Table

of Contents
Introduction
Background Information

Electrons and the Nature of Current Coulomb’s Law Magnetic

Dipole 4 Laws of Electromagnetics Gauss’s Law of Electricity So,
What is Flux?
And What is a “Surface”?
Gauss’s Law of Magnetism Ampere’s Law Faraday’s Law
Near Field vs. Far Field Maxwell’s Equations The Equations
(Differential Form) Definition of the Terms
Appendix
A. A Little Bit of Calculus
B. The Equations in Integral Form
Introduction
James Clerk Maxwell published his monumental work Treatise on Electricity
and Magnetism in 1873. In it he developed a truly elegant system of equations
(I’ll explain what I mean by “elegant” later on) that completely described an
electromagnetic system. The system of equations was “self-contained” in the
sense that if any variable within them were modified, the equations would self-
adjust without requiring or influencing any other outside variable.
It was a major contribution to our understanding of electromagnetics, and his
work stands virtually unmodified (not even “tweaked”) to this day, over 140
years later!
What Maxwell’s Equations summarize is really pretty simple, just four basic
laws that were already revealed before Maxwell’s time. And the equations look
fairly simple when they are written down. But this simplicity disguises a great
deal of complex math that lies behind the scene. There are at least two reasons
why this complexity interferes with most people’s understanding of what is
going on.
1. The equations are calculus based. The mathematics of electronics is
based on change. Things in electronics don’t get interesting until there
is change: A signal changes amplitude, a frequency changes, a voltage
level changes from a logical one to a logical zero. And the
mathematics of change is calculus. Most people don’t like calculus,
and that includes a lot of engineers!
2. Not only are the equations calculus based, it is difficult calculus. The
equations involve terms like “divergence” and “curl.” They can be
expressed as a set of differential equations or as a set of integral
equations.
The little secret in our industry is that a great many engineers (perhaps most
engineers) couldn’t set up and solve a set of Maxwell’s equations even if they
had to!
As a result, many engineers, especially those early in their career, fail to get a
good appreciation of what Maxwell’s Equations really mean, and why they are
so important. This is because, I believe, most professors concentrate on the
equations, not what is behind the equations. If you dislike calculus to begin with,
and really dislike “curl” and “divergence,” you aren’t going to get much from
looking at the equations.
That is why I wrote this booklet. I will reveal Maxwell’s Equations to you
without using calculus --- at all. You don’t need to understand calculus to
understand how all this fits together. And I will lead the way. So, enjoy the ride!
OK, one minor caveat. I will explain a little bit about calculus, divergence and
curl in the Appendix. But you don’t have to read the Appendix if you don’t want
to! That won’t impact your understanding of the nature of the equations at all.
It’s just there if, after you have finished the booklet, you would like to have a
little bit more information. But don’t worry, there is not enough information
there for you to actually be able to solve Maxwell’s Equations. We’ll leave that
to those few senior engineers who really like that sort of stuff!
Note on terminology: This mobi edition has very limited capability when it
comes to fonts. In particular, it does not have any Greek or special math
symbols. That makes preparation of a technical paper difficult. The work-around
is to prepare the document with every special symbol prepared as a picture,
which can then be imported into the document. Thus, there might be places
where an equation (prepared as a picture) uses a Greek symbol for a variable,
while that same variable appears as a regular text element in a paragraph. This is
a result of mobi’s limited special character set.
Background Information But before we get into the meat of Maxwell et al,
we need to cover a little bit of background information. The most important
thing we need to cover is the nature of electric current and the role that electrons
play.
The Nature of Current: Every atom has a nucleus, made up of protons and
neutrons, and electrons occupying (energy) shells around the nucleus. It is more
complicated than that, but this is enough for us to understand the nature of
current. Protons have a positive charge and electrons have a negative charge.
And there are as many electrons as there are protons (called the atomic number
of the element.) The electrons occupy energy shells, and these shells have a very
rigid set of rules that must be followed. In particular, they have capacities. As the
capacities of the shells are filled, additional electrons occupy the next higher
shells.
Copper, silver, and gold are the best conductors of electricity. (There are
technical reasons for this, but we already intuitively know that this is true.) One
characteristic of these three elements is that they each have a single electron in
their “outer” shell. As a result, this electron is what we call “loosely” held by the
atom and it can be easily replaced by another electron. (This is not true for
elements with more than one electron in their outer shell.) Now current is the
flow, or movement, of electrons. If there is a force (think voltage) that acts on
the negatively charged electrons (see the next section) that force can cause the
electrons to propagate along a piece of copper, from one atom to another. The
nature of the propagation is very analogous to the desktop toy, Figure 1.

Figure 1
Electrons transfer energy similar to this.
An electron enters a conductor. It displaces an electron in one atom, which
moves to an adjacent atom. That electron displaces another electron, and so on.
Now we need to be careful here. There are two velocities associated with this
movement. First, there is the velocity of the individual electrons (like the left-
hand sphere in Figure 1.) That velocity is pretty slow; most of us can walk faster
than that. It is called the “drift velocity.” The other velocity is the speed of the
transfer of energy from one sphere to the next in Figure 1. That is (almost)
instantaneous. In a copper conductor, it happens at the speed of light. At the
atomic level, that is the transfer of a single electron from one atom to an adjacent
atom. After an electron transfers from one atom to the next, it may stay there for
a very long time before it is displaced again.
So don’t think of the “flow of electrons” as being able to track individual
electrons through a conductor. Think of the process as “one electron in, one
electron out.” THAT happens at the speed of light.
There is consequence of what we have just described. Think of an electron
entering at the left of Figure 1. It had to come from somewhere (think battery).
There is a corresponding electron that leaves on the right. It has to go
somewhere (again, think battery). It is not hard to appreciate that: Current must
flow in a loop.
There is no exception to this statement. If there is not a loop, current cannot
flow.
Now there are electromagnetic engineers who will scoff at the above and say this
is old fashioned. That current is really a wave phenomenon. We will get to
(electromagnetic) waves a little further on. But what we have described above
does involve a transfer of energy in a wave-like fashion. The heart of the transfer
is the shift of electrons from one atom to another. The electrons cannot get out in
front of this wave of energy, but the wave of energy can’t get in front of the
electrons, either. They all travel together (and in fact the propagation speed is
determined by the propagation speed of the electromagnetic field through the
material it is flowing through.) (For additional reading on these topics, see
References 1 through 4.) Now the basic measure of current is the Amp (named
for Mr. Ampere, who we will meet later). One Amp of current is the flow of 6.25
x 1018 electrons across a surface in one second of time. Each electron has a
charge. The total charge on 6.25 x 1018 electrons is called a Coulomb of charge
(after Mr. Coulomb, next section.) So an Amp of current is the flow of one
Coulomb of charge across a surface in one second of time.
That may sound like a lot of electrons. But consider how many atoms of copper
there might be at the surface. For a typical copper conductor on a printed circuit
board there might be 1022 to 1024 atoms at any cross-section. So the percentage
of available electrons we are involving in the current flow is usually pretty small.
Coulomb’s Law:
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806) was a French physicist. He is best
known (at least to us) for developing Coulomb’s Law (1785). In layman’s terms,
we can summarize that law this way (see Figure 2 and Reference 5): There are
two types of charge, positive and negative. Unlike charges attract and like
charges repel each other with a force that is proportional to the product of their
charge and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.


Figure 2
Illustration of Coulomb’s Law The lines of force represent the electric field
(often referred to as the “E” field) flowing out of or into the charges. The lines of
force are vectors, i.e. they have a magnitude and they have a direction. The
direction (by convention) is from positive to negative. If two charges are
stationary, then the field is referred to as an electrostatic field. If the charges are
moving (think electrons in a current) then we would have a dynamic or moving
field.
The equation for an electric field is: E = F/q
where:
E is the electric field (V/m) F is the force (Newtons) Q is the charge
(Coulombs) Magnetic Dipole:
Every magnetic pole is a dipole with an equal and opposite pole. That is the
same thing as saying that a magnetic “north” pole cannot exist without there also
being a magnetic “south” pole. Even if you cut a magnet in half, (see Figure 3)
the individual poles would not be preserved; new poles would appear to preserve
the dipole nature of the magnet.

Figure 3
Every magnetic pole is a dipole.
Now we can state a law, similar to Coulomb’s Law, which is often attributed to
Gauss (next section) (See Figure 4 and Reference 6.) Magnetic force is a vector
whose direction is a line along which the force acts. This magnetic force is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance.
 Figure 4
Magnetic lines of force These lines of force make up the magnetic field, often
referred to as the “H” field.
4 Laws of Electromagnetics With this background we are now ready to
look at the four laws of electromagnetics. These four laws form the basis for
Maxwell’s Equations (see Reference 7.) Gauss’s Law of Electricity: Carl
Friedrich Gauss (1977-1855) was a German mathematician and a child prodigy.
He contributed to many fields of science during his life.
There is uncertainty about when he formulated his law of electricity. The “best”
guess is that he formulated it in his notes around 1835 but never published it. It
may have been Maxwell, reviewing Gauss’s notes after Gauss’s death, who then
published it, attributing it to Gauss, in 1867.
Gauss’s Law of Electricity is usually stated this way (see Figure 5): The electric
flux out of any closed surface is proportional to the total charge enclosed within
the surface.

(a) (b) Figure 5

Illustration of Gauss’s Law of Electricity I’ll get to the difference between field
and flux in a moment. Figure 5 illustrates a rectangular closed surface with
charge enclosed. In Figure 5(a) the total charge enclosed is zero, i.e. the positive
and negative charges are equal and cancel. In Figure 5(b) there is net positive
charge within the closed surface.
The law states that if the enclosed net charge is zero, then there will be a net zero
flux out of the enclosed surface. That does NOT mean that there will be no flux
(field) that leaves the surface; it just means that whatever flux leaves the surface
will re-enter it again. Thus, in Figure 5(a) we can see some electric field lines
flow outside the surface, but they flow back in again.
But in Figure 5(b) there is a net positive charge within the enclosed surface.
Therefore, there is some net flux that leaves the surface. The amount of flux that
leaves will be proportional to the net charge enclosed within the surface.

So, What Is Flux?

If we are thinking in qualitative (as opposed to quantitative) terms, the force
lines in Figure 5 could represent either electric field or electric flux. It would not
be terribly wrong to do so. And it makes an understanding of what is going on
much easier. The distinction between flux and field becomes much more
significant if we want to actually quantify some mathematical result.
Charged particles (electrons, for example) exert a force on other charged
particles. That force is a vector, with a magnitude and a direction. Collectively,
all the lines of force constitute an electric field. We often wish we could think of
an electric field as being uniform, but a field that is emanating from a point
charge is not uniform. It spreads out spherically from the point. The field lines
have units of Volts per meter, or V/m.
Consider a surface around the point charge. The electric lines of force cross
through that surface. At the point where they cross through the surface, the field
lines have a magnitude and a direction. We measure the angle (direction) from a
line perpendicular to the surface. So a field line perpendicular to the surface
would have an angle of zero degrees.
Now in very simple terms, flux is the product of the field through a surface times
the area of the surface. Flux has units of Volt-meter, which would be the product
of the units of electrical field (V/m) times the units of area (m2). This would be
strictly true IF the field was uniform and if it was perpendicular to the surface. If
the field is not perpendicular to the surface, we must adjust its magnitude by
multiplying field strength by the cosine of the angle from the perpendicular. If
the field is not uniform, then we must formulate a calculus integral of the field at
a point on the surface (times the cosine of the angle at that point) times the area
at that point and integrate that over the total area of the surface.
I know I said I would avoid calculus in this booklet. OK, that was a little white
lie. Here is the distinction between flux and field in calculus terms.

What this equation says is that the flux is equal to the surface integral (i.e. the
double integral over the two-dimensional area, dS) of the vector field E or of the
magnitude of the electrical field times the cosine of the angle of the field from
the perpendicular.
And, What Is a Surface?
Often a textbook will suggest we think of an imaginary surface or a virtual
surface surrounding whatever we are interested in. That is not wrong, but it is
not very intuitive.
Here are some other, more intuitive things that might constitute a “surface:”
1. The enclosure around an electronic product.
2. An integrated circuit package.
3. The surface around, and perhaps 1.0 inch off, a printed circuit board.
 4. The surface area of a coaxial cable (including the end connectors.)
In each of these cases it is intuitively clear why we might be interested in
figuring out much of the electromagnetic energy stays within the “surface” and
how much radiates outside of it. Radiation outside of the “surface” might
constitute an unwanted EMI.
Gauss’s Law of Magnetism: Gauss’s Law of Magnetism is very similar to his
Law of Electricity, but a little more restrictive (see Figure 6). It is not clear when
this law was formulated: The net magnetic flux out of any closed surface is zero.

Figure 6
Gauss’s Law for Magnetism.
Recall that Gauss’s Law for Electricity states that the net electrical flux may be
some value. But the net magnetic flux must be zero, and no other value! That is a
direct result of the fact that every magnetic pole is a dipole. Therefore, every
field line that leaves a magnet must return to it. Figure 6 illustrates this. The
black rectangle represents the closed surface, and every part of the magnet field
that leaves the enclosed surface returns back to it.
Ampere’s Law:
Andre-Marie Ampere (1775-1836) was a French mathematician and physicist.
He is credited with formulating Ampere’s Law in 1825 (see Figure 7 and
reference 6): An electric current is accompanied by a magnetic field whose
direction is at right angles to the current flow.

Figure 7
Ampere’s Law
Most of are already familiar with the practical implications of this law. It is the
principle behind an electromagnet. The law is easily demonstrated by
momentarily shorting a wire across a D-cell battery and placing the wire near a
compass. The compass needle will shift, demonstrating the presence of the
magnetic field (often referred to as the “B” field.) The direction the compass
needle will shift is predicted by the right-hand rule. Place your thumb in the
direction of the current flow and the fingers of your right hand will curl in the
direction of the magnetic field.
There is an extension of Ampere’s Law, credited to Maxwell: A changing
electric current is accompanied by a changing magnetic field.

Faraday’s Law:
Michael Faraday (1795-1867) had little formal training as a scientist. He was
what we might refer to today as a “lab rat.” Most of what he discovered he did so
empirically by experimenting in the lab.
He is credited with developing Faraday’s Law of Magnetic Induction in 1831.
A changing magnetic field is accompanied by a changing
electric field at right angles to the change of the magnetic field.
This was an extremely important contribution to our field. Now consider
Faraday’s Law and Ampere’s Law (as extended) together. A changing magnetic
field creates a changing electric field (Faraday). But a changing electric field
creates a changing magnetic field (Ampere.) We commonly employ these
principles in many types of products.
1. Suppose we have a rotating coil that rotates between the poles of a
magnet (i.e. within a magnetic field.) The coil “sees” a changing
magnetic field (because it is rotating within that field) so an electrical
field is generated within the coil. This is the principle behind a
generator. We supply mechanical motion (the rotation of the coil) and
we get electrical energy out.
2. Suppose we have a coil placed between the poles of a stationary
magnet and we drive a changing current through the coil. This creates
a changing magnetic field that acts against the stationary magnetic
poles and causes the coil to rotate within the field of the stationary
magnet. This is the principle behind a motor. We supply electrical
energy and get mechanical motion out.
3. Suppose we have a coil of wire and we drive a changing current
through it. That creates a changing magnetic field. Now suppose that
changing magnetic field intersects another coil of wire. That then
induces a current in the second coil (see Figure 8 and reference 8.)
That is the principle behind a transformer.

 Figure 8
A transformer is based on faraday’s Law Near Field vs. Far Field: We now
have introduced the fundamental laws of electromagnetics: Coulomb and Gauss:
There are two types of charge, positive and negative. Unlike
charges attract and like charges repel each other with a force
that is proportional to the product of their charge and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
The electric flux out of any closed surface is proportional to the
total charge enclosed within the surface.
Gauss:
Magnetic force is a vector whose direction is a line along which
the force acts. This magnetic force is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance.
The net magnetic flux out of any closed surface is zero.
Ampere (as extended):
A changing electric field is accompanied by a changing
magnetic field at right angles to the change of the electric field.
Faraday:
A changing magnetic field is accompanied by a changing
electric field at right angles to the change of the magnetic field.
The first two of these describe an electric and a magnetic field, respectively. If
these two fields exist together, they collectively form the electromagnetic field.
The second two combine to produce a very interesting result. Consider:
1. A changing electric field that creates a changing magnetic field.
2. That changing magnetic field creates a changing electric field …..
3. which creates a changing magnetic field …
4. which creates a changing electric field…
5. which ……………
And this continues forever (or at least until something interferes with it …
something like a receiving antenna, for example.) Once an electromagnetic field
begins to propagate, it is self-perpetuating, presumably forever.
The fact that this goes on forever is what enables us to place antennas looking
out into space hoping to intercept electromagnetic fields (waves, radiation) from
some other intelligent species somewhere out in the universe.
Now you may have been introduced at some point to the terms “near-field
radiation” and “far-field radiation.” Far-field radiation refers to the region where
the self-perpetuating nature of the electromagnetic radiation is the driving factor.
Near-field radiation is the region where the initiating impulse dominates. The
initiating impulse may be a current driving an antenna; it may be a spark
jumping a gap; it may be a changing current through a coil; it may even be a
spinning magnet. Whatever the initiating force, there is a point where the
electromagnetic radiation from that force exhibits far-field behavior.
The boundary between near-field effect and far-field effect is very indistinct.
And it depends very much on the particular circumstances. But as a general rule,
we transition from the near field to the far field in a distance of about one
wavelength. (See reference 9).
Maxwell’s Equations In the previous section, I summarized the four laws of
electromagnetics. Here they are again: Gauss’s Law of Electricity:
The electric flux out of any closed surface is proportional to the
total charge enclosed within the surface.
Gauss’s Law of Magnetism:
The net magnetic flux out of any closed surface is zero.
Ampere’s Law (as extended):
A changing electric field is accompanied by a changing
magnetic field at right angles to the change of the electric field.
Faraday’s Law:
A changing magnetic field is accompanied by a changing
electric field at right angles to the change of the magnetic field.
These are Maxwell’s equations in words! They are a qualitative statement of the
equations. You can’t solve a problem with them, but they summarize the
relationships among the variables.
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) took these relationships and quantified them
into a set of mathematical equations. Maxwell was a Scottish mathematician. He
was not particularly trained in physics or electricity. But he got interested in the
laws we have summarized above and in 1873 he published his Treatise On
Electricity and Magnetism. It was a monumental work that formed the basis for
our understanding of electromagnetic theory that remains unchanged to this day.
The Equations:
Maxwell’s equations are calculus equations that can be expressed in differential
or in integral form. Figure 9 (see reference 10) shows the differential form. The
integral form is shown in Appendix B. Earlier I used the term “elegant” to
describe the equations. By that I mean that they are, at least they appear to be,
very simple. Gauss’s two laws, for example, in their differential form, have only
three terms! Compare this with the pictures we have all seen of formulas that
stretch all the way across a blackboard.
Of course the simplicity of the formulas belies their complexity. The divergence
expression for example (in our case) denotes a three-dimensional vector
matrix operation that can be pretty intimidating. The curl operator can be
even more so.
 Figure 9
Maxwell’s equations in differential form Now once more, one of the beauties
behind this set of equations is that they describe a self-contained system. That is,
there are no other outside variables involved. And the number in internal
variables is relatively small. Modify any one of the variables (a field strength,
for example, or a position of a charge) and all the other internal variables
readjust without the involvement of any other outside variables.
So, while the quantitative equations themselves can be intimidating, the
qualitative statements behind the equations are very straightforward and even
somewhat intuitive. You don’t need to understand how to work with the
equations to recognize the importance of the relationships behind them.
Explanation of Terms: Note that in Maxwell’s four equations, there are only 6
variables, several of which are related. D and E are related. H and B both refer to
magnetic fields. And E and J are related by Ohm’s Law!
D and E:
We have seen the electric field, E, before. It has units of V/m. We got flux by
multiplying the electric field by area, resulting in V-m. D is flux density, which
is flux per unit area. You would think that this would simply get us back to the
electric field again, with units of V/m. Not quite!
It turns out that E depends on the material through which the field is flowing; D
does not. So the relationship between them is the value of the permittivity
(dielectric coefficient) of the material, e. (Do not confuse this with the relative
dielectric coefficient, er, which is the dielectric coefficient of the material divided
by the dielectric coefficient of air.) Their relationships are:

where q is the charge on a particle R distance away.

Rho is the volume charge density, measure in Coulombs per cubic meter, C/m3.
B and H:
H is the magnetic field, while B is the magnetic flux density (which is pretty
analogous to E and D, above.) They are related by the permeability of the
material in which the field flows:
J and E:
J is the current density, measured in Amps/m2. Now here is an interesting
relationship. All materials have a property called resistivity (also known as the
specific electrical resistance or the volume resistivity.) The units of resistivity are
Ohms-length, or Ohms-m. The relationship between E, J, and resistivity is:

Note: The Greek symbol rho in this equation is not the same as the symbol for
volume charge density used above!

If we express this equation in terms of units, we get: V/m = (Ohms-m) x

(Amps/m2) Or, Volts = Ohms x Amps We immediately recognize this as Ohm’s
Law, V = iR! The equation above is one of the earliest expressions of Ohm’s
Law.
Special Note:
We have seen above that:
The relationship between electric field and flux density is permittivity.
Permittivity is the ability of a material to store electrical energy (think
capacitor.) The relationship between magnetic field and magnetic flux
density is permeability. Permeability is the ability of the material to
store magnetic energy (think core of an inductor).
There two measures are not independent. In free space they are related to c, the

speed of light (see reference 11):

Where:

(F/m is Farads per meter; N/A is Newtons/Amp.)

Appendix A. A Brief Explanation of the Calculus:
The following is a brief explanation of the calculus involved in the differential
form of Maxwell’s Equations. This discussion assumes the reader has had some
exposure to calculus and to partial derivatives. If not, this will probably make
little sense!
First, assume we have a three-dimensional space in x,y,z coordinates. There is a
vector field flowing through the space. In the context of Maxwell’s Equations,
this would be a magnetic or an electric field (or maybe both). Pick a point, P1, in
this space. This point would have coordinates in x,y,z space. There is a vector at
that point. The vector has a magnitude and a direction.
Pick another point, P2, adjacent to P1. There is a vector at that point, also. It also
has a direction and a magnitude. If the field were a uniform field, then the
vectors at P1 and at P2 would have the same magnitude and direction. But in the
general case this would not be true. In fact, at every point in the space, Pi, there
would be a vector with its own magnitude and direction.
Now we can ask two interesting questions about the vector field at a point:
1. Is the field diverging away from the point, converging onto the point,
or staying uniform at that point? (In calculus terms, this is called
divergence.)
2. Is there a rotational component in the vector field around the point?
(As opposed to, perhaps, radiating directly towards or away from the
point.) In practical terms this would mean that two adjacent vectors
have different magnitudes, different directions, or both. (In calculus
terms, this is called curl.)
The inverted triangle in the equations is called the del operator (sometimes also
called nabla.) The way it works is as follows: The vector at a point has a
magnitude and direction that is (may be) a function of the x,y,z coordinates at
that point. Let’s imagine a hypothetical vector field, F, which varies in x,y,z

space this way:

Different publications may refer to an example like this using different
nomenclatures. Such nomenclatures may include: F = <fx,fy,fz> = <f1,f2,f3> =
<f,g,h> = <u,v,w> Divergence: The del operator dot-product is used to
determine the divergence. It would deal with our hypothetical example this way:
Under a different nomenclature system you may see this this way:

In our hypothetical example, the partial derivative of Fy (or g) with respect to y

would be 45x2y2 at that point in space.
Curl: The del operator cross-product is used to determine the curl at a point. It
works this way (using the f,g,h nomenclature for convenience):

The divergence operation results in a number (scalar). A positive value indicates

that the field is diverging away from the point, a negative number means that the
field is converging on the point. A zero value means that the field is uniform at
that point. The curl operation results in another vector, which itself has a
magnitude and a direction. Its direction is perpendicular to the direction of
rotation in the space.
At this point you can see why many people, even senior engineers, have trouble
working with Maxwell’s equations! They get pretty complicated when you start
peeling back the layers.

B. Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form

Figure B1
Maxwell’s equations in integral form
References:
1. Nobel prize winning physicist, Richard Feynman, explicitly describes
current as the flow of electrons in his book: QED, The Strange Theory
of Light and Matter, Princeton Scientific Library, 1985, p113
2. See my article What is This Thing Called "Current:" Electrons,
Displacement, Light, or What? Available for download at
http://www.ultracad.com/mentor.htm .
3. See Brooks, Douglas G, PCB Currents; How They Flow, How They
React, Prentice Hall, 2013, Part One, “Nature of Current.”
4. See my article Propagation Time available for download at
http://www.ultracad.com/article_outline.htm.
5. Source for image: http://ecuip.lib.uchicago.edu/multiwavelength-
astronomy/astrophysics/fields-and-particles/03.html.
6. Source for image: http://www.homofaciens.de/technics-magnetism_en_navion.htm.
7. There are many good sources of information on the Web for the basic
laws and for Maxwell’s Equations. Here is one:
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/maxeq2.html.
8. Source for image: http://www.school-for-
champions.com/science/ac_transformers.htm#.VCymJhb598E.
9. For a good discussion of near-field vs. far-field effects see:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near_and_far_field.
10. Source for Maxwell’s Equations:
http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations.
11. These equations can be found at http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/elefie.html#c4
12. The image of Maxwell used on the title page is in the public domain.
Taken from:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:James_clerk_maxwell.jpg