ECE -2103: Network Analysis

Chapter 2
Network Theorems

Complex circuits could be analysed using Ohm’s Law and Kirchoff’s laws directly, but the
calculations would be tedious. To handle the complexity, some theorems have been developed to
simplify the analysis.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, students will be able to:

1. Understand the theorems and explain the advantage of theorems over conventional
circuit reduction
2. Solve resistive DC network containing more than one source in order to find a current
through a branch or to find a voltage across the branch.
3. Analyze complex DC circuits using theorems for dependent and independent
sources.

1.1 Superposition Theorem

The Superposition theorem states that in any linear bilateral network containing two or more
independent sources (voltage or current sources or combination of voltage and current sources),
the resultant current/voltage in any branch is the algebraic sum of currents/voltages caused by
each independent sources acting alone, with all other independent sources being replaced
meanwhile by their respective internal resistances as shown in Fig. 2.1 (a & b).

Fig. 2.1: (a) A Linear bilateral network (b) The resultant circuit

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1.1.1 Procedure for using the superposition theorem

Step-1: Retain one source at a time in the circuit and replace all other sources with their
internal resistances. i.e., Independent voltage sources are replaced by 0 V (short circuit)
and Independent current sources are replaced by 0 A (open circuit).
Step-2: Determine the output (current or voltage) due to the single source acting alone
using the mesh or nodal analysis.
Step-3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each of the other independent sources.
Step -4: Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources.

Note: Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.

Example:
Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.2

Solution: Consider voltage source only as shown in Fig. 2.2(a) (current source 3A is discarded
by open circuit)

Fig. 2.2(a)

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Consider current source only as shown in Fig. 2.2(b) (voltage source 6V is discarded by short
circuit)

Fig. 2.2(b)

Total voltage v = v1+v2 =10V

Problems

1. Use the superposition theorem to find I in the circuit shown in Fig. 26

Fig. 26

Solution:
Consider only 12V source

Is1= = 4.2359 A

∴ Ir1= x 4.2359 = 0.3529 A

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Consider only 10V source

Is2= =3.382A

∴ Ir2= x 3.38235 = 0.14706 A

From superposition theorem, I= Ir1+Ir2 = 0.5A

2. Use the superposition theorem to find I in the circuit shown in Fig. 27

Fig. 27

Solution:

Consider only 120A source

Using the current divider rule, we get

I1=120 x 50/200= 30 A

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Consider only 40A source

I2=40 x 150/200= 30 A

Consider only 10V source

Using Ohm’s law I3 = 10/200 = 0.05 A

Using superposition theorem, Since I1 and I2 cancel out, I=I3=0.05 A

3. Find the current i using superposition theorem for the circuit shown in Fig.28

Fig. 28

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Solution:

As a first step in the analysis, we will find the current resulting from the independent voltage
source. The current source is deactivated and we have the circuit as shown in Fig. 28(a)

Applying KVL clockwise around loop shown in Fig. 3.12, we find that
5i1+3i1-24=0
i1 = 3 A

Fig. 28(a)

As a second step, we set the voltage source to zero and determine the current i2 due to the
current source as shown in Fig.28(b).

Applying KCL at node 1, we get

=
and
we get ,
On substituting for , we get
Fig. 28(b)

Thus, the total current i = i1 + i2 =

4. For the circuit shown in Fig.29, find the terminal voltage Vab using superposition
principle.

Fig.29

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Solution:

Consider 4V source

Apply KVL, we get

4- 10 x 0 - 3Vab1 - Vab1 = 0
Vab1 = 1V

Consider 2A source
Apply KVL, we get -10 x 2 + 3Vab2 + Vab2 = 0
Vab2 = 5V

According to superposition principle, Vab=Vab1+Vab2 = 6V

Self Assessment

1. Find the current flowing in the branch XY of the circuit shown in Fig.30 by superposition
theorem.

Fig.30
(Ans: 1.33 A)

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2. Apply Superposition theorem to the circuit of Fig.31 for finding the voltage drop V
across the 5Ω resistor.

Fig. 31 (Ans: 19 V)

3. Find the voltage V1 for the circuit shown in Fig. 32 using the superposition principle.

Fig. Q32 (Ans: 82.5 V)

4. Find I for the circuit shown in Fig. 33 using the superposition theorem.

1 1

Vx

2V x
2A
2V
1

2

Fig.33
(Ans: 2 A)

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Remarks: Superposition theorem is most often used when it is necessary to determine the
individual contribution of each source to a particular response.

Limitations: Superposition principle applies only to the current and voltage in a linear circuit
but it cannot be used to determine power because power is a non-linear function.

1.2 Thevenin’s theorem

In section 2.1, we saw that the analysis of a circuit may be greatly reduced by the use of
superposition principle. The main objective of Thevenin’s theorem is to reduce some portion of a
circuit to an equivalent source and a single element. This reduced equivalent circuit connected to
the remaining part of the circuit will allow us to find the desired current or voltage. Thevenin’s
theorem is based on circuit equivalence.

Fig.2.3: (a) A Linear two terminal network (b) The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

The Thevenin’s theorem may be stated as follows:

A linear two–terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage
source Vt in series with a resistor Rt, Where Vt is the open–circuit voltage at the terminals and Rt
is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off
or Rt is the ratio of open–circuit voltage to the short–circuit current at the terminal pair which is
as shown in Fig. 2.3(a & b).

2.2.1 Action plan for using Thevenin’s theorem :

1. Divide the original circuit into circuit A and circuit B

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In general, circuit B is the load which may be linear or non-linear. Circuit A is the balance of
the original network exclusive of load and must be linear. In general, circuit may contain
independent sources, dependent sources and resistors or other linear elements.

2. Separate the circuit from circuit B

3. Replace circuit A with its Thevenin’s equivalent.
4. Reconnect circuit B and determine the variable of interest (e.g. current ‘i’ or voltage ‘v’)

1.2.2 Procedure for finding Rt

Three different types of circuits may be encountered in determining the resistance, Rt

(i) If the circuit contains only independent sources and resistors, deactivate the sources and
find Rt by circuit reduction technique. Independent current sources, are deactivated by
opening them while independent voltage sources are deactivated by shorting them.

(ii) If the circuit contains resistors, dependent and independent sources, follow the
instructions described below:
(a) Determine the open circuit voltage voc with the sources activated.
(b) Find the short circuit current isc when a short circuit is applied to the terminals a-b
(c)

(iii) If the circuit contains resistors and only dependent sources, then
(a) voc = 0 (since there is no energy source)
(b) Connect 1A current source to terminals a-b and determine vab
(c)

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For all the cases discussed above, the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 2.4.

Fig. 2.4: The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Problems

1. Using the Thevenin’s theorem, find the current i through R = 2Ω for the circuit shown in
Fig. 34.

Fig. 34

Solution:

Since we are interested in the current i through R, the resistor R is identified as circuit B and
the remainder as circuit A. After removing the circuit B, circuit A is as shown in Fig.34(a).

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Fig.34(a)
Referring to Fig. 34(a)

Hence

To find Rt, we have to deactivate the independent voltage source. Accordingly, we get the
circuit in Fig.34(b).

Fig.34(b)
Thus, we get the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit which is as shown in Fig.34(c)

Fig.34(c).
Reconnecting the circuit B to the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as shown in Fig.34(c), we
get

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2. Find V0 in the circuit of Fig.35 using Thevenin’s theorem.

Fig.35
Solution:
To find Voc :
Since we are interested in the voltage across 2 kΩ resistor, it is removed from the circuit
of Fig.35 and so the circuit becomes as shown in Fig.35(a)

Fig.35(a)

By inspection,
Applying KVL to mesh 2, we get

Solving, we get
Applying KVL to the path 4 kΩ -> a-b -> 3 kΩ, we get

On solving,

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To find Rt :

Deactivating all the independent sources, we get the circuit diagram shown in
Fig.35(b)

Fig.35(b)

Hence, the Thevenin equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig.35(c).

Fig.35(c) Fig.35(d)
If we connect the 2kΩ resistor to this equivalent network, we obtain the circuit of Fig.35(d).

3. Find the Theveni’s equivalent for the circuit shown in Fig.36 with respect to terminals
a-b.

Fig.36

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Fig.36(a)
Solution:
To find = :
Applying KVL around the mesh of Fig.36(a), we get

On solving,
Since there is no current flowing in 10Ω resistor,

To find Rt :
Since both dependent and independent sources are present, Thevenin’s resistance is found
using the relation,

Fig.36(b)
Applying KVL clockwise for mesh 1 of Fig.36(b), we get

Since
Above equation becomes

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Applying KVL clockwise for mesh 2, we get

Solving the above two mesh equations, we get

Hence

Self Assessment
1. For to the circuit shown in Fig.37, find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit at the terminals
a-b.

Fig.37
(Ans: Voc = 10V, Rt = 3.33Ω)

2. For the circuit shown in Fig.38, find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit between terminals
a and b.

Fig.38 (Ans: Voc = 32V, Rt = 4Ω)

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3. For the circuit shown in Fig.39, find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit between terminals
a and b.

Fig.39 (Ans: Voc = 12V, Rt = 0.5Ω)

4. Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as seen from the terminals a-b . Refer the circuit
diagram shown in Fig.40

Fig.40
Hint: Since the circuit has no independent sources, i = 0 when the terminals a-b are open.
Therefore Voc = 0. Hence, we choose to connect a source of 1 A at the terminals a-b then, after
finding Vab, the Thevenin resistance is,
(Ans: Voc = 0 ; Rt = 3.8Ω)

1.3 Norton’s theorem

Norton’s theorem is the dual theorem of Thevenin’s theorem where the voltage source is
replaced by a current source.
Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal network shown in Fig. 2.5(a) can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source iN in parallel with resistor RN, where iN is
the short-circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off. If one does not wish to turn off the
independent sources, then RN is the ratio of open circuit voltage to short–circuit current at the
terminal pair.

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Fig.2.5: (a) A Linear two terminal network (b) The Norton’s equivalent circuit
Fig. 2.5(b) shows Norton’s equivalent circuit as seen from the terminals a-b of the original
circuit shown in Fig. (a). Since this is the dual of the Thevenin’s circuit, it is clear that R N = Rt
and . In fact, source transformation of Thevenin’s equivalent circuit leads to Norton’s
equivalent circuit.

1.3.1 Procedure for finding Norton’s equivalent circuit:

(1) If the network contains resistors and independent sources, follow the instructions below:
(a) Deactivate the sources and find RN by circuit reduction techniques.
(b) Find iN with sources activated.

(2) If the network contains resistors, independent and dependent sources, follow the steps
given below:
(a) Determine the short-circuit current iN with all sources activated.
(b) Find the open-circuit voltage voc.
(c)

(3) If the network contains only resistors and dependent sources, follow the procedure
described below:
(a) Note that iN = 0.
(b) Connect 1A current source to the terminals a-b and find vab.
(c)

Note: Also, since = and iN = isc

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Problems

1. Find the Norton equivalent for the circuit of Fig. 41

Fig. 41

Solution:

As a first step, short the terminals a-b. This results in a circuit as shown in Fig. 41(a)

Fig. 41(a)

Applying KCL at node a, we get

So

To find RN, deactivate all the independent sources, resulting in a circuit diagram as shown in
Fig. Q41(b). We find RN in the same way as Rt in the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

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Fig. 41 (b)

Thus, we obtain Norton equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. Q41(c)

Fig. 41(c)

2. Find i0 in the network of Fig.42 using Norton’s theorem.

Fig. 42

Solution:

We are interested in i0, hence the 2 kΩ resistor is removed from the circuit diagram of
Fig. Q17. The resulting circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 42(a).

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Fig. 42(a) Fig. 42(b)

To find iN or isc:

Refer Fig. 42(b). By inspection,

Applying KCL at node V2:

Substituting V1, we get

To find RN:

Deactivate all the independent sources. Refer Fig. 42(c).

Fig. 42(c)

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Hence, the Norton equivalent circuit along with 2 kΩ resistor is as shown in Fig. 42(d)

Fig. 42(d)

3. Refer the circuit shown in Fig.43. find the value of ib using Norton’s equivalent circuit.
Take R = 667 Ω.

Fig.43

Solution:
Since we want the current flowing through R, remove R from the circuit of Fig.43. The resulting
circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 43(a).

Fig.43(a)

Since ia= 0A,

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To find RN:
The procedure for finding RN is same that of Rt in the Thevenin equivalent circuit.

To find voc, make use of the circuit diagram shown in Fig.43(b). Do not deactivate any source.

Fig.43(b)

Applying KVL clockwise, we get

Therefore,

The Norton equivalent circuit along with resistor R is as shown in Fig.43(c)

Fig. 43(c)

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4. Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits in frequency domain for the network
shown in Fig.44

Fig.44

Solution:

Let us find Vt = Vab using superposition theorem.

(i) Vab due to 100 ∠0°

(i) Vab due to 100 ∠90°

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To find Zt, deactivate all the independent sources.

Hence the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig.44(a). Performing source

transformation on the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, we get the Norton’s equivalent circuit as
shown in Fig.44(b).

Fig.44(a) Fig.44(b)

Self Assessment:

1. Find V0 in the circuit of Fig.45

Fig. 45 (Ans : V0 =258mV)

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2. For the circuit shown in Fig.46, calculate the current in the 6Ω resistance using Norton’s
theorem.

Fig.46

(Ans : 0.5A from B to A)

3. Find the Norton equivalent to the left of the terminals a-b for the circuit of Fig.47

Fig.47 (Ans : isc =100mA, RN=50Ω)

1.4 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

In circuit analysis, we are sometimes interested in determining the maximum power that a circuit
can supply to the load. Consider the linear circuit A as shown in Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.6: A Linear circuit

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Circuit A is replaced by its Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as seen from a and b as shown in Fig.
2.7.

Fig. 2.7: Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is substituted for circuit A

We wish to find the value of the load RL such that the maximum power is delivered to it.

The power that is delivered to the load is given by

----------(i)

Assuming that Vt and RL are fixed for a given source, the maximum power is a function
of RL. In order to determine the value of RL that maximizes p, we differentiate p with
respect to RL and equate the derivative to zero.

-----------(ii)

which yields

To confirm that equation (ii) is a maximum, it should be shown that

Hence, maximum power is transferred to the load when RL is equal to the Thevenin’s equivalent
resistance Rt.

The maximum power transferred to the load is obtained by substituting in equation (i).
Accordingly,

The maximum power transfer theorem states that the maximum power delivered by a
source represented by its Thevenin equivalent circuit is attained when the load RL is equal
to the Thevenin’s resistance Rt.

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Problems

1. Find RL for maximum power transfer and the maximum power that can be transferred in
the network shown in Fig. 48.

Fig.48

Solution:

Disconnect the load resistor RL and deactivate all the independent sources to find Rt. The
resultant circuit is as shown in the Fig.48(a)

Fig.48(a)

For maximum power transfer,

Let us next find Voc or Vt.

Refer Fig.48(b)
By inspection,

Fig.48(b)

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Applying KVL clockwise to the loop , we get

On solving,

The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with load

resistor RL is as shown in Fig.48(c)

Fig.48(c)

2. Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer for the circuit shown in Fig.49. Hence
find Pmax.

Fig. 49

Solution:

Removing RL from the original circuit gives us the

circuit diagram shown in Fig.49(a)
Fig.49(a)

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To find Voc :
KCL at node A :

Hence,

To find Rt, refer Fig.49(b) we need to compute isc with all independent sources
activated.

KCL at node A:

Hence,

Hence, for maximum power transfer

RL =Rt = 3Ω. Fig.49(b)
The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with RL = 3Ω
inserted between the terminals a-b gives the network
shown in Fig.49(c).

Fig.49(c).

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Self Assessment

1. Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit shown in Fig.50. Also
find Pmax.

Fig.50
(Ans: Pmax = 625mW)

2. Find the value of RL in the network shown in Fig.51 that will achieve maximum
power transfer, and determine the value of the maximum power.

Fig.51
(Ans: Pmax = 81mW)

3. Refer to the circuit shown in Fig.52

(a) Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer.
(b) Find the maximum power that can be delivered to RL.

Fig.52
(Ans: RL=2.5Ω, Pmax = 2250W)
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We have earlier shown that for a resistive network, maximum power is transferred from
a source to the load, when the load resistance is set equal to the thevenin’s resistance with
thevenin’s equivalent source. Now we extend this result to the ac circuits.

Fig. 2.8: (a)Linear circuit (b) Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

In Fig. 2.8(a), the linear circuit is made up of impedances, independent and dependent
sources.This linear circuit is replaced by its thevenin’s equivalent circuit as shown in
Fig. 2.8(b).
In rectangular form, the thevenin impedance Zt and the load impedance ZL are

and

The current through the load is

The phasors I and Vt are the maximum values. The corresponding RMS values are obtained
by dividing the maximum values by . Also, the RMS value of phasor current flowing in the
load must be taken for computing the average power delivered to the load.
The average power delivered to the load is given by

Our idea is to adjust the load parameters RL and XL so that P is maximum. To do this, we
get and equal to zero.

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Setting gives (ii)

and setting gives (iii)

Combining equations (ii) and (iii), we can conclude that for maximum average power
transfer, ZL must be selected such that and . That is the maximum average
power of a circuit with an impedance Zt that is obtained when ZL is set equal to complex
conjugate of Zt .

Setting and in equation (i), we get the maximum average power as

In a situation where the load is purely real, the condition for maximum power transfer is
obtained by putting in equation (iii). That is,

Hence for maximum average power transfer to a purely resistive load, the load resistance is
equal to the magnitude of thevenin impedance.
Maximum average power can be delivered to ZL only if .
is the complex conjugate of ZL

Problems
1. Find the load impedance that transfers the maximum power to the load for the circuit
shown in Fig.53

Fig.53

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Solution:
We select, for maximum power transfer.
Hence

2. For the circuit of Fig.54, what is the value of ZL that will absorb the maximum average
power?

Fig.54

Solution:
Disconnecting ZL from the original circuit we get the circuit as shown in Fig.54(a). The first step
is to find Vt.

Fig.54(a).
The next step is to find ZL. This requires deactivating the independent voltage source of
Fig.54(b)

Fig.54(b)

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The value of ZL for maximum average power absorbed is

The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit along with ZL is as shown in Fig.54(c)

Fig.54(c)

Self Assessment
1. Find the load impedance that transfers the maximum average power to the load and
determine the maximum average power transferred to the load ZL shown in Fig.55.

Fig.55
(Ans: Pmax= 6W)

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2. Refer the circuit given in Fig.56. Find the value of R L that will absorb the maximum
average power.

Fig.56
(Ans: Pmax=39.29 W)

2.5 Reciprocity theorem

The reciprocity theorem states that in a linear bilateral single source circuit, the ratio of
excitation to response is constant when the positions of excitation and response are interchanged.

Conditions to be met for the application of reciprocity theorem:

(i) The circuit must have a single source.
(ii) Dependent sources are excluded even if they are linear.
(iii) When the positions of source and response are interchanged, their directions should be
marked same as in the original circuit.

Problems

1. In the circuit shown in Fig.57, find the current through 1.375 Ω resistor and hence verify
reciprocity theorem.

Fig.57

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Solution:

Fig.57(a)
Apply KVL to Fig.57(a)

KVL clockwise for mesh 1:

KVL clockwise for mesh 2:
KVL clockwise for mesh 3:

Using Cramer’s rule, we get

Verification using reciprocity theorem:

The circuit is redrawn by interchanging the
positions of excitation and response. The new
circuit is shown in Fig.57(b)

Fig.57(b)

KVL clockwise for mesh 1:

KVL clockwise for mesh 2:
KVL clockwise for mesh 3:

Using Cramer’s rule, we get

Since , the reciprocity theorem is verified.

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2. Find the current Ix in the j2Ω impedance and hence verify reciprocity theorem for the
circuit shown in Fig.58.

Fig.58

Solution:

With reference to the Fig.58, the current through j2Ω impedance is found using series-
parallel reduction techniques. Total impedance of the circuit is

The total current in the network is

Using the principle of current division, we find that

Verification of reciprocity theorem :

The circuit is redrawn by changing the
positions of excitation and response.
This circuit is shown in Fig.58(a)

Fig.58(a)

Total impedance of the circuit shown in Fig.58(a) is

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The total current in the network is

Using the principle of current division, we find that

It is found that Ix = Iy, thus verifying the reciprocity theorem.

Self Assessment

1. Refer the circuit shown in Fig.59. Find current through the ammeter, and hence verify
reciprocity theorem.

Fig.59 (Ans: Current through the Ammeter = 0.8 A)

2. Find current through 5 ohm resistor shown in Fig.60 and hence verify reciprocity
theorem.

Fig.60
(Ans: current through 5 ohm resistor = )

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Summary
1. The superposition principle is parti cularly useful if a circuit has two or
more sources acting at different frequencies. Superposition theorem
cannot be applied for non linear circuit ( Diodes or Transistors ).
2. With help of Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem one can find the choice of
load resistance RL that results in the maximum power transfer to the load.
On the other hand, the effort necessary to solve this problem -using node or
mesh analysis methods can be quite complex and tedious from
computational point of view.
3. Norton’s current source may be replaced by an equivalent Thevenin’s
voltage source and vice-versa.
4. The maximum power transfer theorem states that the maximum power
delivered by a source represented by its Thevenin equivalent circuit is
attained when the load RL is equal to the Thevenin resistance Rt.
5. In Reciprocity Theorem, the ratio of excitation to response is constant
when the positions of excitation and response are interchanged.

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