Basic Map Reading and Land Navigation

I. DEFINITION OF TERMS
a. Map - is a graphical representation of the earth surface drawn to scale as seen from above.
Man-made and natural features are defected by symbols, colors, lines and forms.
b. Map Reading - is the knowledge and skills necessary to interpret correctly and efficiently map
information.
c. Map Symbol - is a sign composed of diagram, number, letter, abbreviation, colors or
combination thereof which is used to identify and distinguish a particular military unit, activity
or installation. Topographic Symbols are simple standard drawings by which terrain features
such as valleys, mountains, hills, water features, etc. are shown on a map.

II. PURPOSE
A map provides information on the existence and location of and the distance between group
features such as populated place and routes of travel and communication. It also indicates variations in
terrain, heights of natural features and the extent of vegetation cover. It is necessary to rely on maps to
provide information to our combat elements and to resolve logistical operations far from our shores.
Troops and materials must be transported, stored, and placed into operation at the proper time and
place. Therefore, any operations require the supply of maps; however, the finest maps available are
worthless unless the map user knows how to read them.

III. MARGINAL INFORMATION

a. Sheet name – found in two places; the center of the upper margin and the right side of the
lower margin. Generally, a map is used after its outstanding cultural or geographical features.
Whenever possible the name of the largest City on the map is used.
b. Sheet number – found in the right margin of the map.
c. Series name and scale – found in the upper left margin of the map.
d. Series number – found in the upper right margin and in the lower left margin of the map.
i. The first entry of a series number may be either a numeral or letter. It is a
number that indicates a world series, and if a letter. It is a number that indicates
a world series, and if a letter, it indicates a geographical regional area.

ii. The second entry is always a number and indicates the scale group of the map.
5=1:250,000
6=1:100,000
7=1:50,000
iii. The third entry is always a number and indicates the scale group of the map.
iv. The fourth entry identifies this series from others having the same scale and
area average.
e. Edition number – found in the center of the lower margin. They are rulers used for the
determination of ground distance.
f. Bar scale – located in the center of the lower margin. They are rulers used for the
determination of ground distance.
g. Index to adjoining sheets – appears in the lower margin. It identifies the map sheet surrounding
the maps.
h. Index to boundaries – appears in the lower margin. It identifies the map sheet surrounding the
maps.
 i. Grid reference box – located in the lower margin and contains information for identifying the
grid zone and 100,000 meter square in which the area presented by the map is located and
instructions for giving grid reference on the map.
j. Legend – located in the lower left margin. It illustrates and identifies the topographic symbols
used in the maps.
k. Declination diagram – located in the lower margin and indicates the angular relationships of true
north, grid north and magnetic north.
l. Contour interval – found in the center of the lower margin and state the vertical distance
between adjacent contour lines on the map

IV. ORIENTATION OF MAP

A map is oriented when in a horizontal position and its north and all map lines are parallel to
their corresponding lines on the ground.
a. Orientation by Compass - place the map on the flat surface and draw the MN line and follow
these steps:
i. Open the compass and place it over the MN lines that the sightings wire in the front
sight cover is nearest the top of the map and is directly over the MN line that has been
drawn.
ii. Turn the map taking care not to move the compass from its position over the MN line,
until the north arrow of the compass is aligned with the index line of the inner glass.
b. Orientation by Inspection – carefully examine the map and ground for features that are common
to both map and ground. Align the features on the map with the same features on the ground.
The map is oriented.

V. TYPES OF MAP
a. Plan metric Map – presents only the horizontal position for the features represented.
b. Topographic Map – portrays terrain features as well as the horizontal positions of the features
represented.
c. Photo Map – is a reproduction of an aerial photograph that shows the different parts of the map
such as grid lines, marginal data, place names, important elevations et al.
d. Joint Operations Graphic – series of 1:250,000 scale military maps designed for joint ground and
air operations.
e. Photo mosaic – is an assembly of aerial photographs that is commonly called a mosaic in
topographic usage.
f. Terrain Model – is a scale model of the terrain showing features and in large scale models
showing industrial and cultural shapes.
g. Military City Map – is a topographic map, usually 1:12,500 scale of a city, delineating streets and
showing street names, importance that are compatible with the scale of the map.
h. Special Maps – are maps for special purposes such as traffic ability, communications and assault
maps.

VI. TYPES OF MAP ACCORDING TO SCALE

Scale is expressed as a fraction and gives the ratio of small distance to ground distance. The
scale can be a small scale, medium scale and large scale which may be confusing when read in
conjunction with the numbers. Therefore, the larger the number after 1; the smaller the scale of the
map.

a. Small Scale – 1:1,000,000 which are used for general planning and strategic studies at the high
echelon.
b. Medium Scale – 1:250,000 which are used for planning operations, including the movement and
concentration of troops and supplies.
c. Large Scale – 1:50,000 which are used to meet the tactical, technical and administrative needs of
field units.

VII. SCALE
Ground Distance (GD) can be determined from a map by the scale. Scale is the relation between
distance on the map and actual distance on the ground.
It is expressed on one or more of the following ways:

Works and Figures – scale may be expressed by a simple statement like “3 inches equals 1 mile”,
meaning 3 inches on the map equals A mile on the ground. Similarly, “1 inch equal 200 feet”, meaning 1
inch on the map equal 200 ground.

Representative Fraction (RF) – the representative fraction formula is:

RF - Map Distance (MD)
Ground Distance (GD)

in which the numerator and denominator are expressed in the same unit, as inches, feet, yards, meters
or miles. The RF appears in the margin as 1:20,000 such units on the ground. The larger the denominator
of the RF, the smaller the scale of the map. Thus a 1:100,000 map is a small scale map and 1:20,000 is a
larger scale map.

Graphic Scale – distance may also be measured by a graphic scale, a special ruler for the
particular map, printed in the margin.
Conversion Factor – distance may be expressed in either the English of the Metric system and it
may be necessary to convert measurement of the system with those of another. Common units of
metric linear measure.
1 mile =1,760 yards =1.609 kilometers = 1,609 mtrs
1 kilometer =1,094 yards = 0.62 mile
1 meter = 1.094 yards = 39.37 inches
1 yard = 0.91 meter = 36 inches

VIII. BASE DIRECTION

Direction from one point to another is always expressed as an angle from the baseline. There
are three base directions, namely: TRUE NORTH (Star), MAGNETIC NORTH (Half Arrowhead), and GRID
NORTH (Y or GN).
True North – is the direction of the North Pole. It is used in surveying where great accuracy is
required but is not normally used by military personnel in the field. Meridian or longitude lines on a map
represent True north and South direction. It is almost directly under the North Star Polaris, but 1 degree
of Center.
 Magnetic North – is the direction of the North Magnetic Pole. It is indicated by the N (north
seeking) of the compass needed. It is ordinarily used for field work because it can be found directly with
the common compass.
Grid North – is the direction of the vertical grid lines usually found on military maps.
Determination of direction by grid north is convenient because grid lines are located at frequent
intervals on maps.

IX. USE AND DETERMINATION OF AZIMUTH

Declination – is the difference in direction between true north and magnetic north or between
true north and grid north. There are two declinations:

MAGNETIC and GRID.

Magnetic Declination – is the angle formed between the magnetic north and true north. If the
magnetic north and true north are on the same line the magnetic declination is zero. If the magnetic
north is EAST of the True North, the magnetic declination is EAST. If the magnetic north is WEST of the
True North the magnetic declination is WEST. Magnetic declination generally varies in value. Thus,
magnetic declination in Manila may be 1 degree 15’E and that of
Cebu may be 1 degree 30’W. The magnetic declination as from past records changes and is expressed as
either EASTERLY or WESTERLY – meaning that the magnetic north tends to move towards the East or
West as the case may be.
Grid Declination – is the angle formed by the True North and Grid North.
The Grid Declination is east if the Grid North is East of the True North.
G-M Angle – the angle formed by Magnetic North and the Grid North is called the GM ANGLE. If
the Magnetic North is East of the Grid North, the GM angle is East. If the Magnetic North is West of the
Grid North, the GM angle is West. This angle is used frequently in field map reading and its value can be
found on the marginal data of maps. The annual magnetic change affects the value of the GM Angles by
either increasing or decreasing depending on the measurements of the magnetic north.
Declination Diagram – printed on the margin of military maps. It has three prongs showing the
direction of the True North, Magnetic North and Grid North. On some maps when the declination is
small, the diagram is exaggerated.
Azimuths - is a horizontal angle, measured in a clockwise
manner from north base line
Forward Azimuth – in describing the position of one point on map or in the field with reference
to some other point, the army uses the azimuth system of measuring direction. Military azimuth are
horizontal angles measured clockwise from magnetic, true or grid north base line.
Magnetic Azimuth – is the horizontal angle measured clockwise from magnetic north to the line.
Grid Azimuth – is the horizontal angle measured clockwise from grid north to the line.
True Azimuth – azimuth measured with true north as base line.
Relation between Magnetic and Grid Azimuth in the field, magnetic azimuth are read directly from the
compass. If the map is one with the protractor and pivot point, the magnetic north line may be drawn
easily on the map, and that is the line used to plot compass reading. However, for older maps compass
reading is usually converted to grid azimuth before it is plotted on the map. The difference between the
grid and magnetic azimuth is the G-M Angle.
When MN is East of GN, GAZ equals MAZ plus G-M angle.
When MN is West of GN, GAZ equals MAZ minus G-M angle.
 Back Azimuth – BAZ is simply the AZ of line viewed backward. The BAZ of a line is its FAZ plus
180 degrees, or if this sum is greater than 180 degree, the back azimuth is the forward azimuth minus
180 degrees. For example, if the FAZ is a line of 50 degrees, the BAZ is 50 degrees plus 180 degrees
equals 230 degrees. Or if the FAZ of the line is 310 degrees minus 180 degrees equals 130 degrees.

X. DETERMINING DIRECTION AND LOCATION

To determine direction and location, you will be primarily guided by the use of key terrain
features that exist in the area. Direction is defined as an imaginary straight line on the map or ground
and expressed as an azimuth. Azimuth is the horizontal angle measured clockwise from the base
direction.
Direction may be estimated directly from the map by comparing it to the ground, and then
walking over the terrain that the map indicates will lead you to the desired place. However, on the
ground and on the map, there is one simple task we can use to determine the direction of things for us.
This tool is called the compass.
In the military, the type of a compass that is issued and commonly used is called the lensatic
compass. This useful item finds the north and the azimuth for us. In other words, the lensatic compass is
the direction finder. The compass can tell us the azimuth in degrees toward a given object, or it can tell
us the direction if an azimuth is known. To find a given magnetic azimuth, hold the compass level and
turn the compass and yourself until the correct magnetic azimuth is under the stationary index line. If
you are going to travel along this azimuth, look up the sky line and pick up some prominent terrain
features on this line that you can use to guide on while moving. As much as possible, take the back
azimuth, which is the reverse of the forward azimuth.
In order to be assured of the accuracy of the lensatic compass, observe the two (2) general rules
as follows:
1. Keep away from metal objects and high tension wire. The north arrow of the compass is
controlled by lines of force in the earth’s magnetic field. Since these force lines are disturbed
locally by small amounts of iron and electric fields, these things will produce errors in the
compass and the effect will be greater as the mass of the object or strength of the field
increases.
2. Keep the compass closed when not in use. The compass is a delicate instrument and can be
damaged easily. It should always be properly closed and returned to its carrying case when not
in actual use.

XI. METHODS OF DETERMINING ONE’S POSITION AND LOCATION

a. INTERSECTION - is the location of the unknown, unoccupied points by taking sights to the
known point from at least two known occupied positions. Compass and protractor method of
intersection – move to a certain feature “A” which can be identified on your map at “A” and take a
compass sight on the object “C” you wish to locate. Move to another readily identifiable feature “B” and
gain sight on the object “C” with your compass. Then change the MAZ to GAZ and plot the GAZ through
the respective positions where you obtained the sights, or you can draw an MN reference line through
each feature on the map and plot the MAZ. Intersection of two lines is the location of the objects.

b. RESECTION - is the locating of an unknown occupied position by taking sights on two or more
identifiable points whose position are known.
Compass and Protractor Method of Resection:
Select two visible objects on the terrain as “B” and “C” which can be identified with the map as
“B” and “C” which are situated to the line radiating from you to them which make an angle of 30 degree
to 150 degree at the observer. With compass sight the landscape successively recording the MAZ to
each. Draw MN guidelines through the map position of each object “B” and “C” and with the protractor
lay off the respective MAZ. Prolong these lines through the points “B” and ”C” back towards the
observer until they intersect. Instead of drawing the MN guidelines you can convert the MAZ to GAZ and
then plot in the grid BAZ through each object. The intersections of these lines are again the position
sought.

c. GRAPHICAL RESECTION – first orient your map accurately. Look over the terrain and select
two distinct visible features on the ground. “B” and “C” which can be located and identified on the map
as “B” and “C”. The features selected should be selected so lines radiating from you to them from an
angle as near 90 degrees as possible. Place a pin in “B” , lay a straight edge (ruler or pencil) against the
point, turn it until it points at “B”. Draw a ray on the map from the pin toward your position. Repeat the
same operation with point “C”. The intersection of two lines is your own position or location on the
map. Care must be exercised that the map remains oriented during the entire procedure. If three points
are used instead of two your location will probably be more accurate.

d. MODIFIED RESECTION – a method of locating one’s position on a map when the individual is
located on a road or some other linear terrain feature identified on the map. A MAZ is taken to some
points which can be identified both on the ground and on the map. From this, compute the BAZ and
convert to GAZ. Draw this GAZ on the map from the known point. Where this azimuth line on the map
crosses or intersects the road or either linear terrain features is the
location of the individual.

XII. GRID
Geographic Coordinates – is one of the oldest systematic methods of location/and is based upon
the geographic coordinate system by drawing a set of east– west (latitude) and north–south rings
(Longitude). It is expressed in angular measurements.
Military Grid System – is a network of squares formed by the north-south and east-west grid line
placed on a map. The distance between grid lines represents 1,000 or 10,000 meters depending upon
the scale of the map. This system enables the map reader to quickly and accurately locate a point on a
map.

Rule of Thumb
Grid lines are identified by specific numbers printed on the margin opposite the line it indicates.
Any point on a map can be identified by coordinates.

The following are the rules for reading grid coordinates.

1. Use the large bold – faced number in the margin labeling each grid line.
2. Starting from the lower left-hands corner of the map, read right and up.
3. Write the grid coordinates as a continuous series of numbers. In the following examples we shall
be able to determine the grid square of a point in the map, to locate a point within 100 meters,
and to locate the point within 10 meters.
4. Determine the grid square.
5. Locating a point within 100 meters (100 meters square reading indicates that a point is located
nearest the 100 meters). Locating a point within 10 meters. The rules applied in the preceding
example are observed. However, in locating a point nearest the 10 meters, used the 8 digits
coordinate system. That gives you the exact location on the map.