PHYSICS PROJECT

TOPIC:
TO STUDY VARIOUS FACTORS ON
WHICH INTERNAL RESISTANCE / EMF OF
A CELL DEPENDS

BY:
SAI SANGAVI.C
Xll-A
 INDEX

1) Introduction
a. Battery
b. Uses
c. Description
d. E.m.f

2) Practical Analysis
a. Objective
b. Apparatus
c. Theory
d. Circuit diagram
e. Procedure
f. Result and Inferences
g. Precautions
h. Sources of error

3) Conclusion

4) Bibliography
 Introduction

There is a great need of batteries in our daily use electronic appliances and the use is increasing
every day. Thus, the batteries need to be made more powerful so that their potential can be
increased greatly. This project report is based on practical analysis for the factors affecting the
internal resistance of a cell.

When the internal resistance of the cell is decreased we can increase the potential difference
across it, and hence make it more reliable.

A practical electrical power source which is a linear electric circuit may, according to Thévenin's
theorem, be represented as an ideal voltage source in series with an impedance. This impedance
is termed the internal resistance of the source. When the power source delivers current, the
measured voltage output is lower than the no-load voltage; the difference is the voltage drop
(the product of current and resistance) caused by the internal resistance. The concept of internal
resistance applies to all kinds of electrical sources and is useful for analyzing many types of
electrical circuits.
Battery
A battery may be modeled as a voltage source in series with a resistance. In practice, the internal
resistance of a battery is dependent on its size, chemical properties, age, temperature, and the
discharge current. It has an electronic component due to the resistivity of the component
materials and an ionic component due to electrochemical factors such as electrolyte conductivity,
ion mobility, and electrode surface area. Measurement of the internal resistance of a battery is a
guide to its condition, but may not apply at other than the test conditions. Measurement with
an alternating current, typically at a frequency of 1 kHz, may underestimate the resistance, as the
frequency may be too high to take into account slower electrochemical processes. Internal
resistance depends on temperature; for example, a fresh Energizer E91 AA alkaline primary
battery drops from about 0.9 Ω at -40 °C, when the low temperature reduces ion mobility, to
about 0.15 Ω at room temperature and about 0.1 Ω at 40 °C.

Uses

Many equivalent series resistance (ESR) meters, essentially AC milliohm-meters normally used
to measure the ESR of capacitors, can be used to estimate battery internal resistance, particularly
to check the state of discharge of a battery rather than obtain an accurate DC value.[2] Some
chargers for rechargeable batteries indicate the ESR.
In use, the voltage across the terminals of a disposable battery driving a load decreases until it
drops too low to be useful; this is largely due to an increase in internal resistance rather than a
drop in the voltage of the equivalent source.
In rechargeable lithium polymer batteries, the internal resistance is largely independent of the
state of charge but increases as the battery ages; thus, it is a good indicator of expected life
Description
Potentiometer is a device used to measure the internal resistance of a cell, to compare the e.m.f.
of two cells and potential difference across a resistor. It consists of a long wire of uniform cross
sectional area and of 10 m in length. The material of wire should have a high resistivity and low
temperature coefficient. The wires are stretched parallel to each other on a wooden board. The
wires are joined in series by using thick copper strips. A metre scale is also attached on the
wooden board.
It works on the principle that when a constant current flows through a wire of uniform cross
sectional area, potential difference between its two points is directly proportional to the length of
the wire between the two points.
Relation between e.m.f., potential difference, and internal resistance of a cell
If a cell of emf E and internal resistance r, connected to an external resistance R, then the circuit
has the total resistance (R+r). The current I in the circuit is given by,

( or )

Hence,

This means, V is less than E by an amount equal to the fall of potential inside the cell due to its
internal resistance.

From the above equation,

Or; The internal resistance of the cell,

Using a potentiometer, we can adjust the rheostat to obtain the balancing lengths l1 and l2 of the
potentiometer for open and closed circuits respectively.

Then, E= k l1 and V = k l2 ; where k is the potential gradient along the wire.

Now we can modify the equation for getting the internal resistance of the given cell, by using the
above relations as;

E.m.f
The electromotive force (e) or e.m.f. is the energy provided by a cell or battery per coulomb of
charge passing through it, it is measured in volts (V). It is equal to the potential difference
across the terminals of the cell when no current is flowing.

 e = electromotive force in volts, V

 E = energy in joules, J

 Q = charge in coulombs, C

Internal Resistance
The resistance within a battery, or other voltage source, that causes a drop in the source voltage
when there is a current.
 Internal resistance

Internal resistance is defined as the resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell to the flow of
ions.

Its S.I. unit is Ohm (Ω).

For a cell of e.m.f. (E) and internal resistance (r), connected to an external resistance (R) such
that (I) is the current flowing through the circuit,

E = V + Ir

Internal Resistance (r) = E–V I

 PRACTICAL ANALYSIS

 AIM

To study the various factors on which the internal resistance of a cell depends.

 APPARATUS

 A potentiometer

 A battery (or battery eliminator)

 Two one way keys

 A rheostat

 A galvanometer

 A resistance box

 An ammeter
 A cell (Leclanche cell)

 A jockey

 A setsquare

 Connecting wires
  Sand paper.

 THEORY

The internal resistance of a cell is the resistance offered by its electrolyte to the flow of
ions. The internal resistance of a cell

 Is directly proportional to the distance between the electrodes. Let x be the

distance between the electrodes, then,

rαx

 Is inversely proportional to facing surface area of the electrodes in electrolyte.

Let A be the surface area of the electrodes, then,

r α 1/A

 Decreases with increase in temperature of electrolyte.

 Is inversely proportional to concentration of electrolyte.

The internal resistance of a cell is given by:

r = (E-V)/I
  CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

The above circuit includes:

 A power supply
 Two one way keys
 A galvanometer
 A Resistance Box
 A Leclanche cell
 A shunt resistance

PROCEDURE
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make tight connections
according to the circuit diagram.

2. Tighten the plugs of the resistance box.

3. Check the e.m.f. of the battery and of the cell and make sure that e.m.f. of the battery is
more than that of the cell, otherwise null or balance point will not be obtained.

To study variation of internal resistance with distance of separation

 4. Keep both the electrodes at a distance of 16 cm.

5. Take maximum current from the battery, making rheostat resistance small.

6. Without inserting a plug in key K2, adjust the rheostat so that a null point is obtained on
the last wire of the potentiometer.

7. Determine the position of the null point accurately using a set square and measure the
balancing length (l1) between the null point and the end P.

8. Next introduce plugs in both keys K1 and K2. At the same time, take out a small
resistance (1 – 5W)from the shunt resistance box connected in parallel with the cell.

9. Slide the jockey along a potentiometer wire and obtain the null point.

10. Measure the balancing length (l2) from end P.

Record these observations.

11. Now keep the electrodes 12 cm apart.

12. Then remove the plugs of keys K1 and K2. Wait for some time and repeat steps 7 to 10.

13. Next, keep the electrodes 9 cm apart to obtain another set of observations.

To study variation of internal resistance with area of electrodes

14. Keeping all other factors constant, increase the area of electrodes in the electrolyte by
dipping them into the electrolyte at different depths for each observation.

15. Obtain three such observations by repeating steps 7 to 10.

Record your readings.

To study variation of internal resistance with concentration of electrolyte.

16. Keeping all other factors constant, decrease the concentration of electrolyte by adding
distilled water for different observations.

17. Obtain three such observations by repeating step 7 to 10.

Record your readings.

 CIRCUIT SET-UP IN LAB

 OBSERVATIONS

S.No. Ammeter Position of null Shunt Internal

Reading point Resistance Resistance
(cm) (R) (r)
With R Without
(l1) R
(l2)
1

3
Table for effect of separation between electrodes:

S.No. Separation Balancing Balancing Internal

between point point Resistance
r/d
electrodes
l1(cm l2(cm) R(Ω)
d(cm)

 RESULT AND INFERENCES

 The Electromotive Force of the cell is constant and is equal to

E = 0.98 Volt.

 The internal resistance of a cell is directly proportional to the separation between the
electrodes.
rαd
 The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the area of the electrodes
dipped in electrolyte.
r α 1/A

 The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the temperature of

electrolytes.

r α 1/T

 The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the concentration of the

electrolyte.
r α 1/ C

 INCREASE IN INTERNAL RESISTANCE:

 As a battery ages, corrosion of the metal plates can decrease their cross-section, and
therefore increase their resistance. The separators between plates are non-conductive
material that prevent electrodes from coming into electrical contact, but still need to be
porous to allow ions to flow through them. As a battery ages reaction and corrosion
products can clog the pores, thus decreasing the ion flow and increasing battery
resistance. The crystal structure and chemical composition of the electrodes themselves
can change increasing the internal resistance of the battery.

 Electrolyte resistance depends upon the number of charge carriers and the mobility of the
charge carriers through it. As the battery ages, components of the electrolyte can be
consumed in corrosion of metal components in the battery, thus reducing their
concentration and decreasing the number of charge carriers. Build-up of reaction products
can also increase the viscosity and polarize the electrolyte so that the ion mobility is
reduced.

 Loss of electrolyte is also a frequent cause of increased electrolyte resistance. This can
happen through water leak through plastic or rubber seals in old batteries, or
overcharging of the same.
 PRECAUTIONS

 The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

 The plugs should be introduced in the keys only when the observations are to be taken.

 The positive polls of the battery E and cells E1 and E2 should all be connected to the
terminal at the zero of the wires.

 The jockey key should not be rubbed along the wire. It should touch the wire gently.

 The ammeter reading should remain constant for a particular set of observation.

 If necessary, adjust the rheostat for this purpose.

 SOURCES OF ERROR

 The auxiliary battery may not be fully charged.

 The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section and material density
throughout its length.

 End resistances may not be zero.

 Flowchart CONCLUSION

Factors Affecting Internal Resistance of a Cell

Distance Area of Temperature Concentratio

between the electrodes of Electrolytes n of
electrodes Electrolyte
Inversely Inversely
Directly Proportional Proportional Inversely
Proportional Proportional
Bibliography

www.google.com

www.docfoc.com

www.wikipedia.com

www.meritnation.com

www.topperlearning.com

www.quora.com

www.academia.edu

www.ask.learncbse.in

www.bing.com