The physical and tangible parts of a computer are hardware.

It includes the devices such as keyboard,

mouse, monitor, printers, motherboard, memory chips, electronic circuitry, expansion cards, cables,
switches and everything we can touch and feel.

;
!

There is a very useful analogy to define computer hardware and software.

Let’s take an example of a book. We should be thinking of the cover, the pages and the ink as hardware.
At the same time the words, sentences, paragraphs, and the storyline, i.e. the information held within the
book would represent the software. A computer without software is very much like having a book full of
blank pages, we need the software to make a computer useful – just the same as we need the words and
story to make a book meaningful.

Hardware refers to any part of the computer which is manufactured. It can refer to individual components
or a group of components.

Many people love to offer an analogy with human body and soul to clarify the relationship between
hardware and software component of computers. The body is considered as hardware and the soul that
operates human body is equated with the computer software. Without software, a computer is just a dead
body.
1
HARDWARE COMPONENT OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

SOME COMMON HARDWARE INSIDE A COMPUTER

 Motherboard
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Power Supply
 Video Card
 Hard Drive
 Optical Drive (i.e. BD/DVD/CD drive)
 Sound Card
 Network Interface Card (NIC)
 Analog Modem
 FireWire/USB Expansion Card

SOME COMMON HARDWARE CONNECTED TO THE OUTSIDE OF A COMPUTER

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Printer
 Scanner
 Speakers
 Monitor
The following hardware is referred to as network hardware and various pieces are often part of a home or
business network

 Router
 Network Switch
 Access Point
 Repeater
 Bridge
 Print Server
 Firewall
Network hardware isn’t as clearly defined as some other types of computer hardware. For example, many
home routers will often act as a combination of router, switch, and firewall.
2
INPUT DEVICES

Keyboard , Mouse , Scanner . . . . . . .

[INPUT UNIT DEVICES]

A unit of computer system that brings data and instruction into the computer is input unit. It accepts data
or instruction given by user and converts into machine readable code if required. Keyboard and mouse
are the most popular input unit devices. Other devices of this unit are: light pen, joystick, tracker ball,
microphone, scanners, sensors, graphic tablet, touch screen etc.

The term input is used to describe the process of capturing or collecting raw data, at the beginning of
computer based information system, in to a form that is usable by the computer for processing. Sometimes
the data is processed right away(online processing), sometimes hours or days later or even longer (batch
processing), as a result the data is often stored in a computer usable form, where it can be quickly retrieved
at the time of processing with little or no longer intervention.

Input unit devices can be classified into two groups based on whether the data conversion is involved or
not – direct input devices and indirect input devices :

DIRECT INPUT DEVICES

In this input method, data is already in machine readable form and thus, no need to convert it. The data is
directly feed into computer to process. Some examples of direct input devices are Point of Sales Terminals
(POS), Credit Cards, and Scanners etc. Credit card contains a magnetic strip that contains data in machine
readable form and when we insert the card into ATM machine, it can directly feed data for processing.

INDIRECT INPUT DEVICES

If the data is in human readable form, it must be converted into machine readable form so that a computer
can process it. This process of data conversion is time consuming and error prone that causes a major
bottleneck in data processing. Some examples of indirect input devices are: keyboard, mouse and joystick.
When we press any key on keyboard, it converts that character into series of electronic pulses and sends
to CPU.
3
 KEYBOARD

Keyboard is a standard input device. It is a data entry platform of a computer. A computer key board is a
sophisticated electromechanical component designed to create specialized electronic codes (scan codes)
when a key is pressed. These codes are transmitted along the cables to computer system unit or terminal,
where the incoming code is analysed and converted in to the appropriate computer usable code.

Keyboards have five distinct groups of keys

 Standard type writer keys: resembles a typewriter

 Function keys: The top row keys from F1 to F10 or F12
 Cursor movement keys: Arrow keys, Home, End, PageUp, PageDown
 Numeric keys: a keypad at the right to make it easy to enter numbers
 Special purpose keys: Ctrl, Alt, Shift, Del, Insert

Keyboard Layout defines the position of keys in a keyboard. QWERTY is the most popular keyboard
layout. DVORAK, COLEMAK, JCUKEN are other keyboard layouts for Latin scripts. Similarly, we have
Traditional, Romanized and Nepali keyboard layout for typing Unicode Nepali script. We can change
keyboard layout from Regional and Language Settings in Control Panel.

Why are traditional keyboard layout places keys in the QWERTY order? Why they are not alphabetically
ordered like ABCDEF….? We’ll really surprise to know that it was developed to make typing harder and
inefficient (do some Googling on this topic). DEVORAK layout is far better in keys arrangement and
improves the speed and accuracy of typing, but the more surprising thing is that it is not much common
compared to traditional QWERTY.

[DVORAK KEYBOARD]
4
 [QWERTY KEYBOARD]

TYPES OF KEYBOARD

By now, I hope, we don’t confused types of keyboards as QWERTY, DEVORAK and so on. They are not
type of keyboards but rather the types of keyboard layout. At the same time, I want to make it clear that
the type, as our course defines, is not related to switch technology either. We look on the history of
keyboard and classify keyboards into four types based on the technology used.

[XT KEYBOARD]
5
 [AT KEYBOARD]

[WINDOWS ENHANCED KEYBOARD]

PC/XT, PC/AT, Enhanced and Windows are the four types of keyboard.

PC/XT (Stands for eXtended Technology) keyboards have 83 keys, function keys (F1 to F10) are arranged
on left hand side. These keyboards are not compatible with AT keyboards (that means we can’t use them
in AT computers).

PC/AT (Stands for Advanced Technology) contains 84 keys as SysRq (System Request) key was
introduced. Moreover indicator LEDs for Caps, Scroll and NUM lock are used in AT keyboards.

Enhanced keyboards have 101 to 106 keys based on different language layout.

Windows Keyboards contained 104 to 109 keys based on different language layouts. Win key and Menu
key are the addition on the Windows Keyboards.
6
MOUSE

A mouse is a device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer

on a display screen. A mouse is a small object we can roll along a hard
on flat surface. Its name is derived from its shape, which looks like a
mouse, its connecting wire that one can imagine to be the mouse tail; and
the fact that one must make it scurry along a surface. As we move the
mouse, the pointer on the display screen moves in the same direction.
Mice contain at least one button and sometimes as many as three, which
have different functions depending on what program is running. Some
newer mice also include a scroll wheel for scrolling through long
documents.

There are three types of mouse: Mechanical, Opto-Mechanical and Optical. Mechanical mouse has a ball
on its underside and sensors detect the direction of ball movement to move the cursor on the screen. Opto-
mechanical mouse are similar to mechanical mouse but they have optical sensors instead of balls in it.
Optical mouse uses laser to detect the mouse movement.

If we look at how a mouse is connected to computer, we can find three types of mouse: Serial Mouse, PS/2
Mouse, USB Mouse. Serial mouse connect through RS-232C serial port and it is the simplest of connection.
PS/2 mouse connect through PS/2 port and USB Mouse connect through USB port.

There are some wireless mice in use these days. Cordless mouse (wireless mouse) connects to the computer
through infrared or radio wave to communicate with computer. Though cordless mouse are more
expensive, they can be greatly useful in some situations.

SCANNER

A scanner is a device that captures images from photographic prints, posters, magazine pages, and similar
sources for computer editing and display. Scanners come in hand-held, feed-in, and flatbed types and for
scanning black-and-white only, or colour. Very high resolution scanners can be used if we need to print
7
scanned image in high-resolution, but lower resolution scanners are adequate for capturing images for
computer display. Scanners usually come with software, such as Adobe’s Photoshop product, that lets we
resize and otherwise modify a captured image.

Drum Scanner, Flatbed Scanner and Hand Scanner are the three different types of scanners.

When it became possible to scan the images and pre-printed pages, the recognition technology emerged
that can recognize the text and marks present on the scanned image and convert them into editable form.
Now, let‘s learn about OCR, OMR, BCR and MICR scanners.

OMR TECHNOLOGY

[DIFFERENT MARKS OMR CAN READ]

The OMR technology allows user to read the check boxes – that is the sign affixed in predefined spaces.
This technology can be extremely useful to automate the marking of exam papers of objective exams.
Specialized software along with OMR can completely automate the checking, marking and tabulating the
exam papers.

ICR TECHNOLOGY

[HANDWRITTEN TEXT THAT ICR CAN RECOGNIZE]

With ICR technology it is possible to recognize manuscript data in unconstrained or constrained mode
when there is usually space among characters. It can be used to entry the forms directly into the computer.

BCR TECHNOLOGY

[BAR CODES THAT BCR CAN READ]

The BCR technology allows the recognition of bar codes printed on retail products, as well as, decoding
their content.
8
OCR TECHNOLOGY

It’s the recognition technology for printed and typed texts. When we have any printed page and require it
to edit on computer, this technology can be used to input the document into computer and create editable
file.

OCR-A TECHNOLOGY

This technology works on pre-printed OCR-A code lines of postal and banking documents ;

OCR-B TECHNOLOGY

This technology works on pre-printed OCR-B code lines of postal and banking documents ;

MICR CMC7 – E13B TECHNOLOGY

MICR technology can be used to identify the text written by magnetic ink. Magnetic ink is a special type
of ink that contains iron particles dissolved in ink.

MICR magnetizes the writing and scan it accurately. It can be used to verify the signatures in bank checks.

MICR CMC7-E13B Technology works on pre-printed CMC7 or E13B check code lines.

CHR TECHNOLOGY

It allows user to read manuscript data in cursive written (natural writing not in capital letters): what was
only imaginary a few years ago, now it’s real. This feature is essential for reading forms that haven’t been
expressly designed for the automatic acquisition and contain unconstrained fields, freely written, without
any tie.
9
OUTPUT DEVICES – MONITOR , PRINTER , PLOTTERS . . . . . . .

OUTPUT UNIT DEVICES

A unit of computer system that sends information out of the computer or the unit of computer system that
provides the result of processing to the users is output unit. This unit receives information from CPU and
converts into suitable human readable form. Monitor, Plotter, Printer, Projector, Speaker etc. are the
output devices.

An output device is any peripheral device that converts machine-readable information into people-
readable form such as a monitor, printer, plotter and voice output device.

MONITORS

A computer monitor is also called display screen or video display terminal (VDT). Text and Images are
displayed on monitors by individual dots called pixels. A pixel is the tiny blinking material on computer
screen that can be turned on and off or made different shades. A pixel is the smallest unit on the screen.
The density of dots determines the clarity of the images – known as resolution. A screen resolution 1024 x
768 means that it has 1024 dots in one line and 768 lines in one screen. Another measure of display
resolution is a dot pitch.

Computer display can be interlaced or non-interlaced. In case of interlaced technology, it refreshes all odd
lines on screen first then all even lines next. Non-interlaced technology refreshes all the lines on the screen
from top to bottom. So, the non-interlaced method gives more stable video display and better for eyes but
requires twice as much signal information as interlaced.
10
There are two types of monitors – cathode-ray tubes (CRT) and flat panel display.

CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT) MONITORS

A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a specialized vacuum tube in which images are produced when an electron
beam strikes a phosphorescent surface. Most desktop computer displays make use of CRTs. The CRT in
a computer display is similar to the ”picture tube” in a television receiver.

CRT monitors are of two types – monochrome and colour.

MONOCHROME MONITORS

Monochrome monitors have only two colours – one for background and other for the foreground (text).The
colours can be white, amber or green on a dark background. While somewhat plain, the use of a single
phosphor to generate the single colour in each pixel makes it possible for the monitor to provide a very
clear and crisp looking display.

A monochrome monitor was very common in the early days of computing, from the 1960s through the
1980s until colour monitors became popular. They are still widely used in applications such as
computerized cash register systems.

COLOUR MONITORS

A colour monitor is a display peripheral that displays more than two colours. Colour monitors implement
the RGB colour model by using three different phosphors that appear red, green, and blue when activated.
By placing the phosphors directly next to each other, and activating them with different intensities, colour
monitors can create an unlimited number of colours. Colour monitors have been developed through
following paths:

CGA

CGA stands for Colour Graphics Adapter. It is a circuit board introduced by IBM and the first graphics
standard for the IBM PC. With a CGA monitor, it is harder to read than with a monochrome monitor
because the CGA supports much fewer pixels. It supports 4 colours.
11
EGA

It stands for Enhanced Graphics Adapter. EGA is a video display standard that has a resolution of 640 by
350 pixels and supports 16 colours. EGA supports previous display modes and requires a new monitor.

VGA

VGA stands for Video Graphics Array. This is a video display standard that provides medium to high
resolution. In a text mode, the resolution of this board is 720 by 400 pixels. It supports 16 colours with a
higher resolution of 640 by 480 pixels and 256 colours with 320 x 200 pixels.

SUPER VGA

This is a very high resolution standard that displays up to 65,536 colours. Super VGA can support a 16.8
million colours at 800 by 600 pixels and 256 colours at 1024 by 768 pixels. A high-priced super VGA allows
1280 by 1024 pixels. Larger monitors (17″ or 21″ and larger) with a high resolution of 1600 by 1280 pixels
are available. VESA (Video Electronics Standards Association) has set a standard for super VGA.

FLAT PANEL DISPLAYS

[FLAT PANEL DISPLAY LCD MONITOR]

Portable computers such as a lap top use flat panel displays, because they are more compact and consume
less power than CRTs. Portable computers use several kinds of flat panel screens :
12
LIQUID-CRYSTAL DISPLAY

LCD is a display technology that creates characters by means of reflected light and is commonly used in
digital watches and laptop computers. LCDs replaced LEDs (light emitting diodes) because LCDs use less
power. LCDs are difficult to read in a strong light, because they do not emit their own light. Portable
computers wanted to have brighter and easier to read displays. Backlit LCDs are used for the purpose
now.

BACKLIT LCD

This is a type of LCD display having its own light source provided from the back of the screen. The backlit
makes the background brighter and clear, as a result the texts and images appear sharper. However, this
still is much less clear than CRTs. Thus, better technology is needed.

ACTIVE MATRIX LCD

This is an LCD display technique in which every dot on the screen has a transistor to control it more
accurately. This uses a transistor for each monochrome or each red, green and blue dot. It provides better
contrast, speeds up screen refresh and reduces motion smearing.

ELECTROLUMINESCENT (EL) DISPLAYS

A flat panel display technology that actively emits light at each pixel when it is electronic charged. This
provides a sharp, clear image and wide viewing angle. The EL display type of flat panel is better than LCD.

GAS PLASMA DISPLAYS

This is also called a gas panel or a plasma panel and is another flat screen technology. A plasma panel
contains a grid of electrodes in a flat, gas filled panel. The image can persist for a long time without
refreshing in this panel. The disadvantages of the gas plasma displays are that they must use AC power
and cannot show sharp contrast. 13
PRINTERS

[COLOUR PRINTERS]

14

[DIFFERENT TYPES OF PRINTERS]

A printer is an output device that produces a hard copy of data on to a paper. The resolution of printer
output is expressed as DPI (Dots per inch).

Printers can be classified into different types in several ways. There are three types of printers based on
the way they print:

SERIAL PRINTERS

Serial printers are also called a character printer. These printers print a single character at a time. They
are usually inexpensive and slow.

LINE PRINTERS

Line printers can print one line at a time. They are expensive and very fast. Line printers use a band, a
chain, etc.

PAGE PRINTERS

Page printers can print one whole page at a time. Page printers are also called a laser printer because they
usually use a laser to produce page images. The print quality of these printers is the best though it is a little
bit expensive. The price of the personal laser printer is decreasing gradually.

Similarly, there are two types of printers based on the use of a hammer.

IMPACT PRINTERS

Impact printers use a hammer or pin to hit the carbon ribbon. This forms characters or dots to print
images on the paper. Because these printers hit the paper it produces sound and thus they are noisy. Dot-
matrix and daisy-wheel printers are the examples of Impact Printers.

NONIMPACT PRINTERS

Non-impact printers do not touch paper to produce printout. They do not have the hammer and do not
hit. The examples of non-impact printer are ink-jet, laser printer, thermal printers and so on.

There are two types of printers based on how they form characters.

BIT-MAPPED PRINTERS

Images are formed from groups of dots and can be placed anywhere on the page. They have many printing
options and good printing quality. They use PostScript as a standard language for instructing a
15

microcomputer.
CHARACTER-BASED PRINTERS

These printers print characters into the lines and columns of a page. These printers use predefined set of
characters and are restricted in position of characters.

Microcomputers use five kinds of printers. They are daisy wheel printers, chain printers, dot-matrix
printers, ink-jet printers, and laser printers.

DAISY-WHEEL PRINTER

[DAISY WHEEL PRINTER]

16

[DAISY WHEEL]
Daisy-Wheel is a printer mechanism that uses any kind of hub (wheel) having a set of spokes at the margin
of the hub. The end of each spoke is a raised image of a type character. When the wheel is turned and the
required character is aligned to the print hammer, the character is then struck into a ribbon and onto a
paper with the hammer. The wheel can be removed to use a different character set. Daisy-Wheel Printer
prints typewriter-like very high quality characters. However, they are slower and less reliable than dot-
matrix printers. Microcomputer users seldom use this printer, because the better dot-matrix printers and
inexpensive laser printers are available today.

CHAIN PRINTER

[CHAIN PRINTER MECHANISM]

A chain printer uses a printing mechanism that uses character typefaces linked together in a chain. The
chain spins horizontally around a set of hammers aligned with each position. When the required character
is in front of the selected print position, hammer in that position hits the paper into the ribbon against the
character in the chain. This printer is not commonly found around microcomputers, because it is a very
expensive, high-speed machine designed originally for mainframes and minicomputers. Chain printers are
very reliable and can speed up to 3000 lines per minute.
17
DOT-MATRIX PRINTER

[DOT MATRIX PRINTER]

Dot-matrix printers are printers that write characters and form graphic images using one or two columns
of tiny dots on a print head. The dot hammer moving serially across the paper strikes an inked-ribbon and
creates images on paper. Dot matrix printers are popular printers used with microcomputers, because the
printers are highly reliable and inexpensive. They are used for tasks where a high-quality image is not
essential. Many users, however, move from dot printers to laser printers, because the price of laser printers
is falling down. Several kinds of dot matrix printers are available with print heads that have 7, 9, 18, or 24
pins.

INK-JET PRINTER

Ink-jet is a printer mechanism that sprays one or more colour of ink at high speed onto the paper and
produces high-quality printing. This printer also produces colour printing as well as high-quality image.
That is, ink-jet printers can be used for variety of colour printing at a relatively low cost. Ink-jet printing
has two methods: Continuous stream method and drop-on- demand method.
18

[INKJET PRINTER]
LASER PRINTER

A laser printer is a printer that uses the electro photographic method used in a copy machine. The printer
uses a laser beam light source to create images on a photographic drum. Then the images on the drum are
treated with a magnetically charged toner and then are transferred onto a paper.

A heat source is usually applied to make the images adhere.

In 1984 , Hewlett-Packard introduced the first desktop laser printer, called the LaserJet. The laser printer
revolutionized personal computer printing and has spawned desktop publishing.

The laser printer produces high-resolution letters and graphics quality images, so it is adopted in
applications requiring high-quality output. Although a high-priced colour laser printer is also available in
the market, a less expensive, desktop gray scale laser printer is widely used. Recently, the laser printer is
gaining its market share dramatically, mainly because the lowered price and the quality.

[LASER PRINTER]
19
PLOTTERS

[PLOTTER]

A plotter is a special-purpose output device that draws images with ink pens. That is, the plotter is a
graphics printer for making sophisticated graphs, charts, maps, and three-dimensional graphics as well as
high-quality coloured documents. It can also produce larger size of documents.

Plotters require data in a vector graphics format that can produce images with a series of lines. There are
two main types of plotters:

DRUM PLOTTER

This is a plotter that has a drum. A paper wraps the drum that rotates to produce plots. Pens in a drum
plotter move across the paper while the drum is turning. A drum plotter is usually used to produce smaller
drawings.

FLATBED PLOTTER

This is a plotter that has a bed. This is also called a table plotter. The plotter draws graphics on the paper
placed on the bed. There are several size of beds. This plotter is usually used for producing large drawings.
20
SYSTEM UNIT DEVICES – MOTHERBOARD, PROCESSOR AND MEMORY

[SYSTEM UNIT]

System Unit is the main part of a microcomputer consisting processing unit and devices. A system unit
includes a motherboard that holds a microprocessor chip (which is the CPU), memory chips, and expansion
slots. The board contains printed electronic circuitry which connects microprocessor with primary storage
and other parts. The system unit is housed within the system cabinet known as chassis.

A system unit includes the parts such as Motherboard, Microprocessor, Memory Chips, System Clock, Buses,
Ports, Expansion Slots and Cards .
21
MOTHERBOARD

A Motherboard or system board is the main circuit board of a microcomputer. It contains the circuitry
printed on a flat board. Motherboard connects microprocessor to all other parts of computer and devices
attached. Microprocessors, memory modules, BIOS chip and other ROM chips, system clock, display
adapters, build-in VGA and NIC, AGP and PCI expansion slots and so on are housed on motherboard.

The expansion slots or sockets in motherboard accept additional expansion Cards often known as
daughterboard. In a microcomputer, the motherboard contains the processor, the primary storage chips
(or main memory cards), the buses, and all the chips used for controlling the peripheral devices.

[MOTHERBOARD]
22
MICROPROCESSOR

[MICROPROCESSOR]

A microprocessor is the main component of a microcomputer. It is a processor whose elements are

miniaturized into one or a few integrated circuits contained in a single silicon microchip. Microprocessor
executes instructions. In a microcomputer, it is a single microchip to hold the central processing unit
(CPU). To function as a processor, it requires a system clock, primary storage, and power supply.

Several important lines of PCs use some families of microprocessor chips. Intel and Motorola are the major
companies that produce important microprocessors for IBM compatible and Macintosh computers.

MICROPROCESSOR CAPACITY

The capacity of a microprocessor chip is represented in word sizes. A word size is the number of bits (e.g.,
8, 16, or 32 bits) that a computer (CPU) can process at a time . If word has more bits, the computer (CPU)
is more powerful and faster. For example, a 16-bit-word computer can access 2 bytes (1 byte = 8 bits) at a
time, while a 32-bit-word computer can access 4 bytes at a time. Therefore, the 32-bit computer is faster
than the 16-bit computer.
Based on computer architecture, there are two types of microprocessors – RISC and CISC.

CISC CHIPS

CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. It is pronounced “sisk.” CISC is a computer
architecture that has large sets of instructions (micro-codes). CISC machines have several hundred
instructions. Intel’s Pentium-chip uses CISC design.

RISC CHIPS

RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. RISC is a microprocessor that executes a few number
of instructions (micro-codes). This architecture has a small number of instructions built into the circuits
and if those basic instructions are made to execute faster, then RISC computers increase performance.
Although RISC machines are only around 30% faster than their CISC machines, RISC chips are less
expensive to produce. That is, RISC is less expensive per MIPS.
23
CONTROVERSY

The proponents of RISC claim that its lower cost and speed are an extreme advantage, while the opponents
claim its improvements are not great . The Opponents believe that new machine languages and greater
performance improvements are going to come. Besides, the reduced instructions make software (e.g.,
compilers) generate more code to do. Thus, the choice is not obvious.

IBM AND IBM COMPATIBLES

MODEL NO. WORD SIZE CPU SPEED (MHZ) BUS SIZE (BITS)
8088 16 BITS 5-10 8
8086 16 BITS 6-12 16
80286 16 BITS 6-16 16
80386DX 32 BITS 16-40 32
80386SX 32 BITS 16-25 16
80486DX 32 BITS 25-66 32
80486SX 32 BITS 16-25 32
PENTIUM 32 BITS 60-166 32-64
PENTIUM PRO 23 BITS 150-231 32-64

MACINTOSH
CPU NO. (WORD SIZE IN CPU SPEED (MHZ) BUS SIZE (BITS)
68000 (32) 8 16
BITS)
68020 (32) 16 32
68030 (32) 16-40 32
68040 (32) 1 32
601( ) 1 1
604( ) 1 1

[CPU MODELS]

24
MEMORY CHIPS

Primary memory is built into chips that can hold programs and data either temporarily or permanently.
Based on whether they can store data temporarily or permanently, there are two types of memory chips
– RAMs and ROMs.

RAM CHIPS

RAM stands for random-access memory. Random- access memory holds the data or instructions that the
CPU is presently processing. It is a volatile memory chip meaning the data stored in RAM are temporary.
It is erased automatically after some time or when the power supply is cut off. A collection of RAM chips
builds primary storage.

TYPES OF RAM

SRAM

Static random access memory can hold data as long as power supply is provided. It uses multiple transistors,
typically four to six, for each memory cell but doesn’t have a capacitor in each cell. It is used primarily for
cache.

DRAM

Dynamic random access memory can hold data only for few milliseconds. So it must be refreshed
periodically. It has memory cells with a paired transistor and capacitor.

FPM DRAM

Fast page mode dynamic random access memory was the original form of DRAM. It waits through the entire
process of locating a bit of data by column and row and then reading the bit before it starts on the next bit.
Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 176 MBPS.

EDO DRAM

Extended data-out dynamic random access memory does not wait for all of the processing of the first bit
before continuing to the next one. As soon as the address of the first bit is located, EDO DRAM begins
looking for the next bit. It is about five percent faster than FPM. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is
25

approximately 264 MBPS.

SDRAM

Synchronous dynamic random access memory takes advantage of the burst mode concept to greatly improve
performance. It does this by staying on the row containing the requested bit and moving rapidly through
the columns, reading each bit as it goes. The idea is that most of the time the data needed by the CPU will
be in sequence. SDRAM is about five percent faster than EDO RAM and is the most common form in
desktops today. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 528 MBPS.

DDR SDRAM

Double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM is just like SDRAM except that is has higher bandwidth,
meaning greater speed. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 1,064 MBps (for DDR
SDRAM 133 MHZ).

RDRAM

Rambus dynamic random access memory is a radical departure from the previous DRAM architecture.
Designed by Rambus, RDRAM uses a Rambus in-line memory module (RIMM), which is similar in size
and pin configuration to a standard DIMM. What makes RDRAM so different is its use of a special high-
speed data bus called the Rambus channel. RDRAM memory chips work in parallel to achieve a data rate
of 800 MHz, or 1,600 MBps. Since they operate at such high speeds, they generate much more heat than
other types of chips. To help dissipate the excess heat Rambus chips are fitted with a heat spreader, which
looks like a long thin wafer. Just like there are smaller versions of DIMMs, there are also SO-RIMMs,
designed for notebook computers.

CREDIT CARD MEMORY

Credit card memory is a proprietary self-contained DRAM memory module that plugs into a special slot
for use in notebook computers.

PCMCIA MEMORY CARD

Another self-contained DRAM module for notebooks, cards of this type are not proprietary and should
work with any notebook computer whose system bus matches the memory card’s configuration.

CMOS RAM

CMOS RAM is a term for the small amount of memory used by our computer and some other devices to
remember things like hard disk settings. This memory uses a small battery to provide it with the power it
26

needs to maintain the memory contents.

VRAM

Video RAM , also known as multi port dynamic random access memory (MPDRAM) , is a type of RAM
used specifically for video adapters or 3-D accelerators. The “multiport” part comes from the fact that
VRAM normally has two independent access ports instead of one, allowing the CPU and graphics
processor to access the RAM simultaneously. VRAM is located on the graphics card and comes in a variety
of formats, many of which are proprietary. The amount of VRAM is a determining factor in there solution
and colour depth of the display. VRAM is also used to hold graphics-specific information such as 3-D
geometry data and texture maps. True multiport VRAM tends to be expensive, so today, many graphics
cards use SGRAM (synchronous graphics RAM) instead. Performance is nearly the same, but SGRAM is
cheaper.

MEMORY MODULES

Memory modules are the circuit board containing memory chips. The type of board and connector used
for RAM in desktop computers has evolved over the past few years. The first types of memory modules
were proprietary.

SIMM

stands for single in-line memory module. This memory board used a 30-pin connector and was about 3.5 x
.75 inches in size (about 9 x 2 cm). Later SIMM boards, slightly larger at 4.25 x 1 inch (about 11 x 2.5 cm),
used a 72-pin connector for increased bandwidth and allowed for up to 256 MB of RAM.

DIMM

As processors grew in speed and bandwidth capability, dual in-line memory module (DIMM) evolved. With
a whopping 168-pin or 184-pin connector and a size of 5.4 x 1 inch (about 14 x 2.5 cm), DIMMs range in
capacity from 8 MB to 1 GB per module and can be installed singly instead of in pairs.

RIMM

Another standard, Rambus in-line memory module(RIMM), is comparable in size and pin configuration to
DIMM but uses a special memory bus to greatly increase speed.

SODIMM

Many brands of notebook computers use proprietary memory modules, but several manufacturers use
RAM based on the small outline dual in-line memory module (SODIMM) configuration. SODIMM cards
are small, about 2 x 1 inch (5 x 2.5 cm), and have 144 or 200 pins. Capacity ranges from 16 MB to 1 GB
per module. To conserve space, the Apple iMac desktop computer uses SODIMMs instead of the
traditional DIMMs.

Sub-notebook computers use even smaller DIMMs, known as Micro DIMMs , which have either 144 pins
27

or 172 pins.
Most memory available today is highly reliable. Most systems simply have the memory controller check
for errors at start-up and rely on that. Memory chips with built-in error-checking typically use a method
known as parity to check for errors. Parity chips have an extra bit for every 8 bits of data.

The majority of computers sold today use non parity memory chips. These chips do not provide any type
of built-in error checking, but instead rely on the memory controller for error detection.

ROM CHIPS

ROM stands for read-only memory. A ROM chip is a memory chip that stores instructions and data
permanently. Its contents are placed into the ROM chip at the time of manufacture and cannot be modified
by the user. A CPU can read and retrieve the instructions and data from the ROM chip, but it cannot
change the contents in ROM.

ROM chips usually contain special instructions for computer operations such as ROM BIOS.

The variations on the ROM chip are the following:

PROM (PROGRAMMABLE READ-ONLY MEMORY)

A permanent storage device that becomes a read-only memory after it is written once by the customer
rather than by the chip manufacturer. For example, a software producer can write instructions onto the
PROM using special equipment.

EPROM (ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ-ONLY MEMORY)

EPROM is a reusable PROM-chip that can be erased by a special ultraviolet light.

EPROM holds its content until erased and new instructions can be written on it.

EEPROM (ELECTRICALLY ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ-ONLY MEMORY)

EEPROM-chip can be erased, either within a computer or externally, by electric power. The process
usually requires more voltage than the common +5 volts used in logic circuits.
28
EAPROM (ELECTRICALLY ALTERABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ-ONLY MEMORY)

EAPROM is another type of PROM stands for electrically alterable programmable read-only memory. This
type of memory can be changed by the computer using special high-current operations. Programming
these devices repeatedly (more than 1,000 times) tends to destroy them, so they are used to hold data that
rarely changes.

PRIMARY STORAGE (MEMORY)

Primary storage (internal storage, main memory or memory) is the computer’s working storage space that
holds data, instructions for processing, and processed data (information) waiting to be sent to secondary
storage. Physically, primary storage is a collection of RAM chips.
The contents are held in primary storage only temporarily. Capacity varies with different computers. Data
or instructions are stored in primary storage locations called addresses.

Apart from motherboard, processor and memory, there are some other system unit devices worth taking
a note. I’ve tried to introduce each of those devices below:

SYSTEM CLOCK

The clock is a device that generates periodic, accurately spaced signals. These signals are used for several
purposes such as regulation of the operations of a processor or generation of interrupts. The clock circuit
uses the fixed vibrations generated from a quartz crystal to deliver a steady stream of pulses to the
processor. The system clock controls the speed of all the operations within a computer.

The clock speed is the internal speed of a computer. The clock speed is expressed in megahertzes (MHz). 33
MHz means 33 million cycles per second. A computer processor’s speed is faster if it has higher clock
speed. For example, a 100-Mhz processor is four times as fast internally as the same processor running at
25MHz.

EXPANSION SLOTS 29

[PCI EXPANSION SLOTS]

Expansion slots are receptacles inside a system unit that printed circuit boards (expansion boards) are
plugged into. Computer buyers need to look at the number of expansion slots when they buy a computer,
because the number of expansion slots decides future expansion. In microcomputers, the expansion slots
are directly connected to the bus.

EXPANSION BOARDS

[PCI EXPANSION CARDS]

Expansion boards are also called expansion cards , controller cards , plug-in boards , adapter cards ,
or interface cards. Expansion boards are printed circuit boards that have many electronic components
including chips. They are plugged into expansion slots. Expansion boards are connected to peripherals
through ports located on the edge of expansion boards. Expansion boards include memory expansion cards
(e.g., SIMM), I/O controller cards (e.g., SCSI Card), video display card, sound cards, communications
cards, etc.

Expansion slots and expansion boards can be of two types – open architecture and closed architecture

OPEN ARCHITECTURE

This architecture is a system whose specifications are made public to encourage third-party vendors to
develop add-on products for it. Most microcomputers adopt open architecture. They allow users to expand
their systems using optional expansion boards.

CLOSED ARCHITECTURE

This is a system whose technical specifications are not made public. With a machine that has closed
architecture, users cannot easily add new peripherals.
30
PORTS

A port is an external connecting socket on the outer side of the system unit. This is a pathway into and out
of the computer. A port lets users plug in outside peripherals, such as monitors, scanners and printers.

SERIAL PORTS

Serial ports are external I/O connectors used to attach modems, scanners or other serial interface devices
to the computer. The typical serial ports use a 9-pin DB-9 or a 25-pin DB-25 connector. Serial ports
transmit bits one after another on a single communications line. Serial lines frequently are used to link
equipment that is not located close by.

PARALLEL PORTS

Parallel ports are external I/O connectors on a computer used to hook up printers or other parallel
interface devices. The parallel port uses a DB-25connector. This port transmits several bits simultaneously.
31

Parallel lines move information faster than serial lines do.

BUSES

A bus is a data pathway between several hardware components inside or outside a computer. It not only
connects the parts of the CPU to each other, but also links the CPU with other important hardware. The
other important hardware includes memory, a disk control unit, a terminal control unit, a printer control
unit, and a communications control unit. The capacity of a bus is expressed as bits. A larger capacity bus
is faster in data transfer. For example, a 32-bit bus is faster than an 8-bit bus.

There are three main architectures of Bus – ISA, MCA and EISA.

ISA

Industry Standard Architecture , ISA is pronounced i- suh. This is the original PC bus architecture. It
includes the 8-bit (PC, XT) and 16-bit (AT) buses in IBM personal computer series and compatibles. Now,
it refers specially to the 16-bit AT bus.

MCA

Micro Channel Architecture): A 32-bit bus used in IBM P/S 2 series and other IBM models. This
architecture allows multiprocessing that allows several processors to work simultaneously. Micro channel
architecture is not compatible with PC bus architecture.

EISA

Extended Industry Standard Architecture , EISA is pronounced eesa. This is a bus standard for PCs that
extends the AT bus (the ISA bus) architecture to a 32-bit bus. This architecture also allows more than one
CPU to share the bus. The purpose of EISA is to extend and amend the old ISA standard, so that all existing
AT expansion boards can work with an EISA slot.

LOCAL BUSES

The performance of a microcomputer is often restrained by the relatively slow video cards and other
peripherals, which cannot keep up with today’s fast CPUs. A local bus reduces the performance gap
between the high-speed microprocessors and slower hard disks, video boards and other peripherals.
32
STORAGE DEVICES – MAGNETIC & OPTICAL DISKS

[STORAGE UNIT DEVICES]

Computers have two different types of storage – primary (temporary) storage and secondary (permanent)
storage. Secondary storage means external storage. There are many different types of secondary storage
available on the markets today. This storage device includes a magnetic disk, optical disk, magnetic tape
and others.

Data is stored in disk in TRACKS & SECTORS

33
TRACK

The disk surface is divided into several concentric circles called tracks. The thinner the tracks, the more
storage capacity of the disk. Data are recorded as tiny spots on these tracks. These tracks are closed
concentric circles, not a single spiral. Each track has the same number of bits although the outer tracks
are longer than the inner ones.

SECTOR

The circular tracks are further divided into wedge-shaped sections known as sectors. The fields of data
within a particular record are organized according to tracks and sectors on a disk.

There are two kinds of sectors for a disk –hard sectored disk & soft sectored. The hard sectored disk
identifies sectors with some physical marks on the disk, whereas the soft sectored disk identifies sectors
with sector identification contained in the recording tracks.

A format program places the sector identification on the disk. When a user buys a disk manufactured
without tracks and sectors in place (this kind of disk does not have “Formatted” label on it), he or she must
put the tracks and sectors using a format program.

FLOPPY DISKS

Floppy disks are removable, direct access storage media. Floppy disks are inserted into floppy disk drive
to read and write. Floppy disks are flat, circular pieces of Mylar plastic that rotate within a jacket
(protective cover).These are also called flexible disks , floppies , Diskettes or simply disks .

Data and instructions are stored as forms of bits and bytes using the ASCII or EBCDIC data coding
schemes. They are stored as electromagnetic charges on a disk surface. The first floppies were of 8” in
diameter. However, the two most common disks are 5 1/4-inch (5.25″) and 3 1/2-inch (3.5″). More efficient
size, high storage capacity and sturdier design of a 3.5″ make it popular storage medium for
34

microcomputers till the CDs and pen drive were available.

CAPACITY

DS/DD (2S/2D) DISK

DS/DD means Double Sided Double Density. This is a floppy disk recordedonboth of its sides (DS) and has
twice the capacity of the prior format (DD). For the IBM and IBM compatible PCs, DD/DS disk usually
has 40 tracks on each side and each side contains 9 sectors of 512 bytes each.

DS/DD5.25” DISKS : 360KB

DS/DD3.5” DISKS : 720 KB (PCs), 800 KB for Mac formats.

DS/HD DISK

DS/HD means Double Sided High Density. An HD disk has increased storage capacity usually with more
tracks per square inch. For IBM and IBM compatible PCs, an HD disk is usually formatted to have 80
tracks on each side. Each side then contains 18 sectors of 512 bytes each – double capacity of a DD disk.

DS/HD5.25” DISKS : 1.2MB

DS/HD 3.5” DISKS : 1.44 MB (PCs), 1.44 MB for Mac formats.

FLOPPY DRIVES

A floppy drive is a device used to read data from floppy disks and store data inside it. Floppy drive grabs a
disk at its center and spins it inside its plastic jacket. The drive is made up of a box with a slot into which
a user inserts a disk. The slot has a drive gate. This drive rotates the disk with a motor inside the drive.
Electronic read/write heads “read” data from the disk and “write” data to it while the disk rotates.

A microcomputer usually has internal floppy drives inside the computer cabinet, but it sometimes has
external floppy drive, a separate component outside the cabinet.

HARD DISKS (HARD DRIVES)

A hard disk is a magnetic disk made of metal plates and covered with a magnetic recording surface. Hard
disks come in removable and fixed varieties that hold from several hundreds of megabytes to several
gigabytes. They are tightly sealed to prevent any foreign matter (dust, moist) from getting inside which
causes head crash.

INTERFACE TYPE

A hard disk can be installed in a computer using IDE or SCSI.

IDE (INTEGRATED DRIVE ELECTRONICS)

An IDE interface has a disk drive that contains its own controller electronics. The IDE interface is also
called an AT and XT interface. IDE-ready motherboards have a 40-pin socket that connects directly to an
35

IDE drive eliminating the use of an expansion slot.

SCSI (SMALL COMPUTER SYSTEM INTERFACE)

SCSI is an 8-bit-bus peripheral interface for up to seven peripherals. The SCSI bus allows any two devices
to communicate at one time (host to peripheral, peripheral to peripheral). SCSI provides high-speed
(4MB/sec.), parallel data transfer and multiple peripheral connections while taking only one expansion
slot.

ACCESS TIME

This is an average time taken to complete the transfer of data after the request instruction has been
enacted. Today’s fast hard drives have access times under 10 milliseconds (ms). Access time is made up of
the following four times.

SEEK TIME

This is the time taken to move an access arm to a certain track on a disk after the computer requests data.
Seek time is one of the slowest action that make up most of the access time.

HEAD SWITCHING TIME

The time taken for changing from one read/write head to another to read from or write on another part
on a disk.

SEARCH TIME

It is also called rotational delay time or latency time. This is a time required for the read/write head to locate
particular position on a track.

DATA TRANSFER TIME

This is the time for data to be transferred from the disk to primary storage or vice versa.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF HARD DISKS

INTERNAL HARD DISK

Internal hard disk is made up of several metallic platters, a motor, an access arm and read-write heads
sealed inside a container.

An internal hard disk is looked like a part of a system unit inside a computer cabinet. There are two sizes
of drives (5.25″ and 3.5″ in a diameter). 3.5″ hard disks are faster because the access arm travels shorter
distances across the diameter of the disk.

Internal hard disks have advantages over flexible disks. They are high capacity and speed. The
disadvantage of internal hard disks or hard cards is that they have only a fixed amount of storage and
36

cannot be easily removed.

EXTERNAL HARD-DISK DRIVES

This is a drive that is not built into the system cabinet of microcomputers. External hard disk drives are
treated as peripherals. Using external hard disk drives, we can expand the hard disk capacity when all
available drive bays are occupied.

HARD DISK CARTRIDGES

A cartridge is a removable storage module, so a hard disk cartridge contains disks in the module. They
can be removed from a dock easily and can give fast access to large data. An internal or external dock is
available.
In internal hard disks and external hard disk drives, the storage capacity is fixed, but in the hard disk
cartridge, the capacity limitation of storage does not exist. That is, a user may add more cartridges any
time.

REMOVABLE DRIVES WITH CARTRIDGES

Today’s advanced technology allows a new form of removable storage. The technology combines the
function of the hard disk drive and the convenience of the hard disk cartridge. This form consists of a
removable drive and several cartridges.

The removable drive looks like an external floppy disk drive. And the cartridge resembles a floppy disk
and allows users to add 100 MB or 1 GB at a time. It allows an SCSI connection as well as a parallel port
connection. Its low cost is a big advantage.

OPTICAL DISKS

37

[OPTICAL DISKS]
More advanced technology created a new disk storage forms. Optical disk is a disk written and read by
laser beam. This optical disk has a great impact on today’s storage technology. Optical disk does not spin,
does not need to move access arms and read/write heads, because a laser beam can be moved electronically.
The capacity of the storage is considerably greater than their magnetic disk counterparts, and optical disk
storage may eventually replace all magnetic tape and disk storage.

Then how do they work? To write data, a laser beam burns tiny cavities into the surface of a disk to mark
bits for data. To read the data, a laser beam scans these areas.

There are three forms of optical disks available:

CD-ROM

CD-ROM (compact disk read only memory) is an optical disk storage that contains text, graphics and hi-fi
stereo sound. CD-ROM is a 4.75-inch optical disk storage that can store around 650 MB of data. CD-ROM
disk is almost the same as the music CD, but uses different forms of track for data. A CD- ROM drive can
read music CD, but a CD player cannot read CD-ROM. CD-ROM is a read-only disk that cannot be written
on or erased by the user. In CD- ROM standard, data (text or pictures) cannot be viewed with audio play
simultaneously. CD-ROM XA standard can do.

WORM

A WORM (write once, read many) disk is an optical disk that written on just once by the user’s environment
and then cannot be overwritten. A WORM disk is ideal for use as archive because it can be read many
times, but the data cannot be erased. The storage capacity of WORM disk ranges from 400 MB to 6.4 GB.

ERASABLE OPTICAL DISKS

This is an optical disk that can be erased and written on repeatedly. An erasable optical disk has a great
deal of data capacity. It can store up to 4.6 GB. An erasable optical disk functions like a magnetic disk and
has huge capacity, so it will replace the magnetic disk in the future.

MAGNETIC TAPE

A magnetic tape is a tape coated with a magnetic material

on which data can be stored. This is a sequential storage
device that is usually used for a backup purpose. A magnetic
tape is slower than direct access storage such as disk,
because it is sequential access storage. The biggest
advantage of magnetic tape is the cost. It is much less
expensive than magnetic disk and optical disk. An advanced
tape backup technology (DAT) is available these days.
38
CACHE MEMORY

A cache is a specially designed buffer storage used to improve computer performance by reducing access
time. It holds instructions and data that are likely to be needed for next operation by the processor. The
cache copies frequently accessed data and instructions from primary storage (main memory) or secondary
storage (disks).

DISK CACHE

A disk cache is in a reserved segment of primary memory or in an extra memory on the disk controller
card. It contains a large block of frequently accessed data copied from a disk. The data in a disk cache can
be used to fulfill the following data requests from a processor in a high speed. The disk cache lets the
processor avoid a slow disk access.

MEMORY CACHE

A memory cache is high-speed memory storage between memory and the CPU. It is smaller and much
faster than main memory (primary storage). The memory cache copies blocks of instructions and data
from the main memory so that execution and data updating are performed in the higher-speed memory
bank.

39
POINTS TO REMEMBER

 ( )

 ( ) (
) ( ) (
)


( )
40

( )


 ( )

( )


 –


()


41


 ( )

 – ( ) (
) ( )


 ( )


42


( )



(
)

 –
( ) ( ) (
)



43
 ( ) ( )
 ″


 ″


 ( )

 ( )
44



:
; ;
; ;

 ( )


45



46
47