CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

UNDERWATER WELDING

The fact that electric arc could operate was known for over 100 years. The first ever underwater
welding was carried out by British Admiralty – Dockyard for sealing leaking ship rivets below
the water line. Underwater welding is an important tool for underwater fabrication works. In
1946, special waterproof electrodes were developed in Holland by ‘Van der Willingen’. In
recent years the number of offshore structures including oil drilling rigs, pipelines, platforms
are being installed significantly. Some of these structures will experience failures of its
elements during normal usage and during unpredicted occurrences like storms, collisions. Any
repair method will require the use of underwater welding.

Using electricity underwater seems incredibly dangerous, which it is, but not necessarily from
the electricity. Most underwater welding is performed using stick welding which uses an
electric arc as the source of energy.

When wet welding, a thick layer of bubbles are created as the flux on the outside of the rod
evapourates. The gas layer serves to shield the weld from water and other oxidizing
compounds.

Underwater welding is one of the most difficult jobs on the planet and in the water. Though
with advancing technologies in robotic capabilities, advancements are being made to protect
underwater welders. Despite what the future may hold, today underwater welders help maintain
the most integral components of many industries around the world. Until highly advanced
robots can perform the intricate tasks with the dexterity of a human, underwater divers will
continue to be a necessity for companies all around the world. It is a physically and mentally
challenging job, though for what it creates in stress, it makes up for in the pride of maintaining
the technologies in which the world relies on today.

Underwater welding, often referred to as hyperbaric welding, has been around since the early
1930s and is still being performed in many parts of the world for the maintenance and repair
of marine infrastructures that are partially or fully submerged in water. Inland welders work
on bridges, dams, and small water vessels while offshore welders handle pipelines, oil rigs,
large ships, underwater habitats, and even nuclear power facilities.

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Welding underwater is actually not that different from welding on dry land. Both use the same
basic welding techniques and equipment, which is why underwater welders typically train to
become certified welders above water first. Nonetheless, it is a dangerous field of work that
involves years of training in order to gain not only the required knowledge and skill set but
also the necessary certification from an accredited commercial dive school.

The first thought that comes to people’s minds when talking about underwater welding is the
danger of mixing water and electricity. Indeed, this is one of the threats of the job, but
surprisingly not the biggest one (more about the Dangers of Underwater Welding below). Yet,
many choose this career path for the excitement and challenges that come with the job—not to
mention a good payout of an average of $53,990 a year (or more for offshore welder-divers).

Although the job generally involves the use of a specialized welding stick (or electrode) and
gaseous bubbles, there are two main types of underwater welding

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 CHAPTER-2

TYPES OF UNDERWATER WELDING

Underwater welding can be classified as

1) Wet Welding

2) Dry Welding

In wet welding the welding is performed underwater, directly exposed to the wet environment.
In dry welding, a dry chamber is created near the area to be welded and the welder does the
job by staying inside the chamber.

1. WET WELDING

Wet Welding indicates that welding is performed underwater, directly exposed to the wet
environment. A special electrode is used and welding is carried out manually just as one
does in open air welding. The increased freedom of movement makes wet welding the
most effective, efficient and economical method. Welding power supply is located on the
surface with connection to the diver/welder via cables and hoses.

In wet welding MMA (manual metal arc welding) is used.

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Most of the time, divers use Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) or “stick welding” as it
is the most cost-effective and versatile method for wet welding. With this method, they produce
an electric arc between their electrode and the infrastructure metals (like stainless steel and
aluminum) that will be welded together.

It’s important that welder-divers keep their electrodes clean. Also, once they’ve reached the
weld area, divers usually check the surroundings for any obstructions or safety hazards before
performing the weld.

When the diver is ready, they start by placing their electrode on the target surface and signaling
their team to flip the current on, generating 300 to 400 amps of electricity via direct current
(DC).

Principle of operation of Wet Welding

The process of underwater wet welding takes in the following manner:

The work to be welded is connected to one side of an electric circuit, and a metal electrode to
the other side. These two parts of the circuit are brought together, and then separated slightly.
The electric current jumps the gap and causes a sustained spark (arc), which melts the bare
metal, forming a weld pool. At the same time, the tip of electrode melts, and metal droplets are
projected into the weld pool. During this operation, the flux covering the electrode melts to
provide a shielding gas, which is used to stabilize the arc column and shield the transfer metal.
The arc burns in a cavity formed inside the flux covering, which is designed to burn slower
than the metal barrel of the electrode.

Developments in Under Water Welding

Wet welding has been used as an underwater welding technique for a long time and is still
being used. With recent acceleration in the construction of offshore structures underwater
welding has assumed increased importance. This has led to the development of alternative
welding methods like friction welding, explosive welding, and stud welding. Sufficient
literature is not available of these processes.

Scope for further developments

Wet MMA is still being used for underwater repairs, but the quality of wet welds is poor and
are prone to hydrogen cracking. Dry Hyperbaric welds are better in quality than wet welds.
Present trend is towards automation. THOR – 1 (TIG Hyperbaric Orbital Robot) is developed

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where diver performs pipefitting, installs the trac and orbital head on the pipe and the rest
process is automated.

Developments of diverless Hyperbaric welding system is an even greater challenge calling for
annexe developments like pipe preparation and aligning, automatic electrode and wire reel
changing functions, using a robot arm installed. This is in testing stage in deep waters.
Explosive and friction welding are also to be tested in deep waters.

As for how the diver doesn’t get electrocuted, the key is in the thick layer of gaseous bubbles
that the flux (or external coating) of the electrode creates to cover the weld and shield the
electricity from water, corrosive gasses, and other oxidizing compounds. The team also uses
direct current (DC) as it is safer and more effective to use underwater than alternating current
(AC).

Other common types of wet underwater welding methods include:

 Flux-cored Arc Welding (FCAW) – Makes use of a continuously fed filler metal or
electrode to weld nickel-based alloys and cast iron metals, among others.

 Friction Welding (FW) – Uses high friction and heat instead of material melting to fuse
metal or thermoplastics together.

Power Supply used: DC

Polarity: -ve polarity

When DC is used with +ve polarity, electrolysis will take place and cause rapid deterioration
of any metallic components in the electrode holder. For wet welding AC is not used on account
of electrical safety and difficulty in maintaining an arc underwater.

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 Knife Switch

The power source should be a direct current machine rated at 300 or 400 amperes. Motor
generator welding machines are most often used for underwater welding in the wet. The
welding machine frame must be grounded to the ship. The welding circuit must include a
positive type of switch, usually a knife switch operated on the surface and commanded by the
welder-diver. The knife switch in the electrode circuit must be capable of breaking the full
welding current and is used for safety reasons. The welding power should be connected to the
electrode holder only during welding.

Direct current with electrode negative (straight polarity) is used. Special welding electrode
holders with extra insulation against the water are used. The underwater welding electrode
holder utilizes a twist type head for gripping the electrode. It accommodates two sizes of
electrodes. The electrode types used conform to AWS E6013 classification. The electrodes
must be waterproofed. All connections must be thoroughly insulated so that the water cannot
come in contact with the metal parts. If the insulation does leak, seawater will come in contact
with the metal conductor and part of the current will leak away and will not be available at the
arc. In addition, there will be rapid deterioration of the copper cable at the point of the leak.

2. DRY WELDING

Hyperbaric welding is carried out in chamber sealed around the structure o be welded. The
chamber is filled with a gas (commonly helium containing 0.5 bar of oxygen) at the prevailing
pressure. The habitat is sealed onto the pipeline and filled with a breathable mixture of helium
and oxygen, at or slightly above the ambient pressure at which the welding is to take place.

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This method produces high-quality weld joints that meet Xray and code requirements. The gas
tungsten arc welding process is employed for this process. The area under the floor of the
Habitat is open to water. Thus the welding is done in the dry but at the hydrostatic pressure of
the sea water surrounding the Habitat.

As previously mentioned, dry welding or habitat welding involves the use of a hyperbaric
chamber while referring to the same basic welding process. After creating a seal around the
structure that needs to be welded, connected hoses flush water out and replaces it with a
mixture of gases, like helium and oxygen.

After pushing all the water out, the hyperbaric chamber will then be pressurized to the correct
depth to avoid decompression sickness.

The technique that will be used will depend on the size of the chamber. Here are the four types
of dry welding methods that welder-divers choose from:

 Pressure Welding – Method used for working in a pressure vessel, which measures
approximately one atmosphere unit of pressure (similar to sea-level pressure).

 Habitat Welding – Welder-diver uses a small, room-sized chamber with the same
pressure outside it (ambient pressure) at working depth. The chamber will displace the
water into the surrounding body of water before the welder-diver enters.

 Dry Chamber Welding – The welder diver enters the small chamber from underneath
and gets covered only from the head down to the shoulders (with diving gear).

 Dry Spot Welding – Technique used for chambers that are clear and about as small as a
person’s head. It is placed on the weld site and the welder-diver will have to insert the
electrode into the habitat, which will conveniently seal around it.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) and Flux-cored Arc Welding (FCAW) are also used
during dry underwater welding, as well as the following common welds:

 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) – Also referred to as “TIG,” this welding process
uses a non-consumable electrode made of tungsten. Heat will be applied, along with an
electric arc, on stainless steel, aluminum, and other metals that need to be welded.

 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) – Also referred to as “MIG,” it is known for its
various metal transfer methods. This method uses shielding gas that runs through the
welding gun around the electrode to weld non-ferrous metals like aluminum.

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 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) – Also makes use of an electric arc, but the arc is constricted
to produce a high arc (plasma) speed and intense heat for welding stainless steel,
aluminum, and other metals.

For extensive deep underwater welds inside large hyperbaric chambers, welder-divers usually
work in pairs. Once the operators have lowered the chamber down to the weld site and filled it
with gas, the welders will drop to the same depth (in a diving bell), swim into the chamber,
and start the weld, often alternating between 6-hour to 8-hour shifts.

RISKS INVOLVED

There is a risk to the welder/diver of electric shock. Precautions include achieving adequate
electrical insulation of the welding equipment, shutting off the electricity supply immediately
the arc is extinguished, and limiting the open-circuit voltage of MMA (SMA) welding sets.
Secondly, hydrogen and oxygen are produced by the arc in wet welding.

Precautions must be taken to avoid the build-up of pockets of gas, which are potentially
explosive. The other main area of risk is to the life or health of the welder/diver from nitrogen
introduced into the blood steam during exposure to air at increased pressure. Precautions
include the provision of an emergency air or gas supply, stand-by divers, and decompression
chambers to avoid nitrogen narcosis following rapid surfacing after saturation diving.

For the structures being welded by wet underwater welding, inspection following welding may
be more difficult than for welds deposited in air. Assuring the integrity of such underwater
welds may be more difficult, and there is a risk that defects may remain undetected.

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 CHAPTER-3

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES OF DRY WELDING

1. Welder/Diver Safety – Welding is performed in a chamber, immune to ocean currents

and marine animals. The warm, dry habitat is well illuminated and has its own
environmental control system (ECS).
2. Good Quality Welds – This method has ability to produce welds of quality comparable
to open air welds because water is no longer present to quench the weld and H2 level is
much lower than wet welds.
3. Surface Monitoring – Joint preparation, pipe alignment, NDT inspection, etc. are
monitored visually.
4. Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) – NDT is also facilitated by the dry habitat
environment.

DISADVANTAGES OF DRY WELDING

1) The habitat welding requires large quantities of complex equipment and much support
equipment on the surface. The chamber is extremely complex.

2) Cost of habitat welding is extremely high and increases with depth. Work depth
has an effect on habitat welding. At greater depths, the arc constricts and corresponding
higher voltages are required. The process is costly – a $ 80000 charge for a single weld
job. One cannot use the same chamber for another job, if it is a different one.

ADVANTAGES OF WET WELDING

Wet underwater MMA welding has now been widely used for many years in the repair of
offshore platforms. The benefits of wet welding are: -

1) The versatility and low cost of wet welding makes this method highly desirable.

2) Other benefits include the speed. With which the operation is carried out.

3) It is less costly compared to dry welding.

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 4) The welder can reach portions of offshore structures that could not be welded using
other methods.

5) No enclosures are needed and no time is lost building. Readily available standard
welding machine and equipments are used. The equipment needed for mobilization of
a wet welded job is minimal.

DISADVANTAGES OF WET WELDING

Although wet welding is widely used for underwater fabrication works, it suffers from the
following drawbacks: -

1) There is rapid quenching of the weld metal by the surrounding water. Although
quenching increases the tensile strength of the weld, it decreases the ductility and
impact strength of the weldment and increases porosity and hardness.

2) Hydrogen Embrittlement – Large amount of hydrogen is present in the weld region,

resulting from the dissociation of the water vapour in the arc region. The H2 dissolves
in the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) and the weld metal, which causes Embrittlement,
cracks and microscopic fissures. Cracks can grow and may result in catastrophic failure
of the structure.

3) Another disadvantage is poor visibility. The welder some times is not able to weld
properly.

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 CHAPTER-4

SAFETY DURING PROCESSES

1. PURPOSE

This appendix is intended to cover safety precautions to be followed while preparing for and
conducting underwater cutting or welding operations. All personnel should read and
comprehend the safety precautions listed in this section and the safety summary contained in
the front section of this manual. Deviation from established standards are of course potentially
dangerous; however, the most serious aspect of disregarding safety rules may not be the initial
deviation, but the tendency to treat other rules just as casually. Remember, safety is a full-time
job and the more safety conscious each team member becomes, the safer each diving operation
becomes.

For detailed information on chemical hazards encountered in salvage, refer to the U.S. Navy
Ship Salvage Safety Manual, (S0400-AA-SAF-010), which covers toxic, explosive, corrosive
and other special nature perils.

2. GENERAL

Underwater cutting and welding operations involve several hazards, including lethal electrical
currents, oxygen and hydrogen rich gases which will explode in the presence of a spark and
electrode tip temperatures in excess of 10,000°F. It is impossible to anticipate all possible
situations that may arise in underwater cutting or welding operations. Consequently, it can not
be assumed that safe operating conditions will exist simply by blindly following the guidelines
set forth in this manual. Nonetheless, with a thorough knowledge of cutting and welding
fundamentals combined with the use of common sense and sound judgment, the procedures
described in this manual can be performed in maximum safety.

3. EXPLOSIVE GASES

WARNING: Do NOT attempt to speed up the cutting by creating a fire or inferno deep inside
the metal. Such a situation can lead to an explosion.

WARNING: A diver is at risk to severe electrical shock when performing a cutting or welding
operation while only partially immersed in water. Hence, the splash zone is the most hazardous
location in which a diver can be placed.

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WARNING: NEVER bring a cutting torch into a bell with the oxygen on or with the welding
generator running.

3.1 General Information. Gases produced by underwater cutting are rich in oxygen and
hydrogen and will explode if trapped and ignited. Gases from underwater cutting will collect
in closed compartments, open tubular structural members, open piping systems, shaped
structural members and under such members as “H” beams. Before cutting, it is mandatory
that provision be made to evacuate existing gases and eliminate the possibility of further gas
entrapment.Refer to Naval Ships Technical Manual NAVSEA S9086-CHSTM- 030/CH-074
Volume 3 for detailed information on gas-free engineering.

If the presence of trapped explosive gas mixtures is uncertain, it may be necessary to drill holes
in suitable locations to allow the gases to escape. This will flood the compartment with sea
water. An alternative would be to purge the compartment with a mixture of gases which will
not support combustion.

3.2 Specific Information. Underwater cutting and welding processes generate explosive gases.

When cutting with power on or welding, hydrogen and oxygen are dissociated from the water
and will travel separately as bubbles. These bubbles can collect in a trapped or confined space
overhead. As the hydrogen and oxygen gases combine they will ignite, causing a popping
sound.

Oxygen cutting is about 60 percent efficient, resulting in approximately 40 percent pure oxygen
being released into the environment. This gas can become entrapped above the work area, and
when combined with a fuel such as hydrocarbons, can easily be ignited by a hydrogen bubble
or a spark trapped in the bubble.

Any pop is a sign of explosive gases collecting above the underwater work area and is the point
when cutting or welding must stop and the cause investigated.

Prior to the start of any underwater cutting or welding, as built drawings and physical
configuration of the work area must be studied to determine all these areas and voids that could
contain or trap explosive gases. These areas and voids must be vented or made inert in
accordance with Naval Ships Technical Manual NAVSEA 59086-CH-STM-030/CH-074 Vol
3 to prevent possible explosions.

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Care should also be taken when cutting or welding on enclosures that are on or above river
beds, especially in mud, because trapped methane gas in the proper concentrations can explode.

Explosive gases may be produced by any one or a combination of the following:

1. Petroleum products such as gasoline, fuel oil or greases;

2. Paint mixing mediums, such as linseed oil or thinners;
3. Epoxies, adhesives and solvents;
4. Ammunition or bulk explosives;
5. Decaying vegetable or animal matter; and
6. Unburned gases from cutting torches.

Every precaution must be taken to prevent an underwater explosion. To minimize the

possibility of explosions from trapped gasses, the following procedures are recommended:

A. Start cutting at the highest point and work downward.

B. When cutting thick material, i.e., propeller shafting, cut from the outside and work
around the circumference. By withdrawing the electrode every few seconds to allow
water to enter the cut, exceedingly high temperatures can not build up inside the metal.
A brushing or stroking action in the direction of the intended cut should be used.
C. Gases may be vented to the surface with a vent tube (flexible hose) secured in place
from the high point where gases would collect to a position above the waterline.
D. When working under a sea chest, gas can be vented by briefly opening an internal valve
or by the above method.

4. ELECTRICITY UNDERWATER

WARNING: AC power shall not be used for underwater cutting or welding due to the extreme
danger involved with AC current underwater.

Electrical shock produced by AC current prevents voluntary relaxation of the muscles

controlling the hand. Consequently, the diver may be unable to let go if his body or equipment
accidentally enters the electrical circuit.

Electricity and water are incompatible by nature and the use of electrically powered equipment
underwater presents a potential shock danger to both the diver and the tender.When using
electrically powered equipment such as cutting, welding or underwater lighting, the diver and
tender must be protected from electric shock. All personnel engaged in underwater cutting and

13
welding should be thoroughly trained in CPR and first-aid so they can render immediate
assistance in the event of an accident.

The results of a study conducted for the Navy revealed that the principal underwater electrical
hazard facing divers engaged in welding and cutting is non-lethal electric shock. The hazard
exists when a diver wearing inadequate protective dress is in close proximity to a relatively
high-powered source of electricity. AC power was found to pose a considerably greater threat
to the diver than DC, therefore AC power will NOT be used for underwater cutting or welding.

The safety rules listed in the following sections must be followed to provide maximum personal
safety for the diver.

GENERAL PRECAUTIONS FOR UNDERWATER WELDING

There are many conditions which contribute to making underwater work difficult. These
include adverse currents, unstable footing, poor visibility and low temperatures. A constant
source of danger comes from the falling or rolling of cut-away pieces. This is especially true
in salvage wrecking. These, combined with the dangers involved in operating an electric arc
capable of producing fatal shock, severe burns and explosive gas pockets, create a situation
where the diver must be extremely alert. The following precautions must be observed:

a. Careful examination should be made before starting the cut to learn how the cut-away
pieces will fall and whether there are any projections, wires or other objects which may
foul lines or cause a piece to swing around in an unexpected manner.
b. Be extremely careful when cutting tightly-bound wire rope, e.g., wire wrapped in a
ship’s propeller. When severed, the wire can back-lash with spring-like force.
c. Before cutting, ensure that umbilical and diving equipment will not be in the path of
slag from the cutting operation.
d. Avoid cutting overhead if possible, since the falling molten material will seriously
damage the diving helmet, dress and umbilical.
e. Never put down or carry an electrode holder while the power is on.

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CONCLUSION

Welding underwater is a unique occupation but a very daunting task that requires the expert to
use appropriate equipment and attire for the job. Marine companies offer employment
opportunities to the trained personnel. Many institutions offer courses in welding, and the
salary scale is attractive if you can look beyond the risks.

Welding under the water poses a lot of challenges to expect and impending fatality if the welder
messes up or the gadgets malfunction.

All in all, it is important to be enlightened well on the guidelines and precautions to take before
engaging in a welding project underwater.

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REFERENCES

1) D. J Keats, Manual on Wet Welding.

2) Annon, Recent advances in dry underwater pipeline welding, Welding Engineer, 1974.

3) Lythall, Gibson, Dry Hyperbaric underwater welding, Welding Institute.

4) W.Lucas, International conference on computer technology in welding.

5) Stepath M. D, Underwater welding and cutting yields slowly to research, Welding

Engineer, April 1973.

6) Silva, Hazlett, Underwater welding with iron – powder electrodes, Welding Journal,
1971.

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