GIS for Beginners

Introductory GIS Concepts and

Hands-on Exercises

Prepared by
Basanta Shrestha
Birendra Bajracharya
Sushil Pradhan

Mountain Environment and Natural Resources’ Information Systems

International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
Copyright © 2001
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
All rights reserved

ISBN: 92 9115 393 1

Published by
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
GPO Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal

Editorial Team
Greta Rana (Senior Editor)
Jenny Riley (Consulting Editor)
Sushil Man Joshi (Technical Support and Layout)

The views and interpretations in this paper are those of the author(s). They are not
attributable to the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD)
and do not imply the expression of any opinion concerning the legal status of any
country, territory, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its
frontiers or boundaries.
Foreword
Geographic information systems (GIS) are computer-based tools for mapping
and analysing things that exist and events that happen around us. Our everyday
decisions are dependent on this type of analysis. With the rapid growth of GIS
and related technologies over the last two decades, GIS has become a vital
element in maintaining and integrating geographic-based information. In
today’s information society, GIS technology is moving into the mainstream of
the Information Technology (IT) industry and virtually influencing the way we
deal with many of our problems. It helps us to solve problems such as locating
a hospital or a facility, solid waste management, emergency vehicle routing,
earthquake disaster mapping, real state business and many more.

Also, GIS software and the hardware required to operate it have become much
more affordable and easy to use. This has resulted in the ability to develop GIS
without making huge investments in software, hardware, and support staff;
items that were once needed to implement them. GIS technology is rapidly
reaching the public and their use is changing the way we access information
and use it.

As GIS technology is taking hold in our society, it is important to create an

awareness of the technology and educate the public. With ICIMOD’s
experience in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan (HKH) region, it has been observed
that the popularity of GIS is growing rapidly. Through the Mountain
Environment and Natural Resources’ Information Systems (MENRIS)
programme, the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
(ICIMOD) is playing a catalytic role in promoting the use of GIS technology.

The demand for GIS training and education is continually on the rise. It is
important not only to train and educate scientists, professionals, and
technicians but also to bring about awareness and educate policy makers,
decision makers, school/college students, and the public. The manuscript of
this introductory text ‘GIS for Beginners’ with hands-on exercises was released
on the occasion of GIS Day 2000 Nepal to bring about awareness of GIS
technology and its applications. Encouraged by the welcome given to this
document at this very important event, ICIMOD is now publishing it. An
interactive CD-Rom for wider circulation with special emphasis on school
and college students will be available at a later date.

This publication is intended to serve as introductory reading material on GIS

to a wide-ranging audience. The publication introduces a collection of
everyday problems from a spatial perspective and provides an overview of basic
mapping concepts. It introduces basic GIS concepts and gives a brief overview
of GIS and related technologies. It also introduces how GIS can be used to
analyse complex problems and briefly discusses how to establish GIS. The
hands-on exercises provide an interactive introduction to GIS, which is drawn
along similar lines to the book ‘GIS for Everyone’ published by Environmental
Systems Research Institute (ESRI). The hands-on exercises provide a basic
understanding of digital maps and how to interact with them. The exercises
will help readers to answer basic geographic questions such as what, where,
how far, and what’s it like. The reader will learn to distinguish the difference
between the dynamic nature of digital maps and static paper maps. All the
exercises are based on ESRI-ArcExplorer freeware software with local datasets

This publication with the CD-ROM can be used for a short training course.
We hope that the materials thus developed will be useful in promoting GIS
technology in the region. Furthermore, the publication can be used as
supplementary material in schools and colleges as an extension of geography
and related courses.

We hope that the publication is of value to beginners and in promoting the

understanding and use of GIS in Nepal and in the region.

J. Gabriel Campbell PhD.

Director General, ICIMOD
Acknowledgements
The authors would like thank all the enthusiastic Participants of the
introductory GIS training course ‘GIS for Beginners’ (more than 120
participants from schools and colleges) held for the first time on the occasion
of GIS Day 2000 Nepal. Their valuable feedback and enquiries about the
training course has led us to publish this document. We would like to express
our gratitude to the Hon’l Member of the National Planning Commission, Dr.
Jagadish Chandra Pokharel, for formally launching the manuscript and the CD-
Rom. Also, we would like to acknowledge the presence of three prominent
geographers of Nepal, Professor Mangal Raj Joshi, Professor Upendra Man
Malla, and Professor Mangal Siddhi Manandhar on the occasion and their
valuable support for the cause of GIS in promoting geographic literacy.

We are grateful for the support of the former division head of MENRIS, Mr.
Pramod Pradhan, and other MENRIS staff Mr. Sushil Pandey, Mr. Pradeep
Mool, Mr. Saisab Pradhan, Mr. Govinda Joshi, Mr. Anirudra Shrestha, and Ms.
Monica Moktan. The help and assistance provided by Dr. Pushkar Pradhan,
Mr. Rajesh Thapa, Mr. Pawan Ghimire, Mr. Sagar Chapagain have been very
much appreciated.

More importantly, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to Mr Jack

and Mrs Laura Dangermond, who visited Nepal in late April 2001 and their
encouraging words and support to the GIS Day event and the ‘GIS for
Beginners’ manuscript. Mr. Jack Dangermond, ESRI President has been one of
the founder members of International GIS Day and his genuine efforts and
dedication for the cause of GIS Day and its promotion among the younger
generation have inspired us immensely.
Table of Contents
Part 1: Concepts 1

Chapter 1: Thinking Spatially 3

Floods in Kathmandu. It’s been raining too much! 3
Buying a new house 4
Let’s have a broader outlook 5

Chapter 2: You and Maps 9

Some examples 9
Use of maps 11
Map reading 12

Chapter 3: GIS 15
GIS functions 15
Questions GIS can answer 16
Geographic data 17
Organising attribute data 18
Metadata 19

Chapter 4: Data Capture 21

Data: the fuel 21
Types and sources of geographic data 21
Data capturing methods 21

Chapter 5: Remote Sensing 25

What is remote sensing? 25
Remote-sensing satellite 25
Why remote sensing? 25
How does remote sensing work? 25
Types of remote-sensing images 26
Remote-sensing images 26

Chapter 6: Global Positioning System 29

Components of the GPS 29
How GPS works? 30
GPS errors 31
Differential positioning 32
Integration of GPS and GIS 32

Chapter 7: Spatial Analysis 33

What is spatial analysis? 33
Spatial analysis functions 33
 Vector overlay 35
Raster overlay 35
Proximity analysis 37
Network analysis 38

Chapter 8: Presenting Your Results 39

Visualisation 39
Map design 40
Mapping methods 41
New map output types 43
Maps on the internet 44

Chapter 9: Implementing GIS 45

A working GIS 45

Part 2: Hands-on Exercises 47

Chapter 1: Understanding Digital Maps 49

Exploration 1-Look at Kathmandu 50

Chapter 2: Finding Answers with Digital Maps 57

Exploration 2-What is that? 57
Exploration 3-Where is it? 60
Exploration 4-How far is it? 64
Exploration 5-What’s it like? 65

Chapter 3: Telling Stories with Digital Maps 71

Exploration 6-A trip to Kirtipur municipality 71
Exploration 7-Symbolise a map of Nepal based on attributes 78
Exploration 8-Share your map of Nepal 81

Chapter 4: Building a Digital Map 85

Exploration 9-Make a map of Kathmandu from digital data 85

Bibliography and Resources 93

Glossary 95
Part 1 Concepts
 “The most incomprehensible thing about the world is that it is comprehensible.”
Albert Einstein

Chapter 1 Thinking Spatially

What’s going around you?
Floods in Kathmandu. It’s been raining too much!
This year’s monsoon has brought more rain than usual to the country and even
in Kathmandu there have been a number of floods (Figure 1.1). The effects of
haphazard urban growth are revealed in the form of loss of public property and
poor quality of life in areas where residential housing has been built without
consideration of the area’s suitability. The increasing population and the
scarcity of land mean that people are building houses on farms and lowland.

Although the Bagmati and the Bishnumati are

Source: Nepalnews.com

the two major rivers flowing through the

Kathmandu valley, it is the Tukucha and
Samakhusi rivers that give trouble more fre-
quently since their banks have been heavily
encroached by large buildings and squatter
settlements.

Seeing this story, a person, who is familiar with

Kathmandu, can visualise the scenario. He
knows these problem areas, how these localities
look and the types of houses that are prevalent
Figure 1.1 in these areas. This is called a mental map. It is
Flooded streets in generated from information stored consciously or unconsciously in a person’s
Kathmandu
brain over the years. However, mental maps are not sufficient if we want to
understand the problem in more detail or if we want to carry out remedial
work in these areas. Therefore, planners, engineers and construction workers
make use of maps and drawings to guide them around the area.

To find the areas that are most likely to be effected by floods, let’s demarcate
the area within 150 metres of these rivers (Figures 1.2 and 1.3). This buffer area
can be considered as the flood-prone zone. Now, if we want to make plans to
improve the situation, we need to involve local bodies such as the ward offices.
We should identify the stakeholders; these are the wards falling in these flood-
prone areas and the households that are likely to be affected by flooding. For
this, we need to identify the wards and then the households that lie within the
buffer zone (Figures 1.4 and 1.5).

What we have done is to look at rivers, wards and households, and relate them
based on their locations. This is called spatial reasoning. For this, we use maps
or spatial information.

thinking spatially 3
Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3
Kathmandu valley from space with rivers overlay Area within 150 m of Tukucha and Samakhusi
rivers

Figure 1.4 Figure 1.5

Wards that are intersected by the buffer zone List of households within the buffer zone

Buying a new house

People from all over Nepal migrate to
Kathmandu valley looking for jobs (Figure 1.6).
After some time, they think of buying a piece of
land and building a house; after all, everyone has
a dream of making a beautiful house. However,
there are many constraints to overcome before
this dream can come true.

The first thing is to find a suitable land. With

the rapid urban expansion in the valley, it is
becoming more difficult to find good places for
Figure 1.6
living. People have their preferences but there
Kathmandu valley
are common issues that need to be considered.

The land should be close enough to basic infrastructure such as roads, water
and electricity supplies. In Kathmandu, facilities such as water and electricity
are dependent on accessibility to roads. Figure 1.7 shows the area within 500 m
of major roads.

4 GIS for beginners

 Road buffer River buffer

Figure 1.7 Figure 1.8

Area within 500 m of major roads Area at least 500 m from major rivers

Steep slopes Suitable area

Figure 1.9 Figure 1.10

Areas with steep slopes Area suitable for building

We have already seen that there are places in the heart of the Kathmandu valley
that are frequently affected by floods. Figure 1.8 shows the area at least 500 m
from major rivers.

Also, the land should be safe from natural hazards such as landslides that occur
on steep slopes. The area that has a slope greater than 10 degrees is shown in
Figure 1.9. This land would not be suitable for building purposes.

Excluding all land that is not suitable because of road, river or slope criteria, we
find the area that is suitable for residence building (Figure 1.10).

We have used information based on geographic features—rivers, roads and

slope—and their relationships to solve our problem.

Let’s have a broader outlook

So far, we have discussed our desire to build a house and the need for im-
provements in the urban environment of Kathmandu valley. However, what is
the scenario if we look at the country as a whole? We know that there is a lot
to be done in all sectors and all regions of the country to improve the liveli-
hoods of the people. However, with our limited resources it is not possible

thinking spatially 5
 to meet all the needs at once. Then, how do we identify the most pressing
needs?

To make decisions for national priorities and

plans, many data are collected and presented in
tables. There are huge volumes of such publica-
tions. For example, the ratio of females to males
among the literate population of 15 years and
above looks like Figure 1.11.

Now, let us plot these figures on a map and see

how it looks (Figure 1.12).

Similarly, we can look at the indices for poverty

and deprivation, women’s empowerment,
socioeconomic and infrastructural development
Figure 1.11 in Nepal on a map (Figures 1.13, 1.14 and 1.15).
Data in tables

Source: ICIMOD 1997

Figure 1.12 Figure 1.13
Gender imbalance ratio in literacy status Poverty and deprivation index

Source: ICIMOD 1997

Figure 1.14 Figure 1.15

Women’s empowerment index Socioeconomic and infrastructural development
index
We can see that when we plot values on a map, things become clearer and it is
easier to make decisions. In this example, we can see that the situation in the
far western region is the poorest in all indices. Therefore, greater focus is
needed on development in this region.

6 GIS for beginners

What we see here is that when we add a spatial or geographic component to
our analysis, we have a better picture of the real-world scenario. This is often
called spatial thinking. It gives us better insight of our problems and allows us
to make better decisions.

The use of computerised information systems is a growing part of our everyday

life. GIS is one such system that uses the power of computers to answer
questions related to location by arranging and displaying data about places in a
variety of ways such as maps, charts and tables. In the following chapters, we
will discuss more about maps, mapping and GIS.

thinking spatially 7
8 GIS for beginners
 “A journey of a thousand miles starts in front of your feet.”
Lao Tzu

Chapter 2 You and Maps

Understanding the world better
After going through the examples in the previous section, you have probably
noticed one thing—we used lots of maps to give a clear picture of the areas
discussed. We have seen that maps are powerful means of conveying messages
related to places or location. Now let us look at maps in more detail.

A map is a picture of a place. It gives you a better understanding of that place. It

is a two dimensional representation of a particular place. Maps are made for
many reasons and, therefore, they vary in content and context. Different maps
show different information. Different symbols are used to represent the features
of the environment on a map. They are explained in the legend for each map.

Some examples
A photograph
A photograph shows a place as our eyes see it. However, the area that is viewed
on the ground is limited. It is often difficult to see a substantial landscape in
one photograph (Figure 2.1).

Aerial photograph
A photograph taken from an aircraft is known as an aerial photo (Figure 2.2).
These photographs are normally taken to prepare maps of an area. Aerial
photographs give a ‘birds-eye’ view of the earth’s surface. Features on earth
look different from above; consequently, field experience is needed to make
correct interpretations of these photographs.

Figure 2.1
A photograph of a
Figure 2.2
landscape
Aerial photograph

you and maps 9

 Shaded relief map
A shaded relief map shows how an area looks when sunlight is shining on it from a
particular direction (Figure 2.3). It gives an impression of the nature of the terrain.
We can visualise whether an area is plain or rugged by looking at these maps.

Topographic map
A topographic map (Figure 2.4) shows the shape of the earth’s surface by contour
(elevation) lines. Contours are the imaginary lines that join points of equal
elevation on the surface of land above or below a reference surface such as mean
sea level. These maps include symbols that represent features such as streets,
buildings, rivers and forests. Topographic maps are used by most applications as
the base map on which other features or phenomena are referenced.

Road/tourist map
Road maps show people the route for travelling from one place to another.
They show some physical features such as rivers and forests, and political
features such as cities and towns. Normally, tourist maps emphasise the
location of monuments and tourist spots.

3-D map
3-D maps show a phenomenon in three dimensions (Figure 2.6). They help us
visualise an area as a continuous surface that rises and falls showing the high and
low values of the phenomenon.

Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4

Shaded relief map Topographic map

Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6

Tourist map 3-D map

10 GIS for beginners

Use of maps
Maps give us a better understanding of a place. The information they contain
depends on the type of map. However, maps are used to obtain answers to the
following fundamental questions.

Location: where are we?

We sense our surroundings visually and attempt to locate ourselves with
relation to visible features in the surroundings. We use rivers, mountains,
buildings, trees and other landmarks to make a reference to where we stand.
Similarly, we also think of places in terms of other places. For example, you
know where you live relative to your friends’ houses, your school and the
supermarket you visit.

Since these features are depicted on a map with their positions relative to each
other, we can locate ourselves by relating these features on the map and these
features in our surroundings. To know exactly where we stand in a more
scientific way, maps also provide information on latitude and longitude, the co-
ordinate system to measure all places on the earth.

Navigation: where are we going?

Travelling is a part of our daily life, whether it is going from our house to
school or going from one city to another. Travel depends on skills of naviga-
tion; this is the ability to find a route from one place to another and back. Maps
have been used as an aid for navigation since ancient times. From a tourist in a
new town to a captain of an aeroplane, everybody uses maps and navigation
charts as a guide to reach to their destinations.

Information: what else is here?

Apart from road maps and topographic maps that help us locate ourselves and
navigate, there are many other types of maps, which are made for conveying
information on a specific topic. These are known as thematic maps. They are
made for a purpose. Maps of rainfall, temperature, earthquake zones, house-
hold incomes or spread of typhoid are thematic maps that give us information
on a theme in the area concerned.

Exploring: where do we go from here?

With developments in science and space technology, the making of maps and
expansion of their uses have made great progress in the last few decades.
Developments in data acquisition techniques—such as remote sensing, digital
photogrammetry and global positioning—and the graphic capabilities of
computers have greatly changed mapping techniques and practices.

Mapping technologies are being used in many new applications. Biological

researchers are exploring the molecular structure of DNA or mapping the
genome, geophysicists are mapping the structure of the earth’s core, oceanogra-
phers are mapping the ocean floor and so on. Mapping techniques are being
used to explore the relationships between ideas in what is known as concept
mapping.

you and maps 11

 Map reading
Reading a map means interpreting the
Lines colours, lines and other symbols.
(eg road center lines)
Features are shown as points, lines or
3D Surface
areas depending upon their size and
(eg topography) extent (Figure 2.7). Besides recognis-
ing the features, knowing their
locations and distances accurately is
Area or Polygons also important. Map symbols and
(eg building footprints) map scale provide this information.

Point features
Point features or geographically
Points defined occurrences are features
(eg school locations) whose location can be represented by
Figure 2.7 a single x, y or x, y, z location. Points
Types of map have no linear or area dimensions but simply define the location of a physical
feature feature (e.g. control point monument, sign, utility pole) or an occurrence (e.g.
accident).

Line features
Lines represent features that have a linear extent but no area dimensions.
Centrelines of roads, water mains and sewer mains are examples of line
features.

Area features
Area features, also called polygons, have a defined two-dimensional extent and
are delimited by boundary lines that encompass an area. Typical area features
are maintenance districts and soil types.

Three-dimensional surfaces
Some geographic phenomena are best suited to representation in three-
dimensional form covering an area. The most frequent example is surface
terrain often represented by contour lines that have an elevation value. This
concept can be applied to other spatially continuous data as well. For instance,
population density or income levels could be mapped as a third dimension to
support demographic analysis or water consumption statistics.

Scale
Map scale describes the relationship between mapped size and actual size. It is
expressed as a relationship between linear distances on the map and corre-
sponding ground distance. Two methods of notating scale are commonly used.

Inch–foot equivalent. The scale relationship is expressed as ‘1 inch = x feet’

where the map distance of 1 inch equates to its corresponding ground distance.

Representative fraction (RF). This is a pure fraction that represents the ratio of
map distance to ground distance without specifying any measurement unit. The

12 GIS for beginners

 inch–foot equivalent of 1 inch = 100 foot is represented in RF form as 1:1200
or 1/1200.

Large-scale maps cover small areas and usually include a greater level of detail
than small-scale maps that depict larger areas in lesser detail. There are no
precise definitions for large or small scale but, for most map users, the follow-
ing general scale categories apply.

Large scale: 1" = 50' to 1" = 200' (1:240 to 1:1200)

Medium scale: 1" = 100' to 1" = 1000' (1:1200 to 1:12,000)
Small scale: 1" = 1000' to 1" = 5000' (1:6000 to 1:60,000)
Very small scale: 1" = 5000' and smaller (1:60,000 and smaller)

Symbols
The meaning of each symbol used in a
map is described in the map’s legend.
However, many symbols in topographic
maps have become conventional and can
be interpreted without looking at the
legend. For example, an area feature
shown in green is vegetation, blue is
Tourist water and a built-up area is grey or red.
Similarly, many line symbols such as
curved, dashed, dotted or a combination
are used to show various features.
Usually the contours are brown, streams
and canals are blue, roads are red and
black, and borders are black dash-dots.
Various point symbols are used to show
schools, hospitals, temples and so on.
Figure 2.8 presents some of the standard
symbology used in map making.

Map projection
Topographic
A globe is the best way to show the
Figure 2.8 relative positions of places but it is
Map symbols neither portable nor practical for large scales (Figure 2.9). The three-dimen-
sional shape of the earth means that it is not possible to depict
locations and features directly on to a two-dimensional map space
without some distortions. (Try to flatten the skin of an orange on to
a piece of paper.) Map projection is a procedure to transform
locations and features from the three-dimensional surface of the
earth on to two-dimensional paper in a defined and consistent way.

The transformation of map information from a sphere to a flat sheet

can be accomplished in many ways. Mapmakers have invented
Figure 2.9 projections that show distances, directions, shapes or areas as they
A Globe are on a globe to at least some extent. Each projection has advantages

you and maps 13

Figure 2.10
Plate carree projection and albers equal area projection

Figure 2.11 Figure 2.12

Conical projections Cylindrical projections

and disadvantages. Orthographic projections, for example, show shapes as they

appear when the globe is viewed from space. Equal-area projections do not
distort the size of areas but do distort their shape. Conformal projections are
those on which the scale is the same in any direction at any point on the map.
Many projections retain one geometric quality and a few retain more than one,
but no single projection can accurately portray area, shape, scale and direction
(Figures 2.10, 2.11 and 2.12).

14 GIS for beginners

 “The new source of power is not money in the hands of a few but information in
the hands of man.”
John Naisbitt

Chapter 3 GIS
A tool for decision-making
Every day you wake at 6 o’clock in the morning. At 8 o’clock you go to school
which is four kilometres south of your house. You return home at 4 o’clock in
the afternoon travelling along the same route. Then at 5 o’clock you call your
friends and go for a game of football at the nearby playground that is 10 minutes
walk from your house. Many of our activities are related to place and time in
one way or the other. Planning and decision-making—whether it is planning a
new road or finding a suitable location for a health centre—are influenced or
dictated by location or a geographic component. The major challenges we face
in the world today—over-population, deforestation, natural disasters—have a
critical geographic dimension.

Sample points
Our geography can be considered as a number
of related data layers as illustrated in Figure 3.1.
GIS combine layers of information about a
River
place to give an understanding of that place.
Which layers of information are combined
Administrative
depends on a purpose: for example, finding the
units best location for a new supermarket, assessing
environmental damage, tracking delivery
vehicles or modelling the global environment.
A GIS stores information about the world as a
collection of thematic layers that can be linked
together by geography. This simple but ex-
tremely powerful and versatile concept has
Figure 3.1 proven invaluable for solving many real-world
Geography in layers problems.

In the strictest sense, GIS are computer systems for collecting, storing, ma-
nipulating and displaying geographic information. There are many definitions
for GIS. However, their major characteristic is geographic (spatial) analysis
functions that provide a means for deriving new information based on location.

GIS functions
There are four basic functions of GIS: data capture, data management, spatial
analysis and presenting results.

Data capture
Data used in GIS come from many sources, are of many types and are stored in
different ways. A GIS provides tools and methods for the integration of data
into a format so that data can be compared and analysed. Data sources are

GIS 15
mainly manual digitisation/scanning of aerial photographs, paper maps and
existing digital data. Remote-sensing satellite imagery and GPS are also data
input sources.

Data management
After data are collected and integrated, a GIS provides facilities that can contain
and maintain data. Effective data management includes the following aspects:
data security, data integrity, data storage and retrieval, and data maintenance.

Spatial analysis
Spatial analysis is the most important function of a GIS that makes it distinct
from other systems such as computer aided design and drafting (CADD). The
spatial analysis provides functions such as spatial interpolation, buffering and
overlay operations.

Presenting results
One of the most exciting aspects of GIS is the variety of ways in which infor-
mation can be presented once it has been processed. Traditional methods of
tabulating and graphing data can be supplemented by maps and three-dimen-
sional images. These capabilities have given rise to new fields such as explora-
tory cartography and scientific visualisation. Visual presentation is one of the
most remarkable capabilities of GIS that allows for effective communication of
results.

Questions GIS can answer

GIS can be distinguished by listing the types of questions it can answer.

Location: What is at…?

This question seeks to find what exists at a particular location. A location can
be described in many ways using, for example, a place name, postcode or
geographic reference such as longitude/latitude or x and y.

Condition: Where is it…?

This question is the converse of the first and requires spatial data to answer.
Instead of identifying what exists at a given location, one may wish to find
locations where certain conditions are satisfied (e.g. a non-forest area of at least
2000 m2 within 100 m of a road and with soils suitable for supporting buildings).

Trends: What has changed since…?

This question might involve both of the first two and seeks to find the differ-
ences within an area over time, e.g., changes in forest cover or the extent of
urbanisation over the last ten years.

Patterns: What spatial pattern exists…?

This question is more sophisticated. It might be asked to determine whether
landslides are occurring mostly near streams or to find out at which traffic
points accidents are occurring most frequently. It might be just as important to
know how many anomalies there are and where they are located.

16 GIS for beginners

 Modelling: What if…?
This question is posed to determine what happens if, for example, a new road
is added to a network or a toxic substance seeps into the local groundwater
supply. Answering this type of question requires both geographic and other
information (as well as specific models).

Geographic data
There are two important components of geographic data: geographic position
and attributes or properties. In other words, spatial data (where is it?) and
attribute data (what is it?). Geographic position specifies the location of a
feature or phenomenon by using a coordinate system. The attributes refer to
the properties of spatial entities such as identity (e.g. maize, granite, lake),
ordinal (e.g. ranking such as class 1, class 2, class 3) and scale (e.g. value such as
water depth, elevation, erosion rate). They are often referred to as non-spatial
data since they do not in themselves represent location information.

Raster and vector data

Spatial features in a GIS database are stored in either vector or raster form. GIS
data structures adhering to a vector format store the position of map features as
pairs of x, y (and sometimes z) coordinates. A point is described by a single x-y
coordinate pair and by its name or label. A line is described by a set of co-
ordinate pairs and by its name or label. In theory, a line is described by an
infinite number of points. In practice, this is not feasible. Therefore, a line is
built up of straight-line segments. An area, also called a polygon, is described
by a set of coordinate pairs and by its name or label with the difference that the
coordinate pairs at the beginning and end are the same (Figure 3.2).

A vector format represents the location and shape of features and boundaries
precisely. Only the accuracy and scale of the map compilation process, the
resolution of input devices and the skill of the data-inputter limit precision.

In contrast, the raster or grid-based format generalises map features as cells or

pixels in a grid matrix (Figure 3.3). The space is defined by a matrix of points

Columns
Rows
Polygon

Point

Line

Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3

Vector format Raster format

GIS 17
Vector or cells organised into rows and columns. If the
map rows and columns are numbered, the position
of each element can be specified by using
column number and row number. These can be
linked to coordinate positions through the
Grid introduction of a coordinate system. Each cell
matrix has an attribute value (a number) that represents
a geographic phenomenon or nominal data such
as land-use class, rainfall or elevation. The
fineness of the grid (in other words, the size of
Raster the cells in the grid matrix) will determine the
map level of detail in which map features can be
represented. There are advantages to the raster
format for storing and processing some types of
data in GIS. The vector–raster relationship is
Figure 3.4 shown in Figure 3.4.
Vector–raster
relationship Organising attribute data
GIS use raster and vector representations to model earth features or phenom-
ena. Apart from locations, GIS must also record information about them. For
example, the centre line that represents a road on a map does not tell you much
about the road except its location. To determine the road’s width or pavement
type or condition, such information should be
stored so that it can be accessed by the system as
needed. This means that the GIS must provide a
linkage between spatial and non-spatial data.
These linkages make the GIS ‘intelligent’ as the
user can store and examine information about
where things are and what they are like. The
linkage between a map feature and its attributes
is established by giving each feature at least one
unique means of identification—a name or
number usually called its ID. Non-spatial
attributes of the feature are then stored, usually
in one or more separate files, under this ID
number (Figure 3.5)
Figure 3.5
Linking attribute
This non-spatial data can be filed in several forms depending on how it needs
data
to be used and accessed. Many GIS software use the relational database manage-
ment systems (RDBMS) to handle attribute data.

A relational database is the perception of data as series of tables that are logi-
cally associated with each other by shared attributes (Figure 3.6). Any data
element in a relationship can be found by knowing the table name, the attribute
(column) name and the value of the primary key. The advantage of these
systems is that they are flexible and can answer any question formulated with
logical and mathematical operators.

18 GIS for beginners

Figure 3.6 Metadata
Relational database Metadata are simply defined as ‘data about data’. It gives the information about
management system
the content, source, quality, condition and other relevant characteristics of the
data (Figure 3.7). For instance, it may describe the content as road or land-use
data, the source as where the data have come from, the quality as the level of
accuracy, the condition as whether the data are outdated or partial and so on.

Figure 3.7
Metadata

GIS 19
20 GIS for beginners
 “A decision is as good as the information that goes into it.”
John F. Bookout, Jr.

Chapter 4 Data Capture

How to feed maps into your computer
Data: the fuel
The geographic data are information about the earth’s surface and the objects
found on it. Data are fuel to a GIS. How can we feed data such as a map into a
GIS? Data capture is the process of putting information into the system. A wide
variety of sources can be used for creating geographic data.

Types and sources of geographic data

Geographic data are generally available in two forms: analogue data and digital
data. Analogue data are a physical product displaying information visually on
paper, e.g. maps. Digital data are information in a computer-readable form, e.g.
satellite data (Figure 4.1).

There are various sources for obtaining these types of data. For example, as
shown in Figure 4.2, the sources are maps, aerial photographs, satellite images,
existing tabular data (in analogue and digital format) and field data (GPS). A
GIS is able to capture these different types of data from various sources.
Creating a database, i.e. capturing the data, is the initial and time-consuming
stage of a GIS project.

Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2

Analogue and digital data Data sources

Data capturing methods

Data capturing methods from various sources commonly used in a
GIS are briefly discussed below (Figure 4.3).

Photogrammetric compilation
The primary source used in the process of photogrammetric
compilation is aerial photography. Generally, the process involves
Figure 4.3a using specialised equipment (a stereoplotter) to project overlapping
Arial photography aerial photos so that a viewer can see a three-dimensional picture of

data capture 21
 the terrain. This is known as a photogrammetric model. The current techno-
logical trend in photogrammetry is toward a greater use of digital procedures
for map compilation.

Digitising
A digitising workstation with a digitising tablet and cursor is
typically used to trace digitise. Both the tablet and cursor are
connected to a computer that controls their functions. Most
digitising tablets come in standard sizes that relate to engineering
drawing sizes (A through E and larger). Digitising involves
tracing with a precise cross hair in the digitising cursor features
on a source map that is taped to the digitising tablet and instruct-
ing the computer to accept the location and type of the feature.
Figure 4.3b The person performing the digitising may input separate features
Digitiser into map layers or attach an attribute to identify the feature.

Map scanning
Optical scanning systems automatically capture map features, text
and symbols as individual cells or pixels and produce an auto-
mated product in raster format. Scanning outputs files in raster
form, usually in one of several compressed formats to save
storage space (e.g. TIFF 4, JPEG). Most scanning systems
provide software to convert raster data to vector format that
differentiates point, line and area features. Scanning systems and
software are becoming more sophisticated with some ability to
Figure 4.3c interpret symbols and text, and store this information in
Map scanner databases. Creating an intelligent GIS database from a scanned map will require
vectorising the raster data and manual entry of attribute data from a scanned
annotation.

Satellite data
Earth resources satellites have become a source of huge amounts
of data for GIS applications. The data obtained from satellites are
in digital form and can be imported directly into a GIS. There
are numerous satellite data sources such as LANDSAT or SPOT.
A new generation of high-resolution satellite data, that will
Figure 4.3d increase opportunities and options for GIS database develop-
Satellite data ment, are becoming available from private sources and national
governments. These satellite systems will provide panchromatic
(black and white) or multi-spectral data in the 1-m to 3-m ranges
as compared to the 10-m to 30-m range available from traditional
remote sensing satellites.

Field data collection

Advances in hardware and software have greatly increased
opportunities for capture of GIS data in the field (e.g. utility sign
inventory, property surveys, land-use inventories). In particular,
Figure 4.3e electronic survey systems and the global positioning systems
GPS

22 GIS for beginners

(GPS) have revolutionised surveying and field data collection. Electronic
distance measurement services allow for survey data to be gathered quickly in
an automated form for uploading to a GIS. Sophisticated GPS collection units
provide a quick means of capturing the coordinates and attributes of features in
the field.

Tabular data entry

Some of the tabular attribute data that are normally in a GIS database exist on
maps as annotation or can be found in paper files. Information from these
sources that is required for GIS applications has to be converted to a digital
form through keyboard entry. This kind of data entry is commonplace and
relatively easy to accomplish.

Document scanning
Smaller format scanners can also be used to create raster files of documents
such as permit forms, service cards, site photographs, etc. These documents
can be indexed in a relational database by number, type, date, engineering
drawings, etc., and queried and displayed by users. GIS applications can be
built that allow users to point to and retrieve for display a scanned document
(e.g., tax parcel) interactively.

Translation of existing digital data

Existing automated data may be available from existing tabular files maintained
by outside sources. Many programmes are available that perform this transla-
tion. In fact, there are many GIS packages with programmes that translate data
to and from several ‘standard’ formats that are accepted widely by the mapping
industry. They have been used as intermediate ‘exchange’ formats for moving
data between platforms (e.g. Intergraph SIF, TIGER, Shapefile and AutoCAD
DXF).

data capture 23
24 GIS for beginners
 “To envision information—and what bright and splendid visions can result—is to
work at the intersection of image, word, number, art.”
Edward R. Tufte

Chapter 5 Remote Sensing

Big Brother is watching you ...
What is remote sensing?
We perceive the surrounding world through our five senses. Some senses
(touch and taste) require contact of our sensing organs with the objects.
However, we acquire much information about our surrounding through the
senses of sight and hearing that do not require close contact between the
sensing organs and the external objects. In other words, we are performing
remote sensing all the time.

Generally, remote sensing refers to the activities

of recording/observing/perceiving (sensing)
objects or events at distant (remote) places.

Remote sensing is defined as the science and

technology by which the characteristics of
objects of interest can be identified, measured
or analysed without direct contact. Remote
sensing deals with gathering information about
the Earth from a distance. This can be done a
few metres from the Earth’s surface, from an
aircraft flying hundreds thousands of metres
Figure 5.1 above the surface or by a satellite orbiting
Earth from space hundreds of kilometres above the Earth.

Remote-sensing satellite
Remote-sensing satellites are equipped with
sensors that look down at the earth. They are
‘eyes in the sky’ constantly observing the earth
(Figure 5.2).

Why remote sensing?

Figure 5.2 Remote-sensing satellite images gives a synoptic
Remote sensing satellite (bird’s eye) view of any place on the Earth’s
surface. This allows us to study, map and
monitor the Earth’s surface at local and/or regional/global scales. It is cost
effective and gives better spatial coverage compared to ground sampling.

How does remote sensing work?

Electro-magnetic radiation reflected or emitted from an object is the usual
source of remote sensing data. A device to detect the electro-magnetic radiation
reflected or emitted is called a remote sensor or sensor. Cameras or scanners

remote sensing 25
 are examples of remote sensors. A vehicle to carry the sensor is called a plat-
form. Aircraft or satellites are used as platforms.

The characteristics of an object can be deter-

Platform Sun
mined using its reflected or emitted electro-
magnetic radiation. That is ‘each object has a
Sensor unique characteristic of reflection or emission
Atmosphere if the object type or environmental conditions
are different’. Remote sensing is a technology to
identify and understand the object or the
Reflection
Emmision environmental conditions through the unique-
ness of its electro-magnetic reflection or
emission. This concept is illustrated in Figure
5.3.
Object
Types of remote-sensing images
Figure 5.3
Presently there are several remote-sensing
Remote-sensing
satellite series in operation. Different satellite
systems have different characteristics—e.g. resolutions, number of bands—and
have their own importance for different applications. Some major satellite
systems and their major characteristics are given in the table below.

Remote-sensing images
Remote-sensing images are normally digital images (Figure 5.4). In order to
extract useful information, image processing techniques are applied to enhance
the image to help visual interpretation, and to correct or restore the image if
the image has been subjected to geometric distortion, blurring or degradation
by other factors. There are many image analysis techniques available and the
method used depends upon the requirements of the specific problem con-
cerned.

Use of remote-sensing data in GIS

Remote-sensing data can be integrated with various other geographic data.
There has been an increasing trend in integration of remote-sensing data into

Figure 5.4
Satellite Image of Kathmandu

26 GIS for beginners

Figure 5.5 Figure 5.6
Kathmandu urban area observed from an ADEOS- 3-D perspective of the Kathmandu valley gener-
AVNIR M Japanese satellite image, 1997, and ated by draping a LANDSAT-TM, 1988, satellite
overlaid with road and river features image over a DEM

GIS for analytical purposes. There are many ways to use remote-sensing data;
some examples are illustrated as below.

Land cover maps or vegetation maps classified from remote-sensing data can be
overlaid on to other geographic data to enable analysis for environmental
monitoring and its change.

Image data are sometimes also used as image maps, with an overlay of political
boundaries, roads, rivers, etc. Such an image map can be successfully used for
visual interpretation (Figure 5.5 and 5.6).

remote sensing 27
28 GIS for beginners
 “Knowing where you are is so basic to life.”
Jeff Hurn, Trimble Navigation

Chapter 6 Global Positioning System

Where do I stand?
Knowing where you are and where you are going was the most crucial and
challenging task faced by explorers in ancient times. Positioning and navigation
are extremely important to many activities, and many tools and techniques have
been adopted for this purpose. People have used a magnetic compass, sextant or
theodolite and measured the positions of the sun, moon and stars to find their
own position. More recently, a global positioning system (GPS) has been
developed by the US Department of Defence (DoD) for world-wide position-
ing at a cost of 12 billion US dollars.

GPS is a world-wide radio-navigation system formed from a constellation of

24 satellites and their ground stations. It uses these ‘man-made stars’ as
reference points to calculate positions accurate to a matter of metres. GPS
receivers are remarkably economical and have made the technology accessi-
ble to virtually everyone. The GPS provides continuous three-dimensional
positioning 24 hours a day to military and civilian users throughout the
world. These days, GPS is finding its way into cars, boats, planes, construc-
tion equipment, farm machinery and even laptop computers. It has tremen-
dous scope for use in GIS data collection, surveying and mapping. GPS is
increasingly used for precise positioning of geospatial data and collection of
data in the field.

Components of the GPS

The global positioning system is divided into three major components: the
control segment, the space segment and the user segment. All three segments
are required to perform positional determination.

Control segment
The Control Segment consists of five monitoring stations—Colorado Springs,
Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Hawaii and
Kwajalein Island (Figure 6.1). Colorado Springs
serves as the master control station. The control
segment is the sole responsibility of the DoD
who undertakes its construction, launching,
maintenance and constant monitoring of all
GPS satellites. The monitoring stations track all
GPS signals for use in controlling the satellites
and predicting their orbits.
Figure 6.1
Control segment

global positioning system 29

 Space segment
The space segment consists of the constellation of Earth-orbiting satellites. The
satellites are arrayed in six orbital planes inclined 55 degrees to the equator (Figure
6.2). They orbit at an altitude of about 12,000 miles. Each satellite contains four
precise atomic clocks (Rubidium and Cesium standards) and has a microprocessor
on board for limited self-monitoring and data processing. The satellites are
equipped with thrusters that can be used to maintain or modify their orbits.

User segment
The user segment consists of all Earth-based GPS receivers (Figure 6.3).
Receivers vary greatly in size and complexity although the basic design is rather
simple. The typical receiver is composed of an antenna and preamplifier, radio-
signal microprocessor, control and display device, data recording unit and
power supply. The GPS receiver decodes the timing signals from the ‘visible’
satellites (four or more) and, having calculated their distances, computes its
own latitude, longitude, elevation and time. This is a continuous process and
generally the position is updated on a second-by-second basis. It is output to
the receiver display device and, if the receiver provides data capture capabili-
ties, stored by the receiver logging unit.

Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3

Space segment GPS receiver

How GPS works?

The GPS uses satellites and computers to
calculate positions anywhere on earth based on
satellite ranging. This means that a position on
Earth is determined by measuring its distance
from a group of satellites in space. The GPS
measures the time it takes for a radio message to
travel from each satellite to the position on
Earth. For this, it needs an extremely accurate
clock. It then converts this time into a distance
Figure 6.4 and, using triangulation, calculates each satel-
GPS triangulation lite’s distance from Earth. It then needs to know where each satellite is in
space. To compute a satellite’s position in three dimensions, the GPS needs
to have four satellite measurements. It uses a trigonometric approach to

30 GIS for beginners

calculate these positions (Figure 6.4). The satellites are so high that their
orbits are very predictable.

GPS errors
Although the GPS looks like a perfect system,
there are a number of sources of errors that are
difficult to eliminate (Figure 6.5). The ultimate
accuracy of GPS is determined by some of these
several sources of error.

Satellite errors
Slight inaccuracies in time-keeping by satellites
can cause errors in calculating positions on Earth.
Also, the satellite’s position in space is important
because it is used for the starting point of the
calculations. Although GPS satellites are at extremely high orbits and are
relatively free from the perturbing effects of atmosphere, they still drift slightly
from their predicted orbits. This contributes to errors.

The atmosphere
The GPS signals have to travel through charged particles and water vapour in
the atmosphere. This slows their transmission. Since the atmosphere varies in
different places and times, it is not possible to compensate accurately for the
delays that occur.

Multipath error
As the GPS signal arrives on the Earth’s surface, it may be reflected by local
obstructions before it reaches the receiver’s antenna. This is called multipath
error because the signal reaches the antenna along multiple paths.

Receiver error
Receivers are also not perfect. They introduce errors that usually occur from
their clocks or internal noise.

Selective availability
Selective availability (SA) was the intentional error introduced by the DoD
to make sure that hostile forces could not use the accuracy of the GPS
against the US or its allies. Some noise was introduced into the GPS
satellite clocks that reduced their accuracy. The satellites were also given
erroneous orbital data that were transmitted as part of each satellite’s status
message. These two factors significantly reduced the accuracy of GPS for
civilian uses. On 1 May 2000, the US Government announced a decision to
discontinue the intentional degradation of the GPS signals to the public.
Civilian users of GPS are now able to pinpoint locations up to ten times
more accurately. The decision to discontinue SA is the latest measure in an
on-going effort to make GPS more responsive to civil and commercial uses
world-wide.

global positioning system 31

 Differential positioning
To eliminate most of the errors discussed above,
the technique of differential positioning is
applied. Differential GPS carries the triangula-
tion principle one step further, with a second
receiver at a known reference point. The refer-
ence station is placed on the control point—a
triangulated position or the control point co-
ordinate. This allows for a correction factor to be
calculated and applied to other roving GPS units
Figure 6.6 used in the same area and in the same time series.
Differential position- This error correction allows for a considerable amount of error to be ne-
ing gated—potentially as much as 90 per cent. The error correction can either be
post-processed or in real time (Figure 6.6).

Integration of GPS and GIS

It is possible to integrate GPS positioning in GIS for field data collection. GPS
is also used in remote-sensing methods such as photogrammetry, aerial scan-
ning and video technology. GPS is an effective tool for GIS data capture. The
GIS user community benefits from the use of GPS for locational data capture
in various GIS applications. The GPS can easily be linked to a laptop computer
in the field and, with appropriate software, users can place all their data on a
common base with little distortion. Thus, GPS can help in several aspects of
the construction of accurate and timely GIS databases.

32 GIS for beginners

 “Knowing where things are and why is essential to rational decision-making.”
Jack Dangermond

Chapter 7 Spatial Analysis

Playing with places
When you think of a name and address database, you probably visualise a table
of data in rows and columns. What you might miss is that each of these records
represents a person or family that lives in a particular place (location). Further-
more, that particular place (location) can tell us something about a person’s
standard of living, neighbourhood, access to schools, access to hospital,
distance to the main market, vulnerability to local crime, exposure to pollution
levels and so on. Through GIS analysis, it allows us to visualise the ‘bigger
picture’ by allowing us to see patterns and relationships within the geographic
data. The results of analysis give insight into a place, help focus actions or select
an appropriate option. The beauty of GIS is its ability to perform spatial
analysis.

What is spatial analysis?

Spatial analysis is a process for looking at geographic patterns in data and
relationships between features. The actual methods used can be simple—just a
map of the theme being analysed—or more complex involving models that
mimic the world by combining many data layers.

Spatial analysis allows us to study real-world processes. It gives information

about the real world that may be the present situation of specific areas and
features or the changes or trends in a situation. For instance, it may be able to
answer ‘where and by how much are forest areas decreasing or increasing?’ or
‘where are urban areas growing in the Kathmandu valley?’ and so on.

Spatial analysis functions

Spatial analysis functions range from simple database query to arithmetic and
logical operation to complicated model analysis. Each of these functions is
briefly described below.

Database query
Database query is used to retrieve attribute data without altering the existing
data. The function can be performed by simply clicking on the feature or by
means of a conditional statement for complex queries. The conditional state-
ment can involved Boolean (logical) operators—and, or, not, xor (exclusive of
or)—or relational (conditional) operators—=, >, <, <> (not equal to). An
example of Boolean operators that combine more than two conditions is
shown in Figure 7.1.

spatial analysis 33
Figure 7.1
Boolean operations For example, in Figure 7.2, the Boolean operator used is ([LandUse] = ‘Agri-
culture’) OR ([LandUse] = ‘Shrub’).

Reclassification
(Re)classification operations involve the reassignment of thematic values to
categories of an existing map. The following are examples.
• Classify an elevation map into classes with intervals of 500 m (Figure 7.3).
• Reclassify a VDC (village development committee) map based on popula-
tion density (Figure 7.4).

Overlay
Figure 7.2 Overlay is at the core of GIS analysis operations. It combines several spatial
Selection using
features to generate new spatial elements. Overlay can be defined as a spatial
Boolean operators

34 GIS for beginners

Figure 7.3 Figure 7.4
Classification of an elevation map of Kathmandu Classification of a VDC map of Kathmandu valley
valley into different intervals based on population density, 1991

operation that combines various geographic layers to generate new informa-

tion. Overlay is done using arithmetic, Boolean and relational operators, and is
performed in both vector and raster domains.

Vector overlay
During vector overlay, map features and their associated attributes are inte-
grated to produce a new composite map. Logical rules can be applied to
determine how the maps are combined. Vector overlay can be performed on
various types of map feature: polygon-on-polygon, line-on-polygon, point-on-
polygon (Figure 7.5). During the process of overlay, the attribute data associ-
ated with each feature type are merged. The resulting table will contain all the
attribute data.

Figure 7.5
Vector overlay Raster overlay
In raster overlay, the pixel or grid cell values in each map are combined using
arithmetic and Boolean operators to produce a new value in the composite
map. The maps can be treated as arithmetic variables and perform complex
algebraic functions. The method is often described as map algebra (Figure 7.6).
The raster GIS provides the ability to perform map layers mathematically. The
map algebraic function uses mathematical expressions to create new raster
layers by comparing them.

spatial analysis 35
Figure 7.6
Map algebra There are three groups of mathematical operators in the map calculator:
arithmetic, Boolean, and relational.
• Arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /) allow for the addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division of two raster maps or numbers or a combina-
tion of the two.
• Boolean operators (and, not, or, xor) use Boolean logic (true or false) on
the input values. Output values of true are written as 1 and false as 0.
• Relational operators (<=, <>, =, >, >=) evaluate specific relational
conditions. If the condition is true, the output is assigned 1; if the condi-
tion is false, the output is assigned 0.

Figure 7.7 shows examples of simple raster overlay using different logical
operators.

The following GIS application illustrates land-use and land-cover changes over
time in the Kathmandu Valley (Figure 7.8). The analysis is done by overlaying
land-use/land-cover data from different dates. The figure shows the land-use/
land-cover data for 1978 and 1995, and the changes between 1978 and 1995
derived from these data.
Figure 7.7
Raster overlay This is the analysis of connectivity between points, lines and polygons in terms
using ‘and’ and ‘or’ of distance, area, travel time, optimum paths, etc. Connectivity analysis consists
logical operators of the following analyses.

36 GIS for beginners

 Land use/cover of Kathmandu Land use/cover of Kathmandu Land use/cover of Kathmandu
Valley, 1978 Valley, 1995 Valley, 1978-1995

Figure 7.8
Land-cover change in Proximity analysis
the Kathmandu Proximity analysis is the measurement of distances from points, lines and
valley between 1978
and 1995
boundaries of polygons. One of the most popular types of proximity analysis is
‘buffering’ by which a buffer zone with a given distance is generated around a
point, line or area as shown in Figure 7.9.
Buffering is easier to generate for raster data
than for vector data.

Figure 7.10 shows walking distance from the

ICIMOD building.

Figure 7.9
Buffer operations Figure 7.10
Walking distances from ICIMOD

spatial analysis 37
 Network analysis
Network analysis is commonly used for analysing the movement of resources
from one location to another through a set of interconnected features. It
includes determination of optimum paths using specified decision rules. The
decision rules are likely to be based on minimum time or distance, and so on.
Figure 7.11 demonstrates an example of optimum paths based on minimum
distance. The figure shows the locations of a number of hospitals within the
ring road of Kathmandu. If there has been an accident outside the ring road (e.g.
at Bhaktapur) it may be important to know which is the closest hospital and
what is the shortest route to that hospital for an ambulance. Network analysis
identifies the closest hospital as Bir Hospital and indicates how to go there.
Figure 7.11
Network analysis

38 GIS for beginners

 “A picture is worth a thousand words.”
Chinese proverb

Chapter 8 Presenting Your Results

How do I say what to whom?
Visualisation
Visualisation is defined as the translation or conversion of spatial data from a
database into graphics. These graphics are in the form of maps that enable the
user to perceive the structure of the phenomenon or the area represented. The
visualisation process is guided by the saying ‘How do I say what to whom, and
is it effective?’ ‘How’ refers to the cartographic methods that are used for
making the graphics or map. ‘ I’ refers to the cartographer or GIS user who is
preparing the map. ‘ Say’ refers to the semantics that represent the spatial data.
‘What’ refers to the spatial data and its characteristics, and the purpose of the
map. ‘Whom’ refers to the map’s audience. The usefulness of a map depends
upon the following factors.

Who is going to use it?

The map’s audience or users will influence how a map should look. A map
made for school children will be different from one made for scientists.
Similarly, tourist maps and topographic maps of the same area are different in
content and look as if they are made for different users.

What is its purpose?

The purpose of a map determines what features are included and how they are
represented. Different purposes such as orientation and navigation, physical
planning, management and education lead to different categories of map.

What is its content?

Its usefulness also depends upon the contents of the map. Contents can be seen
as primary content (main theme), secondary content (base-map information)
and supporting content (legends, scale, etc).

What is the scale of the map?

The map scale is the ratio between a distance on a map and the corresponding
distance in the terrain. Scale controls the amount of detail and extent of area
that can be shown. Scale of the output map is based upon considerations such
as the purpose of the map, needs of the map user, map content, size of the area
mapped, accuracy required etc.

What is the projection of the map?

Every flat map of a curved surface is distorted. The choice of map projection
determines how, where and how much the map is distorted. Normally, the
selected map projection is that which is also used for topographic maps in a
certain country.

presenting your results 39

 Accuracy
GIS has simplified the process of information extraction and communication.
Combining or integrating data sets has become possible. However, this has
created the possibility of integrating irrelevant or inconsistent data. The user
should be aware of aspects of data quality or accuracy such as ‘What is the
source of data? Are the places at correct locations? Are the attribute values
correct? Are the themes correctly labelled? Are the data complete?’

Map design
Map-making is both a science and an art. A beautiful map may be more popular
than a plain map even if it is less accurate. Maps influence people’s perception of
space. This influence is partly as a result of convention and partly as a result of the
graphics used. People understand the world differently: they express this under-
standing differently in maps and also gain different understandings from maps.

Generalisation
Maps contain a certain level of detail depending upon its scale and purpose.
Large-scale maps usually contain more detail than small-scale maps. Cartogra-
phers often generalise the data by simplifying the information so that the map is
easier to read (Figure 8.1). The process of reducing the amount of detail on a map
Figure 8.1
in a meaningful way is called generalisation. Generalisation is normally done
Generalisation when the map scale has to be reduced. However, the essence of the contents of
original map should be maintained. This implies
maintaining geometric and attribute accuracy as
well as the aesthetic quality of the map. There are
two types of generalisation—graphic and concep-
tual. Graphic generalisation involves simplifica-
tion, enlargement, displacement or merging of
geometric symbols. Conceptual generalisation
mainly deals with the attributes and requires
knowledge of the map contents and the principles
of the themes mapped.

Graphic variables
Differences in the graphic character of symbols
convey different perceptions to the map reader.
These graphic characteristics are termed graphic
variables and can be summarised as size, lightness
or grey value, grain or texture, colour, orientation
and shape or form (Figure 8.2). Knowledge of
graphic variables and their perceptual characteris-
tics helps map designers to select those variables
that provide a sensation that matches the data or
the objective of the map.

Use of colour
Colour perception has psychological, physiologi-
Figure 8.2
cal and conventional aspects. It has been noted that it is difficult to perceive
Graphic variables

40 GIS for beginners

 colour in small areas, and greater contrast is perceived between some colours
than others. In addition to distinguishing nominal categories, colour differ-
ences are also used to show deviations or gradation.

Data analysis, adjustment and classification

Data need to be analysed before they are mapped so that they represent infor-
mation in correct form. Data are either qualitative—roads, rivers, districts—or
quantitative—elevation, temperature, population density, etc. Representation
will also depend on the measurement scale of the data such as nominal, ordinal,
interval and ratio scales.

For nominal scale, the differences in data are only of a qualitative nature, e.g.,
differences in gender, language, land use or geology.

For ordinal scale, only the order of the attribute values is known and a hierar-
chy can be established such as ‘more than or less than’, ‘small, medium, large’
or ‘cool, tepid, hot’.

For interval scale, both the hierarchy and the exact difference are known but it
is not possible to make a ratio between the measurements, e.g. temperature or
altitude values. A temperature of 8 °C is not twice as warm as 4 °C; it is only the
difference between two temperatures.

For ratio scale, data can be measured on a ratio measurement scale, e.g. the
number of children in a family or an income.

Grouping of data can also be done in different ways. Ranges of values may be
grouped according to natural breaks, at round numbers, at statistical means or
standard deviations. Different grouping or classification schemes give different
perception of the phenomena.

Mapping methods
Mapping methods are standardised ways of applying graphic variables based on
measurement scale and the nature of the distribution of objects. Various map
types are given below.

Chorochromatic maps: This method renders

nominal values for areas with different colours
(in Greek, choros = area, chroma = colour).
The term is also used when patterns are used to
render nominal area values. Only the nominal
qualities are rendered and there is no suggestion
of hierarchy or order conveyed (Figure 8.3a).

Choropleth maps: In this method, the values are

rendered for areas (in Greek, choros = area,
Figure 8.3(a) plethos = value). Values are calculated for area
Chorochromatic map and expressed as stepped surface showing a series of discrete values. The

presenting your results 41

 differences in grey value or in intensity of a colour denote the differences in
the phenomenon. A hierarchy or order between the classes can be perceived
(Figure 8.3b).

Isoline maps: Isoline maps are based on the assumption that the phenomenon
to be represented has a continuous distribution and smoothly changes in value
in all directions of the plane. Isolines connect the points with an equal value,
e.g. equal height above sea level or equal amounts of precipitation. Isoline maps
show the trends of the phenomenon, i.e. in which direction it is increasing or
decreasing (Figure 8.3c).

Nominal point data maps: Nominal data for point locations are represented by
symbols that are different in shape, orientation or colour. Geometric or
figurative symbols are more common in maps for tourists and schools (Figure
8.3d).

Absolute proportional maps: Discrete absolute values for points or areas are
represented by proportional symbols. Different values are represented by
symbols differing in size. The primary considerations for these symbols are
legibility and comparability (Figure 8.3e).

Diagram maps: Diagrams are used in the maps to allow comparisons between
figures or to visualise temporal trends. Line diagrams, bar graphs, histograms or

Figure 8.3 (b) Figure 8.3 (c)

Choropleth map Isoline map

Figure 8.3 (d) Figure 8.3 (e)

Nominal point data map Absolute proportional map

42 GIS for beginners

Figure 83(f) Figure 8.3 (g)
Diagram map Dot map

Figure 8.3 (h) Figure 8.3 (i)

Flowline map Statistical surface map

pie graphs are normally used on maps. However, care has to be taken that there
are not too many distracting features so the image becomes complicated rather
than conveying the information clearly (Figure 8.3f).

Dot maps: Dot maps are special case of proportional symbol maps as they
represent point data through symbols that each denote the same quantity, and
that are located as closely as possible in the locations where the phenomenon
occurs (Figure 8.3g).

Flowline maps: Flowline maps simulate movement using arrow symbols.

Arrows indicate both route and direction of flows. The volume transported along
the route is shown by the relative thickness of the arrow shaft (Figure 8.3h).

Statistical surfaces: Statistical surfaces are the three-dimensional representation

of qualitative data such as used in choropleth and isoline maps (Figure 8.3i).

New map output types

With the added potential of computers, new ways of visualisation and using
spatial information are being developed. New products such as electronic
atlases, cartographic animations and multimedia systems are appearing in the
field of spatial information.

Multimedia allows for interactive integration of sound, animation, text and

video. In a GIS environment, this new technology offers a link to other kinds

presenting your results 43

of information of geographic nature. These could be text documents describing
a parcel, photographs of objects that exist in a GIS database, or a video clip of
the landscape of the study area.

Maps on the internet

With new interactive tools and facilities offered by the internet, maps are being
used extensively online for various purposes. Apart from their traditional role
of representing spatial data, maps can now function as an index of spatial data, a
preview of data, and a search engine to locate spatial data. The internet is
becoming a major form of map distribution. With the new functions offered by
map servers for interactive mapping, the user can define the content and design
of maps. This is changing the way visualisation applications are developed,
delivered and used.

Figure 8.4
Maps on the internet (Source: www.mapquest.com)

44 GIS for beginners

 “Few things are harder to put up with than the annoyance of a good example.”
Mark Twain

Chapter 9 Implementing GIS

How can I make GIS work for me?
A geographic information system is an information management tool that helps
us to store, organise and utilise spatial information in a form that will enable
everyday tasks to be completed more efficiently. Since its rapid growth over
the last two decades, GIS technology has become a vital element for us to
maintain and integrate information. GIS software, and the hardware required to
operate it, has become much more affordable and easy to use. This has resulted
in the ability to develop a GIS without making large investments in software,
hardware and the support staff that were once needed to implement it. With the
implementation of GIS, we see dramatic improvements in the way we access
information, execute responsibilities and respond to requests from citizens,
potential developers and other clients.

A working GIS
A working GIS integrates five key components:
hardware, software, data, people, and policy and
procedures (Figure 9.1 ).

Hardware and software

Hardware is the computer on which a GIS
operates. Today, GIS software runs on a wide
range of hardware types from centralised compu-
ter servers to desktop computers used in stand-
alone or networked configurations.

GIS software provides the functions and tools

Figure 9.1 needed to store, analyse and display geographic information. Key software
A working GIS components are as follow.
• Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information
• A database management system (DBMS)
• Tools that support geographic query, analysis and visualisation
• A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools

The affordability of desktop computers with increasing computing power and

decreasing cost of software has resulted in widespread use of desktop GIS.

Data
Data are one of the most important and costly components in implementing
GIS. The database is the longest existing part of any GIS implementation.
Building the database takes the most time, costs the most money and requires
the most effort in terms of planning and management. Implementing a GIS

implementing GIS 45
 requires adequate emphasis on database planning and choosing the right
information base for the particular applications of an organisation.

Most GIS applications in a particular area require

a common set of spatial data (Figure 9.2). How-
ever, these data are often possessed by different
organisations. A lack of adequate data-sharing
mechanisms means that different organisations
are involved in collecting the same data; thus,
wasting resources and time. This duplication of
effort is also a result of insufficient or inappro-
priate standards in data collection. The major
obstacle in the re-use of data is the lack of
awareness or willingness among organisations to
share data. GIS as a technology will only be
viable and cost-effective if data are readily
available at an affordable cost.

Figure 9.2 People

Data and GIS GIS technology is of limited value without people to manage the system and
applications develop plans for applying to real-world problems. GIS users range from
technical specialists, who design and maintain the system, to those who use it
to help them perform their everyday work. GIS is a truly interdisciplinary
field; it requires varied backgrounds of expertise depending upon the applica-
tions. It requires input from computer and information technology experts for
the system support and from domain specialists for application-specific
models and analyses.

Policies and procedures

A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules
that are the models and operating practices unique to each organisation. GIS
exist in the context of application within an organisation. For example, in the
case of municipal applications, the GIS will have different functional require-
ments from a GIS required for agriculture or land-use planning.

Besides the technical components such as hardware, software and databases, the
institutional framework and policies are also important for a functional GIS.
The interest and willingness of decision-makers to exploit GIS technology, and
the organisational set-up for collecting spatial data, analysing it and using the
results for planning and implementation form an important component in a
GIS.

Choosing the right GIS for a particular implementation involves matching the
GIS needs to the functionality demanded by the type of application required by
an organisation.

46 GIS for beginners

Part 2 Hands-on Exercises
48 GIS for beginners
Chapter 1 Understanding Digital Maps
When you want to use a paper map, first you need to unfold it. You need a large
space, probably an entire table, to do this. On the map you will find a careful
representation of cities, roads, rivers, mountains, administrative boundaries,
etc. The cities are represented by little dots or circles, the roads by black lines,
the mountain peaks by tiny triangles and the lakes by small blue areas similar
in shape to the real lakes.

A digital map is not much more difficult to use than a paper map, and takes
much less space. As on the paper map, there are dots or points that represent
features such as cities, lines that represent roads, and areas that represent lakes.
A digital map takes less space because all the information—where the
Dharahara is (point information), how long the road from Lagankhel to
Jawalakhel is (line information), and how many square metres the Kamal
Pokhari occupies (area information)—is stored in digital format.

Different digital geographic data in the form of layers, also called themes, can
be laid on top of one another. This creates a stack of information about the
same geographic area. Each layer can be turned on and off. You can control the
amount of information that you want see about an area. If you turn off all the
themes, you will have a blank screen. If you turn on the school theme, roads
theme, lakes theme and so on you will have a map on your computer screen
that pretty well matches a paper map.

We will use ArcExplorer—software used to create maps—to explore some

themes in the Kathmandu area.

understanding digital maps 49

Exploration 1-Look at Kathmandu
In this first exploration you see a paper map from the Survey Department of
the Government of Nepal that has been scanned into the computer. On this
map, you can find the Pashupati forest, Bhandarkhal forest, Singha Durbar,
Kamal Pokhari, part of the ring road, Bagmati Nadi (river), and the airport. You
will look at the same area on a digital map to see how these things are repre-
sented as layers of digital geographic data.

Step 1
Start ArcExplorer either by double clicking the shortcut on your desktop or by
selecting Programs, ESRI, ArcExplorer from the Start menu.

Step 2
Click the Open Project
button. In the dialogue box
displayed, navigate to the
GIS Basics\Exercise\Data\
Kathmandu directory.

Step 3
Select the project file called Exercise_1.AEP and click Open. The AEP exten-
sion stands for ArcExplorer Project.

In the map view is the scanned paper map of Kathmandu. It shows features
such as forest, built-up areas, ring road, city roads, rivers, settlements, airport,

50 GIS for beginners

water bodies, etc. Although you can learn a lot from a paper map,
the amount of information you can obtain is limited. You cannot
exclude features that you do not want to see.

In ArcExplorer, each layer of digital data—the theme—is listed to

the left of the map view; this is called the legend. The map view of
Kathmandu contains a theme on highways, major roads, city roads,
schools, temples, rivers, forests, urban areas, airport and other
features.

Step 4
Use the down arrow at the bottom of the legend to scroll down. In
the legend, turn off the KTM-1 (scanned image) map by
unchecking the box next to the KTM-1 theme. This turns off the
view of the scanned paper map. Turn on the HIGHWAY, MAJOR
ROADS, CITY ROADS, RIVER BANKS, MAJOR RIVERS,
STREAMS, AGRICUL TURE, FOREST, PARK/PLAYGROUND,
GOVERNMENT, URBAN, LAKES and RUNWAY themes by
checking the appropriate boxes.

This digital map of the Kathmandu looks similar to the scanned paper map. In
the digital map, you can look at the different features by turning themes on and
off, whereas with the scanned paper maps, what you see is what you get.

Step 5
Turn on the TEMPLES and SCHOOLS themes by checking their boxes.
Suddenly, several triangles and circles appear, each representing a different
theme.

understanding digital maps 51

Step 6
Click on the theme TEMPLES in the legend to make the theme active. When
the theme is active, it will appear raised above the surface of the legend.

Step 7
Move your mouse pointer over one of the red triangles (temples). Since the
theme is active, the name of the temples (or the name of the location where
the temple is situated) will appear above the triangle. See if you can find
Pashupati Nath and Guhyeshwari temples.

Try to explore some other themes by activating them.

You have identified some features. Now it is time to move around the map.
First you will explore Kathmandu with the Direction button.

Step 8
Choose a direction using the down arrow at the right of the Direction button.
An arrow appears on the button to indicate the direction you selected. Click
the Direction button to move in that direction. Try other directions as well.

52 GIS for beginners

Notice that your map view changes in easy, controlled steps.

Now, you will try to move around the map with the Pan button. With it, you
grab the display and drag it in any direction.

Step 9
Click the Pan button. Move your mouse pointer into the map view, hold
down the mouse button and drag. When you get to where you want to be,
release the button.

Go ahead and move in any direction you want.

Some themes represent features located all over the map; some represent
features located in one area. In either case, you can zoom to the area covered by
a particular feature. To see the whole map—the area covered by all the
themes—you can click the Zoom to Full Extent button. Or you can zoom to
the active theme with the Zoom to Active Theme button. Also, you can zoom
in and out. Don’t worry if you become lost; the Zoom to Full Extent button
will bring you back to a view of the entire map.

understanding digital maps 53

Step 10
Click the Zoom In button. Click once somewhere in the map view to zoom in
on that area. Click again to zoom in even more. You can also drag a box over an
area to zoom in on it, as shown below.

Step 11
Click the Zoom Out button. Click once somewhere in the map view to zoom
out from that location. Click the Zoom Out button once more.

54 GIS for beginners

Step 12
Turn off all the themes except HIGHWAY.

Step 13
Zoom to the extent of the HIGHWAY theme. (Activate the theme HIGHWAY
and click Zoom to Active Theme button.)

Step 14
Turn on the themes CITY ROADS and MAJOR ROADS. With this, you have
just changed the subject of your map to road map showing different types of
road within the Kathmandu area.

Step 15
Turn on the theme URBAN. You can see that most of the people live within
the ring road. The land and housing prices reflect this although this is not a
theme here.

understanding digital maps 55

Step 16
Click the Close Project button. Choose No when asked if you want to save
any changes.

56 GIS for beginners

Chapter 2 Finding Answers with Digital Maps
Imagine that you are new to Kathmandu city and you have just arrived at the
Tribhuvan International Airport to spend a few days of vacation in Nepal. You
did not know where to stay but, with the help of a taxi driver, you have man-
aged to find the Hotel Himalaya in Kopundole. After settling in, some ques-
tions have come to mind. Where are the Pashupati Nath and Swayambhu Nath
temples that you have read about in a book on holy places? How far are these
temples from the Hotel Himalaya? While roaming around Kathmandu city,
you saw a tall tower: what is it?

Pulling out a paper map of the new town might give an answer to your ques-
tions, but might need a lot of space to unfold your map. With a GIS map of the
new town on your computer screen, you can also answer your queries. An-
swering questions is one of the things a GIS does best.

Land Use

Road

Temples

Road_ID Type Surface Materials

1 Highway Concrete

2 Major Road Asphalt

3 City Road Asphalt/Gravel

Exploration 2-What is that?

In exercise 1, you swept your mouse pointer over various features and saw
their names pop up on your screen. The tool that does this is called the Map
Tips tool. You can set the Map Tips tool to read any of the attributes of a
feature.

finding answers with digital maps 57

Step 1
Start ArcExplorer, if necessary.

Step 2
Click the Open Project button. Navigate to the
GIS Basics\Exercise\Data\Kathmandu directory.

Step 3
Select the project file called Exercise_2.AEP and click Open. When you open
the project, you see a map view of downtown Kathmandu and Lalitpur city
with the themes roads, land use, water body, landmarks, services and hotels.

Step 4
Make the LANDMARKS theme active.

Step 5
Click the Map Tips tool. The Map Tip Field Selection dialogue box appears.
This allows you to choose which attribute you want to pop up when you pass
the mouse pointer over a particular element.

Step 6
Choose the NAME field and then click OK.
The name of a particular landmark will
appear when you pass your mouse pointer
over it.

58 GIS for beginners

Step 7
Drag the mouse pointer over all the landmarks and read their names.

Step 8
Turn on the SERVICES, TEMPLES and HOTELS themes.

Step 9
Make the SERVICES theme active. Use the Map Tip tool to identify different
types of services.

finding answers with digital maps 59

 Step 10
You can also use the Identify button to learn about the features. Make the
HOTELS theme active. Click the Identify button and move your mouse
pointer into the map view and click randomly on some hotels.

The Identify Results dialogue box will appear and list

all attributes of the hotel you clicked.

Close the Identify Results dialogue box by clicking

the ‘x’ in its upper right-hand corner.

Exploration 3-Where is it?

Map Tips and Identify tools give you information about places you point to on
the map. However, sometimes you will already have information about a place,
and you want to find it on the map. For instance, as we assumed earlier, you are
staying at the Himalaya Hotel and you want to visit to Pashupati Nath and
Swayambhu Nath temples. So, you want to see on the map where the
Himalaya Hotel, Pashupati Nath and Swayambhu Nath temples are located. To
do this you will use the Find tool.

Step 1
Click the Find button. The Find
Features dialogue box displays.

60 GIS for beginners

Step 2
Type Himalaya into the text box. Note that the Find tool is case sensitive, so
make sure you enter the text exactly as shown.

Step 3
Since we did not enter the full name of the hotel, select Any Part of Field in
section 2 of the dialogue box.

Step 4
Choose HOTELS as the theme to
search in section 3.

Step 5
Click the Find button. ArcExplorer
searches the features in the HOTELS
theme and gives a list of matches.

Step 6
Click on the match for Himalaya
Hotel to highlight it. You will see
that the Highlight, Pan To and Zoom
To buttons are darkened now.

Step 7
Click the Highlight button. The point representing the Himalaya Hotel on the
map will flash.

finding answers with digital maps 61

Step 8
Click the Zoom To button in the Find Features dialogue box. You are zoomed
in to the Himalaya Hotel. Its location flashes and it is now in the centre of the
map view.

Step 9
Click the Zoom to Full Extent button. You will see the entire map—that is the
area covered by all the themes in the legend. Like all the tools you have used so
far, the Find tool works with any theme. Now, you will locate the Pashupati
Nath temple.

Step 10
Use the Find tool and type Pashupati as the text you want to find in the Find
dialogue box.

Step 11
Choose Any Part of Field as the search type.

Step 12
This time choose the theme TEMPLES as the theme to search.

Step 13
Click the Find button.

62 GIS for beginners

Step 14
Click on the match for Pashupati.

Step 15
Use the Highlight button to flash the location of Pashupati Nath temple. Click
the Zoom To button in the Find Features dialogue box to zoom in on the
temple.

Step 16
Close the Find Features dialogue box.

Self exercise: Find the location of Swayambhu Nath temple.

finding answers with digital maps 63

Exploration 4-How far is it?
Now that you have some idea about the data, you are ready to perform a real
geographic analysis such as using the data to measure distances.

Step 1
Close the Find Features dialogue box.

Step 2
Activate the TEMPLES theme and click the Zoom to Active Theme button.

Finding distance is a two-step process. Firstly, you must tell the GIS about the
kind of measurement units of your stored map data: decimal degrees, feet,
metres. Secondly, you need to tell the GIS which kind of measurement units
you want it to use to tell you the distance from one place to another, e.g. feet,
metres, kilometres.

Step 3
From the View menu, select Scale Bar Properties, Map Units, Meters as
shown below.

Step 4
You want to know how far Pashupati Nath is from the Himalaya Hotel. You
have already located places using Find tool, so locate Himalaya Hotel and
Pashupati Nath temple again (if you need to).

Step 5
Click on the Measure tool down arrow, then choose Meters from
the list. These are your distance units. You can either measure
distance between two points in a straight line or you can click
several points along a route (at each turn) to obtain a total distance.

First, you will measure the distance between the Himalaya

Hotel and the Pashupati Nath temple.

Step 6
Click on the Measure tool. The pointer changes to a crosshair. Since there is
no straight path from the Himalaya Hotel to Pashupati Nath, you will need to
measure the path in several segments. Click and hold the mouse as you drag a
line segment from the Himalaya Hotel toward Pashupati Nath following the
main roads and avoiding water bodies. Release the mouse button at the end of
each segment. Follow the path as shown below.

64 GIS for beginners

 Step 7
The segment and the total length you measured are displayed in the status
panel at the top of the map view. The total distance is about 5738 m, i.e., 5.7
km.

If you want to re-measure the distance, double-click anywhere in your map

view to begin a new measurement. After you double-click, the total length of
your previous measurement appears in the lower left corner on the status bar.

Self-exercise: Find the distance from the Himalaya Hotel to

Swayambhu Nath temple.

Step 8
Click the Close Project button. Choose No when asked if you want to save
any changes.

Exploration 5-What’s it like?

Another way of answering questions about an area is by using the Query
Builder. This gives answers to queries that begin ‘Where is…?’

Step 1
Start ArcExplorer, if necessary.

Step 2
Click the Open Project button. Navigate to the
GIS Basics\Exercise\Data\Kathmandu directory.

finding answers with digital maps 65

Step 3
Select the project file called Exercise_2a.AEP and click Open. When you open
the project, you see a map view of the VDCs (village development commit-
tees) around the Kathmandu and Lalitpur municipalities, with the themes
VDC, MAJOR ROADS, HIGHWAYS, CITY ROADS and SCHOOLS.

In the legend, you see the name of a number of VDCs under VDC theme. You
see different colours for different VDCs, and the same colour for different
VDCs. While looking at the VDC names, you found one VDC name called
Lokanthali and you became curious about this VDC. Where is it located? You
can use the Query Builder to solve your problem.

Step 4
Make sure the VDC theme is active and click the Query
Builder bottom or select Query Builder from the Tools menu.

The Query Builder dialogue

box displays. At the top of
the dialogue box you see the
name of the active theme,
VDC. The dialogue box
contains a list of field names
(at the left) that gives infor-
mation about population and
socioeconomic data for all
the VDCs; a set of operators
(in the centre) that will do
the actual query work; and a
list of sample values (at the
right).

Step 5
In the Query Builder dialogue box, scroll down through the list of field
names. Click on NAME (represents name of VDC). You see the values for this
field displayed in the Sample Values list.

Step 6
Click the equal to (=) operator. It displays in the query text box.

66 GIS for beginners

Step 7
Click Lokanthali from the
Sample Values list. Now, in
the query text box you should
read NAME = ‘Lokanthali’.

Step 8
Click the EXECUTE button. ArcExplorer searches the attribute table for all
records that match your request.

Step 9
Click the Highlight Results button. The Lokanthali VDC is highlighted in
your map view in yellow. Move the dialogue window to the side so you can
see your map view.

Step 10
Click the Zoom to Results button in the Query Builder dialogue box. You
will see the Lokanthali VDC in detail.

finding answers with digital maps 67

Close the Query Builder dialogue box by clicking the ‘x’ in the top right-hand
corner of the box.

Step 11
Now click on the themes SCHOOLS and CITY ROADS to obtain a general
idea about the status of the roads and number of schools in Lokanthali VDC.
There are only four schools and little road accessibility.

Step 12
Click off all the themes except VDC.

Step 13
Make the VDC theme active and click the Zoom to Active Theme button.

Step 14
Use the identify tool and click on any VDC. You
will see stored information about that VDC. In this
case, you have the information about its area, total
population, male population, female population,
household numbers and population density repre-
sented by the fields AREA, TPOPU, FEMALE,
MALE, HHOLD and DENSITY respectively.

You can fulfil many queries using different fields.

For the moment, maybe you want to know how
many VDCs have a population of less than 5,000.

68 GIS for beginners

Step 15
Click the Query Builder button. The Query Builder dialogue box displays.

Step 16
In the Query Builder dialogue box, scroll down through the list of field
names. Click on TPOPU (for total population). You can see the values for this
field displayed in the Sample Values list.

Step 17
Click the less than (<) operator. It displays in the query text box.

Step 18
Type 5000 in the query text box. Now,
you should read TPOPU < 5000.

Step 19
Select NAME from the Display Field
list and click the Execute button. You
will see there are 33 VDCs that match
your request (i.e. have a population of
less than 5,000). The names of the
VDCs are also listed.

Step 20
Click the Highlight Results button to see these VDCs. Move the dialogue
window to the side so you can see your map view.

finding answers with digital maps 69

Step 21
When you have finished, close the Map Query dialogue box by clicking the ‘x’
in the upper right-hand corner.

Step 22
Click the Close Project button. Choose No when asked if you want to save
any changes.

70 GIS for beginners

Chapter 3 Telling Stories with Digital Maps
One of the first things you will learn is that the appearance of a map makes a big
difference to its perception. Each dot, line or area on a map represents some-
thing in the real world—a city, a road, a district. You can draw them any way you
like but there are some traditions in map symbology that you probably already
know about without thinking about them: a bold red line is usually a major
highway, etc. Even colours are traditional: green denotes vegetation, blue
denotes water, etc. These symbols need to be consistent throughout the map. If
you keep these principles in mind, your maps will communicate effectively.

Exploration 6-A trip to Kirtipur municipality

Imagine you are participating in a training programme. Your training co-
ordinator announces that there will be an excursion on the coming Sunday
around Kirtipur municipality. The object of the excursion will be to visit some
important cultural heritage sites within the municipality. There will be a car
but, if the roads are not good, you might have to walk to visit each of the sites.

For proper planning for the excursion, you will need to create a map of the
Kirtipur municipality that shows the cultural heritage sites, roads, parks and
other relevant features. When finished, you will print the map.

Step 1
Start ArcExplorer, if necessary.

Step 2
Click the Open Project button. Navigate to the
GIS Basics\Exercise\Data\Kirtipur directory.

Step 3
Select the project file called Exercise_3.AEP and click Open. When you open
the project, you see a map view of the Kirtipur municipality with the themes
HERITAGES, METAL ROAD, GRAVEL ROAD, RIVER, MARKET,
BUILTUP, PONDS, PARKS, FOREST and OUTLINE BOUNDARY. The
colours assigned to each theme are not really attractive. ArcExplorer assigns
colours at random. So, you will pick a colour for each theme that is more
attractive and natural.

First, you will change the FOREST theme to green.

Step 4
Make the FOREST theme active in the legend.

telling stories with digital maps 71

Step 5
Click the Theme Properties
button or double-click on the
name FOREST in the legend.

The theme name box in the

Theme Properties dialogue box
shows which theme you are
working with. Classification
Options shows you the way in
which the features of this theme
are displayed. In this case, the
classification option is Single Symbol, which means that all the features in the
theme are currently symbolised as shown in the dialogue box.

Step 6
Click the Color box to display the Color dialogue
box. Choose light green and click OK.

Step 7
Click OK in the Theme Properties dialogue box to apply your change.

72 GIS for beginners

Do the same for the PARKS theme.

Step 8
Make the PARKS theme active and use Theme Properties to make parks light
yellowish green.

Similarly, change PONDS to blue, BUILTUP to light red and MARKET to

light green. You can customise the colours by clicking on Define Custom
Colors » from the Color dialogue box.

Now you will select an appropriate colour and symbols for roads and rivers.

telling stories with digital maps 73

Step 9
Make the METAL ROAD theme
active and click the Theme
Properties button. Select the
colour red and specify the size as
2.

Similarly make the GRAVEL ROAD dark grey and the RIVER blue with size
1.

Now you will change the heritages symbols.

Step 10
Make the HERITAGES theme active
and use the Theme Properties to make
heritage sites black. Use the Style pull-
down menu to choose Triangle marker.
Specify size 6.

74 GIS for beginners

Now zoom in on the central part of the municipality where most of the
cultural heritage sites are located.

Step 11
Click the Zoom In tool and create a box as shown below.

Now, you will create labels for each of the cultural heritage sites on your map
so that the group will know their names.

Step 12
Make sure that the HERITAGES theme is active. Click the Theme Properties
button to display the Theme Properties dialogue box.

Step 13
Choose No Overlapping Labels
under Classification Options.

Choose Name as the text field.

In the label placement box,
choose Place on. Click on the
Mask labels option.

Click in the Mask Color box

and choose White.

Click Apply to check the labels.

They may appear too large on
the map. If so, adjust the label size slider and then click Apply to check the
size. Repeat this procedure until you are satisfied with the size of your labels.

telling stories with digital maps 75

You can change the style of fonts
by clicking the Font pull-down
menu in Theme Properties
dialogue box.

Click OK in the Theme Proper-

ties dialogue box when you are
finished.

Now change the background

colour of the map.

Step 14
Select the Map Display proper-
ties from the View menu. The
Map Display Properties dia-
logue box displays.

Step 15
Under Map Colors, click Background to display the Color dialogue box.
Choose blue and then click OK to close the dialogue box.

Step 16
Click OK to close the Map Display Properties dialogue box.

76 GIS for beginners

Now add a scale bar so the group can see how large this area is.

Step 17
Choose Display Scale Bar from the View menu. A scale bar appears below the
map view.

Step 18
Right click the scale bar and set the map units to Meters. Set scale units to
Meters and the screen units to Inches.

Your map is now ready to print.

Step 19
Click the Print tool. The Print
Map dialogue box displays. This is
where you choose a printer and
where you give your map a title.

Step 20
Type ‘A map of Kirtipur municipality’ in the Print Map dialogue box as the title
of your map. Click Print.

Step 21
After you have finished printing your map, close the project without saving.

telling stories with digital maps 77

Exploration 7-Symbolise a map of Nepal based on attributes
Nepal is a mountainous country. Its landscape varies widely from place to
place and it is difficult to travel from one place to another. There are many
districts that have no access to roads. In the present context, access to roads is
one of the major factors in the development of any area. You will create a map
of Nepal showing the districts with different types of roads, so that you can
distinguish which districts have good accessibility and poor accessibility to
roads.

Step 1
Start Arc Explorer, if necessary.

Step 2
Click the Open Project button. Navigate to the
GIS Basics\Exercise\Data\Nepal directory.

Step 3
Select the project file called Exercise_4.AEP and click Open. When you open
the project, you see the themes PHYSIOGRAPHY, DISTRICT, DISTRICT
BOUNDARY and ROADS. You see all types of roads by physiographic region
in your map view.

78 GIS for beginners

Step 4
Make the ROADS themes active. Use the identify
tool to click some of the roads.

Notice that each area you click on has road attributes that specifies the road ID
and the type of road.

Step 5
Dismiss the Identify Results dialogue box by clicking ‘x’ in the upper right-
hand corner.

You will assign different symbols to each type of road.

Step 6
Click the Theme Properties button to display the Theme Properties dialogue
box.

Step 7
To apply a different colour and
symbol to each road, choose Unique
Values under the Classification
options heading.

Choose Road_Type as the field in the

Field pull-down menu.

The default colours and symbols are probably not appropriate and attractive.

Step 8
In the Theme Properties dialogue box, click on the colour to the left of the
word Highway. The Symbol Properties dialogue box displays. Choose dark
red as the colour and click OK. Since highway roads are generally wider and
bigger, assign the line size 2 and click OK.

telling stories with digital maps 79

Repeat this procedure for the remaining roads and assign different colours and
symbols as shown below. You can distinguish the routes of highways and other
roads.

To see which districts have good accessibility to highways, you will draw the
district boundaries.

Step 9
Click on the DISTRICT BOUNDARY theme.

80 GIS for beginners

 You will see that the east-west highway passes through most of the districts in
the Terai region. The districts in the middle mountain and the Himalayan
region have less accessibility to roads. Zoom in on the Kathmandu valley area.
You will see that Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur districts have good
accessibility to roads. So, based on this, planners can prioritise districts for
development of road infrastructure.

Exploration 8-Share your map of Nepal

Suppose you work for the National Planning Commission that plans the budget-
ary activities for the development of each district of Nepal. From experience, the
Planning Commission has realised that many districts have few educated people.
After evaluation, the commission has identified that the main reason for this is that
there are either no schools or few schools in these districts. This is mainly because
of a lack of budget. So, the Planning Commission wants to reserve more of the
budget to establish schools in these districts next year. You will create a map
showing the literacy rates in each district and so that planners can identify which
districts should be prioritised for more of the budget to establish schools.

Step 1
Start ArcExplorer, if necessary.

Step 2
Click the Open Project button. Navigate to the
GIS Basics\Exercise\Data\Nepal directory.

Step 3
Select the project file called Exercise_4.AEP and click Open. When you open
the project, you see the themes PHYSIOGRAPHY, DISTRICT, DISTRICT
BOUNDARY and ROADS. You see all the districts of Nepal by
physiographic region.

telling stories with digital maps 81

Step 4
Make the DISTRICT theme active. Use the identify
tool to click on some of the districts.

Notice each district has information about its popula-

tion, household numbers, number of schools, and
literacy.

You will first use the literacy information (defined by

the field LITERAC_T) to show the level of literacy
in each district.

Step 5
Dismiss the Identify Results dialogue box by clicking the ‘x’ in the upper
right-hand corner.

Step 6
Click on the DISTRICT theme to display it and switch off the PHYSIOGRA-
PHY theme. Make the DISTRICT theme active.

Step 7
Click the Theme Properties
button to display the Theme
Properties dialogue box.
Choose Class Breaks under
Classification Options.

The Class Breaks option is used

to create a graduated colour
map, such as this one, from
numeric data. The numeric
values are grouped together as
ranges or classes. A different
colour is applied to each range.

Step 8
In the Numeric field pull-
down menu, scroll down and
choose the field LlTERAC- T.

Step 9
In the Number of Classes pull-
down menu, choose 7.

The more classes you choose,

the more you can visually

82 GIS for beginners

distinguish classes. However, five classes are usually the most practical
limit.

Now you will create a colour ramp to represent the literate population. A
colour ramp uses colours to indicate rank or order among classes. The colours
progress from light to dark. With numeric data, lower values should use
lighter colours and higher values should use darker colours.

Step 10
Click the Start colour box to select a starting colour for your colour ramp. The
Color dialogue box will display.

Step 11
Click the End colour box to select the ending colour for your colour ramp.
This time, select a shade of dark red and click OK.

Step 12
Your map shows the districts with a lower literate population in lighter
colours and districts with a higher literate population in darker colours.

Notice that the Kathmandu district and other districts, mostly in the eastern
Terai region, have a higher literate population. You can also see that most of the
districts in the north-western part of the country have lower literate

telling stories with digital maps 83

populations. So, based on this map, the National Planning Commission can
decide which districts should be prioritised in terms of educational develop-
ment.

You will save this map as an ArcExplorer project. With this, not only can you
view the map quickly later, but you can also distribute your map digitally for
others to see.

Step 13
Choose Save As from the File
menu. The Save ArcExplorer
Project dialogue box is dis-
played. Specify the file name
‘Nepal_Literate’ in the File
Name box. Click Save.

84 GIS for beginners

Chapter 4 Building a Digital Map
So far, you have been provided with the appropriate data files for cities such as
Kathmandu, Kirtipur, so you could start working with a GIS without worrying
about other issues. However, in practice, geographic data comes in different
formats. This chapter introduces you to some of them, then helps you to put
these diverse formats together to make an even more powerful map.

Exploration 9-Make a map of Kathmandu from digital data

Your new boss from the USA is coming to Kathmandu to work at ICIMOD.
You have to find a place for him to live. Your new boss wants a house that is
close to ICIMOD, not located in a highly air-polluted zone, and near to a
hospital. After he arrives in Kathmandu, you have to present him with a map,
so that he can decide where to stay.

You have several shape files such as location of ICIMOD, highways, major
roads, city roads, hospitals and rivers. You have a satellite image that will make
an interesting background. You also have an Arc/Info coverage of air pollution
zones.

Step 1
Start ArcExplorer, if necessary.

building a digital maps 85

You see a blank map view and a blank legend.

Step 2
Click the Add Theme button. The Add Theme(s) dialogue box is displayed.

In this box, there are two windows. On the left is a list of all the drives and
directories on your computer. This is where you find your data.

Step 3
On the left side of the dialogue box, find your local drive where the data is
stored. Then go to the GIS Basics\Exercise\Data\Kathmandu directory.

When you open the folder, you will see several themes with different formats
listed in the right window. At the top of the box, in the Data Types window, All
Arc Explorer Types is the default choice. For this selection, the right window
shows shape files or image files.

86 GIS for beginners

Step 4
Using the Data Types pull-down menu, choose Supported Images.

You see an image called spin-2.tif listed. You will add this image to the map
view.

Step 5
Click on the file name spin-2.tif. Click Add Theme, then click Close. The
theme is added to the legend as SPIN-2 (IMAGE).

Step 6
Turn on the theme SPIN-2.

building a digital maps 87

Now you will add your shape files to the map view.

Step 7
Click the Add Theme button. In the Add Theme dialogue box, choose
Shapefiles as the data type.

Only shape files appear in the Theme list.

Step 8
Click on highway.shp and Add Theme. To add more than one theme at a time,
hold down the control key, click on cityroads.shp, majorroads.shp, major
rivers.shp, icimod.shp and hospitals.shp. Then click Add Theme.

All the selected themes will be added to the legend. Then click Close in the
Add Theme dialogue box.

Step 9
Turn on all new themes in the legend.

88 GIS for beginners

Since ArcExplorer assigns random colours to the new themes, you may need
to assign more appropriate colours.

Step 10
Use Theme Properties in turn for each theme to assign appropriate colours
and symbols as shown below.

Your map looks better. All that you need now is the air pollution zone.

building a digital maps 89

Step 11
Use the Add Theme button to add the Pollution.shp. Then turn on the POL-
LUTION theme.

ArcExplorer displays the themes in the order they appear in the legend from
bottom to top. Since the POLLUTION theme is on top of the list, it covers
all the other themes. You will move it down the list.

Step 12
Click on the name of the POLLUTION theme in the legend and, holding
down the mouse button, drag the mouse pointer until it is above the SPIN-2
(Image), then release the mouse button.

Now you will need to symbolise the POLLUTION theme to show polluted
zones.

Step 13
Make the POLLUTION theme active. Click the Theme Properties button.

In the Theme Properties dialogue box, select Unique Values under Classifica-
tion Options. Select Zone as the field.

You see that ArcExplorer automatically assigned a random colour to each

unique classification—high, moderate, low.

90 GIS for beginners

Step 14
Under discrete values and symbols, click on the
colour box next to ‘High’. In the Symbol Proper-
ties dialogue box, select dark red for both the
colour and outline colour, and Light Gray Fill as
the style. Click OK.

Step 15
Similarly select light orange and light green for ‘Moderate’ and ‘Low’ for both
the colour and outline colour. Choose Light Gray Fill as the style for both
‘Low’ and ‘Moderate’.

Your map view looks great. With this map, your new boss can decide where to
stay. Now go ahead and explore your map. Use the pan and zoom to have a
closer look.

building a digital maps 91

92 GIS for beginners
Bibliography and Resources
Chrisman, N (1997) Exploring Geographic Information Systems. UK: John
Wiley and Sons
Clarke, K (1997) Getting Started with Geographic Information Systems. Upper
Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall
ESRI (1996) Introduction to ArcView GIS. Redlands, CA, USA: ESRI
ESRI (1997) Getting to Know ArcView GIS. Redlands, CA, USA: ESRI
French, G.T. (1998) Understand the GPS: An Introduction to the Global
Positioning System. USA: GeoResearch Inc
Heywood, C.; Carver, A. (1999) An Introduction to Geographical Information
Systems. London: Addison Wesley Longman
ICIMOD (nd) Various Training Manuals on Applications of GIS and Remote
Sensing. Kathmandu: International Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development (unpublished)
ICIMOD (1997) Districts of Nepal: Indicators of Development. Kathmandu:
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
Japan Association on Remote Sensing (1996). Remote Sensing Note. Tokyo,
Japan: JARS
Kantipur Daily (8 August 2000). GIS Special. Kathmandu: Kantipur Publica-
tions
Kraak, M. J.; Ormeling, F. J. (1996) Cartography: the Visualisation of Spatial
Data. London: Addison Wesley Longman
Maquire, G.; Rhind (1999) Geographical Information Systems. UK: John
Wiley and Sons
Murai, S. (1997) GIS Work Book. Volume 1: Fundamental Course. Japan:
University of Tokyo
Shrestha, B.; Pradhan, S. (2000) Kathmandu Valley GIS Database: Bridging the
Data Gap. Kathmandu: International Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development
Snyder, J. (1993) Flattening the Earth: Two Thousand Years of Map Projections.
USA: University of Chicago Press

Online Resources
About.com, Inc. http://gis.about.com/science/gis
Dana, P.H. (1999). Global Positioning System. University of Texas at Austin.
http://www.hort.cc.utexas.edu/ftp/pub/grg/gcraft/notes/gps/gps.htm
Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), Redlands, CA, http://
www.esri.com
Geo Info Systems http://www.geoinfosystems.com/welcome.htm

bibliography and resources 93

GIS World http://www.gw.geoplace.com
Foote, K.E. and Huebner D.J., (2000). Database Concepts. http://
www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/datacon/datacon. html
Kingston Centre for GIS, Kingston University. Introduction to GIS and
Geospatial Data. http://www.king.ac,uk/geog/gis/intro.htm
NCGIA Core Curriculum in GIS Science. http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/giscc
Oddens’ Bookmarks: The Fascinating World of Maps and Mapping. http://
oddens.geog.uu.nl/index.html
Trimble. All about GPS. http://www.Trimble.com/GPS/index.html
URISA. Tutorial on GIS Database Concepts. http://www.urisa.com/
GIADatabase.html
USGS (1998). Learning Web: Working with Maps. http://www.usgs.gov/
education/learnweb/wwmaps.html

GIS Software
Autodesk Inc. http://autodesk.com AutoCAD Map
Clark University. http://www.idrisi.clarku.edu IDRISI
Earth Resource Mapping Inc. http://www.ermapper.com ER Mapper
ERDAS Inc. http://www.erdas.com ERDAS IMAGINE
ESRI. http://www.esri.com ATLAS GIS, Arc/Info, ArcView GIS, ArcCAD
Intergraph Corporation. http://www.intergraph.com/ Intergraph MGE,
GeoMedia
ITC. http://www.itc.nl ILWIS
Maplnfo Corporation. http://www.mapinfo.com Maplnfo
PCI Geomatics http://pcigeomatics.com SPANS, EASI/PACE, PAMAP GIS

94 GIS for beginners

Glossary
Analogue maps Maps in paper form
Aspect The compass direction towards which a slope faces;
measured clockwise in degrees from North.
Attribute Non-spatial descriptive characteristic of a real-
world phenomenon. Often a measurement or value
associated with spatial locations.

Band One layer of a multispectral image representing

data values for a specific range of the electromag-
netic spectrum of reflected light or heat (e.g.
ultraviolet, blue, green, red, near- infrared, infra-
red, thermal, radar, etc.). Also, other user-specified
values derived by manipulation of original image
bands.
Base map A map containing geographic features used for
locational reference. Roads, for example, are com-
monly found on base maps.
Buffer A corridor of a specified width defined parallel to
lines or around polygons. Buffering is the process of
defining the corridor and drawing the new geometry
to delimit it.

CAD or Computer-
Aided Design Computer systems for drawing design graphics
Column The vertical dimension of a table–a column has a
name and a data type applied to all values in the
column.
Connectivity Describes whether sets of points (nodes) or lines are
connected to each other.
Contour A line connecting points of equal surface value
Control segment A world-wide network of GPS monitor and control
stations that ensures the accuracy of satellite posi-
tions and their clocks.
Co-ordinate pair (X, Y) A pair of co-ordinates describing the location of a
point feature on x and y axes. Sets of co-ordinate
pairs are used to define lines and polygons.

Database Management A collection of computer software used for organis

System (DBMS) ing and accessing information in a database.
Data conversion The translation of data from one format to another

glossary 95
Data dictionary This contains information about definition, struc-
ture and usage of data in a database. No data are
actually held here.
Data integrity Maintenance of data values according to data model
and data type, for example, to maintain integrity,
numeric columns will not accept alphabetic data.
Data model An abstraction of the real world that incorporates
only those properties thought to be relevant to the
application in hand. Also, a set of guidelines for the
representation and logical organisation of data in a
database, consisting of named logical units of data
and the relationships between them.
Data quality The quality of the data measured in relation to the
actual phenomena measured at source
Database An organised, integrated collection of data related by
a common fact or purpose
Differential positioning Measurement of the relative positions of two
receivers tracking the same GPS signals
Digitiser A device (usually electronic) for coding point locations
on a graphic image or map to plane (x, y) coordinates
DTM or Digital Terrain A digital representation of ground surface relief
Model enhanced by the addition of topographic information

Electromagnetic spectrum The spectrum of wavelengths of electromagnetic

radiation (including infrared, visible and ultraviolet
light)
Feature A real-world phenomenon, named and classified–
often used in cartography to name classes of ele-
ments shown on a map.
File A collection of records, each of which can be
referenced according to its position in the file
Format The pattern into which data are systematically arranged
for use on a computer–a file format is the specific
design of how information is organised in the file.

Generalise Reduce in detail, simplify or resample to change the

level of information in a data set. The most common
generalisation operation is line-thinning by discard-
ing coordinates.
Geographic information Information that can be related to a location (defined in
terms of point, line and area); particularly information
on natural phenomena, cultural or human resources.
Geographical A set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at
Information System will, transforming and displaying spatial data from
the real world for a particular set of circumstances.

96 GIS for beginners

Global Positioning A GPS is a position-fixing system that uses the time
System (GPS) taken for signals to travel from at least three GPS
satellites in a known orbit to a receiver on the
ground.
Grid A geographic data model representing information as
an array of equally sized square cells arranged in
rows and columns.

Hardware The physical device used to process a computer

programme and display the results.

Image processing The various operations that can be are applied to

image or raster format data. These include image
compression, restoration, enhancement, rectifica-
tion, pre-processing, quantisation, spatial filtering
and other image pattern recognition techniques.
Image A graphic representation or description of a scene,
typically produced by an optical or electronic
device. Common examples include remotely sensed
data (e.g. satellite data), scanned data and photo-
graphs.
Index Special data structure used in a database to speed
searching for records in tables or spatial features in
geographic data sets.
Interactive Describes a process of two-way communication
between the user and the computer.
Interpolation The procedure of estimating the values of unknown
points on a surface from the values of a number of
points of known value.
Isoline A line on a surface connecting points of equal value

Latitude–longitude A spherical reference system used to measure

locations on the Earth’s surface. Latitude and
longitude are angles measured from the Earth’s
centre to locations on the Earth’s surface. Latitude
measures angles in a north-south direction. Longi-
tude measures angles in an east-west direction.
Layer Usually represents a theme or feature type within
the database. Layers that are registered to the same
co-ordinates as other layers can be integrated in
different ways to create a new layer.
Line The shortest distance between two points (some-
times called a line segment). In some GIS, many
connected line segments are also referred to as a
line. A one-dimensional object.

glossary 97
Map An abstract representation of the physical features of
a portion of the Earth’s surface graphically displayed
on a planar surface. Maps display signs, symbols and
spatial relationships among the features.
Map algebra A set of operations for manipulating, filtering and
combining raster maps.
Map projection A transformation from a spheroid to a flat plane
representing the parallels of latitude and the merid-
ians of longitude of the Earth.
Map query The process of selecting information from a GIS by
asking spatial or logical questions of the geographic
data. Spatial query is the process of selecting features
based on location or spatial relationship.
Map scale The reduction needed to display a representation of
the Earth’s surface on a map. A statement of a
measure on the map and the equivalent measure on
the Earth’s surface, often expressed as a representa-
tive fraction of distance, such as 1:24,000 (one unit of
distance on the map represents 24,000 of the same
units of distance on the Earth).
Meridian A line running vertically from the north pole to the
south pole along which all locations have the same
longitude.
Model A representation of reality used to simulate a process,
understand a situation, predict an outcome or analyse
a problem. A model is structured as a set of rules and
procedures, including spatial modelling tools avail-
able in a geographic information system (GIS).
Multipath error Errors caused by the interference of a signal that has
reached the receiver antenna by two or more
different paths. Usually caused by one path being
bounced or reflected.

Network analysis Analytical techniques concerned with the relation-

ships between locations on a network, capacities of
network systems and the best location for facilities
on a network.

Overlay The process of integrating digital representations of

various spatial data registered to a common coordi-
nate system.
Pixel Short for picture element, i.e. the smallest discrete
element that makes up an image. It may represent
either a small square or portion of the Earth’s
surface, scanned by satellite or aircraft, a portion of a
graphics image sensed by an optical scanner or an
individual dot on a screen.

98 GIS for beginners

Point The position or location of an object in a spatial
reference system. A zero-dimensional object.
Polygon An area with three or more sides intersecting at the
same number of points. A two- dimensional object.
Projection The procedure for transferring features from the
spherical earth to a flat plane using mathematical
transformations.

Query A structured enquiry made on a map or database

using a formal language.

Raster A cellular data structure composed of rows and

columns for storing images. Groups of cells with the
same value represent features.
RDBMS A database management system with the ability to
access data organised in tabular files that can be
related to each other by a common field (item). An
RDBMS has the capability to recombine the data
items from different files, providing powerful tools
for data usage.
Record A set of observations on a real-world phenomenon as
described by attributes.
Remote sensing The technique of obtaining data about the environ-
ment and surface of the earth from a distance, e.g.
from an aircraft or satellite.
Resolution Resolution is the accuracy at which a given map scale
can depict the location and shape of geographic
features. The larger the map scale, the higher the
possible resolution. As map scale decreases, resolu-
tion diminishes and feature boundaries must be
smoothed, simplified or not shown at all.
Row A record in an attribute table. The horizontal
dimension of a table composed of a set of columns
containing one data item each. Also a horizontal
group of cells in a grid or pixels in an image.

Satellite constellation The arrangement of a set of satellites in space.

Scale The ratio or fraction between the distance on a map,
chart or photograph and the corresponding distance
on the surface of the Earth.
Scanner The electronic device used to convert analogue
information from maps or images into a digital
format usable by a computer.
Selective Availability A policy adopted by the Department of Defense in
the USA to introduce some intentional clock noise

glossary 99
 into the GPS satellite signals thereby degrading their
accuracy for civilian users.
Slope A measure of change in surface value over distance,
expressed in degrees or as a percentage.
Software A system of programmes used to execute tasks
written for the computer.
Space segment The part of the whole GPS system that is in space,
i.e. the satellites.
Spatial analysis Analytical techniques associated with the study of
locations of geographical phenomena together with
their spatial dimensions.
Spatial resolution Measure on the ground represented by each pixel in
the image.

Table A set of data elements that have a horizontal dimen-

sion (rows) and a vertical dimension (columns) in a
relational database system. A table has a specified
number of columns but can have any number of
rows. A table is often called a relation. Rows stored
in a table are structurally equivalent to records from
flat files in that they must not contain repeating
fields.
Theme A user-defined perspective on a geographic data set,
if applicable, by a name and feature class or data set
name, attributes of interest, a data classification
scheme and theme-specific symbology for drawing.
Topographic map A map showing the features that describe the surface
of a particular place or region. It contains contours
indicating lines of equal surface elevation (relief),
often referred to as topo maps.
Transformation Mathematical conversion of coordinates between
alternative referencing systems (e.g. as in map
projection).
Triangulation The interconnection of all points within an area to
form a set of reproducible triangles

User segment The part of the whole GPS system that includes the
receivers of GPS signals

Variable A discrete measurement on a parameter.

Vector data A description of spatial phenomena based upon
geometry (e.g., point, line and area)

100 GIS for beginners