchanged their labour for.wages. The site of production of goods
changed fiom houses of the manufacturer to that of the factories which were owned
by the capitalists. As industrialisation spread, the movement of workers from the
prim& and household sector to the secondary and formal sectors increased.
 Industrial development changed the social and economic relations betwekn the Social Stratification-

various castes. The services castes often found employment which changed their
1
status and their incomes. Industries also brought individuals from different castes
together at the site of work and social distance between castes was not maintained
i here. Further workers in the industry were selected and promoted on the basis of ,

.II skill and hard work, and not based on ascriptive factors like caste etc. Gradually
employment in industries changed the relationship between caste, education and
occupations. Inspite of these changes, caste networks continue to affect the
recruitment into industries and other modem ocganisations. As a result the modem
economic system is not totally free from the effects of caste.

Caste System and Urbanisation

Closely related to industrialisation is the social phenomenon of urbanisation which
is the movement of people from rural areas to urban areas. Urban living promoted
anonymity and formal relations between individuals. Major occupations in urban
areas are related to the secondary and tertiary sectors. Employment opportunities
in these sectors are based on the skills, hard work, education and training of the
person and not on his/ her caste.

Social life in urban areas is also different from that in rural areas. Ritual purity and
social distance can not be maintained. For example no one can ask the person
sittirignext to her or him in the bus what her caste in. Similarly, no one knows the
cook's caste in a hotel and therefore rules regarding cooking could not be followed.
The residence of a person depends on the amount the person pays for rent are
not his caste. All these factors have weakened the caste system in urban areas.

'I Caste and the Political System

The Indian Constitution is based on liberal values such as equality, liberty and
fi-aterdty, secularism and citizenship. The basic unit for political participation is the
individual. Caste system is based on values totally antithetical to these values.
Inequality, segmentation, restricted choice of occupation are the values of the caste
system. The Indian Constitution gives every individual the right to vote; right to
I participate in elections. Some of the important articles that deal with equality and
prevention of discrimination are Articles 14, 15, 16, and 17. All jobs are open to
all members of society provided they are qualified and compete with others on an
equal basis.

These factors had a large impact on the caste system and traditional roles and
leaders. For some years after independence, the elite men mainly belonging to the
upper caste dominated politics, but by 1980s backward castes and dalits made
their presence felt in the political arena. Democracy is a representative form of
government and therefore increasing inclusion of these groups in the power structure
has made Indian democracy stronger and at the same time democracy has weakened
the caste system in its traditional fonn.

Caste System and Social Movements

Social refprmers like Raja-Ram Mohan Roy, Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Dr. Ambedkar,
Periyar, Narayana Guru and others have lead a number of social movements to
remove the oppressive caste system.

There are reformist and revolutionary types of social movements Mahatma Gandhi,
Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Narayana Guru belonged to the first category who
social S y ~ t e mand Social believed that the caste system can be changed sldwly and from within the system.
Sub-systems
The reformist suggests that for reform in the caste system a change of heart among
the high castes and provision of educational facilities for the lower castes is necessary.
On the other hand, radicals like Ambedkar, Phule and Periyar believed that the
caste system had to be abolished completely and its continuation in any form will
lead to exploitation and oppression. They suggested the organisation of social
movements, agitation and use of law to fight oppression of the caste system. These
two types of movements influence the approach of many voluntary organisations
even now when they have to decide how to deal with problems related to the caste
system.

Caste and Ideology

The Westem enlightened ideas based on rationality and reason reached India during
colonial period. Liberalism, Socialism, Marxism and Nationalism were the more
prominent of these ideologies. During colonial era the British managed the education
system. Most Indian intellectual elite were educated by this system and internalized
these values. Many of them, through a variety of ways, tried to modernize the
traditional Indian society.

Caste and Modern Education

Traditional education was ascriptive based while modem education is achievement
oriented. Various castes provided training to the younger members mainly by making
them apprentices to master craftsmen of the same caste .
Modem education. on the other hand, gives universal and scientific education so
that they can have access to diverse occupational opportunities.
The modem education system inculcates values of equality, fraternity, liberty and
social justice in the students. Further, students come together in modem schools for
studying and interact freely with each other. The values imparted by the education
system and their experience of interaction with students from different castes have
weakened the hold of caste values on the. minds of the students.
In modem times education has become open but expensive. High quality education
is not available to all, particularly the, poorer sections of the society, including most
of the SCI ST population. Since they are educationally deprived, they are not
empowered by education. There is a need for the provision of quality educaiion for
all so that.these sections are empowered.

3.6 IMPACT OF CASTE SYSTEM ON INDIAN

SOCIETY,
The caste system has weakened but it has certainly not vanished. It has been
transformed and found new functions for itself in modem sdciety. Now we shall see
how the caste system has changed and adapted itself to modem society.
Compartmentalization of Individual Life
The influence of caste is reduced in certain areas of the individual's life. Eating
habits and social interactions are areas where the influence of the caste system was
high but is now minimal. But in other areas, like choice of bride or bridegroom for
marriage and social networking caste still plays an important role. This is true mainly
of the urban areas while in rural areas the situation is different. Many of the
traditional aspects of the caste system are prevalent there. The way caste influences
social life differs from region to region.
 Decline of Caste in the Ritual Sphere Social Stratification

ldeasof impurity and purity are not given much importance by people today. Not
many people believe that touching a low caste person or eating with him will pollute
them. Therefore it can be said that the religious justification for caste system has
reduced if not totally ended.

Caste as a Social Network

Castes have become a basis for forming a network to gain resources. Caste
associations are frequently used to get jobs, get promotions, access to goods and
services, to develop business networks and influknce decision-making in government
and elsewhere. The mobilisation of people takes place on the basis of caste to
further caste interests. Sociologists have pointed out that even movements related
to fanners' demands which do not overtly seem to be caste related are based on
the caste networks.
Earlier caste councils, which were recognised by the government and the people,
used to have vast judicial power to control individual behaivor. But now these
councils use informal power and informal ellforcement to settle disputes.
Caste Consciousness and Community Consciousness-
Caste is still the basis for defining .and maintaining the identity of the person. Caste
idedity of the individual comes in conflict with the individual's identification with the
large'r community. The caste-based identities adversely affect the unity of the people
and at times hinder the people from taking collective action. Further caste has
- played a role in adver.sely affecting the distributioil of rewards of the community
development programme. The dominant castes have benefited from the various
development programmes at the cost of other castes. Social movements which had
positive aims have also been affected. The Bhoodhan movement meant to resolve
community conflicts peacehlly could not succeed because of struggle among various
castes on the issue of resources distribution.
T k s e experiences have lead many to conclude that a common community
consciousness does not exist in Indian villages. What does exist is caste
consciousness and caste identities. The concept of 'conmunity' is a myth. As social
worker you must be able to find ways in which the development programmes you
implement benefit the target populations.

Caste Consciousness Leads to Violence

Castes based social formations are conflict prone. This is a natural consequence of
the intense caste consciousness and strong identification of caste members with
each other. Many violent incidents are local in nature and are caused by trivial
incidents. A lower caste member is not allowed to sit on a horse during a marriage
procession ,the low caste members are disallowed to vote; lower caste members
are not allowed entry into the village or to travel on certain roads; low caste
members are disallowed from participating in ten~plefestivals; a girl is teased by
men of other castes. These unjust practices in the past were passively accepted by
the lower castes. However, now-a-days there is resistance to these practices by the
lower castes due to the rising class-consciousness among them that leads to violence.

These violent incidents have their roots in the unequal conditions prevalent in the
area such as unequal distribution of resources the need for the dominant castes to
keep lower castes in their place the growing consciousness of the lower caste;
social System and Social about their low status and the need to respond to the situation the apathy of the
Sub-systems
state machinery towards these sentiments.

Caste has also Lead to Structural Violence

Structural violence refers to violence in which pain is not directly iifflicted on other
but laws and rules are so formed that it hurts the dignity of the person and causes
mental pain. Untouchability is the most virulent form of structural violence, which
hurts the dignity of the person against whom it is practiced. It also makes every
day life hard for the person. Lower caste members are not-allowed entry into
certain common facilities like schools and temples and not allowed to use common
resources. Lower caste woman are not allowed to draw water from the village
well and they have to travel long distances to get water. Certain jobs like cooks
'
in mid day scheme of the government are not given to dalits as it is believed that
they are polluting the food. As mentioned earlier, the religious aspect of caste has
declined but some people seem to justify untouchability by saying that the lower
castes are physically unclean.
Caste has Caused Problems in Modern Organisations
Caste loyalties cause problems in modern organisations. Very often people are
selected on the basis of caste rather than merit. This has had an adverse impact on
the performance and productivity of the organisation. The presence of caste interferes
in creating an esprit de corps in organisations. Just like the village communities that
are divided on the basis of caste, modern organisations are also divided on the
basis of caste.

Caste has Interfered in Uniform Application of Laws and Rules

Modem rules and laws are rationally formulated and apply to all citizens regardless.'
of his or her social background except when exceptions are allowed by it. Such
a universalistic application of laws is a major requirement in a modem democracy.
But caste considerations are not in conformity with universalism.

There are differences in the viewpoints of the upper castes and lower castes on
how the caste system is affecting them. According to the upper caste be view point,
reservations and the rise of the lower castes' in different fields has put them in a
disadvantageous position. On the other hand the lower castes viewpoint is that as
upper castes occupy strategic positions in the society they are victimized. There is
a continuous conflict between the top and the bottom views of castes. The politicians
make use of this to further their own intere.sts. However in every caste category a
dominant section has emerged which enjoys the available opportunities at the cost
of others. Sociologists have identified some of the positive impact caste has had
on Indian society.

It has promoted plurality in India and at the same time provided the social structure
to integrate the society. Castes have different value system, different life styles,
different occupations and subsequently different interests and this has led to political
and cultural pluralism. Different value systems give rise to different opinions, which
can encourage a diversity of opinions. No single group can dominate the political
and cultural field. Every group has to negotiate with other groups so that their
objectives are attained. Political scientists have said this condition contributes
significantly to making Indian democracy active and vibrant.
It is also claimed that the caste system in its traditional form leads to stability in Social Stratification
society. Kings and dynasties have come and gone but the village communities did
not experience any major change. It is debatable whether the absence of change
is a positive aspect. In any case historians have disputed the view that there has
been no major change in Indian society down the centuries. Another advantage
mentioned is that the caste system provided a person with social security as his
occupation was fixed and in case of distress his fellow caste members would come
tc~his rescue. But these advantages are mainly those that are found in a traditional
society, not in a modern one.

Check Your Progress 111

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.
1) Name two factors which influenced the caste system in the modern period?

LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have studied the different aspects related to social stratification which
is the division of society into groups, which are hierarchically placed, based on one
or more criteria. In modern societies stratification is based on wealth, status and
power. The amount of wealth the individual possesses determines which class he/
she belongs to; the prestige given to h i d her position in society will determine hisl
her status.; his/ her position in organisations will determine how much power helshe
has.

The two bases of stratification in India are that of class and caste. The changes
in the caste system and its impact on Indian society have been discussed. The social
worker's own personality may be influenced by these ideas and his/ her practice
is influenced by hisl her position in the society. The social worker' s prejudices
should not come in the way of his/ her practice. Secondly, in all his programmes
he1 she should keep in mind the caste and class factor and its influence on the
clients.

3.8 ,KEY WORDS

Social role : The expected patterned behaviour of an individual
occupying a particular status position.
: A social positioil within a society
Capitalism : Capitalism is usually defined as the private ownership
of the means of production but Marxist
definitions emphasize ihe exploitation of labour by
capital.
Social network : A group of people, with similar interests or concerns
who interact and remain in informal contact for
Social System and Social Bhooodan movement : Movement started by Vinoba Bhave to convince.
Sub-systems
landlord to give excess land to the landless. This
movement was an attempt to solve the problem of
landless in rural areas without violence.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Ghurye (1986), Caste and Race in Modern India, Popular Prakashan, Bombay.

Gupta, Dipankar (1993), Social Stratification, Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.

Haralamboss, Michael (!989), Sociology, Themes and Perspectives, Oxford

University Press, New Delhi.

Horton, P. B. and Hunt, C., B. (1987), Sociology, McGraw-Hill, Singapore.

Kolenda, Pauline (1997), Custe in Contemporary India, Beyond Qrganic

Solidarity, Rawat Publications, Jaipur.

Stem, Robert (1998), Changing India, Cambridge University Press, New Delhi.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I

1) The dimensions of social stratification according to Weber were wealth, status

and power. The amount of wealth an individual possesses determines his class
and his life chances. The status of the person depends on the lifestyle of the
individual and will determine the prestige the society gives him. Power depends.
on the person ability to control other people's behaviour and in modem societies
it can be derived from the holding position held in an organisation..

Check Your Progress I1

1) The characteristics of the caste system are a hierarchical relationship

between various groups, ascriptive status, endogamy, fixed occupations.
restrictions on social intercourse, civil and religious disabilities and privileges of
different sections and segmented divisions of society.

Check Your Progress I11

1) Industrialization and the introduction of universal adult franchise (voting

rights) are two factors which influenced the caste system.