COMPUTER

HARDWARE

What is Computer Hardware?

Computer Hardware refers to the external and internal devices and

equipment that enable you to perform major functions such as input, output,
storage, communication, processing, and more. There are two types of
computer hardware: external and internal. External hardware devices include
monitors, keyboards, printers, and scanners, whereas internal hardware
devices include motherboards, hard drives, and RAM. Computer hardware
encompasses all the physical components and devices that constitute a
computer system, enabling it to perform various computational tasks. These
components are essential for the computer’s operation and interact with
software to execute user commands.

1. Input Devices

Input devices are those devices with the help of which the user interacts with
the computer. Or, In other words, with the help of input devices, the user
enters the data or information into the computer. This information or data is
accepted by the input devices and converted into a computer-acceptable
format, which is further sent to the computer system for processing.

Now we discuss some input devices:

KEYBOARD: It is the most common and main input device for

computers. The data is inputted by typing on the keyboard. It consists of 104
keys in total. It contains numeric keys, alphabet keys, and different function
keys as well. Earlier, it was connected to the computer via cable, now as
technology has advanced, you can connect a keyboard using Bluetooth.

The computer keyboard is one of the most important input devices, which
lets users type text, and enter commands and data on the monitor screen. It
is the best interface between humans and computers, giving users a way to
connect with the system. In the 1860s, the idea for a device that looked like
a typewriter and had a QWERTY key arrangement was developed.

In earlier times, keyboards used to have basic layouts that were similar to
typewriters and now it become complex and feature-rich modern designs.
They are essential in several areas, such as business, education, gaming,
and personal computers. With features like backlit keys, programmable keys,
and improved ergonomic designs, keyboards keep up with advances in
technology and give users a variety of alternatives to meet their
requirements and preferences.

TYPES OF KEYBOARD
Below are some types of computer keyboards.

1. Gaming Keyboards

Designed with gamers in consideration, these keyboards frequently have

extra macro keys, backlighting, and configurable keys. Given their
responsiveness and physical feel, mechanical switches frequently appear in
gaming keyboards. It’s crucial to remember that although gaming keyboards
are made with gamers in mind, regular typing jobs can also be completed
with them. A user’s gaming habits, preferences and the particular
characteristics they find helpful for their gaming experience all play a role in
selecting a gaming keyboard.

2. Mechanical Keyboards

Every key on a mechanical keyboard has its own mechanical switch. These
switches are renowned for their durability, sensation of touch and audible
clicks. The unique typing experience that mechanical keyboards provide is
frequently appreciated by users. Conveniently, the keys are positioned on
what are known as spring-activated switches. An electric circuit located
beneath the switches will transmit signals to the computer corresponding to
pressed keys. When contrasted to rubber membrane keyboards, which are
frequently seen on desktops and laptops, mechanical keyboards will produce
more noise.
 3. Membrane Keyboards

A pressure pad is used under the keys on membrane keyboards. The

pressure pad completes a circuit when a key is pressed, indicating the
keypress. Although, membrane keyboards are often quieter than mechanical
keyboards, they might not have the same sensation of touch. The keys are
securely packed and may have a clear membrane covering them. By doing
this, key presses and movements can be prevented. They are protected from
dust buildup between keys and are lightweight. However, because they are
prone to typing errors, membrane keyboards are not commonly used.
 4. Ergonomic Keyboards
The purpose of ergonomic keyboards is to reduce pain and tiredness from
long hours of use. In order to encourage a more organic hand and wrist
position and possibly lower the possibility of repetitive strain injuries, they
frequently include a split or curved shape. The feature’s of this keyboard
curves to fit your hands and provide a comfortable experience to the user.
When paired with an ergonomic mouse and monitor, you may work on your
computer for extended periods of time in total comfort.

5. Projection Keyboards
A virtual keyboard can be projected onto a flat surface using projection
keyboards, which use infrared or laser technology. Based on the disruption of
the projected beams, typing is recorded. These keyboards provide a small
and lightweight input option. In order to project the keyboard layout, you’ll
need a little portable device that you can attach to your computer via
Bluetooth or USB.

The device projects a keyboard layout using a laser once it is turned on.
Typing on the projected keyboard layout is as easy as using a standard
keyboard. In comparison to other versions, projection keyboards are more
expensive, and in order to project the layout, a solid, level surface is
required. Furthermore, not all users may find the projection convenient and
errors may arise from imperfect data quality.
 6. Wireless Keyboard
These keyboards link wirelessly to a computer using Bluetooth or radio
frequency technology. Without connections, wireless keyboards provide
greater flexibility and a neat workplace. It may connect wirelessly to
computers using Bluetooth or USB Radio frequency (USB-RF). Numerous
items can be compatible with Bluetooth models, which are generally
accessible. Without any kind of additional cables, these keyboards place a
connection into the USB port on the computer and turn on Bluetooth on both
the computer and the keyboard. It can be used with mobile devices and
tablets as well as Windows and MAC computers. This facilitates a smooth
user experience across various devices.

7. Flexible Keyboards
As they are composed of flexible materials, flexible keyboards can be folded
or wrapped up for convenient portability. When a small and portable
keyboard is needed, they come in handy. These keyboards are usually
constructed of rubber-like material and are resistant to water and dust. The
majority of flexible keyboards are Bluetooth keyboards with a connection.
Flexible keyboards are simple to use, but they require a firm surface to be
placed on in order to type.
Key Components of Computer Keyboard
 Alphanumeric Keys: The fundamental keys used to enter text,
representing letters and numbers.
 Function Keys (F1–F12): Keys in the top row that perform a variety of
tasks, frequently acting as shortcuts for commands or particular tasks.
 Modifier keys (Shift, Ctrl, Alt): These keys increase command choices
by changing how other keys behave when tapped in combination.
 Numeric Keypad: An additional set of keys for entering numbers that
resembles a calculator and is usually located on the right.
  Special keys: Keys have particular purposes for navigation, text editing,
and system control (Enter, Backspace, Tab).
 Arrow keys (Up, Down, Left, Right): Make navigating documents,
menus, and interfaces easier.
 Escape key (Esc): It is used to reverse a command and go back in time

MOUSE: A mouse is a kind of pointing device which is rolled

over to control the cursor on the screen and it has functional keys
like left, middle, and right buttons. Using these functional keys, on
by the click of which an object is selected or to open a file by just
a click of a mouse. It also consists of a sensor inside which notifies
its speed to the computer and according to which the cursor is
moved on the screen.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMPUTER MOUSE

1. Wired Mouse
A wired mouse is among the main types of computer mouse that
have a cord and link to a computer via it. It can be either of the
two types: USB or PS/2. This allows for the building of USB 2.0 or
PS/2 extensions. They provide a reliable connection, which is very
essential when it comes to gaming or graphic design that wants
to create the illusion of precise cursor control.
 2. Wireless Mouse
A Bluetooth or RF mouse is a particular type of computer mouse that does
not use a physical connection but works on wireless data transmission using
radio frequency (RF), Bluetooth, or infrared technology. These mouse, either
battery-powered or rechargeable and connected to the computer. Wireless
mice have more freedom and flexibility than wired mouse because they let
them work from a distance and enhance the use of desk space.

3.Gaming Mouse
This is a specialized type of mouse computer invented for gamers, totally
suited to meet the requirements of the players, such as tailored features for
performance, precision, and personalization. They usually have pin-point
optics with laser inputs to see the precise positioning of the cursor, which is
especially in FPSs. Dedicated gaming mouse are usually equipped with a
series of programmable buttons that can be configured to execute specific
tasks or popular macros faster than a player could do it themselves, giving
them a significant advantage over their peers
 4. Optical Mouse
An optical mouse, as the name suggests, is a popular type of computer
mouse that consists of optical sensors for tracking movements. Unlike old
mechanical mouse, which rely on rotating ball rollers, optical mice apply
LEDs (light-emitting diodes) or lasers, which provide the surface below with
light and instantly record the images of the surface. The object that is picked
up from the linked images undergoes further processing by the mouse
sensor that determines the mouse’s motion, translating it into cursor
movement on the screen.Along with the possible precision and predictable
tracking, the optical mouse do not require the surface of the mouse pad or
the pad’s specific mousing surface.
 5. Mechanical or Ball Mouse
A mechanical mouse is defined as a hardware device used with computer
system for providing the input. A mechanical mouse consists of a metal ball
or rubber ball at its underside. The mechanical mouse is also known as the
ball mouse. The ball rolls when the user moves the mouse. The sensors
present inside the mouse will detect the movement and send the signals to
the cursor present on the screen. Mechanical mice are heavy in weight.
Mechanical mouse are now replaced by lightweight and cost-effective optical
mouse. The advantage of mechanical mouse is that they even operate on a
rough surface. A mechanical mouse is a type of computer mouse that uses a
physical mechanism to detect movement.
 6. Trackball
Trackballs are used in many laptop keyboards and earlier models of
computer mouse as the cursor control mechanism. The device looks like a
turned-over mouse with a ball inside it and consists of a ball supported by a
socket with sensors to detect rotation about two axes. Fred Longstaff and
Tom Cranston created it in 1952. Basically, It is an input device is used to
move the cursor on a computer screen. Applications for trackballs include
industrial control, gaming, graphic design, CAD, air travel, nautical
navigation, privacy, and assistive technology for the disabled.

FUNCTIONS OF THE MOUSE

The mouse is a hand-held device that transmits your commands to the

computer by controlling the movement of the cursor/pointer on the computer
screen. As you move the mouse, the pointer on the screen moves in the
same direction. Documents or web pages.

A computer mouse enables its user to move a cursor smoothly and intuitively
across a two-dimensional plane. It’s therefore an essential input device for
selecting, dragging, hovering, and clicking. The mouse allows users to switch
between applications, select options and buttons, and move around the
screen with a great degree of accuracy and fluidity. It is used to move
between and select links on a website, buttons on an options screen, entries
on a menu, and many more tasks that would be far more difficult using a
keyboard alone. Most mice come with a left button, a right button, and a
scroll wheel. Not only does the mouse enable moving and selecting with the
left mouse button, it can also be used to bring up alternative functions and
menus by clicking the right button when hovering over a screen element.
The mouse lets users zoom in and out quickly, and scroll up and down using
the scroll wheel located between the two buttons. Advanced mice have extra
buttons placed around the casing that can be assigned tasks and functions
specific to the operating system or a particular program.
 USES OF A COMPUTER MOUSE

Below is a list of all the computer mouse functions and options to give you an
idea of all the mouse capabilities.

1. Move the mouse cursor – The primary function is to move the mouse
pointer on the screen.

2. Point – Once the mouse is moved, you can point something out for another
user or point a digital object. For example, in a game you can use the mouse
to point a gun in the direction to shoot.

3. Open or execute a program – Once you’ve moved the pointer to an icon,

folder, or another object clicking or double-clicking that object opens the
document or executes the program. Some programs even support triple-
clicking.

4. Select – A mouse also allows you to select text or a file or highlight and
select multiple files at once.

5. Single-clicking – Moving the pointer of the mouse to the item on the

computer screen that you want, then press the left button on the mouse in
order to choose it. In order to see more about the item, press the right button
on the mouse. By clicking the right button, you will see many options to do
with the item; such as: opening it, emptying it, deleting it, or seeing its
properties.
6. Double-clicking – You double click the left button of the mouse when you
want to run an item on the computer screen. Example: You can open a folder
by double-clicking it, or run a program with the same way.

7. Dragging – In order to rearrange an item to another spot on the screen

that you want, you can move the pointer of the mouse to the item, then
press and hold the left button, now you can drag it anywhere you want by
moving the mouse.

8. Scroll Wheel – You can scroll through the documents or websites by using
the scroll wheel of the mouse. You just need to roll the wheel backward in
order to scroll down, you scroll up by doing the opposite way.

SCANNER: A scanner is a device that allows you to digitize physical

documents, images, or even objects, and convert them into a digital format
that can be viewed, edited, and stored on a computer. It’s like a digital
photocopier that captures the content of a document or image and saves it
as a file.

Scanners work by converting the image on the document into digital

information that can be stored on a computer through optical character
recognition (OCR).

This process is done by a scanning head, which uses one or more sensors to
capture the image as light or electrical charges.

The document scanner moves either the physical document or the scanning
head, depending on the type of scanner. Then, the scanner processes the
scanned image and produces a digital image that can be stored on a
computer.

Scanners usually attach to a computer system and come with scanning

software applications that let you resize and otherwise modify a captured
image.
 TYPES OF SCANNERS
Modern scanners come in handheld, feed-in and flatbed types and are for
scanning black-and-white only or color.

Flatbed scanners: These are the most common type of scanner. They
are called “flatbed” because the document is placed on a flat surface for
scanning. Flatbed scanners can scan documents of various sizes and are
generally more versatile than sheetfed scanners.
Sheet-fed scanners: These are designed to scan documents fed
into the scanner one at a time. Scanners with automatic document feeders
are smaller and more portable than flatbed scanners and are often used in
home offices or small businesses.
Handheld scanners: These are portable scanners that are smaller
than flatbed scanners. They are designed for scanning documents on the go,
such as newspaper articles or printed photos.
Drum Scanners: A type of scanner used to capture the highest
resolution from an image. Photographs and transparencies are taped,
clamped or fitted into a clear cylinder (drum) that is spun at speeds
exceeding 1,000 RPM during the scanning operation. A light source that
focuses on one pixel is beamed onto the drum and moves down the drum a
line at a time. A form of document scanner where the original document to
be scanned is wrapped around a drum and then scanned by moving the
detector head longitudinally as the drum is rotated.
LIGHTPEN: A light pen is a type of pointing input device that detects
light and is frequently used to select or alter text or data on a screen. These
devices, when used with a CRT (cathode ray tube) monitor, were an early
method of highlighting and modifying data on the screen. A light pen is a
computer input device. It works just like a mouse and It’s a pointing device
that can help us to touch any icon on the screen and open it. It’s connected
to the monitor. It has a tip with light which helps to detect the location of the
pen on the screen. A light pen is used to draw lines or images on the screen
and edit text. Light pens do not generate any light, instead, they contain
photocells to detect the presence of light. When is detected from the screen
enabling the computer to identify the location of the pen on the screen. It
basically works as Enter and OK. As well as we can call it an electronic pen. It
was invented by BEN GURLY in 1959 with the idea of a mouse.

TYPES OF LIGHT PEN

Corded light pens: It’s the oldest light pen. Although, It has a cord that
is joined with the back side of the pen and there is no need to recharge the
pen. It can connect cables with computers and monitors. It is the older light
pen used in the scanning where a cord is attached to the pen to sense pixels
from the system
Battery light pens: It can generate light on the screen and it can go on
and work for a long duration. This doesn’t need even a port cable to connect
with the device. Battery light pens are modern devices that can be used in
the absence of light to scan the entire elements in the pixel.
Led light pens: It is a light source that helps to point, write, or interact
with any digital displays, among other things.

Designer light pen: The designer light pen is used by photographers to

draw designs using computer-aided technology. This device helps in
designing, sketching, or drawing. All graphics designs are directly
represented on the screen by drawing with the help of a pointer.
 Uses of Light Pen
A light pen is a flexible tool that can work in many of the applications. Such
as-

Graphic Designs: It is widely used in graphical representation to draw

directly on screen with the help of a pointer device (light pen).

Highlighting: It’s used to point to any image on the screen or highlight

and edit text. It depends on the users for what task they have to use this
device.
Locator: It is used to pin the location or select the point or icons on the
screen and can be used in certain applications.

Presentation: If it’s a school, college, company, or business meeting

everyone uses

PowerPoint Presentations in their works, and for displaying or identifying or

you can say in pointing they all use this device on the projector.

Painting: It is a flexible way to draw digital art with the help of a light pen.

JOYSTICK: A joystick is a pointing and controlling device that is

commonly used for controlling video games and moving required objects on
the system screen. A joystick is a controlling tool that is used to move items
at different angles or through operational processes as per requirements
inside a machine. The joystick’s lever controls the overall machine’s cursor
movement, assisting in achieving the initial alignment with the stick and
base. To control the overall operation by making angles with the base and a
stick, a basic joystick has one button on top of the base and another button
in front of the base in that case. Typically, a joystick is controlled by the
system software, which enables the user to utilize each button on the base to
control the operation as per requirement. A typical joystick has several
important parts, such as a handle top, actuator, disc, spring, pivot, and shaft.
Because of its internal fluid movements, it can provide more control than the
keys on a system’s keyboard. When it comes to an input device, a joystick
may also be more advantageous for individuals with disabilities in terms of
special cases. Most of the joysticks have at least one button for the trigger
on the front of the stick and another button on top of the stick as per
requirement. The joystick’s base has a special system which is a
potentiometer installed to gauge movement intensity. When the joystick is
released as per requirement, this potentiometer assists in bringing it back to
its center position. After a screen position has been chosen, one or more
buttons can also be configured to function as required input switches,
signaling specific actions.
 PARTS OF JOYSTICK IN COMPUTER
Joysticks are implemented and connected to most computers or systems
these days via a USB port. The various types of ports that a joystick can
support are –
Gaming Port: Originally called the Analog-to-Digital port in ADC system,
this 15-pin connector port was first implemented on IBM systems in 1981.
This initial adapter, which enables users to connect required devices like
steering wheels, joysticks, gamepads, and more, is sometimes referred to as
a joystick port, game port, or game control adapter in the process. In that
case, some motherboards have an inbuilt ISA or PCI Card.

Usb Port: USB, or Universal serial bus, enables the internal communication
between a computer and peripherals and other required devices. It is a wide-
ranging plug-and-play interface that makes it possible for different devices to
connect to computers or other devices as per requirement like music players,
flash drives, Keyboards, and mouse, among others in the initial processes.

Bluetooth Port: Bluetooth Is basically an industry standard for computing

and telecommunications which can define how devices can interact with one
another as per internal requirement. Many gadgets, including Computers,
keyboards, mouse, smartphones, and digital assistants, use Bluetooth in
there process. With a transfer rate of 1 Mbps, the internal Bluetooth system
has an effective range of 32 feet (10 meters).

Serial Port: It is sometimes referred to as an asynchronous port and is used

to connect the required serial device to the computer or system. It can
transfer the internal data one bit at a time and is often located on the back
of the computer or system. These kind of ports are typically recognized on
the computers or systems that are IBM compatible in the process.

TYPES OF JOYSTICK
Analogue Joystick: Analogue joysticks are basically incorporate the
notions of both digital and paddle joysticks as per requirement. Analogue
joysticks were used by the Amiga, Apple, and IBM PC. These devices only
have the internal analogue joystick inputs. Initial cases, the analogue
joysticks are not as standardized as digital joysticks. Every manufacturer
created a unique model and set of parameters for the stick as per
requirement.

Paddle Controller Joystick: A simple controller is basically used to

control the game is the paddle joystick. With just one knob and one fire
button, it’s among the earliest joysticks in history. It was first created and
implemented to manage the racket on the display with the first home video
gaming systems.

PC analogue Joystick: The most popular kind of joystick was initially

introduced or implemented by IBM with their personal computer, the PC
analogue joystick. It is essentially a simple multiple-button analogue joystick
that connects via a USB port in the system. Every effort was made to keep
the joystick interface card as cheap as feasible as per requirement. These
days, these type of joysticks are applied in different ways than through the
PC joystick card interface in order to provide the required faster access for
joystick for game programs and avoid some frequent PC joystick difficulties
in the system.

WEBCAM: A webcam is a video camera that is connected to a computer

or other device, typically via a USB port, and is used to capture and transmit
video over the internet. Webcams are commonly used for videoconferencing,
live streaming, and other applications that require real-time video
communication. Webcams can be built into laptops and desktop computers,
or they can be separate devices that can be attached to a computer or other
device. Some webcams also have built-in microphones, which can be used to
capture audio along with video. Webcams typically have a small form factor
and are designed to be portable, making them convenient for use in a
variety of settings. Many webcams also have adjustable focus and other
features that allow users to customize the video capture to their needs.
Webcams are a useful tool for enabling real-time video communication and
are widely used for a variety of applications, including videoconferencing,
online education, and live streaming.
 USING A WEBCAM
Using a webcam is typically a straightforward process, but there are a few
steps you will need to follow:

Install The Webcam: If you are using a standalone webcam, you will
need to install it on your computer or another device by connecting it to a
USB port. If you are using a built-in webcam, you do not need to install it.

Install Any Necessary Drivers: Some webcams may require drivers

(software that enables the webcam to work with your computer or device) to
be installed in order to function properly. If you are using a standalone
webcam, you may need to install the drivers from the manufacturer’s
website or from a CD that comes with the webcam.

Set Up The Webcam: Once the webcam is installed and the drivers are
installed, you may need to set up the webcam by adjusting the settings or
configuring it to work with your computer or device. This may involve
selecting the webcam as the default input device in your operating system’s
an audio and video settings.

Use The Webcam: Once the webcam is set up, you can use it to capture
and transmit video by launching a webcam application or using it with a
videoconferencing platform or other video communication software.

TYPES OF WEBCAM
There are several types of webcams that are commonly used, including:

Built-in Webcams: Many laptops and desktop computers come with

built-in webcams, which are integrated into the design of the device. These
types of webcams are convenient because they do not require any additional
setup or installation, but they may have limited functionality compared to
standalone webcams.

Standalone Webcams: Standalone webcams are separate devices that

can be connected to a computer or other device via a USB port. These types
of webcams are more flexible than built-in webcams and may offer more
advanced features, such as higher resolution, adjustable focus, and built-in
microphones.

Wireless Webcams: Some webcams are wireless, which means they do

not need to be connected to a computer or other device via a physical
connection. Instead, they transmit video wirelessly over a network
connection.

High-definition Webcams: High-definition (HD) webcams offer higher-

resolution video compared to standard webcams, which can improve the
quality of video transmission.
 2.Output Devices

Output devices are hardware components that translate processed data into
a form that can be understood by humans or used by other devices. In this
context, output is the final result that users can see, hear, or physically
interact with. Outputs can be viewed on a screen, printed, played as audio,
or sent to another device. The purpose of an output device is to allow users
to interact with, interpret, and use data that has been generated by or
manipulated by a computing device. The effectiveness and quality of an
output device depend on its ability to accurately and efficiently convert and
present digital data in a form that meets the user’s needs or the
requirements of another device.

Now we discuss some output devices below:

MONITOR: A computer’s principal output device is a monitor, often

known as a visual display unit (VDU). It displays the processed data like text,
images, videos, audios, etc. It makes images by arranging microscopic dots
in a rectangular pattern, known as pixels. The sharpness of an image is
determined by the number of pixels.

TYPES OF MONITOR
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT): This type of monitor is based on a
cathode ray tube. In which the cathode ray tube generates a beam of
electrons with the help of electron guns they strike on the inner surface of
phosphorescent of the screen to generate images. The CRT monitor holds
millions of phosphorus dotes in three different colors, i.e., red, blue, and
green. These dots glow when the beam struck on them and create an image.
The main parts of the CRT monitor are the electron gun, fluorescent screen,
glass envelope, deflection plate assembly, and base.

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD): A liquid crystal display (LCD)

monitor is a computer monitor or display that uses LCD technology to show
clear images, and is found mostly in laptop computers and flat panel
monitors. This technology has replaced the traditional cathode ray tube
(CRT) monitors, which were the previous standard and once were considered
to have better picture quality than early LCD variants. With the introduction
of better LCD technology and its continuous improvement, LCD is now the
clear leader over CRT, in terms of color and picture quality, not to mention
capabilities for large resolutions. Also, LCD monitors may be made much
more cheaply than CRT monitors.

Various different LCD technologies are used today,

including:
In Plane Switching (IPS) Panel Technology: These panels are
considered to have the best color accuracy, viewing angles and image
quality in LCD technology.

Super Plane to Line Switching (PLS): Developed by Samsung, this

LCD panel is very similar to the IPS panel but reportedly, it is 10 percent
brighter, has wider viewing angles and is cheaper to produce.

Vertical Alignment (VA) Panel Technology: These panels are

considered to be in the middle of TN and IPS technology. Compared to TN
panels, they offer wider viewing angles and better color quality but have
slower response times. They have higher contrast ratios, compared to the
other panels but have a downside, in terms of color shifting, where the
brightness display is unevenly distributed throughout the screen.

Twisted Nematic (TN) Panel Technology: These panels are the

most commonly used type of panel in LCD technology. They are cheaper and
offer faster response times, making them a preferred choice for gamers. The
downside is that the viewing angles, contrast ratios and color production are
considered the lowest of LCD panel types.

PLASMA MONITOR: It is also a flat panel display but it is based on

plasma display technology. In a plasma monitor, a small cell is present in
between two glass surfaces and these cells contain a solution of noble gases
and mercury. So when the electricity supply on the gas present in the cell
converts into plasma and produces UV light that creates an image. It is much
better than an LCD Monitor. The resolution of this monitor is also high up to
1920 x 1920. It has a good contrast ratio, high refresh rate, etc.
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED): LED stands for Light Emitting
Diode. These diodes are tiny little bulbs that you might have seen on
electronic devices. Large LED displays use a large number of these diodes to
light up the screen. These diodes are low power consumption devices that
provide high brightness. As a result, an LED screen has several benefits over
other display alternatives. The fluorescent bulbs used earlier could only give
black and white tones. However, an LED screen can display the entire color
spectrum by combining red, blue, and green colors (RGB).

PRINTER: Printers are information output devices that allow you to print
data on paper. Or in other words, it is an output device that creates a hard
copy of the processed data or information.
Printers are divided into two categories:

Impact Printer: In impact printers, characters are printed on the ribbon,

which is then smashed on the paper. Or we can say that such type of printer
uses a print head or hammer to print the data on the paper. Here to print the
paper the hammer or print head strikes an ink ribbon against the paper and
the character starts printing. Some of the types of impact printers are:
  Dot matrix printer
 Daisy wheel printer
 Line printer
 Chain printer

Impact printers have the following characteristics:

 Extremely low consumable costs.

 Fairly noisy
 It’s perfect for large-scale printing because of its inexpensive cost.
 Physical contact with the paper is required to form an image.

Non-Impact Printers: Non-impact printers print characters without the

use of a ribbon. These printers are often known as page printers because
they print a full page at a time. Some of the types of non-impact printers are:

 Laser printer
 Inkjet printer

Non-impact printers have the following characteristics:

 Quicker.
 They don’t produce much noise.
 Superior quality.
 Supports a wide range of fonts and character sizes.

PLOTTER: A plotter is a device that prints high-quality graphics in a

variety of color formats. It works in a similar way to a printer, although it has
more advanced features. It is used to print large maps, architectural
drawings, large-format printing, and create pictures, 3D postcards,
advertising signs, charts, and various designs of the internal structure of
building machines, as well as create pictures, 3D postcards, advertising
signs, charts, and various designs of the internal structure of building
machines.
Characteristics of Plotter:

 Large size prints can be taken via plotters.

 It is slow and expensive.

PROJECTOR: A projector is a device that allows users to project their

output onto a large area, such as a screen or a wall. It can be used to project
the output of a computer and other devices onto a screen. It magnifies texts,
photos, and movies using light and lenses. As a result, it’s an excellent
output device for giving presentations or teaching big groups of people.
Characteristics of Projector:

 They are lightweight, and one person can easily take them out of the
box, connect them, and hang an image on the wall.
 Projectors can be the most cost-effective option for large-screen video
in your home.
 A small projector mounted on a back shelf or bookcase, or mounted on
the ceiling, takes up no area on the floor. It is barely visible when it is
not in use.
SPEAKER: A computer speaker is an output hardware device that
connects to a computer to generate sound. The signal used to produce the
sound that comes from a computer speaker is created by the computer’s
sound card. Speakers are connected to computers to allow sound to be
output. For the working of speakers, sound cards are required. From simple
two-speaker output devices to surround-sound multi-channel sets, speakers
come in a variety of shapes and sizes. They take audio input from the
computer’s sound card and output sound waves as audio output.

Characteristics of Speakers:
  Speakers are available in a wide range of qualities and prices.
 Small, plastic computer speakers with low sound quality are often
included with computer systems.

HEADPHONES: Headphones are a type of hardware output device that

can be connected to a computer’s line-out or speakers port, as well as
wirelessly using Bluetooth. Headphones are a pair of small loudspeaker
drivers worn on or around the head over a user’s ears. They are
electroacoustic transducers, which convert an electrical signal to a
corresponding sound. Headphones let a single user listen to an audio source
privately, in contrast to a loudspeaker, which emits sound into the open air
for anyone nearby to hear.
Characteristics of Headphones:

 Stereo phones and headsets are other names for them.

 Earphones or earbuds are the names for the in-ear variants.
 The term headset denotes a combination of headphones and a
microphone used for two-way communication, such as using a
telephone.

STORAGE DEVICES: Storage devices are an integral part of the

computer hardware which stores information/data to process the result of
any computational work. Without a storage device, a computer would not be
able to run or even boot up. Or in other words, we can say that a storage
device is hardware that is used for storing, porting, or extracting data files. It
can also store information/data both temporarily and permanently.

TYPES OF COMPUTER MEMORY

 Primary Memory
 Secondary Memory
 Tertiary Memory

1. Primary Memory: It is also known as internal memory and main

memory. This is a section of the CPU that holds program instructions,
input data, and intermediate results. It is generally smaller in size. RAM
(Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) are examples
of primary storage.

2. Secondary Memory: Secondary storage is a memory that is

stored external to the computer. It is mainly used for the permanent
and long-term storage of programs and data. Hard Disks, CDs, DVDs,
Pen/Flash drives, SSD, e.t.c, are examples of secondary storage.

3. Tertiary Memory: Tertiary Memory is a type of Memory that is

rarely used in personal computers and due to this, tertiary memory is
not considered to be an important one. Tertiary memory works
automatically without human intervention.

TYPES OF COMPUTER STORAGE DEVICES

Now we will discuss different types of storage devices available in the
market. These storage devices have their own specification and use. Some of
the commonly used storage devices are:

 Primary Storage Devices

 Magnetic Storage Devices
  Flash memory Devices
 Optical Storage Devices
 Cloud and Virtual Storage

1.Primary Storage Devices

RAM: stands for Random Access Memory
 It is used to store information that is used immediately or we can say
that it is a temporary memory. Computers bring the software installed
on a hard disk to RAM to process it and to be used by the user. Once,
the computer is turned off, the data is deleted. With the help of RAM,
computers can perform multiple tasks like loading applications,
browsing the web, editing a spreadsheet, experiencing the newest
game, etc. It allows you to modify quickly among these tasks,
remembering where you’re in one task once you switch to a different
task. It is also used to load and run applications, like your spreadsheet
program, answers commands, like all edits you made within the
spreadsheet, or toggle between multiple programs, like once you left
the spreadsheet to see the email. Memory is nearly always actively
employed by your computer. It ranges from 1GB – 32GB/64GB
depending upon the specifications.

There are different types of RAM, and although they all serve the same
purpose, the most common ones are :

SRAM: stands for Static Random Access Memory

 It consists of circuits that retain stored information as long as the
power supply is on. It is also known as volatile memory. It is used to
build Cache memory. The access time of SRAM is lower and it is much
faster as compared to DRAM but in terms of cost, it is costly as
compared to DRAM.

DRAM: stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory

 It is used to store binary bits in the form of electrical charges that are
applied to capacitors. The access time of DRAM is slower as compared
to SRAM but it is cheaper than SRAM and has a high packaging density.
SDRAM: stands for Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
 It is faster than DRAM. It is widely used in computers and others. After
SDRAM was introduced, the upgraded version of double data rate RAM,
i.e., DDR1, DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4 was entered into the market and
widely used in home/office desktops and laptops.

ROM: stands for Read-Only Memory

 The data written or stored in these devices are non-volatile, i.e , once
the data is stored in the memory cannot be modified or deleted. The
memory from which will only read but cannot write it. This type of
 memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently during
manufacture only once. ROM stores instructions that are used to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. It is also used in
other electronic items like washers and microwaves. ROM chips can
only store a few megabytes (MB) of data, which ranges between 4 and
8 MB per ROM chip.

There are three types of ROM:

PROM: PROM is Programmable Read-Only Memory

 These are ROMs that can be programmed. A special PROM programmer
is employed to enter the program on the PROM. Once the chip has
been programmed, information on the PROM can’t be altered. PROM is
non-volatile, that is data is not lost when power is switched off.

EPROM: Another sort of memory is the Erasable Programmable Read-

Only Memory

 It is possible to erase the info which has been previously stored on an

EPROM and write new data onto the chip.

EEPROM: EEPROM is Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only

Memory

 Here, data can be erased without using ultraviolet light, with the use of
just applying the electric field.
2.Magnetic Storage Devices

Floppy Disk: Floppy Disk is also known as a floppy diskette. It is

generally used on a personal computer to store data externally. A Floppy
disk is made up of a plastic cartridge and secured with a protective case.
Nowadays floppy disk is replaced by new and effective storage devices
like USB, etc.
Hard Disk: Hard Disk Is a storage device (HDD) that stores and retrieves
data using magnetic storage. It is a non-volatile storage device that can be
modified or deleted n number of times without any problem. Most computers
and laptops have HDDs as their secondary storage device. It is actually a set
of stacked disks, just like phonograph records. In every hard disk, the data is
recorded electromagnetically in concentric circles or we can say track
present on the hard disk, and with the help of a head just like a phonograph
arm(but fixed in a position) to read the information present on the track. The
read-write speed of HDDs is not so fast but decent. It ranges from a few GBs
to a few and more TB.

Magnetic Card: It is a card in which data is stored by modifying or

rearranging the magnetism of tiny iron-based magnetic particles present on
the band of the card. It is also known as a swipe card. It is used like a
passcode(to enter the house or hotel room), credit card, identity card, etc.
Tape Cassette: It is also known as a music cassette. It is a
rectangular flat container in which the data is stored in an analog
magnetic tape. It is generally used to store audio recordings.
 3.Flash Memory Devices
It is a cheaper and more portable storage device. It is the most commonly
used device to store data because is more reliable and efficient as compared
to other storage devices. Some of the commonly used flash memory devices
are:

Pen Drive: It is also known as a USB flash drive that includes flash
memory with an integrated USB interface. We can directly connect these
devices to our computers and laptops and read/write data into them in a
much faster and more efficient way. These devices are very portable. It
ranges from 1GB to 256GB generally.

SSD: It stands for Solid State Drive. A mass storage device like HDD. It
is more durable because it does not contain optical disks inside like hard
disks. It needs less power as compared to hard disks, is lightweight, and
has 10x faster read and writes speed as compared to hard disks. But,
 these are costly as well. While SSDs serve an equivalent function as hard
drives, their internal components are much different. Unlike hard drives,
SSDs don’t have any moving parts and thus they’re called solid-state
drives. Instead of storing data on magnetic platters, SSDs store data using
non-volatile storage. Since SSDs haven’t any moving parts, they do not
need to “spin up”. It ranges from 150GB to a few more TB.

Features of SSD
 Start-up Time – SSDs do not use any mechanical component hence it
takes almost negligible startup time.
 Random Access Times – Accessing data directly from the Flash
memory creates a lag-free experience for its users.
 Read Latency time – Accessing data from Flash memory also reduces
the read latency time to very low.
 Data transfer rates – Higher Data Transfer rates of about 100-600
Mb/sec.
 Fragmentation – There is no such concept of the Fragmentation In
SSDs.
 Noise – As they have no mechanical part they create zero noise.
 Reliability – SSDs are reliable as there are no moving parts that can
wear over time.
 Operating Temperature Range – SSDs can operate effectively in a
wider temperature range compared to HDDs.
 Shock and Vibration Resistance – They are highly resistant to shock
and vibration, making them ideal for use in portable devices like
laptops, tablets, and rugged environments.
 Boot Time and Application Load Times – SSDs reduce boot time of
Operating systems and other applications.
 Security features – SSDs offer advanced security features like hardware
encryption and secure erase functions to protect data from
unauthorized access.
Memory Card: It is generally used in digital cameras. Printers, game
consoles, etc. It is also used to store large amounts of data and is available
in different sizes. To run a memory card on a computer you require a
separate memory card reader.
Multimedia Card: It is also known as MMC. It is an integrated circuit
that is generally used in-car radios, digital cameras, etc. It is an external
device to store data/information.
 4.Optical Storage Devices
Optical Storage Devices is also secondary storage device. It is a removable
storage device.

Following are some optical storage devices:

CD: It is known as Compact Disc. It contains tracks and sectors on its

surface to store data. It is made up of polycarbonate plastic and is circular
in shape. CD can store data up to 700MB. It is of two types:

CD-R: It stands for Compact Disc read-only. In this type of CD, once the data
is written can not be erased. It is read-only.

CD-RW: It stands for Compact Disc Read Write. In this type of CD, you can
easily write or erase data multiple times.
 DVD: It is known as Digital Versatile Disc. DVDs are circular flat
optical discs used to store data. It comes in two different sizes one is
4.7GB single-layer discs and another one is 8.5GB double-layer discs.
DVDs look like CDs but the storage capacity of DVDs is more than as
compared to CDs. It is of two types:

DVD-R: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read-only. In this type of DVD, once
the data is written can not be erased. It is read-only. It is generally used to
write movies, etc.

DVD-RW: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc Read Write. In this type of DVD,
you can easily write or erase data multiple times.
Blu-ray Disc: It is just like CD and DVD but the storage capacity of blu
ray is up to 25GB. To run a Blu-ray disc you need a separate Blu-ray
reader. This Blu-ray technology is used to read a disc from a blue-violet
 laser due to which the information is stored in greater density with a
longer wavelength.

5.Cloud and Virtual Storage

Nowadays, secondary memory has been upgraded to virtual or cloud storage
devices. We can store our files and other stuff in the cloud and the data is
stored for as long as we pay for the cloud storage. There are many
companies that provide cloud services largely Google, Amazon, Microsoft,
etc. We can pay the rent for the amount of space we need and we get
multiple benefits out of it. Though it is actually being stored in a physical
device located in the data centers of the service provider, the user doesn’t
interact with the physical device and its maintenance. For example, Amazon
Web Services offers AWS S3 as a type of storage where users can store data
virtually instead of being stored in physical hard drive devices. These sorts of
innovations represent the frontier of where storage media goes.