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The document is a collection of slides from a course on power system analysis. It covers topics related to transmission line parameters and modeling, including series impedance and shunt admittance models. Various transmission line configurations are discussed, along with per unit representation of transmission lines. Equivalent circuits are presented for short, medium and long transmission lines.

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EE6501 Dec

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DHANALAKSHMI COLLEGE

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
EE6501 - POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

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DHANALAKSHMI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

EE6501 - POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

UNIT - II

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EE6501 - Power System Analysis
Part - A Unit - III
1

Part A

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EE6501 - Power System Analysis

UNIT – IV FAULT ANALYSIS –UNBALANCED FAULT

PART – A
1. Name the faults involving ground.
The faults involving ground are:single line to ground fault ii)double line to ground faultiii)Three phase
fault

2. Define positive sequence impedance.

The negative sequence impedance of equipment is the impedance offered by the equipment to the flow of
positive sequence currents.

3. In what type of fault the +ve sequence component of current is equal in magnitude but opposite
in phase to negative sequence components of current?
Line to line fault.

4. In which fault the negative and zero sequence currents are absent?
In three phase fault the negative and zero sequence currents are absent.

5. What are the boundary condition in line-to-line fault?

Ia=0; Ia+Ic=0; Vb=Vc

6. Write down the boundary condition in double line to ground fault?

Ia=0; Vb=0; Vc=0

7. Give the boundary condition for the 3-phase fault.

Ia + Ib = Ic=0; Va=Vb=Vc=0

8. Name the fault in which positive, -ve and zero sequence component currents are equal.(May
2012)
In single line to ground fault the +ve, -ve and zero sequence component currents are equal.

9.Name the various unsymmetrical faults in a power system.

i) single line to ground fault ii) line to line fault iii) double line to ground fault iv) open conductor fault.

10.Write a short notes on Zero sequence network.

While drawing the zero sequence network of a given power system, the following points may be kept in
view.The zero sequence currents will flow only if there is a return path i.e.path from neutral to ground or
to another point in the circuit.In the case of a system with no return path for zero sequence currents, these
currents cannot exist.

11.Write a short notes on negative sequence network.

The negative sequence network can be readiley obtained from positive sequence network with the
following modifications:i)Omit the emfs of 3 – phase generators and motors in the positive sequence
network. It is because these devices have only positive sequence generated voltages.ii)Change, if
neccesary, the impedances between the generators neutral and ground pass no negative sequence current
and hence are not included in the negative seqeunce network.iii)For static devices such as transmission
lines and transformers, the negative sequence impedances have the same value as the corresponding
positive sequence impedances.

12.Write a short notes on positive sequence network.

While drawing the positive sequence network of a given power system, the following points may be
kept in view: i) Each generator in the system is represented by the generated voltage in series with
appropriate reactance and resistance. ii) Current limiting impedances between the generators neutral and
ground pass no positive sequence current and hence are not included in the positive sequence network. Iii)
All resistance and magnetizing currents for each transformer are neglected as a matter of simplicity.For
transmission lines, the shunt capacitances and resistances are generally neglected.

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13. Which is the most frequently occurring fault?

Single line to ground fault is the most frequently occurring fault

14. Define unsymmetrical fault.

The fault is called unsymmetrical fault if the fault current isnot same in all the three phases.

15. Which is the most severe fault in power system?

Three phase fault is the most severe and rarely occurring fault in the power system.

16. What is sequence network?(May 2011) (Nov 2014)

The network which is used to represent the positive, negative and zero sequence components of
unbalanced system is called as sequence network

17. What are the symmetrical components of a three phase system? (May 2011)(Nov 2012) (Nov
2014) (Nov 2015)(May 2016)
1) Positive sequence 2) negative sequence 3) Zero sequence

18. What is meant by a Fault?(May 2012)

A fault in acircuit is any failure which interferes with the normal flow of current .The faults are associated
with abnormal change in current, voltage and frequency of the power system. The faults may cause
damage to the equipment if it is allowed to persist for a long time.

19. List the various symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults in a power system.(May 2012)
Symmetricalfault:3 phase short circuit fault.
Unsymmetrical fault: i) single line to ground fault ii) line to line fault iii) double line to ground fault
iv)open conductor fault

20. Define negative sequence impedance?(May 2013)

The negative sequence impedance of an equipment is the impedance offered by the equipment to the flow
of negative sequence current.

21. What are the observations made from the analysis of various faults?(Nov 2013)
i) To check the MVA ratings of the existing circuit breakers, when new generation are added into a
system; ii) To select the rating for fuses, circuit breaker and switch gear in addition to setting up of
protective relays; iii) To determine the magnitudes of currents flowing throughout the power system at
various time intervals after a fault occurs.
22. Write the boundary conditions for single line to ground fault.(Nov 2013)
The boundary conditions are Va = 0; Ib=Ic=0
23.What are the features of zero sequence current?(May 2014)
As zero sequence currents in three phases are equal and of same phase, three systems operate like single
phase as regards zero sequence currents.Zero sequence currents flow only if return path is available
through which circuit is completed.
24.Write the symmetrical component current of phase ‘a’ in terms of 3ϕ currents.( May
2016).
25. State the reason why, the negative sequence impedance of a transmission line is taken as equal
to positive sequence impedance of the line. (May 2015).
A transmission line is a passive and bilateral device. By passive, we mean there are no voltage or current
sources present in the equivalent model of a transmission line. Bilateral means the line behaves the same
way regardless of the direction of the current. Note that although a single transmission line is bilateral.
Because of a transmission line’s passive and bilateral properties, the phase sequence of the applied
voltage makes no difference, as a-b-c (positive-sequence) voltages produce the same voltage drops as a-c-
b (negative-sequence) voltages. This means that the positive- and negative-sequence impedances of a
transmission line are identical, provided that the line is transposed. Transposition means physically
exchanging the position of each phase conductor along the length of the line such that conductor #1
occupies: position #1 for 1/3 of the line length, position #2 for 1/3 of the line length, and position #3 for
1/3 of the line length. Conductors #2 and #3 are rotated similarly.
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PART - B

1. A 50Hz, 13.2 KV, 15MVA alternator has X1 = X2 = 20% and X0 = 8% and the neutral is
grounded through a reactor of 0.5 ohm. Determine the initial symmetrical rms current in the
ground reactor when a double line to ground fault occurs at the generator terminals at a time
when the generator voltage was 12 kV.
Solution:
Base MVA=15MVA,Base KV=13.2KV

Ea(p.u)=0.909p.u

Z1=j0.2 p.u,Z2=j0.2p.u,Zg0=j0.08p.u

Xn=0.5Ω,Xn(p.u)=j0.043 p.u

Z0=Zg0+3Zn=j0.08+3xj0.043=j0.21p.u

Ia1= -j3p.u Ia2=j1.545p.u

Ia0=j1.47p.u Ib=-3.938+j2.197

Ic=3.938+j2.197 In=Ib+Ic=4.394∟90o

In=4.394 X base current

Base current=656 A
There fore In=2882.46A

2. A 3-phase, 10 MVA, 11KV, generator with solidity earthed neutral point supplies a feeder. The
relevant impedances of the generator and feeder in ohm are as below:
Generator Feeder
(a) +ve sequence j1.2 j1.0
(b )-ve sequence j0.8 j1.0
(c) zero sequence j0.4 j3.0
If the line to line fault occurs at the far end of the feeder, calculate the fault current.
Solution:
Ea=6350V

The total impedances are

Z1=j2.2Ω

Z2=j1.8Ω

Z3=j3.4Ω

For line to ground fault,

I1=I2=I0=-j858.10A

Fault Current,Ia=3I0=-j2574.32A.

The line-to-neutral Voltage of a-Phase Va=4319.6V

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3. A salient pole generator is rated 20 MVA, 13.8 kV and has X1=0.25p.u X2=0.35p.u and
X0=0.1p.u. The neutral of the generator is solidly grounded. Compute fault current in the
generator and line to line to ground fault at its terminals. Neglect initial load on the generator.
The reactance of a generator are X’’=X2=0.15p.u and X0=0.05p.u. The generator ratings are 10
MVA, 6KV. The generator is star connected with neutral point grounded through a reactor of
0.5ohm reactance. Compute fault current in amps when a single line to ground fault occurs at
the generator terminals.

Solution:

Ia1= -j1.667p.u

Ia2= -Ia1= j1.667p.u

Ia0=0 Ia=Ia0+Ia1+Ia2=0

Ib= -2.866 p.u

Ic= -Ib= 2.866 p.u

Base Current =837 A

Therefore
Ia=0

Ib= 2416∟180o

Ic= 2416∟0o

Line to ground voltages are

Va=1.166
Vb=-0.5983p.u

Line to line voltages are

Vab=1.749∟0op.u
Vbc=0p.u
Vca=1.749∟180op.u

4. A11 kV, 30MVA alternator has Z1=Z2=-j0.2 pu and Z0=-j0.05 pu. A line to ground fault occurs
on the generator terminals. Determine the fault current and line to line voltages during faulted
conditions. Assume that the generator neutral is solidly grounded and the generator is operating
at no load and at the rated voltage during the occurrence of the fault. (May 2012)

Solution:
Base MVA=30MVA,Base Voltage=11KV
Base Current=1574.6A
Zf=0
Ia1= Ia2= Ia0=-j2.222pu
Fault Current=3Ia1=-j6.666p.u=10496.3∟-900A
Line to line voltages are

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Vab=5.6∟79.1oKV
Vbc=11∟270oKV
Vca=5.6∟100.9oKV
Actual value of line current=7873∟90oA

5. A single line diagram of a power network is shown in the figure. (May 2013)

The system data is given in the tables below:

Element Positive sequence Negative sequence Zero sequence
reactance reactance reactance
Generator G 0.1 0.12 0.05
Motor M1 0.05 0.06 0.025
Motor M2 0.05 0.06 0.025
Transformer 0.07 0.07 0.07
Tr1
Transformer 0.08 0.08 0.08
Tr2
Line 0.10 0.10 0.10
Generator grounding reactance is 0.5 pu. Draw sequence networks and calculate the fault for a
line to line fault on phase b and c at point P. Assume 1.0 pu pre fault voltage throughout.

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6. A 25 MVA , 13.2 KV alternator with solidly grounded neutral has a sub transient reactance of
0.25 p.u. The negative and zero sequence reactance are 0.35 and 0.01 p.u. respectively. If a
double line-to-ground fault occurs at the terminals of the alternator, determine the fault
current and line to line voltage at the fault. (May 2014)

Solution:
Base MVA=25MVA,Base KV=13.2KV
Ea(p.u)=0.909p.u
Z1=j0.25 p.u,Z2=j0.35p.u,Zg0=j0.1p.u
Xn=0.1p.u,
Ia1= -j2.29p.u
Ia2=j1.225p.u
Ia0=j1.072p.u
Ib=-3.04+j1.6045
Ic=3.04+j1.6045
In=Ib+Ic=j3.208 p.u
In=4209A

7. Obtain the expression for fault current for a line to line fault taken place through an impedance
Zb in a power system.(Nov 2013)(May 2014)

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8. A 30 MVA, 11Kv, 3ϕ synchronous generator has a direct sub transient reactance of 0.25 pu.
The negative and zero sequence reactance are 0.35 and 0.1pu respectively. The neutral of the
generator is solidly grounded. Determine the sub transient current in the generator and the line
to line voltages for sub transient conditions when a single line to ground fault occurs at the
generator terminals with the generator operating unloaded at rated voltages. (Nov 2015)

Solution:
Z1 = j0.25 p.u Z2 = j0.35 p.u Z0 = j0.1 p.u Prefault voltage V0=1∟00
Symmetrical components of Fault Current Ia1 = I a2 = Ia0 = -j1.4286 p.u
1
Fault Current in p.u = 3 Ia = -j4.2857 p.u
Base Current = 1574.59 Amp
Subtransient Current or Phase Currrent:
Ia= -j4.2858 x 1574.59 =-j6748.37 Amp Ib=0 Ic=0
Symmetrical Component of Bus Voltages for Phase a:
Va1 = -0.1429 p.u
Va2 = 0.6429 p.u
Va0 = -0.5 p.u
Subtransient phase voltages:
Va =0

Vb = -0.2144 – j0.9898
Vc = -0.2144 + j0.9898
Line to Line Volage :
Vab=0.2144 +j0.9898p.u
Vbc = -j1.9796p.u
Vac = -0.2144 –j 0.9898 p.u

9. Derive the expression to calculate the fault current for single-line-to-ground fault.

Let a 1LG fault has occurred at node k of a network. The faulted segment is then as shown in Fig. 8.2 where it
is assumed that phase-a has touched the ground through an impedance Zf. Since the system is unloaded before the
occurrence of the fault we have

I fb  I fc  0 (8.1)

Fig. 8.2 Representation of 1LG fault.

Also the phase-a voltage at the fault point is given by

Vka  Z f I fa (8.2)

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From (8.1) we can write

1 1 1   I fa 
1
I fa 012  1 a a 2   0  (8.3)
3
1 a 2 a   0 

Solving (8.3) we get

I fa
I fa 0  I fa1  I fa 2  (8.4)
3
This implies that the three sequence currents are in series for the 1LG fault. Let us denote the zero, positive and
negative sequence Thevenin impedance at the faulted point as Zkk0, Zkk1 and Zkk2 respectively. Also since the Thevenin
voltage at the faulted phase is Vf we get three sequence circuits that are similar to the ones shown in Fig. 7.7. We can
then write

Vka 0   Z kk 0 I fa 0
Vka1  V f  Z kk 1I fa1 (8.5)
Vka 2   Z kk 2 I fa 2

Then from (8.4) and (8.5) we can write

Vka  Vka 0  Vka1  Vka 2

 V f  Z kk 0  Z kk1  Z kk 2 I fa 0
(8.6)

Again since

Vka  Z f I fa  Z f I fa 0  I fa1  I fa 2   3Z f I fa 0

we get from (8.6)

Vf
I fa 0  (8.7)
Z kk 0  Z kk1  Z kk 2  3Z f

The Thevenin equivalent of the sequence network is shown in Fig. 8.3.

Fig. 8.3 Thevenin equivalent of a 1LG fault.

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10. A three-phase Y-connected synchronous generator is running unloaded with rated voltage when a 1LG fault
occurs at its terminals. The generator is rated 20 kV, 220 MVA, with subsynchronous reactance of 0.2 per unit.
Assume that the subtransient mutual reactance between the windings is 0.025 per unit. The neutral of the
generator is grounded through a 0.05 per unit reactance. The equivalent circuit of the generator is shown in Fig.
8.4. We have to find out the negative and zero sequence reactances.

Fig. 8.4 Unloaded generator of Example 8.1.

Since the generator is unloaded the internal emfs are

Ean  1.0 Ebn  1.0  120 Ecn  1.0120

Since no current flows in phases b and c, once the fault occurs, we have from Fig. 8.4

1
I fa    j 4.0
j 0.2  0.05

Then we also have

Vn   X n I fa  0.2

From Fig. 8.4 and (7.34) we get

Va  0
Vb  Ebn  Vn  j 0.025I fa  0.6  j 0.866  1.0536  124.72
Vc  Ecn  Vn  j 0.025I fa  0.6  j 0.866  1.0536124.72

Therefore

 0   0.4
Va 012  C 1.0536  124.72   0.7 

 1.0536124.72    0.3

From (7.38) we can write Z1 = j(Ls + Ms) = j0.225. Then from Fig. 7.7 we have

Ean  Va1 1  0.7

I fa1     j1.3333
Z1 j 0.225

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Also note from (8.4) that

I fa 0  I fa1  I fa 2

Therefore from Fig. 7.7 we get

 3Z n  j 0.3  0.15  j 0.15

Va 0
Zg0  
Ia0
V
Z 2   a 2  j 0.225
Ia2

Comparing the above two values with (7.37) and (7.39) we find that Z0 indeed is equal to j(Ls  2Ms) and Z2 is equal
to j(Ls + Ms). Note that we can also calculate the fault current from (8.7) as

1
I fa 0    j1.3333
j 0.225  0.225  0.15  3  0.05


11. Derive the expression to calculate the fault current for line-to-line fault.

The faulted segment for an L-L fault is shown in Fig. 8.5 where it is assumed that the fault has occurred at
node k of the network. In this the phases b and c got shorted through the impedance Zf. Since the system is unloaded
before the occurrence of the fault we have

I fa  0 (8.8)

Fig. 8.5 Representation of L-L fault.

Also since phases b and c are shorted we have

I fb   I fc (8.9)

Therefore from (8.8) and (8.9) we have

 0   0 
  1
  
I fa 012  C  I fb    a  a 2 I fb  (8.10)
 I fb 
 
3 2
 
 a  a I fb 
 
We can then summarize from (8.10)

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I fa 0  0
(8.11)
I fa1   I fa 2

Therefore no zero sequence current is injected into the network at bus k and hence the zero sequence remains a dead
network for an L-L fault. The positive and negative sequence currents are negative of each other.

Now from Fig. 8.5 we get the following expression for the voltage at the faulted point

Vkb  Vkc  Z f I fb (8.12)

Again

Vkb  Vkc  Vkb 0  Vkb1  Vkb 2  Vkc 0  Vkc1  Vkc 2

 Vkb1  Vkc1   Vkb 2  Vkc 2 
   
 a 2  a Vka1  a  a 2 Vka 2
(8.13)

 a 2
 a V  V 
ka1 ka 2
Moreover since Ifa0 = Ifb0 = 0 and Ifa1 =  Ifb2, we can write

 
I fb  I fb1  I fb 2  a 2 I fa1  aI fb 2  a 2  a I fa1 (8.14)

Therefore combining (8.12)-(8.14) we get

Vka1  Vka 2  Z f I fa1 (8.15)

Equations (8.12) and (8.15) indicate that the positive and negative sequence networks are in parallel. The sequence
network is then as shown in Fig. 8.6. From this network we get

Vf
I fa1   I fa 2  (8.16)
Z kk1  Z kk 2  Z f

Fig. 8.6 Thevenin equivalent of an LL fault.

12. Let us consider the same generator as given in Example 8.1. Assume that the generator is unloaded when a
bolted (Zf = 0) short circuit occurs between phases b and c. Then we get from (8.9) Ifb =  Ifc. Also since the
generator is unloaded, we have Ifa = 0. Therefore from (7.34) we get

Van  Ean  1.0

Vbn  Ebn  j 0.225I fb  1  120  j 0.225I fb
Vcn  Ecn  j 0.225I fc  1120  j 0.225I fb

Also since Vbn = Vcn, we can combine the above two equations to get

1  120  1120
I fb   I fc   3.849
j 0.45

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Then

 0   0 
I fa 012  C  3.849   j 2.2222
  
 3.849   j 2.2222 

We can also obtain the above equation from (8.16) as

1
I fa1   I fa 2    j 2.2222
j 0.225  j 0.225

Also since the neutral current In is zero, we can write Va = 1.0 and

Vb  Vc  Vbn  0.5

Hence the sequence components of the line voltages are

 1.0   0 
Va 012  C  0.5  0.5
 0.5 0.5

Also note that

Va1  1.0  j 0.225I fa1  0.5

Va 2   j 0.225I fa 2  0.5

which are the same as obtained before.



13. Derive the expression to calculate the fault current for double-line-to-ground fault.

The faulted segment for a 2LG fault is shown in Fig. 8.7 where it is assumed that the fault has occurred at
node k of the network. In this the phases b and c got shorted through the impedance Zf to the ground. Since the system
is unloaded before the occurrence of the fault we have the same condition as (8.8) for the phase-a current. Therefore

1
I fa 0 
3
I fa  I fb  I fc   I fb  I fc 
1
3 (8.17)
 3I fa 0  I fb  I fc

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Fig. 8.7 Representation of 2LG fault.

Also the voltages of phases b and c are given by

Vkb  Vkc  Z f Ib  I c   3Z f I fa 0 (8.18)

Therefore

Vka   Vka  2Vkb 

  1

Vka 012  C Vkb   Vka  a  a 2 Vkb   (8.19)
Vkb 
3

Vka  a  a 2 Vkb  
We thus get the following two equations from (8.19)

Vka1  Vka 2 (8.20)

3Vka 0  Vka  2Vkb  Vka 0  Vka1  Vka 2  2Vkb (8.21)

Substituting (8.18) and (8.20) in (8.21) and rearranging we get

Vka1  Vka 2  Vka 0  3Z f I fa 0 (8.22)

Also since Ifa = 0 we have

I fa 0  I fa1  I fa 2  0 (8.23)

The Thevenin equivalent circuit for 2LG fault is shown in Fig. 8.8. From this figure we get

Vf Vf
I fa1  
Z kk1  Z kk 2 Z kk 0  3Z f  Z kk 2 Z kk 0  3Z f 
l (8.24)

Z kk1 
Z kk 2  Z kk 0  3Z f

The zero and negative sequence currents can be obtained using the current divider principle as

 Z kk 2 
I fa 0   I fa1   (8.25)
 Z  Z  3Z 
 kk 2 kk 0 f 
 Z kk 0  3Z f 
I fa 2   I fa1   (8.26)
 Z  Z  3Z 
 kk 2 kk 0 f 

Fig. 8.8 Thevenin equivalent of a 2LG fault.

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14. Let us consider the same generator as given in Examples 8.1 and 8.2. Let us assume that the generator is
operating without any load when a bolted 2LG fault occurs in phases b and c. The equivalent circuit for this
fault is shown in Fig. 8.9. From this figure we can write

Ebn  Vn  1  120  Vn  j 0.2I fb  j 0.025I fc

Ecn  Vn  1120  Vn  j 0.2I fc  j 0.025I fb
Vn   j 0.05I fb  I fc 

Fig. 8.9 Equivalent circuit of the generator in Fig. 8.4 for a 2LG fault in phases b and c.

Combining the above three equations we can write the following vector-matrix form

 0.25 0.025  I fb  1  120

j     
0.025 0.25   I fc   1120 

Solving the above equation we get

I b  3.849  j1.8182
I c  3.849  j1.8182

Hence

 0   j1.2121 
i fa 012  C  3.849  j1.8182   j 2.8283

 3.849  j1.8182  j1.6162 

We can also obtain the above values using (8.24)-(8.26). Note from Example 8.1 that

Z1  Z 2  j 0.225, Z0  j 0.15  3  0.05  j 0.3 and Z f  0

Then

1.0
I fa1    j 2.8283
 j 0.225  j 0.3 
j 0.225   
 j 0.525 
j 0.3
I fa 2   I fa1  j1.6162
j 0.525

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j 0.225
I fa 0   I fa1  j1.2121
j 0.525

Now the sequence components of the voltages are

Va1  1.0  j 0.225  I fa1  0.3636

Va 2   j 0.225  I fa 2  0.3636
Va 0   j 0.3  I fa 0  0.3636

Also note from Fig. 8.9 that

Va  Ean  Vn  j 0.0225I fb  I fc   1.0909

and Vb = Vc = 0. Therefore

1.0909 0.3636
Va 012  C  0   0.3636
 0  0.3636

which are the same as obtained before.



15. Consider the network shown in Fig. 8.10. The system parameters are given below:

Generator G: 50 MVA, 20 kV, X = X1 = X2 = 20%, X0 = 7.5%

Motor M: 40 MVA, 20 kV, X = X1 = X2 = 20%, X0 = 10%, Xn = 5%
Transformer T1: 50 MVA, 20 kV/110 kVY, X = 10%
Transformer T2: 50 MVA, 20 kV/110 kVY, X = 10%
Transmission line: X1 = X2 = 24.2 , X0 = 60.5 

We shall find the fault current for when a (a) 1LG, (b) LL and (c) 2LG fault occurs at bus-2.

Fig. 8.10 Radial power system of Example 8.4.

Let us choose a base in the circuit of the generator. Then the per unit impedances of the generator are:

X G1  X G 2  0.2, X G 0  0.075

The per unit impedances of the two transformers are

X T 1  X T 2  0.1

The MVA base of the motor is 40, while the base MVA of the total circuit is 50. Therefore the per unit impedances of
the motor are

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50 50 50
X M 1  X M 2  0.2   0.25, X M 0  0.1   0.125, X n  0.05   0.0625
40 40 40
For the transmission line

1102
Zbase   242 
50
Therefore

24.2 60.5
X L1  X L 2   0.1, X L0   0.25
242 242
Let us neglect the phase shift associated with the Y/ transformers. Then the positive, negative and zero sequence
networks are as shown in Figs. 8.11-8.13.

Fig. 8.11 Positive sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10.

Fig. 8.12 Negative sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10.

Fig. 8.13 Zero sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10.

From Figs. 8.11 and 8.12 we get the following Ybus matrix for both positive and negative sequences

 15 10 0 0
 10  20 10 0 
Ybus1  Ybus2  j 
 0 10  20 10
 
 0 0 10 14

Inverting the above matrix we get the following Zbus matrix

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0.1467 0.1200 0.0933 0.0667

0.1200 0.1800 0.1400 0.1000
Z bus1  Z bus2  j
0.0933 0.1400 0.1867 0.1333
 
0.0667 0.1000 0.1333 0.1667

Again from Fig. 8.13 we get the following Ybus matrix for the zero sequence

 13.3333 0 0 0 
 0  14 4 0 
Ybus0  j 
 0 4  14 0 
 
 0 0 0  3.2

Inverting the above matrix we get

0.075 0 0 0 
 0 0.0778 0.0222 0 
Z bus0  j 
 0 0.0222 0.0778 0 
 
 0 0 0 0.3125

Hence for a fault in bus-2, we have the following Thevenin impedances

Z1  Z 2  j 0.18, Z0  j 0.0778

Alternatively we find from Figs. 8.11 and 8.12 that

Z1  Z 2  j 0.3 j 0.45  j 0.18

Z0  j 0.1 j 0.35  j 0.0778

(a) Single-Line-to-Ground Fault: Let a bolted 1LG fault occurs at bus-2 when the system is unloaded with
bus voltages being 1.0 per unit. Then from (8.7) we get

1
I fa 0  I fa1  I fa 2    j 2.2841 per unit
j 2  0.18  0.0778

Also from (8.4) we get

I fa  3I fa 0   j 6.8524 per unit

Also Ifb = Ifc = 0. From (8.5) we get the sequence components of the voltages as

V2 a 0   j 0.0778I fa 0  0.1777
V2 a1  1  j 0.18I fa1  0.5889
V2 a 2   j 0.18I fa 2  0.4111

Therefore the voltages at the faulted bus are

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Va  V2 a 0   0 
V   C 1 V   0.9061  107.11
 b  2 a1   
Vc  V2 a 2   0.9061107.11 

(b) Line-to-Line Fault: For a bolted LL fault, we can write from (8.16)

1
I fa1   I fa 2    j 2.7778 per unit
j 2  0.18

Then the fault currents are

 I fa   0   0 
  1    
 I fb   C  I fa1    4.8113
 I fc   I fa 2   4.8113 
   
Finally the sequence components of bus-2 voltages are

V2 a 0  0
V2 a1  1  j 0.18I fa1  0.5
V2 a 2   j 0.18I fa 2  0.5

Hence faulted bus voltages are

Va  V2 a 0   1.0 

V   C 1 V    0.5
 b  2 a1   
Vc  V2 a 2   0.5

(c)Double-Line-to-Ground Fault: Let us assumes that a bolted 2LG fault occurs at bus-2. Then

Zeq  j 0.18 j 0.0778  j 0.0543

Hence from (8.24) we get the positive sequence current as

1
I fa1    j 4.2676 per unit
j 0.18  Z eq

The zero and negative sequence currents are then computed from (8.25) and (8.26) as

j 0.18
I fa 0   I fa1  j 2.9797 per unit
j 0.18  0.0778
j 0.0778
I fa 2   I fa1  j1.2879 per unit
j 0.18  0.0778

Therefore the fault currents flowing in the line are

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 I fa   I fa 0   0 
  1    
 I fb   C  I fa1   6.657137.11
 I fc   I fa 2   6.65742.89 
   
Furthermore the sequence components of bus-2 voltages are

V2 a 0   j 0.0778I fa 0  0.2318
V2 a1  1  j 0.18I fa1  0.2318
V2 a 2   j 0.18I fa 2  0.2318

Therefore voltages at the faulted bus are

Va  V2 a 0  0.6954

V   C 1 V    0 
 b  2 a1   
Vc  V2 a 2   0 


16. Let us now assume that a 2LG fault has occurred in bus-4 instead of the one in bus-2.

Therefore

X1  X 2  j 0.1667, X 0  j 0.3125

Also we have

Zeq  j 0.1667 j 0.3125  j 0.1087

Hence

1
I fa1    j3.631 per unit
j 0.1667  Z eq
Also

j 0.1667
I fa 0   I fa1  j1.2631 per unit
j 0.1667  0.3125
j 0.3125
I fa 2   I fa1  j 2.3678 per unit
j 0.1667  0.3125

Therefore the fault currents flowing in the line are

 I fa   I fa 0   0 
  1    
 I fb   C  I fa1   5.5298159.96
 I fc   I fa 2   5.529820.04 
   
We shall now compute the currents contributed by the generator and the motor to the fault. Let us denoted the
current flowing to the fault from the generator side by Ig, while that flowing from the motor by Im. Then from Fig. 8.11
using the current divider principle, the positive sequence currents contributed by the two buses are

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j 0.25
I ga1  I fa1    j1.2103 per unit
j 0.75
j 0.5
I ma1  I fa1    j 2.4206 per unit
j 0.75

Similarly from Fig. 8.12, the negative sequence currents are given as

j 0.25
I ga2  I fa 2   j 0.7893 per unit
j 0.75
j 0.5
I ma 2  I fa 2   j1.5786 per unit
j 0.75

Finally notice from Fig. 8.13 that the zero sequence current flowing from the generator to the fault is 0. Then
we have

I ga0  0
I ma 0  j1.2631 per unit

Therefore the fault currents flowing from the generator side are

 I ga   I ga0   0.4210  90 

  1    
 I gb   C  I ga1   1.7445173.07
 I gc   I ga2   1.74456.93 
   
and those flowing from the motor are

 I ma   I ma 0   0.421090 
 I   C 1  I   3.8512154.07
 mb   ma1   
 I mc   I ma 2   3.851225.93 

It can be easily verified that adding Ig and Im we get If given above.



In the above two examples we have neglected the phase shifts of the Y/ transformers. However according to
the American standard, the positive sequence components of the high tension side lead those of the low tension side by
30, while the negative sequence behavior is reverse of the positive sequence behavior. Usually the high tension side of
a Y/ transformer is Y-connected. Therefore as we have seen in Fig. 7.16, the positive sequence component of Y side
leads the positive sequence component of the  side by 30 while the negative sequence component of Y side lags that
of the  side by 30. We shall now use this principle to compute the fault current for an unsymmetrical fault.

16. Let us consider the same system as given in Example 8.5. Since the phase shift does not alter the zero
sequence, the circuit of Fig. 8.13 remains unchanged. The positive and the negative sequence circuits must
however include the respective phase shifts. These circuits are redrawn as shown in Figs. 8.14 and 8.15.

Note from Figs. 8.14 and 8.15 that we have dropped the 3 vis-à-vis that of Fig. 7.16. This is because the per
unit impedances remain unchanged when referred to the either high tension or low tension side of an ideal transformer.
Therefore the per unit impedances will also not be altered.

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Fig. 8.14 Positive sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10 including transformer phase shift.

Fig. 8.15 Negative sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10 including transformer phase shift.

Since the zero sequence remains unaltered, these currents will not change from those computed in Example
8.6. Thus

I ga0  0 and I ma 0  j1.2631 per unit

Now the positive sequence fault current from the generator Iga1, being on the Y-side of the Y/ transformer will lead
Ima1 by 30. Therefore

I ga1   j1.2103  130  1.2103  60 per unit

I ma1   j 2.4206 per unit

Finally the negative sequence current Iga2 will lag Ima2 by 30. Hence we have

I ga2  j 0.7893  1  30  j 0.789360 per unit

I ma 2  j1.5786 per unit

Therefore

 I ga   I ga0  1.0642  20.04

  1    
 I gb   C  I ga1    1.9996  180 
 I gc   I ga2   1.064220.04 
   
Also the fault currents flowing from the motor remain unaltered. Also note that the currents flowing into the fault
remain unchanged. This implies that the phase shift of the Y/ transformers does not affect the fault currents.


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17. Let us consider the same power system as given in Example 1.2, the sequence diagrams of which are given in
Figs. 7.18 to 7.20. With respect to Fig. 7.17, let us define the system parameters as:

Generator G1: 200 MVA, 20 kV, X = 20%, X0 = 10%

Generator G2: 300 MVA, 18 kV, X = 20%, X0 = 10%
Generator G3: 300 MVA, 20 kV, X = 25%, X0 = 15%
Transformer T1: 300 MVA, 220Y/22 kV, X = 10%
Transformer T2: Three single-phase units each rated 100 MVA, 130Y/25 kV, X = 10%
Transformer T3: 300 MVA, 220/22 kV, X = 10%
Line B-C: X1 = X2 = 75 , X0 = 100 
Line C-D: X1 = X2 = 75 , X0 = 100 
Line C-F: X1 = X2 = 50 , X0 = 75 

Let us choose the circuit of Generator 3 as the base, the base MVA for the circuit is 300. The base voltages are
then same as those shown in Fig. 1.23. Per unit reactances are then computed as shown below.

300
Generator G1: X   0.2   0.3 , X0 = 0.15
200
2
 18 
Generator G2: X   0.2     0.1312 , X0 = 0.0656
 22.22 

Generator G3: X   0.2 , X0 = 0.15

2
 220 
Transformer T1: X  0.1     0.121
 200 

2
 25 
Transformer T2: X  0.1     0.1266
 22.22 

2
 22 
Transformer T3: X  0.1     0.121
 20 

75 100
Line B-C: X1  X 2   0.5625 , X 0   0.75
133.33 133.33

75 100
Line C-D: X1  X 2   0.5625 , X 0   0.75
133.33 133.33
50 75
Line C-F: X1  X 2   0.375 , X 0   0.5625
133.33 133.33

Neglecting the phase shifts of Y/ connected transformers and assuming that the system is unloaded, we shall find the
fault current for a 1LG fault at bus-1 (point C of Fig. 7.17).

From Figs. 7.18 and 7.19, we can obtain the positive and negative sequence Thevenin impedance at point C as
(verify)

X1 = X2 = j0.2723 per unit

Similarly from Fig. 7.20, the Thevenin equivalent of the zero sequence impedance is

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X0 = j0.4369 per unit

Therefore from (8.7) we get

1
I fa 0    j1.0188 per unit
j 2  0.2723  0.4369

Then the fault current is Ifa = 3Ifa0 = 3.0565 per unit.

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EE6501 - Power System Analysis

UNIT–V STABILITYANALYSIS

PART – A
1. Define Dynamic stability of a power system.
Dynamic stability is the stability given to an inherently unstable system by automatic control devices and
this dynamic stability is concerned with small disturbances lasting for times of the order of 10 to 30
seconds.

2. Define the inertia constants M & H.

Angular momentum (M) about a fixed axis is defined as the product of moment of inertia about that axis
and the associated angular velocity. M = I.  watt/rad/Sec2.Inertia constant (H) is the K.E in Mega joules
to the three phase MVA rating of the machine.

3. Define load angle of a generator.

Load angle:- This is the angle between the generated e.m.f or the supply voltage (E ) and the terminal
voltage. This angle is also called as torque or power angle of the machine.

4. State equal area criterion of stability.

The system is stable if the area under accelerating power (Pa) -  curve reduces to zero at some value of.
In other words positive area under Pa - curve must be equal to the negative area and hence the name
equal area criterion of stability.

5. What are limitations of equal area criterion?

The limitations of equal area criterion are: i) one drawback of equal area criterion approach is that critical
clearing time cannot be calculated even though the critical clearing angle is known. Hence numerical
methods such as Runge-kutta method, point by point or Euler‟s method are employed.
ii) It‟s a more simplified approach.

6. If two machines with inertia’s H1, H2 are swinging together, what will be the inertia of the
equivalent machine?
H1 and H2 is the Inertia constant of M1 and M2; G1 and G2 is the capacity of M1 and M2.
Hs is the equivalent inertia of M1 and M2 ; Gs is the equivalent capacity of M1 and M2.

7. On what basis do you conclude that the given synchronous machine has lost stability?
Following a sudden disturbance on a power system rotor speeds, rotor angular differences and power
transfer undergo fast changes whose magnitude is dependent on the severity of the disturbance. If these
disturbances leads to growing oscillations in the power system even after some period of time say more
than 30 seconds then system said are in asynchronous state and it has lost synchronism.

8. On what a factor does the critical clearing angle depends.

The critical clearing angle depends upon the clearing time, which depends upon auto closing/reclosing
and opening of circuit breakers.

9. Define steady state stability limit.(Nov 2014)

It is the maximum power that can be transferred without the system becoming unstable when the system
is subjected to small disturbances.

10. Mention methods of improving stability limit. (Nov 2016)

Pmax= ( E.V / X ). The steady state stability limit can be increased by i) Reducing the X, in case of
transmission lines by using double circuit lines. ii) Use of series capacitors to get better voltage. iii)
Higher excitation systems and quick excitation system are employed.
The following methods are employed to increase the transient stability limit of the power system-

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(i)Increase of system voltages,(ii) use of AVR.(iii)Use of High speed excitation systems.(iv)Reduction in

transfer reactance.(v)Useof high speed reclosing breakers.

11. A 50Hz, 4 pole turbo alternator rated at 20 MVA, 13.2 KV has as inertia constant H = 4 KW –
sec/ KVA. Find the K.E stored in the rotor at synchronous speed.
F = 50Hz. P = 4, G = 20 MVA, H = 4 KW – Sec/ KVA. Stored K.E = 4 x 20 = 80MJ.

12. Mention the methods used for the solution of swing equation.
Methods used for solution of swing equation are: Point by point method, Modified Euler‟s method
andRunge-kutta method.

13. How is the power system stability classified? (May 2015)

14. Define the term synchronizing power coefficient of a synchronous machine?

The rate(dp/d), ie, the differential power increase obtained per differential load angle increase is called
the synchronizing power coefficient or electrical stiffness of a synchronous machine.

15. What are the applications of equal area criterion?

(i)Switching operation. (ii)Fault and subsequent circuit isolation. (iii) Fault, circuit isolation and reclosing

16. What are the classifications of angle stability?

Small signal stability (steady state) and transient stability (large signal).Small signal is further classified
as Oscillatory and Non oscillatory stability.Oscillatory includes Inter area mode, control mode and
Torsional mode

17. Define critical clearing angle and time? (May 2011)(May 2012)(Nov 2012) (Nov 2014) (May15)
Critical clearing angle „c ‟corresponds to critical clearing timetc,in which the fault in the line is cleared
by the circuit breaker above which the system goes out of synchronism.

18. Write swing equation(May 2011)

Pm-Pe= Md2 /dt2. Pm- Input Mechanical power: Pe– outputelectricalpower;M- Angular momentum

19. Define transient stability and stability limit.(May 2012)

The maximum power that can be transferred through the system during a very large disturbance without
loss of synchronism is called transient stability limit.

20. Distinguish between steady state and transient state stability.(Nov 2012)
Steady state stability is basically concerned with the ability of the system to restore back to its stable state
upon a small disturbance whereas the transient stability is concerned with large disturbances.

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21. What is meant by power angle curve?(May 2013) (Nov 2015)

The graphical plot of real power versus power/torque angle is called as power angle curve.
Pe = Pm sin . Pm = E1E2 / X.

22. Define Infinite bus in power system. (Nov 2012)(May 2013)

The capacity of a system comprising of many machines is so large, that its voltage & frequency may
be taken as constant. The connection or disconnection of a single machine does not change the |V| and
frequency. Such a constant voltage and frequency system is called as Infinite bus.

23. Differentiate between voltage stability and rotor angle stability.(Nov 2013, Nov 2016)
Voltage stability is the ability of a power system to maintain steady acceptable voltage at all buses in the
system under normal operating conditions and after being subjected to a disturbance.
Rotor angle stability is the ability of interconnected synchronous machines of a power system to remain in
synchronism.

PART – B
1. Explain the equal area criterion for the stability studies in the power system.
Equal Area Criterion
1.0 Development of equal area criterion
As in previous notes, all powers are in per-unit.
I want to show you the equal area criterion a little differently than the book does it.
Let‟s start from Eq. (2.43) in the book.

2 H d 2
 Pm  Pe  Pa
Re dt 2 (1)

Note in (1) that the book calls ωRe as ωR; however, we need to use 377 (for a 60 Hz system).
We can also write (1) as

2 H d
 Pm  Pe  Pa
Re dt (2)

Now multiply the left-hand-side by ω and the right-hand side by dδ/dt (recall ω= dδ/dt) to get:

H  d  d
2   P  P 
Re  dt  m e
dt (3)

Note:


d  (t ) 2 
 2 (t )
d (t )
dt dt (4)
Substitution of (4) into the left-hand-side of (3) yields:

H  d 2  d
   P  P 
Re  dt  m e
dt (5)

Multiply by dt to obtain:

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d 2  Pm  Pe d
H
Re (6)

Now consider a change in the state such that the angle goes from δ1 to δ2 while the speed goes from
ω1 to ω2. Integrate (6) to obtain:
22 2

 P  Pe d
H
 
 2
d
Re  2
1 1
m
(7)

Note the variable of integration on the left is ω2. This results in

2
H
Re
 2
2  12    P m  Pe d
(8)
1
The left-hand-side of (8) is proportional to the change in kinetic energy between the two states,
which can be shown more explicitly by substituting H=Wk/SB=(1/2)JωR2/SB into (8), for H:

1 JR2

22  12   Pm  Pe d 
2

2 S BRe 1
(8a)

2
R2  1 2 1 2 
 J2  J1    Pm  Pe d
S BRe  2 2   1
(8b)

Returning to (8), let ω1 be the speed at the initial moment of the fault (t=0+, δ=δ1), and ω2 be the
speed at the maximum angle (δ=δr), as shown in Fig. 1 below.
Note that the fact that we identify a maximum angle δ=δr indicates an implicit assumption that the
performance is stable. Therefore the following development assumes stable performance.

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Pm1
Pe

Pm3

Pm
Pe1
Pm2
Pe3
Pe2
δ
δ 1 δ3 δc 90° δr δm 180°
Fig. 1
Since speed is zero at t=0, it remains zero at t=0+. Also, since δr is the maximum angle, the speed is
zero at this point as well. Therefore, the angle and speed for the two points of interest to us are
(note the dual meaning of δ1: it is lower variable of integration; it is initial angle):
δ1=δ1 δ=δr
ω1=0 ω2=0

Therefore, (8) becomes:

r
H
Re
 2
2  12  0    P m  Pe d
(9a)
1
We have developed a criterion under the assumption of stable performance, and that criterion is:
r

 P m  Pe d  0
(9b)
1
Recalling that Pa=Pm-Pe, we see that (9b) says that for stable performance, the integration of the
accelerating power from initial angle to maximum angle must be zero. Recalling again (8b), which
indicated the left-hand-side was proportional to the change in the kinetic energy between the two
states, we can say that (9b) indicates that the accelerating energy must exactly counterbalance the
decelerating energy.
Inspection of Fig. 1 indicates that the integration of (9b) includes a discontinuity at the moment
when the fault is cleared, at angle δ=δc. Therefore we need to break up the integration of (9b) as
follows:
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c r

 P m  Pe 2 d   Pm  Pe3 d  0

c
(10)
1
Taking the second term to the right-hand-side:
c r

 P m  Pe 2 d    Pm  Pe3 d

c
(11)
1
Carrying the negative inside the right integral:
c r

 P m  Pe 2 d   P e3  Pm d
(12)
1 c
Observing that these two terms each represent areas on the power-angle curve, we see that we have
developed the so-called equal-area criterion for stability. This criterion says that stable
performance requires that the accelerating area be equal to the decelerating area, i.e.,

A1  A2 (13)
where
c
A1   P m  Pe 2 d (13a)
1

r
A2   P e3  Pm d
(13b)
c
Figure 2 illustrates.

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Pm1
Pe

Pm3
A2
Pm
Pe1
A1
Pm2
Pe3
Pe2
δ
δ 1 δ3 δc 90° δr δm 180°
Fig. 2
Figure 2 indicates a way to identify the maximum swing angle, δr. Given a particular clearing angle
δc, which in turn fixes A1, the machine angle will continue to increase until it reaches an angle δr
such that A2=A1.

2. Derive the swing equation for a synchronous generator.

Let us consider a three-phase synchronous alternator that is driven by a prime mover. The equation of motion
of the machine rotor is given by

d 2
J  Tm  Te  Ta (9.6)
dt 2

where

J is the total moment of inertia of the rotor mass in kgm2

Tm is the mechanical torque supplied by the prime mover in N-m
Te is the electrical torque output of the alternator in N-m
 is the angular position of the rotor in rad

Neglecting the losses, the difference between the mechanical and electrical torque gives the net
accelerating torque Ta. In the steady state, the electrical torque is equal to the mechanical torque,
and hence the accelerating power will be zero. During this period the rotor will move at
synchronous speed s in rad/s.

The angular position  is measured with a stationary reference frame. To represent it with
respect to the synchronously rotating frame, we define

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   st   (9.7)

where  is the angular position in rad with respect to the synchronously rotating reference frame.
Taking the time derivative of the above equation we get

d d
 s  (9.8)
dt dt

Defining the angular speed of the rotor as

d
r 
dt

we can write (9.8) as

d
r  s  (9.9)
dt

We can therefore conclude that the rotor angular speed is equal to the synchronous speed only
when ddt is equal to zero. We can therefore term ddt as the error in speed. Taking derivative of
(9.8), we can then rewrite (9.6) as

d 2
J 2  Tm  Te  Ta (9.10)
dt

Multiplying both side of (9.11) by m we get

d 2
J r 2  Pm  Pe  Pa (9.11)
dt

where Pm, Pe and Pa respectively are the mechanical, electrical and accelerating power in MW.

We now define a normalized inertia constant as

Stored kinetic energy at synchronous speed in mega - joules J s2

H  (9.12)
Generator MVA rating 2S rated

Substituting (9.12) in (9.10) we get

S d 2
2 H rated   Pm  Pe  Pa (9.13)
 s2 r dt 2

In steady state, the machine angular speed is equal to the synchronous speed and hence we can
replace r in the above equation by s. Note that in (9.13) Pm, Pe and Pa are given in MW.
Therefore dividing them by the generator MVA rating Srated we can get these quantities in per unit.
Hence dividing both sides of (9.13) by Srated we get

2 H d 2
 Pm  Pe  Pa per unit (9.14)
 s dt 2

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Equation (7.14) describes the behaviour of the rotor dynamics and hence is known as the swing
equation. The angle  is the angle of the internal emf of the generator and it dictates the amount of
power that can be transferred. This angle is therefore called the load angle.
3. A 50 Hz, 4-pole turbogenerator is rated 500 MVA, 22 kV and has an inertia constant (H) of 7.5. Assume that
the generator is synchronized with a large power system and has a zero accelerating power while delivering a
power of 450 MW. Suddenly its input power is changed to 475 MW. We have to find the speed of the generator
in rpm at the end of a period of 10 cycles. The rotational losses are assumed to be zero.

We then have

d 2  s
2
 Pm  Pe   100  25  523.6 electrical deg/s 2
dt 2H 15
523.6
  9.1385 electrical rad/s 2
180
Noting that the generator has four poles, we can rewrite the above equation as

d 2 9.1385
2
  4.5693 mechanical rad/s 2
dt 2
4.5693
 60   43.6332 rpm/s
2
The machines accelerates for 10 cycles, i.e., 2010 = 200 ms = 0.2 s, starting with a synchronous speed of 1500 rpm.
Therefore at the end of 10 cycles

Speed = 1500 + 43.63320.2 = 1508.7266 rpm.

4. Derive the expression for the power-angle relationship.

The power-angle relationship has been discussed in Section 2.4.3. In this section we shall consider this
relation for a lumped parameter lossless transmission line. Consider the single-machine-infinite-bus (SMIB) system
shown in Fig. 9.1. In this the reactance X includes the reactance of the transmission line and the synchronous reactance
or the transient reactance of the generator. The sending end voltage is then the internal emf of the generator. Let the
sending and receiving end voltages be given by

VS  V1 , VR  V20 (9.1)

Fig. 9.1 An SMIB system.

We then have

V1  V2 V1 cos   V2  jV1 sin 

IS   (9.2)
jX jX

The sending end real power and reactive power are then given by

V1 cos   V2  jV1 sin 

PS  jQS  VS I S  V1 cos   j sin  
 jX

This is simplified to

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PS  jQS 

V1V2 sin   j V12  V1V2 cos   (9.3)
X
Since the line is loss less, the real power dispatched from the sending end is equal to the real power received
at the receiving end. We can therefore write

V1V2
Pe  PS  PR  sin   Pmax sin  (9.4)
X
where Pmax = V1V2/X is the maximum power that can be transmitted over the transmission line. The power-angle curve
is shown in Fig. 9.2. From this figure we can see that for a given power P0. There are two possible values of the angle
  0 and max. The angles are given by

 P0 
 0  sin 1  
 Pmax  (9.5)
 max  180   0

5. A generator is connected to a constant voltage bus through an external reactance of 0.3 per unit. The
synchronous reactance of the generator is 0.2 per unit and the voltage magnitude of the constant voltage bus is
1.0 per unit with its angle being 0. The generator delivers 0.9 per unit power to the constant voltage bus when
the angle of its terminal voltage is 15. We have to determine the magnitude and angle of its internal emf.

Let us denote the angle of the terminal voltage by t, while its magnitude by Vt. Since the generator delivers
0.9 per unit power to the constant voltage bus of magnitude 1.0 per unit through a 0.3 per unit reactance, we can write
from (9.4)

Vt  1
sin  t  t sin 15
V
0.9 
0.3 0.3

Fig. 9.2 A typical power-angle curve.

Solving the above equation we get Vt = 1.0432 per unit. Therefore the current flowing through the line is

1.043215  1
Is   0.9  j 0.0255 per unit
j 0.3

The internal emf of the generator is then given by

Eg  Vt  t  j 0.2I s  1.0128  j 0.45  1.108223.96

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Then the magnitude of the internal emf is 1.1082 per unit angle its angle  is 23.96. It can be readily verified that the
power delivered is

1.1082  1
sin 23.96  0.9 per unit
0.3  0.2

6. Consider the system of Example 9.1. Let us assume that the system is operating with Pm = Pe = 0.9 per unit
when a circuit breaker opens inadvertently isolating the generator from the infinite bus. During this period the
real power transferred becomes zero. From Example 9.1 we have calculated 0 = 23.96 = 0.4182 rad and the
maximum power transferred as

1.1082  1
Pmax   2.2164 per unit
0.5
We have to find the critical clearing angle.

From (9.15) the accelerating area is computed as by note that Pe = 0 during this time. This is then given by

 cr
A1   0.9 d  0.9
0.4182
cr  0.9  0.4182  0.9 cr  0.3764

To calculate the decelerating area we note that m =   0.4182 = 2.7234 rad. This area is computed by noting that Pe =
2.2164 sin() during this time. Therefore

2.7234
A2   2.2164 sin   0.9d
 cr

 2.2164  cos 2.7234  2.2164 cos  cr   0.9  2.7234  0.9 cr

 2.2164 cos  cr   0.9 cr  0.4257

Equating A1 = A2 and rearranging we get

 0.0493 
 cr  cos 1    1.5486 rad  88.73
 2.2164 

7. Consider the system in which a generator is connected to an infinite bus through a double circuit
transmission line as shown in Fig. 9.5. The per unit system reactances that are converted in a common base, are
also shown in this figure. Let us assume that the infinite bus voltage is 10. The generator is delivering 1.0 per
unit real power at a lagging power factor of 0.9839 to the infinite bus. While the generator is operating in steady
state, a three-phase bolted short circuit occurs in the transmission line connecting buses 2 and 4  very near to
bus 4. The fault is cleared by opening the circuit breakers at the two ends of this line. We have to find the
critical clearing time for various values of H.

Fig. 9.5 Schematic diagram of the power system of Example 9.4.

Let the current flowing through the line be denoted by I. Then the power delivered to the infinite bus is

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 
Pe  1  Re 1.0  I   0.9839 I

From the above equation we get

I  1.0164  cos 1 0.9839  1.0164  10.3

The total impedance during the time when both the lines are operational, the impedance between the generator and the
infinite bus is j(0.3+0.1+0.1) = j0.5 per unit. Then the generator internal voltage is

E  1.0  j 0.5  1.0164  10.3  1.224.625

Therefore the machine internal voltage is E = 1.2 per unit its angle is 24.625 or 0.4298 rad.

The pre-fault equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 9.6 (a). From this figure we can write the power transfer
equation as
1.2
Pre  fault : Pe  sin   2.4 sin 
0.5
Once the fault is cleared by opening of the breakers connected near buses 2 and 4, only of one the two lines will be
operational. Therefore during the post fault period, the impedance between the generator and the infinite bus is
j(0.3+0.2+0.6) = j0.5 per unit as shown in Fig. 9.6 (b). Then the post-fault power transfer equation is given by

1.2
Post  fault : Pe  sin   2.0 sin 
0.6

Fig. 9.6 Equivalent circuit: (a) pre-fault and (b) post-fault.

It is to be noted that since one of the two lines is functional during the fault, the power transfer during the
fault will not be zero. The equivalent circuit during the fault is shown in Fig. 9.7. Since the fault has occurred very near
to bus-4, we can assume that this bus has been short circuited. We shall find the Thevenin equivalent of the portion of
the circuit to the right of the points A and B.

Fig. 9.7 Faulted equivalent circuit.

The circuit between buses 2 and 3 has been converted into an equivalent Y using -Y transformation. This is
shown in Fig. 9.8 (a). From this figure we find the Thevenin impedance as

0.05  0.025
X th  0.45   0.4667 per unit
0.075
Also the Thevenin voltage is then given by

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j 0.025
Vth  10   0.33330 per unit
j 0.075

The reduced circuit is shown in Fig. 9.8 (b). From this circuit we can write the following power transfer equation
during the fault
1.2  0.3333
During  fault : Pe  sin   0.857 sin 
0.4667

Fig. 9.8 Equivalent circuit during the fault: (a) -Y transformed and (b) Thevenin equivalent.

Three power-angle curves are shown in Fig. 9.9. From this figure we find that

1
 max    sin 1    2.618 rad
 2

Fig. 9.9 Power-angles curves for the three modes of operation of the system of Example 9.4.

The accelerating area is given by

 cr
A1   1  0.857 sin  d
0.4298

  cr  0.4298  0.857 cos  cr  0.857 cos 0.4298

  cr  0.857 cos  cr  1.2089

and the decelerating area is

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2.618
A2   2 sin   1d
 cr

 2 cos 2.618  2 cos  cr  2.618   cr

  cr  2 cos  cr  0.8859

Equating the two areas we get

  0.323 
 cr  cos 1    1.8573 rad  106.41
 1.1429 

As mentioned earlier, the critical clearing angle depends on the system network
configuration. The critical clearing time, however, is dependent on H and will vary as this
parameter varies. Usually numerical methods are employed for finding out the clearing time. We
shall however demonstrate the effect of H through a MATLAB program. The program uses the
built-in ordinary differential equation solver though which the swing equations are solved. The
results obtained are listed in Table 9.1. It can be seen that as the value of H is increases, the
clearing time is also increases, even though the clearing angle remains the same. This is obvious as
the value of H increases, the response of the system becomes more sluggish due to larger inertia.
Hence, the rotor takes more time to accelerate.
Table 9.1 Effect of H on critical clearing time

H ( MJ/MVA) Approximate Critical Clearing Time (s)

2 0.2783
4 0.3936
6 0.4821
8 0.5566
10 0.6223

8. Explain the modified Euler’s method to solve swing equation.

Euler method

Consider plotting our function f(x(t)) as a function of t. What we want to do, based on (11), is to
obtain the area under the curve of f(x(t)) from t=kT-T to t=kT, as illustrated in Fig. 1.

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f(x(t))
f(x(kT)
)

f(x(kT-T))

kT- kT
T Fig. 1
Here is a proposed approach: Assume that f is constant throughout the interval at f(kT-T). This
assumption is clearly not good if kT is large, but it might be reasonable if kT is made small
enough.
This approach approximates the integral as the area shaded by the vertical lines in Fig. 2. One
observes that it misses the area shaded by the horizontal lines in Fig. 2.

f(x(t))
f(x(kT)
) error

f(x(kT-
T))

kT- kT
T Fig. 2
Analytically, (10) becomes

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x(kT )  x(kT  T )  Tf ( x(kT  T )) (12)

where the last term is ∆x. This approach is also called the “forward rule” because we assume a
value for f and hold it constant as we move forward in time.
2.1 Alternative development of forward rule
We may also develop the forward rule in another way….
Assume that we know x(kT-T) and that T is chosen small enough so that x(kT) is close to x(kT-T).
Then by Taylor series,
T2 T2
x(kT )  x(kT  T )  Tx t kT T  x  x  ....
2 t kT T 3! t kT T
 x(kT  T )  Tx t kT T  (T 2 )
(13)
where O(T2) is the remainder of the Taylor series, and its argument T2 indicates that the lowest
power of T present in the remainder is T2.
If T is small enough, O(T2) is negligible and

x(kT )  x(kT  T )  Tx t kT T (14)

where the last term is ∆x. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.

x(t)
error
x(kT)

x(kT-T)

kT- kT
T Fig. 3

Recalling that x  f (x) , (14) becomes

x(kT )  x(kT  T )  Tf ( x(kT  T )) (15)
which is the same as (12), our forward rule.
From both Figs. 2 and 3, we can observe that the forward method will incur some error, and this
error will increase with larger values of T.

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One major problem with this method is that if T is too large, the error will propagate from one
time step to another.
This means that error incurred at one time step kT will add to the error incurred at later time steps.
Solution methods where this can happen are said to be numerically unstable.
However, occurrence of this phenomenon does depend on our choice of T. I will provide you with
a way to consider this issue.

Reducing the error

Two algorithms that improve on the forward (Euler) method are predictor-corrector and Runge-
Kutta. We will look at both briefly.
3.1 Predictor-corrector method
This method is called the modified Euler in your text. The idea here is that we will take a step to
compute x(kT) (a predictor) and then we will use that calculation to recalculate that same step (the
corrector).
Step 1: Predict x(kT) using Euler to get x(kT):

x p (kT )  x(kT  T )  T f ( x(kT  T ))

   (32)
x ( kT T )
Step 2: Use xp(kT) to obtain a corrected value xc(kT):
a. Get a corrected derivative fc as the average of the derivatives at x(kT-T) and xp(kT):

f c

1
2

f ( x(kT  T ))  f ( x p (kT ))  (33)

b. Then apply the forward rule:

x c (kT )  x(kT  T )  Tf c

 x(kT  T ) 
T
2

f ( x(kT  T ))  f ( x p (kT ))  (34)

This method is illustrated in Fig. 5.

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Average these
two slopes
4

x p(kT) 3 2
1
x(kT-T)
x(t)

kT- kT
T Fig. 5
Understanding the method is facilitated by observing the sequence of points in Fig. 5. The
derivative f(x(kT-T)) is obtained at point 1. The predicted point xp(kT) is obtained at point 2. The
derivative of the predicted point f(xp(kT)) is obtained at point 3. The final point, point 4, is
obtained from averaging the two obtained derivatives f(x(kT-T)) and f(xp(kT)).
One can observe intuitively from Fig. 5 that the error will be reduced. This method can be shown
to be equivalent to considering up to the second derivative term in the Taylor series, therefore the
error is of O(T3).
This is a significant improvement over the Euler method, but it is still a numerically unstable
algorithm. In other words, for the predictor-corrector method, for a given minimum eigenvalue, T
can be larger than it can be in the Euler method, but it is still true that the algorithm may be
unstable if T is too large.

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9. Explain the Runge-kutta method to solve the swing equation.

Runge-Kutta method
(pronounced Run-gah Kut-tah)
This algorithm was developed in 1895, and it also applies the idea of averaging, similar to
predictor-corrector, but in a slightly different way.
There are different R-K algorithms of different order. We will only study one of them, the 4th order
R-K.
The 4th order R-K method requires, at each successive time step, computing 4 different increments
∆xj, as follows:
Increment ∆xj Derivative used

x  K  Tf ( x(kT  T ))
Start-point derivative
1 1 only

 K 
First interior derivative

x2  K 2  Tf  x(kT  T )  1 
 2 
 K2 
Second interior

x3  K 3  Tf  x(kT  T )  
derivative

 2 
x4  K 4  Tf x(kT  T )  K 3 
Approx. end-point
derivative

Note the following about the Ki‟s.

1. Ki is always used to compute Ki+1.

2. Each Ki is not a derivative but rather an increment in the integration variable, i.e.,

xi  K i  xi (kT )  x(kT  T ) (35)

Any of the Ki‟s could be used to obtain the new value x(kT).
3. Use of K1 to obtain the new value x(kT) is equivalent to the Euler method.

4. The derivatives are computed at three different locations within the interval:

 The beginning of the time step x(kT-T)

 The first interior derivative x(kT-T)+K1/2

 The second interior derivative x(kT-T)+K2/2

 The approximate end-point derivative x(kT-T)+K3

Figure 6 below illustrates the sequence of calculations, which can be understood by following the
single arrows from point 1 to point 2 to point 3, and then the double arrows from point 3 to point 4
to point 5, and then the triple arrows from point 5 to point 6 to point 7 to point 8.

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Fig. 6
Once each of the increments K1-K4 are computed, then the final increment is obtained by taking a
weighted average of the four increments, where the middle increments are weighted heaviest,
according to (36).

x  K1  2 K 2  2 K 3  K 4 
1
(36)
6
The middle increments (K2 and K3) are weighted heaviest as they are computed based on slopes
that will be more representative of the slope in the interval than the beginning (K1) and final (K4)
increments.
The R-K method can be shown to be equivalent to considering up to the fourth derivative term in
the Taylor series, therefore the error is O(T5). Although this is a significant improvement over the
Euler or the P/C method, R-K is also a numerically unstable algorithm therefore the stability
domain.

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