REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Self-Confidence

Rattanakoses et al., (2009) examined the relationship between imagery and confidence in

athletes. The samples consisted of athletes who were from the Khon Kaen Sport School in

Thailand and who regularly participate in sports training (5 days a week). They considered two

parameters, imagery and self-confidence, which were evaluated with regards to the physical

fitness level and experience of the athletes. The data was analyzed using a t-test to determine the

difference of the means between imagery and self-confidence measures in males and females.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) (P<0.05) was used to evaluate differences across the groups, and

linear regression and correlation analyses (r =0.71) were used to compare between genders,

physical fitness, and experience levels. Their results showed that there were significant

correlations between males and females in terms of imagery and self-confidence. Their result

suggested that imagery and self-confidence in male and female athletes were associated with

high levels of physical fitness and more experience in sports situations.

Lazar Stankov and John D. Crawford (1997) investigated individual differences in confidence

judgments made by subjects on the accuracy of their answers to psychological test items. A

measure of reasoning ability (the Raven's Progressive Matrices, RPM), a vocabulary test, and a

perceptual visual discrimination test, were administered to 271 subjects. For half of the subjects,

feedback on the correctness of response was given after each item, while for the other half, no

such information was provided. In addition, measures of English and Mathematics self-concept

were obtained. Confidence ratings from the Vocabulary test showed overconfidence, while those

from the perceptual task showed underconfidence. Confidence ratings from the perceptual task

revealed poorer discrimination between correct and incorrect items than did those from the other
two tasks. While feedback produced better discrimination, and slower responding for the RPM

test, higher confidence rating and bias scores were obtained for the Vocabulary test. Correlations

between the confidence judgment scores indicate that there is a separate self-confidence trait that

is different from ability factors reflecting the speed and accuracy of performance on cognitive

test items. English self-concept was found to share low correlation with Vocabulary accuracy

and confidence rating measures, a result that was analogous to that obtained for Mathematics

self-concept and RPM test score. The results of this and earlier studies are discussed in terms of

the construct of self-confidence and in relationship to theories of intelligence and personality.

Body Image

Theron, Nel and Lubbe (1991) assessed the relationship between body image and self

consciousness together with the sex difference on measures of these two concepts. 56 male and

211 female undergraduate Africans were administered a self-concept and self-consciousness

scale. The results showed a negative correlation between body image and self-concept and public

and private self consciousness correlated positively with each other. The extents of negative and

positive correlations have not been mentioned.

Davis (1992) investigated the role of body image and personality factors among high

performance athletes. The findings indicated that a measure of subjective body size was strongly

related to weight and dietary concern whereas emotional reactivity was found to be an

independent and significant predictor of performance.

Hutchinson (1977) using Martinek- Zaichkowsky self-concept scale reported that no

significant relationship was observed between self concept and body-estimation. On the other

hand, Riley (1983) found a significant positive relationship between self concept and physical
estimation. The researcher suggested that academic achievement, extra-curricular activities,

teacher’s interest and physical health influenced as intervening variables in the relationship

between self-esteem and sports participation.

Fisher (1965) compared sex differences in body perception and concluded that a woman

aware of her body was one, who expresses herself with a clear sense of self activity. It may be

argued that their awareness about body maybe related to many aspects of behaviour in general

and athletic performance in particular.

Achievement Motivation

Ergene (2011) studied the relationships among study habits, test anxiety, achievement

motivation, and academic success in a Turkish tenth grade high school, sample consisting of 510

participants, 267 (52.4%) of whom were females and 243 (47.6%) were males. A positive

relationship between study habits scores and achievement motivation level was found. No

correlation was observed between achievement motivation and academic success. Test anxiety

and study habits were associated positively with academic success and there was no association

with achievement motivation.

Sisodiya & Purashwani (2011) studied the relationship between achievement motivation

and anxiety of inter-university level male and female shuttlers i.e. badminton players. For this

purpose, 30 (15 males and 15 female) shuttlers were randomly selected as subjects, who

participated in west zone inter-university badminton tournament. Findings showed no significant

relationship between achievement motivation and anxiety of male and female badminton players

of inter-university level.
 Khan, Haider, Ahmed & Khan (2011) explored the relationship of sports achievement

motivation and sports competition anxiety among intervarsity badminton players. The total

sample consisted of twenty players age ranged from 17 to 25 years for the study. They found that

there was a negative relationship between achievement motivation and sports competition

anxiety among badminton players.

Ahmadi, Namazizadeh, Abdoli, & Seyed (2009) studied achievement motivation and its

subscales (competitiveness, win orientation and goal orientation) between soccer players of high

and low ranking teams in super league of Iran. Participants were 115 players that divided in two

groups; 57 players from first to third final ranking as high teams and 58 players from last three

ranking position as low teams. The results revealed that there were no significant differences

between soccer players of high and low ranking teams on achievement motivation,

competitiveness, and goal orientation, but there was significant difference between players of

high and low ranking teams on win orientation.

Duda & Nicholls (1992) examined achievement motivation characteristics across

schoolwork and sport. They found that in both domains ego-involved goals were related to the

belief that success requires high ability, while task orientations were related to beliefs about the

importance of interest, effort, and peer collaboration for success. Differences occurred in

relationships involving satisfaction and boredom. In the classroom, satisfaction and boredom

were related to personal goal orientations, while in sport they were related to perceptions of

ability.