8

Microwave Tubes
8.1 INTRODUCTION

Microwave tubes operate at frequencies from 300 MHz to 300 GHz with
output power ranging from 10 mW to a few hundred watts. The operating
principle of microwave tubes is based on velocity modulation of electrons.
The velocity-modulation concept is used to prevent the problems caused
due to transit-time effects that are encountered in conventional tubes. A
long transit time is used very effectively in microwave tubes in the
conversion of dc power to RF power. By using the resonant cavities in the
microwave tubes, and the velocity modulation of electrons, the power can
be interchanged.

In conventional vacuum tubes, the modulation of electron beam can be

done by altering the number of electrons. The microwave tubes are also
called velocity-modulated tubes. In velocity-modulated tubes, the electron
beam is formed by varying the velocity of electrons, in order to enable
some electrons to move slowly and others to move rapidly through the
inter-electrode space. Bunching of electrons occurs when the fast moving
electrons overtake the slowly moving electrons (which arrive before the
fast moving electrons).

The microwave tubes are mainly classified into linear beam tubes (O-
type) and crossed-field tubes (M-type). In linear beam tubes, the electron
beam is parallel to both the electric and magnetic fields. However, in
crossed-field tubes, the electric beam is perpendicular to both the electric
and magnetic fields. This chapter begins with the limitations of
conventional vacuum tubes at microwave frequencies, the common
operating principles of many microwave tubes and finally the detailed
descriptions of Klystron, Reflex Klystron, TWT, BWO, magnetrons and
CFA.
 8.2 LIMITATIONS OF CONVENTIONAL TUBES AT MICROWAVE
FREQUENCIES

Due to the following reasons, at microwave frequencies above 1 GHz, the

conventional tubes (triodes, tetrodes, and pentodes) are less useful signal
sources. They are

 Effects of inter electrode capacitance

 Effects due to lead inductance
 Effects due to transit time
 Limitation of gain bandwidth product.

The details of each limitation are discussed in the following sections:

8.2.1 Inter-electrode Capacitance Effect

The inter-electrode capacitances in a vacuum tube produce capacitive
reactance. At low and medium frequencies, the tube operation is not
affected, even though the reactance value is very large. However, as the
frequency increases, the reactance, Xc = 1/2πfc, decreases and the output
voltage decreases due to shunting effect. Since at higher
frequencies, Xc becomes almost a short, Cgp (grid-to-plate
capacitance), Cgc (grid-to-cathode capacitance) and Cpc (plate-to-cathode
capacitance) are the inter-electrode capacitance (IECs) that come into
effect and are shown in Figure 8.1.

Figure8.1 Inter-electrode capacitance

The inter-electrode capacitance can be reduced by decreasing the area of

the electrodes, that is, by using smaller electrodes or by increasing the
distance between electrodes. The relation for the capacitance is

C = ε0εr A/d (8.1)

where A = area of the electrode

 d = distance between electrodes

ε0 = free space permittivity

ε0 = relative permittivity

8.2.2 Lead Inductance Effect

The lead inductance that appears at the connecting leads of the vacuum
tube elements (e.g. cathode, plate and grid) is another limiting factor at
higher frequencies. The three lead inductances that limit the performance
of vacuum tube are: inductance at cathode (Lc ), inductance at plate (Lp),
and inductance at grid (Lg) as shown in Figure. 8.2. The main effects of the
lead inductance at high frequencies are:

1. they form unwanted tuned circuit by combining with the capacitance, which
produce the parasitic oscillations
2. they create an input impedance matching problem due to increase in the
inductive reactance.

The inductive reactance (XL =2πfL) in the connecting leads (wires or base
pins) increases with the increase in frequency. Therefore, the input voltage
drops across the lead inductance and only a fractional part of the applied
input voltage reaches the terminals (e.g. grid), which decreases the gain of
tube amplifier

Figure8.2 Lead inductance

Inductance is calculated by using the relation

(8.2)
where A = area of the electrode

l = length of the coil

μ0 = permeability of free space = 4π × 10−7 H/m

μr = relative permeability

The effect of lead inductance can be minimized by decreasing L, that is,

by using larger-sized short leads without base pins, and by
increasing A and decreasing l. Due to this the power handling capability is
reduced.

8.2.3 Transit-time Effect

The time required for the electrons to travel from cathode to anode plate is
called as transit time (τ). It is the main limitation caused at higher
frequencies only. At low frequencies, transit time is not important and
usually it is not considered as an affecting factor because the time period
of the signal (T) is much greater than the transit time (T >> τ). On the
other hand, at high frequencies, it is a considerable portion of the signal
cycle and obstructs the efficiency because of the time period of the signal
(T) is much smaller than the transit time (T << τ). In general, transit time
may cause the reduction of efficiency if it exceeds 0.1 of the signal cycle.

Transit time causes a phase shift between the plate current and the grid
voltage resulting in reduction of efficiency.

For example, at a frequency of 1 MHz, the transit time of 1 nsec is only

0.001 of the signal period (T = 1/f = 10−6 sec). So, in this case the transit
time is much smaller than the time period of the signal and its effect is
insignificant. If the frequency is increased to 100 GHz, with the same
transit time of 1 nsec, then the transit time becomes equal to 100 times the
signal period (T =1/f = 10−11 sec). In this case the transit time is greater than
the time period of the signal and therefore its effect is significant.

Transit time is the time taken by the electron to travel from cathode to
anode.

(8.3)
 Under the equilibrium condition, static energy is equal to kinetic energy,
that is,

(8.4)

Therefore,

(8.5)

where V0 = dc voltage

d = distance between anode and cathode

v0 = velocity of an electron

e = charge of an electron

m = mass of an electron

To reduce the transit time, the separation between electrodes, “d” can be
decreased (but this increases IEC), and the anode to cathode voltage can be
increased (this cannot be increased indefinitely). Therefore, a trade-off
between IEC and transit time is a must.

8.2.4 Gain Bandwidth Product Limitation

Using a resonant circuit (LC tank circuit) across the load resistance (R) of
an ordinary vacuum tube, maximum gain is achieved at a particular
frequency as shown in Figure 8.3. The gain bandwidth product is constant
for all the vacuum tube amplifiers that employ resonant circuits and is
given by

(8.6)

where Am = maximum voltage gain at resonance

BW = bandwidth

gm = transconductance
 C = the capacitance of the tank circuit

Figure8.3 Output tuned circuit of a pentode

We note that the gain bandwidth product is independent of frequency. It

depends on the tube parameter (gm) and the external capacitance (C) of the
resonator. These resonant circuits can be used at low frequencies to
achieve a higher gain, but at a narrower bandwidth. However, higher gain
at broader bandwidth is desired at higher frequencies. This limitation can
be overcome by using re-entrant cavities or slow-wave structures in place
of the resonant circuits in microwave tubes.

8.3 RE-ENTRANT CAVITIES

The re-entrant cavities (also known as irregular-shaped resonators) are

used in place of tuned circuits at microwave frequencies. These devices
are easily incorporated into the microwave device structure. Below the
microwave frequencies, the cavity resonator can be represented by
lumped-constant resonant circuit. In order to maintain resonance at high
operating frequency, the values of inductance and capacitance are
decreased to a minimum by using a short wire. Hence, for use in klystron
and other microwave tubes, the re-entrant cavities are designed. One more
advantage of the re-entrant cavity is we can easily couple and take out the
signal from these devices. In these devices the metallic boundaries are
extended into interior of the cavity.

Figure8.4 Re-entrant cavities

Several types of re-entrant cavities are shown in Figure 8.4. One of the
commonly used re-entrant cavities is the coaxial cavity shown in Figure
8.5 (a). From the Figure 8.5 (a), it can be observed that the inductance as
well as the resistance losses is reduced, and the radiation losses are also
prevented by

Figure8.5 (a) Coaxial cavity; (b) Radial cavity

shelf-shielding enclosures. Calculation of the resonant frequency of the

coaxial cavity is very difficult. Using transmission line theory an
approximation can be made. The characteristic impedance of the coaxial
line is given by

ohms (8.7)

When two coaxial lines are shorted at both the ends and are joined at the
centre by a capacitor, then a structure is formed which is similar to a
coaxial cavity. For each shorted coaxial line the input impedance is given
as

(8.8)

where l = the length of the coaxial line

Substituting Eq. 8.7 in Eq. 8.8 results in

(8.9)

The inductance of the cavity is given by

(8.10)

and the capacitance of the gap is given by

 (8.11)

When the circuit is in resonance, the inductive reactance of the two

shorted coaxial lines which is in series has same magnitude to that of
capacitive reactance of the gap.

That is . Thus (8.12)

where, is the phase velocity in any medium.

The resonant frequency of the coaxial cavity is obtained by solving this

equation. The Eq. 8.12 has infinite number of resonant modes, because it
bears the tangent function. Each resonant mode corresponds to a particular
value of resonant frequency and because of which each re-entrant cavity
has an innumerable resonant frequencies. The mode which possesses the
lowest resonant frequency is known as the dominant mode. It can be seen
that a shorted coaxial-line cavity stores more magnetic energy than electric
energy. The balance of the stored electric energy appears in the gap. At
resonance, the magnetic and electric energies stored are equal.

Another commonly used re-entrant resonator is the radial re-entrant cavity

shown in Figure 8.5 (b). The inductance and capacitance of a radial re-
entrant cavity are expressed by

(8.13)

and

(8.14)

The resonant frequency is given by

(8.15)
 where m/s is the velocity of light

8.4 CLASSIFICATION OF MICROWAVE TUBES

Microwave tubes are constructed so as to overcome the limitations of

conventional and UHF tubes. The basic operating principle of microwave
tubes involves the transfer of power from source of the dc voltage to the
source of the ac voltage by means of a current density modulated electron
beam. The same is achieved by accelerating electrons in a static field and
retarding them in an ac field.The microwave tubes are mainly classified
into linear beam tubes and crossed field tubes, and sub classified as shown
in Figure 8.6.

Figure8.6 Classification of microwave tubes

Linear beam tubes are often called O-type. In linear beam tubes, the
electron beam travels along a straight path between the cathode and the
collector. This electron beam is parallel to both the electric and magnetic
fields. However, in crossed field tubes, the electron beam is perpendicular
to both the electric and magnetic fields. Crossed-field tubes deals with the
propagation of magnetic field waves so they are known as M-type devices.

8.5 LINEAR BEAM (O TYPE) TUBES

At present, the most impoprtant microwave tubes are the linear beam
tubes. There are two basic types of linear beam tubes. One type of tube
uses electromagnetic cavities, and the other type of tubes use slow-wave
structure. Both types of tubes use an electron beam. As the name implies,
in a linear beam tube, the electron beam and the circuit elements with
which it interacts are arranged linearly. A simple schematic of a linear
beam tube is shown in Figure 8.7.

The electrons which are accelerated by the anode voltage possesses

kinetic energy and this kinetic energy is calculated by using anode voltage.
The applied RF input when interacts with the electron beam, a small part
of kinetic energy that is present in it gets converted into microwave
energy. At the RF output port the microwave energy is extracted and the
remaining portion of electron beam is dissipated in the form of heat from
the tube or it is sent back to the collector. As the electrons in the electron
beam tends to repel each other, a magnetic field, is focused on the
electrons as a beam going from the cathode to the collector. The magnetic
field is generated either by an electromagnet or permanent magnets.

Figure8.7 Schematic diagram of a generic linear beam tube

Klystrons: Klystrons have high peak power, high average power, good
efficiency, high gain, and low spurious signals. The working principle of
klystron is based on velocity and density modulation. The resonant cavities
are used to produce the bunching effect. The klystron is basically a
vacuum electron device and it may be an oscillator or an amplifier since it
is used for transforming DC energy into RF energy. In a klystron, the
signal and the electron beam interacts at a very short range. Therefore, a
strong electrostatic field is required for efficient operation of the klystron.
When the space charge in the beam decreases, then the klystron’s
efficiency increases. By changing the velocity of an electron beam, the
transit-time effect is utilized by the klystrons.

1. Two-cavity or multi-cavity klystron: It is used as a low-power microwave

amplifier.
2. Reflex klystron: It is used as a low-power microwave oscillator.
 8.6 TWO-CAVITY KLYSTRON AMPLIFIER

The two-cavity klystron is a widely used microwave amplifier that is

operated by the principles of velocity and current modulation. In a two
cavity-klystron amplifier, a high-velocity electron beam is produced,
focused, and made to travel along a glass tube, a field-free drift space, and
an output cavity (catcher) to a collector electrode/anode. The anode is
maintained at a positive potential with respect to the cathode. Electrons
from the cathode start drifting with constant velocity after being
accelerated by a DC voltage. When the electrons pass through a pair of
narrowly spaced grids, their velocity is modulated by a sinusoidal RF
signal.

8.6.1 Structure of Two-Cavity Klystron

The construction and essential components of a two-cavity klystron are
shown in Figure 8.8. It consists of a (i) cathode-anode configuration (i.e.
electron gun) to produce an accelerated electron beam; (ii) a buncher
(input) cavity; (iii) a catcher (output) cavity; (iv) field-free drift space
between input and output cavities; and (v) a collector.

Figure8.8 Functional and schematic diagram of a two-cavity klystron

Electrons emitted by the cathode are focused by one or more focusing

electrodes placed in front of the cathode. The electron beam then passes
through the buncher and catcher cavities and finally reaches the collector.
By using coupling loop, the RF power can be coupled through the buncher
and catcher cavities.

8.6.2 Velocity-modulation Process and Applegate Diagram

The velocity-modulation principle and operation of the klystron is
explained by using the Applegate diagram as shown in Figure 8.9. Assume
a condition when there is no voltage across the gap A, and the electrons
that pass through gap A are unaffected and continue to the collector with
the same velocities which they had before approaching the gap. If input is
given to the buncher cavity, then the electrons which pass through this
cavity are affected by the voltage depending on the variations of the
voltage. Consider the instant when the electron passes through the gap A
when the voltage across gap A is zero and is going positive. At this instant,
the electric field across gap A is zero, and an electron that passes through
gap A is unaffected by the input signal. Let this electron be called
the reference electron (re), which travels with an unchanged
velocity .

As shown in Figure 8.9, a late electron le passing the gap A slightly later
than re is accelerated by the new positive voltage whose velocity (v) is
greater than (v0) across gap A. This electron will catch up with the
reference electron re and the early electron ee that was retarded by the
negative voltage whose velocity (v) is less than (v0).

Figure8.9 Applegate diagram of a two-cavity klystron

As a result of these actions, the average velocity of electrons with which
they leave the grid gap is similar to that with which they enter. While
traveling through the drift region, the beam under goes density
modulation. The density of electrons passing the gap B vary cyclically
with time, that is, the electron beam contains an ac current and is current
modulated. The drift space converts the velocity modulation into current
modulation. Bunching occurs only once for the cycle centered around the
reference electron. With a proper design, a little RF power applied to the
buncher cavity results in large beam currents at the catcher cavity with a
considerable power gain.

Equation of Velocity Modulation

The equation of velocity modulation can be given by

where v0 = initial velocity of electrons

β1 = beam coupling coefficient

V1 = amplitude of the input signal applied at the buncher cavity

V0 = anode to cathode voltage

Derivation of Velocity-Modulation Equation

As explained earlier, the velocity of electrons before entering the buncher
grid is uniform and is given by

(8.16)

where V0 = applied beam voltage

e = charge of electrons

m = mass of electrons
From Eq. 8.16 it is inferred that the electrons leave the cathode with zero
velocity. Consider that the RF signal fed to the input buncher grid is
specified as

(8.17)

where, V1 is the amplitude of the signal and V1 << V0 is assumed.

By considering either the entering time t0 or the exiting time t1, the
modulated velocity in the buncher cavity can be determined. The average
microwave voltage in the buncher gap needs to be determined as shown
in Figure 8.10.

Figure8.10 Signal voltages in the buncher gap

As V1 << V0, the average transit time all the way through the buncher gap
of distance d is

(8.18)

The phase delay caused during transit time across the gap is referred to as
gap transit angle (θg) and can be given as

(8.19)

Eventually, the average microwave voltage in the buncher gap can be

given as

(8.20)

(8.21)
Let

and

By using trigonometric relations, i.e., cos (A − B) − cos (A + B) =

2sinA sinB, Eq. 8.21 can be written as

(8.22)

(8.23)

where β1 the beam coupling coefficient of the input cavity gap and is given
as

(8.24)

We can observe that when the gap transit angle increases the coupling
between the electron beam and buncher cavity reduces which means for a
given microwave signal the velocity modulation decreases. The exit
velocity from the buncher gap after velocity modulation, can be instantly
calculated as

(8.25)

substituting Eq. 8.23 in Eq. 8.25,

(8.26)

where, the factor is called the depth of velocity modulation

(8.27)
Assuming that and by means of binomial expansion the Eq. 8.27
is modified as

(8.28)

This is called the velocity modulation equation, this equation can also be
written as,

(8.29)

8.6.3 Bunching Process and Small Signal Theory

The electrons drift immediately after leaving the buncher cavity, with a
velocity analogous to that shown in Eq. 8.28 (or Eq. 8.29) along the field-
free space between the two cavities. This effect of velocity modulation
creates bunching of the electron beam or current modulation.

The bunching parameter of the two-cavity klystron is given by

where β1 = beam coupling coefficient

V1 = amplitude of the input signal applied at buncher cavity

θ0 = dc transit angle

V0 = anode to cathode voltage

Derivation of Bunching Parameter of Two-Cavity Klystron

The electrons form the bunching centre when they pass through the
buncher at Vs = 0 with an unchanged velocity During the positive half
cycles of the microwave input voltage Vs, the electron passes the gap faster
compared to the electrons that pass the gap at Vs = 0. The electrons that
enter buncher cavity during the negative half cycle of Vs are slow
compared to the electrons that pass the gap at Vs = 0. The beam electrons
drift into dense clusters at a distance of ΔL all along the beam from the
buncher cavity.

Figure8.11 Bunching process

Figure 8.11 shows the trajectories of minimum, zero, and maximum

electron acceleration (−π/2 to 0 then 0 to π/ 2). The location of dense
electron bunching for the electron at tb is at distance ΔL from the bunching
grid and it is given as

(8.30)

Similarly, the distances for the electrons at ta and tc are

(8.31)

(8.32)

From Eq. 8.28 or 8.29, the minimum and maximum velocities are as
follows:

Maximum velocity occurs at +π/2, so that

(8.33)

Minimum velocity occurs at −π/2, so that

 (8.34)

Substituting Eqs. 8.34 and 8.33 in Eqs. 8.31 and 8.32, respectively,

(8.35)
and

(8.36)

The necessary condition for those electrons at ta, tb, and tc to meet at the
same distance ΔL is

(8.37)
and

(8.38)

Consequently,

(8.39)
and

(8.40)

The transit time for velocity-modulated electrons to travel at a

distance L is given by

(From Figure 8.8)

As for the Binomial expansion,

(8.41)

Multiplying by ω on both sides of the above equation, we get

(8.42)

In the above equation, L/v0 = T0 is the dc transit time.

(8.43)

(8.44)

where θ0 = dc transit angle between cavities

N = number of electron transit cycles in the drift space

By expanding Eq. 8.43, we get the value of the bunching parameter

where

(8.45)

is defined as the bunching parameter of the klystron.

 Substituting Eq. 8.44 in Eq. 8.45, we get

(8.46)

The beam current at the catcher cavity is a periodic waveform of

period about the dc current. Therefore, the current i2 can be expanded

in a Fourier series and so,

(8.47)

By using Bessel’s function ( ) and trigonometric functions the

beam current i2 is

(8.48)

The magnitude of the fundamental component of the beam current at the

catcher cavity is

(8.49)

It has maximum amplitude at X = 1.841. From the Eqs. 8.44 and 8.45 the
maximum distance L at which the optimum fundamental component of
current occurs can be calculated as

(8.50)

The distance mentioned in Eq. 8.40 is lesser by 15% than result of Eq.
8.50. This inconsistency is due to the approximations made in Eq. 8.40.

8.6.4 Expressions for Output Power and Efficiency

The beam coupling coefficients β1 and β0 can be equal, only when the
buncher and catcher cavities are identical. The current induced by the
electron beam (which is induced in the walls of the catcher cavity) is
directly proportional to the amplitude of the microwave input voltage V1.
Eventually the fundamental component of the induced microwave current
in the catcher is given by
 (8.51)

Its magnitude is given by

(8.52)

Figure 8.12 shows an output equivalent circuit of two cavity klystron

amplifier. It comprises of wall resistance (Rc) taken in parallel combination
with the catcher cavity, beam loading resistance (Rb) and an external load
resistance RL.

Figure8.12 Output equivalent circuit of two-cavity klystron amplifier

The output power delivered to the catcher cavity and the load is given as

(8.53)

where Rsh = total equivalent shunt resistance of the catcher circuit,

including the load

V2 = fundamental component of the catcher gap voltage

Input power (Pin)

The input power is basically the dc input and is given by

(8.54)
Efficiency of klystron

For a klystron amplifier the electronic efficiency can be defined as the

ratio of output power to the input power. From Eqs. 8.53 and 8.54 we get

(8.55)
Here we also include the power loss due to the beam loading and cavity
walls.

Under the perfect coupling conditions, the maximum electronic

efficiency is about 58%, where the maximum beam current reaches
to and the voltage V2 is equal to V0. Because the
efficiency is a function of the catcher gap transit angle θg, practically,
efficiency of a klystron amplifier is in the range of 15 to 30%.

Voltage gain of a klystron amplifier

The equivalent mutual conductance of the klystron amplifier can be

defined as the ratio of the induced output current to the input voltage. That
is,

(8.56)

From Eq. 8.45, the input voltage V1 can be expressed in terms of the
bunching parameter X as

(8.57)

In Eq. 8.57, it is assumed that β0 = β1. Substitution of Eq. 8.57 in Eq. 8.56
yields the normalized mutual conductance as

(8.58)

where G0 = I0/V0 is the dc beam conductance.

The voltage gain of a klystron amplifier is defined as .

By substituting Eq. 8.57 and V2 = β0I2Rsh the voltage gain is given as

(8.59)

where R0 = V0/I0 is the dc beam resistance.

 By substituting Eqs. 8.52 and 8.57 in Eq. 8.59, we get

Av = GmRsh

Performance characteristics of a two-cavity klystron amplifier:

 Frequency : 250 MHz to 100 GHz
 Power : 10 kW – 500 kW (CW), 30 MW (Pulsed)
 Power gain : 15 dB – 20 dB
 Bandwidth : 10 – 60 MHz generally used in fixed frequency applications
 Noise figure : 15 – 20 dB
 Theoretical efficiency : 58% (50 – 60%)

Applications of a two-cavity klystron amplifier: Klystrons are widely

used in particle accelerators, UHF television transmitters and
communication system uplinks. The following are its applications:

 It is used as a power amplifier.

 It is used as a frequency multiplier.
 As power output tubes
1. In UHF TV transmitters
2. In troposphere scatter transmitters
3. At satellite communication ground stations
Example Problem 8.1

A two-cavity klystron operates at 10 GHz with Io = 3.5 mA, Vo = 10 kV.

The drift space length is 3 cm, and the output cavity total shunt
conductance is Gsh = 20 μ mho with beam coupling coefficient β0 = 0.92.
Find the maximum voltage gain.

Solution

Maximum voltage gain

The dc beam velocity

Transit angle in drift space

= ( Xmax = 1.841, J1 (Xmax) = 0.582)
Example Problem 8.2

A two-cavity Klystron amplifier has the following parameters: DC voltage

for accelerations of electron = 1000 V, DC beam resistance = 50 kΩ, DC
current = 25 mA, f = 3 GHz, gap spacing in either cavity = 1 mm, spacing
between the two cavities = 4 cm, effective shunt impedance including the
beam loading = 30 kΩ, J1 (X) is maximum at 1.841, and J1 (1.841) = 0.582.

1. Find the input gap voltage to give maximum output voltage.

2. Find voltage gain, neglecting the beam loading in the output cavity.

Solution
1. The electron velocity just leaving the cathode is

The gap transit angle is

rad
The dc transit angle between the cavities is

The beam coupling coefficient is

The maximum input voltage is

2. The voltage gain is found as

Example Problem 8.3

A two-cavity klystron amplifier has the following parameters: V0 = 1200

V, I0 = 25 mA, R0 = 48 KΩ, f = 10 GHz, d = 1 mm, L = 4 cm, and RSh = 30
KΩ.

Calculate (i) the input voltage for maximum output voltage

(ii) the voltage gain in decibels

Solution

Given that for a two-cavity klystron amplifier,

V0 = 1200 V I0 = 25 mA R0 = 48 KΩ
f = 10 GHZ d = 1 mm L = 4 cm
RSh = 30 KΩ
1. The input voltage applied at a two-cavity klystron is

For maximum output power, X = 1.84

Average transit angle

The input voltage for maximum output voltage is

2. The voltage gain AV is given by

V2 = β0 I2 Rsh
I2 = 2IdcJ1 (X)
For X = 1.84, J1 (X) = 0.582 (from Bessel function table)
I2 = 2 × 25 × 10−3 × 0.582 = 29.1 mA
V2 = β0 I2 Rsh = 0.653 × 29.1 × 10-3 × 30 × 103 = 570.069 V
The voltage is

Av (dB) = 20 log (10.314) = 20.269 dB

Example Problem 8.4

The operating frequency of a two-cavity klystron is 5 GHz. For a input RF

voltage of 40 KV, the magnitude of the gap voltage is 100 volts and the
capacity gap is 4 mm. Calculate the following:

1. the transit time at the cavity gap,

2. the transit angle
3. the velocity of the electrons from the gap.

Solution

DC beam velocity v0 =

= 1.186 × 108 m/s

Gap transmit time

τg =

The gap transmit angle

= 1.059 rad = 60.7 deg

The beam coupling coefficient

= 0.505/0.5295 = 0.95337

The velocity of electrons leaving the input cavity gap is changing

sinusoidally at the input cycle and is given by

The maximum velocity

The minimum velocity

Example Problem 8.5

The operating frequency of a two-cavity klystron is 10 GHz. The current

and voltage when the RF input not applied to the klystron is I0 = 14.4
mA, V0 = 40 kV. Find the maximum voltage and power gain when the drift
space length is 1 cms and the output cavity total shunt conductance is Rsh =
20 μ mho and beam coupling coefficient β = 0.92.
Solution

Maximum voltage gain

dc beam voltage

Transit angle in drift place

Example Problem 8.6

The operating frequency of an identical two-cavity klystron is 4 GHz. The

current and voltage when the RF input not applied to the klystron is I0 = 22
mA, V0 = 4 kV. The gap in the cavity is 2 mm, and the gap between the
cavities is of 6 cms. If the dc beam conductance and catcher cavity total
equivalent conductance are 0.25 × 10−4 mhos and 0.3 × 10−14 mhos,
respectively, calculate the following:

1. the beam coupling coefficient, the dc transit angle in the drift space, and the
input cavity voltage magnitude for maximum output voltage
2. voltage gain neglecting the beam loading

Solution

DC beam velocity,

= 3.76 × 107 m/s

Gap transit angle,

= 1.337 rad = 76.6 deg

The beam coupling coefficient,

DC transit angle in the drift space,

= 40.11 rad

For maximum output voltage, X = 1.84, J1 (X ) = 0.582, so that the input

cavity gap voltage magnitude,

(b) voltage gain

= 4.36 = 12.8 dB

Catcher voltage, V2 = Av × V1 = 4.36 × 99 = 431.64 V

8.7 MULTI-CAVITY KLYSTRON

Extra cavities help to modulate the electron beam’s velocity and increase
the output energy. Hence, intermediate cavities are added between the
input and output cavities of a klystron amplifier. This will improve the
klystron parameters like amplification, efficiency and power output to a
great extent. Two-cavity klystron tubes generally have a gain of 10dB-20
dB. Higher gains can be obtained by cascading more two-cavity klystron
tubes by connecting the output of a tube to the input of the following tube.

A four-cavity klystron is illustrated in Figure 8.13; with four cavities,

power gains of around 50 dB can be easily achieved. Each intermediate
cavity increases power gain by 15 to 20 dB. The intermediate cavities are
kept at a distance of the bunching parameter X of 1.841, away from the
previous cavity, which acts as buncher cavities. These intermediate
cavities pass the electron beam and induce a higher RF voltage than the
previous cavity. This in turn, results in increased velocity modulation. This
increasing beam voltage V0 could be used in the subsequent cavities.
Therefore, more output power can be achieved at the output cavity.

Figure8.13 Schematic diagram of a four-cavity klystron

For a four-cavity klystron,

The output voltage and the output power are given by

(8.60)

where ω = angular frequency

ωq = reduced plasma frequency (the minimum frequency at which the

electron will oscillate in the electron beam)

β0 = beam coupling coefficient

Rsh = total shunt resistance of the input cavity

Rshl = total shunt resistance of the output cavity, including external load
 I4 = output current at 4th (or output) cavity

V1 = magnitude of the input signal

Two types of tuning are possible in multi cavity klystron. They

are: synchronous tuning and staggered tuning. Synchronous tuning, when
all the cavities are tuned to the same frequency, result in high gain and
narrow bandwidth. Staggered tuning, in which the cavities are tuned
differently, result in an increase in the bandwidth of about 800 MHz but
results in a decrease of gain of about 45 dB.

Performance Characteristics of a Multi-Cavity Klystron Amplifier:

 Power gain: 40 to 50 dB
 Bandwidth: several percent
 Frequency: 0.5 GHz to 14 GHz
 Power range: 25 kW to 40 MW

8.8 REFLEX KLYSTRON

For applications which require variable frequency, Reflex klystron is used.

It is a single cavity variable frequency microwave generator of low power
and low efficiency. If a fraction of the output power is fed back to the
input cavity and if the loop gain has a magnitude of unity with a phase
shift which is a multiple of 2π, the klystron will oscillate. It produces an
output power in the range of 10–500 mW and a frequency in the range of 1
to 25 GHz. This type is widely used in the laboratory for microwave
measurements.

8.8.1 Structure of Reflex Klystron

The schematic diagram of a simple Reflex klystron is shown in Figure
8.14 (b). Figure 8.14 (a) shows the detailed structure of the reflex klystron.
An electron gun, a filament surrounded by a cathode, an accelerating grid
at cathode potential, and a repeller constitute the setup. The electron beam
is acceler- ated towards the anode cavity, which is velocity modulated
after passing through the gap in the cavity. All the electrons that cross
during the positive half cycle of the gap voltage get accelerated and those
which cross during the negative half cycle get decelerated.
t0 = time for electron entering cavity gap at x = 0
t1 = the same electron leaving cavity gap at x = l
t2 = time for the same electron returned by retarding field x = l and
collected on walls of the cavity.

Source: electrapk.com
Figure8.14 (a) Constructional details of a reflex klystron; (b) Schematic
diagram of a simple reflex klystron
 The velocity modulated electrons travel towards a repeller electrode
which is at a high negative potential. The electrons never reach this
electrode because of the negative field and are returned back towards the
gap. Under suitable conditions, the electron gives more energy to the gap
than they took from the gap on their forward journey and oscillations are
sustained.

8.8.2 Applegate Diagram and Principle of Working

The electrons, which are reflected due to negative potential at the repeller,
enter the cavity which acts as a catcher for these reflected electrons. At the
same time, the cavity acts as a buncher for the new electrons. Some of the
electrons come together, forming a bunch after spending a different
amount of time in the repeller region. This bunching process can be clearly
explained in the Applegate diagram as shown in Figure 8.15

In Figure 8.15, the paths of electrons ee, re, and le are shown. Let re be a
reference electron. It passes the gap towards the reflector, there is no effect
of the gap voltage, and it is returned to the anode without reaching the
reflector. Now consider an electron ee, which passes the gap slightly
before re. If there is no gap voltage, early electron ee returns before re.
However, RF voltage modulates the velocity of electrons. The
electron ee is accelerated by the influence of the positive voltage, and it
moves closer to the reflector than re.
Figure8.15 Applegate diagram of reflex klystron

However, it is possible for re to catch up with the electron ee as it returns

into the gap. In a similar manner, the late electron le leaving the gap
slightly after the electron re is under the influence of the negative field,
and, hence, it does not reach the reflector as close as the electron re. The
electron le also catches up with ee and re electrons forming a bunch. Once
the electrons leave the buncher and catcher gap, the velocity modulation is
converted into current modulation. A reference electron is used to form
one bunch per cycle of oscillations. For sustained oscillations, the energy
is given by these bunches to the gap. An optimum value for time taken by
the electrons for the round trip between the repeller space and the gap
should be ensured for sustained oscillations.

The transit time (τ ) corresponding to oscillation, Tp

Where Tp is Time period of arriving electron bunches (or time period of

RF signal); n is any integer (0, 1,.., n) that depends on repeller and anode
voltages.

Halfway between the catcher grids, maximum bunching occurs. The

bunched electron beam should go through the retarding phase. In this
retarding phase, the kinetic energy of the bunched electron beam is
transferred to the field of the catcher cavity. The electrons finally come out
from the catcher grids with a reduced velocity and are accumulated at the
collector.

8.8.3 Mathematical Theory of Bunching

The analysis of a reflex klystron is similar to that of a two-cavity klystron.
The bunching parameter of the reflex klystron oscillator is given by

where β1 = beam coupling coefficient

V1 = amplitude of the input signal applied at the buncher cavity

θ0 = dc transit angle
 V0 = anode to cathode voltage

Derivation of Bunching Parameter of Reflex Klystron

For simplicity, the effect of space-charge forces on the electron motion

will again be neglected. Suppose the oscillator is lying along the x axis
with its grid walls at x = 0 and x , let t0 be the instant at which the
reference electron enters the cavity gap at x = 0, t1 be the instant at which
the electron leaves cavity gap at x = l and t2 be the instant at which the
same electron returned to the gap by the retarding field at x and
collected by the walls of the cavity. Let v0 is the velocity with which the
electrons enter the cavity gap after getting accelerated by the potential V0.
The electron entering the cavity gap from the cathode at x = 0 and the
time are assumed to have uniform velocity

The same electron leaves the cavity gap at x at time with velocity

Problems are identical to those of the two cavity klystron amplifier as

observed up to this point. The retarding electric field E forces the same
electron to the cavity at x and the time t2, which is given by

(8.62)

where Vr = repeller voltage

V1sin ωt = RF voltage at cavity gap

V0 = anode to cathode voltage

Lr = distance between cavity gap and repeller

The x component of retarding field E is taken as constant and the force

equation for one electron in the repeller region is

(8.63)
where is used in the x direction only, is the magnitude of the
repeller voltage, and << is assumed.

Integration of Eq. 8.63 twice yields

At , ; then,

At ; then,

(8.64)

On the assumption that the electron leaves the cavity gap at x = l and
time t1 with a velocity of and returns to the gap at x = l and time t2,
then at t = t2, x = l

The round-trip transit time in the repeller region is given by

(8.65)

where

(8.66)

Equation 8.66 is the round-trip dc transit time of the center-of-the-bunch

electron. Multiplication of Eq. 8.65 through by a radian frequency results
in
 (8.67)

(8.68)

Equation 8.68 is the round-trip dc transit angle of the center-of-the-bunch

electron and

(8.69)

Equation 8.69 is the bunching parameter of the reflex klystron oscillator.

8.8.4 Power Output and Efficiency

The returning electron beam in the klystron should reach the cavity gap
when the RF field in the cavity gap is maximum retarding so that
oscillations can be produced with maximum energy. In this manner, there
will be a maximum amount of kinetic energy transfer from the returning
electrons to the cavity walls. Figure 8.15 shows that when the energy
transfer is maximum, the round trip transit angle is given by

(8.70)

This transit angle is with reference to the centre of bunch.

Assuming V1 << V0, n = number of cycles (positive integer), and N = (n −

1/4) is the number of modes.

When the electron beam enters the cavity again from the repeller region,
its current modification can be determined in the similar manner as in a
two-cavity klystron amplifier. The bunching parameters of a reflex
klystron oscillator (X ′) and of a two-cavity klystron amplifier (X) are of
opposite sign. The beam current also flows in negative Z-direction.
Therefore we can write the beam current of reflex oscillator as

(8.71)

where θg << θ 0, hence θ g is neglected.

The fundamental component of the current induced in the cavity by the
modulated electron beam is given by

(8.72)

The magnitude of the fundamental component is

(8.73)

The dc power supplied by the beam voltage V0 is

Pdc = V0I0 (8.74)

and the ac power delivered to the load is given by

(8.75)

From Eqs. 8.69 and 8.70, the ratio of V1 over V0 is expressed by

(8.76)

Substituting Eq. 8.76 in Eq. 8.75 gives the power output as

(8.77)

From Eq. 8.74 and Eq. 8.77, the electronic efficiency of a reflex klystron
oscillator can be given as

Efficiency (8.78)

The factor X′J1 (X′) reaches a maximum value of 1.25 at X′ = 2.408

and J1 (X′) = 0.52. Actually, the mode of n = 2 has the most power output.
If n = 2 or 1 3/4 mode, the maximum electronic efficiency becomes

Efficiencymax = (8.79)

The maximum theoretical efficiency of a reflex klystron oscillator ranges

from 20 to 30%.
 Relationship between reflector voltage and accelerating voltage

The relationship between the repeller voltage and the cycle number
required for oscillation is

where V0 = anode to cathode voltage

Vr = reflector voltage

ω = angular frequency

Lr = distance from cavity grid to repeller electrode

n = mode number

Derivation of Relation Between Reflector Voltage and Accelerating Voltage

When V1 << V0, the presence of RF voltage does not effect the bunch of
electrons at the center.

In order to transfer maximum amount of energy, mode 2 is used where

the repeller voltage produces an electron transit of 1 ¾ cycles. Then, for
maximum energy transfer, the optimum value of θg is

Since each cycle consists of when and so on,

However,

= (8.80)

(8.81)
From the mass and voltage relationship of electrons:

or

For a given beam voltage V0, the relationship between the repeller voltage
and the cycle number required for oscillation is

(8.82)

The power output can be expressed in terms of the repeller voltage Vr. That
is,

(8.83)

It can be seen from Eq. 8.82 that, we can determine the center repeller
voltage Vr in terms of centre frequency, if the beam voltage V0 and cycle
number n or mode number N are given.

From Eq. 8.83, the power output can be determined. When the frequency
changes from the centre frequency and the repeller voltage from the centre
voltage, the power output will also be changed, and a bell shape is formed
(Figure 8.16).
Figure8.16 Power output and frequency characteristics of a reflex klystron

8.8.5 Electronic Admittance

The electronic admittance is a function of the dc beam admittance, the
transit angle, and the second transit of the electron beam through the cavity
gap.

From Eq. 8.72, the induced current can be written in phasor form as

(8.84)

The voltage across the gap at time t2 can also be written in phasor form:

(8.85)

The ratio of i2 to V2is defined as the electronic admittance of the reflex

klystron.That is,

(8.86)
From Eq. 8.86, it is evident that the electron admittance is non linear, as it
is proportionl to the factor , and is proportional to the signal
voltage. When the signal voltage reaches zero, the factor approaches unity.

The equivalent circuit of a reflex klystron is shown in Figure 8.17. It

consists of a parallel combination of L and C, with both representing the
energy storage elements of the cavity. The three conductances Gc, Gb,
and Gl represent copper losses, beam loading, and load conductance,
respectively.

The condition required for the oscillation is that, the total conductance of
the cavity circuit should not be greater than the magnitude of the negative
real part of the electronic admittance.

(8.87)

where G = Gc + Gb + Gl = and Rsh is the effective shunt resistance.

Figure. 8.17 Equivalent circuit of a reflex klystron

Equation 8.86 can be rewritten in rectangular form:

Ye = (8.88)

The electronic admittance shown in Eq. 8.86 is in exponential form; its

phase is π /2 when θ 0 is zero. The rectangular plot of the electronic
admittance Ye is a spiral (see Figure 8.18). Any value of θ0 for which the
spiral lies in the area to the left of line (−G −jB)will yield oscillation. That
is,

(8.89)

where N is the mode number as indicated in the plot, and the phenomenon
verifies the early analysis.
Figure8.18 Modes of reflex klystron

8.8.6 Oscillating Modes and Output Characteristics

Mode curves

The output frequency and the output power vary with the changes in
repeller voltage for different modes as shown in Figure 8.16. These modes
are called mode curves. The oscillation frequency is determined by the
frequency of resonance of the output cavity. This is called as electronic
tuning range of reflex klystron. Therefore the reflex klystron can be used
as frequency modulated oscillator (voltage tunes oscillator).

Operating characteristics

The adjustment of repeller and anode voltage is in such a way that the
bunch appears exactly at any of the positive maximum voltage of the RF
signal, which is necessary for reflex klystron to undergo oscillations. The
oscillations can be achieved only for some combination of anode and
repeller voltages. The voltage or operating characteristics of reflex
klystron are shown in the Figure 8.19 where the repeller and beam voltage
combinations are represented in shaded portion. For a fixed frequency
these diagrams are drawn. The pattern remains same for other frequencies,
but there is a shift in the positions of regions because of variations in n.
Large output power is obtained at lower modes which require high values
of repeller and beam voltages. The modes corresponding to n = 2 or n = 3
are preferred usually.

Figure8.19 Operating characteristics of reflex klystron

8.8.7 Electronic and Mechanical Tuning

Electronic tuning

The nature of the variation of output power and frequency by adjustment

of the repeller voltage is called the electronic tuning. It can be measured
by electronic tuning sensitivity (ETS). This can be determined by
considering the slope of the frequency characteristics of the modes. The
tuning range is about ±8 at the X-band and ± 80 MHZ for sub-millimeter
klystron.

We know the equation

(8.90)

Differentiating Vr with regard to ω, we get

(8.91)
 (8.92)

(8.93)

This is a very useful relationship for the electronic tuning of reflex

klystron. If the repeller voltage varies by even 2%, frequency will vary
considerably.

Example Problem 8.7

Typically, if Vr = 2000 V, V0 = 500 V, drift space = 2 cm, mode n = 1, f = 2

GHz, and variation in Vr is 2%.

Then,

Variation in frequency is quite sensitive to repeller voltage adjustments,

draws large currents, and gets overheated. The precaution to be taken is
that, the application of repeller voltage should be before the application of
anode voltage and the connection of a protective diode across the klystron,
so that the repeller can never become positive. This device is very easy to
modulate frequency, simply by the application of modulating voltage to
the repeller.

Mechanical tuning

In mechanical tuning, the effective capacitance and the resonant frequency

of the klystron changes by changing the width of the cavity. But the output
power remains unchanged inspite of the tuning. Mechanical tuning of
reflex klystron may give a frequency variation that ranges from ±20 MHz
at the X-band to ±4 GHz at 200 GHz.

The frequency of resonance is mechanically adjusted by the following

methods:

 By mechanically adjustable screws or the most popular method called post

 The Q of the cavity depends on its tuning by a screw or sliding piston. The
current flows through the tuning elements. Because of the presence of these
elements, the area becomes larger which decrease the Q. The resonant
frequency is varied because of the introduction of dielectric materials.
 In another method there will be a wall which can be moved in or out slightly
by an automatic screw, and it tightens or loosens small bellows. Sometimes
this method can be used with the permanent cavities in reflex klystron which
act as a form of limited frequency shifting. Thus, mechanical tuning can also
be used to change the resonant frequency.

Performance characteristics of Reflex klystron:

 Frequency range : 4 to 200 GHz

 Output power : 1.0 mW to 2.5 W
 Theoretical efficiency : 22.78%
 Practical efficiency : 10% to 20%
 Tuning range : 5 GHz at 2 watts to 30 GHz at 10 mW

Applications of Reflex klystron:

 In radar receivers
 Local oscillator in microwave receivers
 Signal source in microwave generators of variable frequency
 Portable microwave links
 Pump oscillators in parametric amplifiers

Example Problem 8.8

A reflex klystron operates under the following conditions: V0 = 600 V, Lr =
1 mm, Rsh = 15 kΩ, e/m = 1.759 × 1011 (MKS system), and fr = 9 GHz. The

tube is oscillating at fr at the peak of the n = 2 mode or 1 mode. Assume

that the transit time through the gap and beam loading can be neglected.

1. Find the value of the repeller voltage Vr.

2. Find the direct current that is necessary to give a microwave gap voltage of
200 V.
3. What is the electronic efficiency under this condition?

Solution
1. We know that

2. Assume that as
The direct current I0 is

3. The equation for electronic efficiency is given by

Efficiency
Example Problem 8.9

The reflex klystron operates at V0 = 1200 V, f = 10 GHz, and Lr = 8 cm.

Calculate repeller voltage.

Solution

We know that in order to calculate the repeller voltage, Vr. We have the
formula
Therefore, repeller voltage Vr = 108 kV (approx.)

Example Problem 8.10

The beam voltage V0 = 250 V, beam current I0 = 15 mA, and the signal
voltage Vm = 35 V are the parameters of a reflex klystron which operates at
the mode n = 2. Find the input voltage and electronic efficiency.

Solution

Input power,

= 3.75 watts

In order to calculate the efficiency, we have to calculate the output power

Output power, = =
= 0.85 watts

Now, efficiency

Therefore, efficiency is η = 22.7%

Example Problem 8.11

The operating frequency of a reflex klystron is 10 GHz, It has a DC beam

voltage of 200 V, a repeller
spacing of 0.1cm for 1¾ mode. Determine the maximum value of power
and the corresponding repeller

voltage for a beam current of 60 mA.

Solution

Maximum power,

Repeller voltage must be calculated first in order to calculate maximum

power

Now,

Therefore, repeller voltage = 372 V and maximum power is

= = 2.73 watts

Therefore, maximum value of power is equal to 2.73 W

8.9 TRAVELING-WAVE TUBE

Traveling-wave tube (TWT) is a broadband device. In this device the

propagating speed of the wave is same as that of the electrons in the beam,
and the microwave circuit is non resonant. The weak electric fields which
are associated with the travelling wave produces a small amount of
velocity modulation that initially effects the beam. Later on this velocity
modulation can be translated into current modulation same as in the
klystron, where the RF current is induced in the circuit, causing the
amplification. For better understanding of TWT, a comparison is made
between the TWT and klystron (Table 8.1).

Table 8.1 Comparison of TWT and klystron

TWT Klystro

1. RF signal travels along with the beam. 1. RF signal is stationary and on

2. The interaction of electron beam and RF field in the TWT is 2. The interaction of electrons in
continuous over the entire length of the circuit. at the gaps of a few resonant cav

3. The TWT circuit is nonresonant. 3. The klystron circuit is resona

4. The wave in TWT is a propagating wave. 4. The wave in klystron is not a

5. TWT uses slow-wave structures for input and output. 5. Klystron uses cavities for inp

6. High-power output 6. Low-power output

7. Long-life period 7. Short-life period

8.9.1 Significance of TWT

Travelling wave tubes (TWTs) have gains of 40 dB and above, with
bandwidths more than an octave. A bandwidth of 1 octave is one in which
the upper frequency is twice the lower frequency. TWTs have high-gain,
low-noise, and wide bandwidth and this make them ideal for RF amplifier.
The frequency range of TWTs is from 300 MHz to 50 GHz. Voltage
amplification is the main application of TWTs (even if, same
characteristics are developed for the high power TWTs and the power
klystron).

TWT is a broadband slow-wave device. Its operation is based on the

interaction between the traveling wave structure and the electron beam.
For extending the interaction of electron beam and RF field, it is
compulsory to make sure that both of them travel in the same direction
having virtually same velocity. TWT is a linear beam tube in which the
interaction between the electron beam and the RF field is continuous over
the full length of the tube.

8.9.2 Types and Characteristics of Slow-wave Structures

The traveling-wave tubes (TWTs) are commonly employed where a high
power is required. The ordinary resonators, which are used in klystrons,
cannot generate a large output, because the gain-bandwidth product is
limited by the resonant circuit.The TWT uses slow-wave structures in its
construction for obtaining large gain over a wide bandwidth.The special
features of slow-wave structures can reduce the RF wave velocity in a
certain direction so that the electron beam and signal wave can interact
over a length.

The phase velocity of a wave in ordinary waveguides is greater than the

velocity of light in vacuum. In the operation of TWT, the electron beam
should keep in step with the microwave signal. Since the electron beam
can be accelerated only to velocities that are about a fraction of the
velocity of light, a slow-wave structure should be incorporated in the
microwave devices so that the phase velocity of the micro wave signal can
keep pace with that of the electron beam.

Figure8.20 Types of slow-wave structures: (a) Helical line; (b) Folded

back line; (c) Zigzag line; (d) Inter-digital line; (e) Corrugated waveguide

Helix: Different types of slow-wave structures are shown in Figure 8.20.

A helix is the most commonly used slow-wave structure. It consists of a
thin ribbon of metal that is wound into a helical structure. A helix is also
constructed by the use of a round wire that acts as a slow-wave structure.
 From the Figure 8.21, the ratio of the phase velocity vp (phase velocity
along the pitch ) and c (phase velocity along the coil) is given as

where c = 3 × 108 m/s is the velocity of light in free space

p = helix pitch

d = diameter of the helix

Ψ = pitch angle

Figure8.21 (a) Helical coil; (b) One turn of the helix

Mostly, the helix is surrounded by a dielectric filled cylinder. In the axial

direction, the phase velocity can be given as

(8.94)

Care has to be taken about the dielectric constant, such that it is not too
large, because the slow wave structure causes a sizeable loss to the
microwave devices and thus the efficiency is reduced. If we consider the
case of small pitch angle, the phase velocity along the coil in free space is
given by

(8.95)
Theω-β (or Brillouin) diagram as shown in Figure 8.22 is very useful in
designing a helix slow-wave structure. Once β is found, can be
computed from Eq. 8.95. Furthermore, the group velocity of the wave is
merely the slope of the curve and is given by

(8.96)

Figure8.22 ω-β diagram for a helical structure

In order to maintain a slow-wave structure, it should have the property of

periodicity in the axial direction. The Fourier analysis of wave guide is
used to obtain the phase velocity of some of the spatial harmonics in the
axial direction, which may be smaller than the velocity of light. If we
move a distance of one pitch length either in forward direction or
backward direction along the helical slow wave structure, we obtain
identical structure again. Hence, the period of helical slow-wave structure
can be taken as its pitch.

The helix periodic structure can be expanded as an infinite series of

waves with a period ‘L’, all at the same frequency but with different phase
velocities, and is given by

(8.97)

The group velocity that can be calculated from Eq.8.96 is

(8.98)

where β0 is the phase constant of the average electron velocity

L = period of the helix

 n = any integer value

From the above Eq. 8.97, we can observe that, for higher values of β0 and
positive n, the phase velocity in the axial direction decreases. Thus, for
suitable values of n, the phase velocity of the wave is less than the velocity
of light. At that time, there is the possibility of communication between
the electron beam and the microwave signal, and also the amplification of
microwave devices can be achieved.

The ω - β diagram for a helical slow-wave structure with several spatial

harmonics is shown in Figure 8.23. The second quadrant of the ω - β
diagram indicates the negative phase velocity that corresponds to the
negative n. It is clearly understood that the electron beam is moving in
positive z-direction and the beam velocity matches with the negative
spatial harmonic’s phase velocity. The shaded area shown in figure is the
area where the propagation of the wave is not allowed, because if the axial
phase velocity of any spatial harmonic is more than the velocity of light, at
that moment the structure will start radiating energy, which is not
desirable.

Figure8.23 - diagram for spatial harmonics of a helical structure

8.9.3 Structure of TWT and Amplification Process

The schematic diagram of a typical TWT is shown in Figure 8.24. The
TWT consists of an electron gun that is used to produce a narrow constant
velocity electron beam. This electron beam is, in turn, passed through the
center of a long axial helix. Hence we use a magnetic field of high
focusing capacity to avoid spreading and it will guide the wave through
the centre of the helix. A helix is a loosely wound, thin conducting helical
wire that acts as a slow-wave structure. The signal to be amplified is
applied to the end of the helix that is adjacent to the electron gun. The
amplified signal appears at the output or the other end of the helix under
appropriate conditions.

Figure8.24 Schematic diagram of a Traveling-Wave Tube

Amplification process

According to the ω - β diagram (Figure 8.23), the phase shift per

period L of the fundamental wave on the helix slow-wave structure is
given by

(8.99)

where is the phase constant of the average beam velocity.

Since the dc transit time of an electron is given by

(8.100)

The phase constant of the nth space harmonic is

(8.101)

In Eq. 8.101, for the interaction between electronic beam and electric
field, it is assumed that the axial space harmonic velocity should be
synchronized with beam velocity.

(8.102)

When the signal voltage is coupled into the helix, a force is acted upon the
electrons due to the axial electric field. The amount of force is given by
 When we give an RF signal as input to the helix, part of RF signal’s
electric field is in parallel with the direction of the electron beam and this
causes an interaction between RF signal and the electronic beam.
Bunching occurs due to interaction of electron beam and RF signal when
the electrons in the beam are accelerated and travel faster than the RF
signals.

The interaction between fields formed by these bunches and field from
the RF signal produces amplification of RF signal. Each newly formed
electron bunch adds a small amount of energy to the RF signal which is
travelling in the helix as shown in the Figure 8.25. Now this merely
amplified RF signal interacts with a dense electron bunch which again
interacts with a denser electron bunch and gives additional energy to the
RF signal. These types of interactions occur continuously over the full
length of the helix. This energy is then coupled from the helix to the output
side.

Figure8.25 Growth of signal and bunching along traveling-wave tube

Near the centre of the helix an attenuator is placed and it reduces the
waves travelling by the side of the helix to zero. Therefore the reflected
waves from the mismatched loads are prohibited from reaching the input
and causing oscillation. A new electric field having same frequency can be
induced by the bunched electrons from the attenuator.
 A new amplified microwave signal gets induced on the helix from this
field. The analysis of motion of electrons in the helix type travelling wave
tube can be done in terms of axial electric field.

Mathematical analysis of the physical phenomenon taking place in TWT

amplifier

If the direction of the propagation of the travelling wave is in z-direction

then the z-component of electric field can be given as

(8.103)

where El is the magnitude of the electric field in the z direction.

The electric field is assumed to be maximum, when t = to at z =

0. is the axial phase constant of the microwave, and the axial

phase velocity of the wave is vp. The equation for electron motion is given
as

(8.104)

Assume that the velocity of the electron is

(8.105)

where v0 = dc electron velocity

ve = magnitude of velocity fluctuation in the velocity-modulated electron

beam

ωe = angular frequency of velocity fluctuation

θe = phase angle of the fluctuation

Substituting Eq. 8.105 in Eq. 8.104,

(8.106)
The velocity of the velocity modulated electron beam should be equal to
dc electron velocity for the interaction between the electrons and the
electric field. This is

Hence, the distance z traveled by the electrons is

and

(8.107)

A comparison of the left-hand and right-hand sides of Eq. (8.107) shows

that

(8.108)

From the above relationship we can say that there is a directly proportional
relation between the magnitude of velocity fluctuation and magnitude of
the axial electric field.

 For determining the relationship between the circuit and electron beam
quantities, two terms should be calculated. They are
 The convection current of the axial electric field
 The axial electric field

Convection current of Axial Field: Considering the space charge effect,

the electron velocity, the charge density, the current density, and the axial
electric field will perturbate depending on their averages or dc values.
These quantities can be mathematically written as below:

Electron velocity = v =

Charge density = P =

Current density = J =
 (minus sign indicates that J0 may be positive in the negative z direction)

Axial electric field Ez =

where γ = a + jBis propagation constant of the axial waves

The convention current in electron beam is given by

(8.109)

where

has been used.

Axial Electric Field: In the slow wave circuit, an electric field gets
induced into the electron beam by the convection current. This induced
electric field gets added to the field which already exists in the circuit and
causes the circuit power to increase with distance.

Since , the axial electric field is given by

(8.110)

where

Equation 8.110 is known as a circuit equation, and it determines the

effect of the spatial ac electron beam current on the axial electric field of
the slow-wave helix.
 8.9.4 Suppression of Oscillations
In order to prevent oscillations from being spontaneously generated in a
traveling-wave tube, it is necessary to prevent internal feedback arising
from reflections due to slight impedance mismatches at the output
terminal. The energy reflected at the output terminal will travel back to the
gun end of the TWT, and on reflection, it provides a feedback signal that is
further amplified along the desired signal.

It is necessary to prevent backward-wave oscillations from being

generated in TWT. This situation is controlled by introducing an attenuator
which is placed near the input end of the TWT that absorbs any wave
propagated along the helix. Aquadag is used to coat the glass wall of
TWT. It acts as an attenuator and attenuates the parasitic signals and
spurious signals. The attenuator does not affect the bunching of the
electrons.

8.9.5 Nature of the Four Propagation Constants

By solving the electronic and circuit equations at the same time the wave
modes of helix type travelling wave tube are determined. Thus, the values
of the four propagation constants γ are given by

Derivation of Expression for Four Propagation Constants of TWT

From Eqs. 8.109 and 8.110, it can be observed that there are four different
solutions for the propagation constants. It implies that there are four modes
of travelling waves in the O-type travelling-wave tube. Substituting Eq.
8.109 in Eq. 8.110 gives
 (8.111)

It can be seen that the above equation is of fourth order in γ and therefore
it has four roots. By numerical methods and digital computer, exact
solutions can be obtained. On the other hand, by equating the dc electron
beam velocity to the axial phase velocity of the travelling wave, we can
get the approximate solutions, which is comparable to

Then, Eq. 8.111 is reduced to

(8.112)

where C is the travelling-wave tube gain parameter and is given as

(8.113)

From Eq. 8.112, it can be observed that there are three travelling waves
equivalent to and one backward travelling wave which is equivalent
to For the three forward travelling waves, the propagation constant
is given by

(8.114)

where it is assumed that Cδ << 1

Substitution of Eq. 8.114 in Eq. 8.112 results in

(8.115)

Since Cδ << 1, Eq. 8.115 is reduced to

(8.116)

From the theory of complex variables, the three roots of (−j) can be plotted
in Figure 8.26.

Equation 8.116 can be written in exponential form as

 (n = 0, 1, 2)

The first root δ1 at n = 0 is

The second root δ2 at n = 1 is

The third root δ3 at n = 2 is

The fourth root δ4 corresponding to the backward traveling wave can be

obtained by the setting

Similarly,

Figure8.26 The roots of (− j)

Thus, the values of the four propagation constants γ are given by

(8.117)
The above four equations represent four different modes of wave
propagation in the O-type helical travelling-wave tube.

Therefore the waves related to γ1, γ2, and γ3 are forward waves but their
amplitudes increase exponentially with respect to the distance; decay with
distance; and remain constant. Fourth wave is backward wave which is
corresponding to γ 4, and the amplitude is not changed with distance.

The growing wave is propagated at phase velocity which is little less

than the electron beam velocity, and the energy flows from the electron
beam to the wave. Whereas the decaying wave is propagated with the
growing wave velocity, but the energy flows in reverse direction. The
velocity of the constant-amplitude wave is slightly greater than the
velocity of electron beam velocity, but there won’t be any net energy
exchange between the wave and electron beam. The backward wave is
propagated in the negative z-direction with the velocity slightly more than
the velocity of the electron beam.

8.9.6 Gain Considerations

The output gain of TWT in decibels is defined as

where V (l) is the output signal voltage

V (0) is the input signal voltage

Nl = Circuit length

C = gain parameter

Derivation of Expression for Gain of TWT

Assume that the structure is perfectly matched, then there is no backward

travelling wave. An attenuator is placed around the centre of the tube
which controls the reflected wave and reduces it to zero level. Hence, the
total circuit voltage is equal to the sum of three forward voltages
corresponding to the three forward travelling waves. It is given as
 (8.118)

The input current can be found from Eq. 8.113 as

(8.119)

in which , and have been used.

The input fluctuating component of velocity of the total wave may be

found as

(8.120)

where , , , and have been used.

In order to determine the amplification of the growing wave, the input

reference point is set at z = 0, and the output reference point at z = l. The
voltage, current and velocity at the input point at z = 0 is given as

V (0) + V1 + V2 + V3 (8.121)

(8.122)

(8.123)

The simultaneous solution of Eqs. 8.121, 8.122, and 8.123 with i (0) = 0
and v1 (0) = 0 is

V1 = V2 = V3 = (8.124)

As the growing wave is exponentially increased with respect to distance,

it will dominate the total voltage beside the circuit. The output voltage is
almost equal to voltage of growing wave, when the length l of the slow-
wave structure is large. By substituting the Eqs 8.117 and 8.124 in 8.118,
the output voltage can be expressed as

(8.125)

where βel = 2πNl, Nl is circuit length and it can be written as

and

The amplitude of the output voltage is then given by

The output gain in decibels is defined as

dB (8.126)

The above equation represents the output power gain which indicates an
initial loss at the circuit input of 9.54 dB. This loss occurs because of the
fact that the input wave is divided into three waves of equal magnitude,
and the growing wave voltage is one third of the total input voltage. From
the above equation it can also be observed that the power gain is
proportional to the length N1 in electronic wavelength of the slow-wave
structure and the gain parameter C in circuit.

Performance characteristics of TWT

 Frequency of operation : 0.5 GHz to 95 GHz

 Power outputs : 5 mW (10 – 40 GHz) (Low-power TWT)
250 KW (CW) at 3 GHz (High-power TWT)
10 MW (pulsed) at 3 GHz
 Efficiency : 5 to 20% (30% with depressed collector)
 Noise Figure : 4 – 6 dB (Low-power TWT 0.5 to 16 GHz)
25 dB (High-power TWT at 40 GHz)

Applications of TWT

 Low-noise RF amplifier in broadband microwave receivers

  Repeater amplifier in wide band communication links and coaxial cables
 Due to long tube life, TWT is used as a power output tube in communication
satellites.
 Continuous-wave high-power TWTs are used in troposcatter links.
 TWTA transmitters are extensively used in radars, particularly in airborne
fire-control radar systems, and in electronic warfare and self-protection
systems.
 Another major use of TWTs is in the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
testing industry for immunity testing of electronic devices.

Advantages of TWT

 Bandwidth is large.
 High reliability
 High gain
 Constant performance in space
 Higher duty cycle

Example Problem 8.12

The traveling-wave tube (TWT) is operated at a frequency f = 10 GHz

with Voltage V0 = 3 kV and Beam current I0 = 30 mA. If the Circuit
length Nl = 50 and Characteristic impedance of helix Z0 = 10 Ω then
determine the following: (a) The gain parameter (b) The output power
gain Ap in decibels (c) All four

Propagation constants

Solution
1. The gain parameter is

2. The output power gain is

dB
= −9.54 + 47.3 × 50 × 2.92 × 10−2 = 59.52 dB
3. The four propagation constants are

= = = 1.93 × 103 rad/m

 −1.93 × 103 × 2.92 × 10-2 × 0.87 + j1.93 × 103 =
−49.03 + j1952

= 49.03 + j1952

= j (1.93) × 103 (1 −2.92 × 10−2) = j (1872.25)

= −j (1.93) × 103 = −j1930

Example Problem 8.13

A TWT is operated at 10 GHz with a beam voltage and a beam current of

3 kV and 30 mA, respectively. If the slow-wave structure has a
characteristic impedance Z0 of 10 Ω, the electronic circuit length Nl = 50.
Find out

1. The gain parameter C

2. The output power gain Ap (in dB)
3. v0

Solution
1. The gain parameter is

2. The output power gain in decibels is defined as

= −9.54 + 47.3 × 50 × 3 × 10-2 = 61.41 dB

3. Since βe v0= ω implies βe =

v0 = 0.593 × 106
 = = 2 × 103 rad/m
Example Problem 8.14

An O-type TWT operates at 2 GHZ. The slow-wave structure has a pitch

angle of 4.4° and an attenuation constant of 2 Np/m. Determine the
propagation constant of the traveling wave in the tube.

Solution

Given data,

For an O-type traveling-wave tube,

Operating frequency, f = 2 GHZ

Pitch angle of the slow-wave structure, ϕ = 4.4°

Attenuation constant α = 2 Np/m

Propagation constant γ = ?

Then, the phase velocity along pitch of the TWT is given by

vp = c sin ϕ = 3 × 108 × sin (4.40) = 23.016 × 106 m/sec

The phase constant, = 545.984 rad/m

Then, the attenuation constant of the traveling-wave tube is given by

γ = α + jβ = 2 + j 545.984 = 45.988 < 89.790 m−1

Example Problem 8.15

A helix TWT is operated at a frequency of 20 GHz with beam current of

600 mA, a beam voltage of 10 kV, and a characteristic impedance of 20 Ω.
Find the length of the helix to produce an output power gain of 50 dB.

Solution
The given parameters of helix travelling tube are Beam current, I0 = 600
mA, Beam voltage, V0 = 10 kV, Characteristic impedance, Z0 = 20 Ω,
Operating frequency, f = 20 GHz, Output power gain, Ap = 50 dB. We have
to determine the length of the helix, l which is given as l = Nλ

So the gain parameter is,

= 0.067

And output power gain is given by,

dB

Nl = 18.788

Then, the length of the helix is given by

l = Nlλ = = = 28.2 cm
Example Problem 8.16

Calculate gain parameter of a TWT when it operates at a frequency of f =

10 GHz with beam current, I0 = 5 mA, beam voltage, V0 = 5 kV,
characteristic impedance, Z0 = 30 Ω, and Nl = 50.

Solution

Gain parameter

= 1.95 × 10−3

8.10 BACKWARD-WAVE OSCILLATORS

The backward oscillator does not contain an attenuator as in case of TWT,

therefore the RF signals which are reflected towards the cathode are not
attenuated. But the helix is terminated with matched impedance since the
output is taken near electron gun from the end of the helix. By inserting
the matched impedance for terminating, it causes the dissipation of RF
signal which is travelling in forward direction toward the collector. This
operation does not occur in the TWT. The schematic diagram of BWO is
shown in Figure 8.27.

Figure8.27 Backward-wave oscillator

The electron gun emits a stream of electrons and are accelerated towards
the collector. They generate noise by shot and thermal effects. The noise
signal is arbitrary in frequency, and almost all frequencies in range of 0–
109 Hz are present. A wave travelling on the helix is developed from all
these frequencies. This developed wave is travelled in the reverse direction
towards the electron gun at the end of the tube. There will be interaction
between the electron beam and the signal of helix, when the velocity of
electron beam is slightly greater than the velocity of the signal on helix
and this causes the electron beam to give up energy to the RF wave. By
taking the energy from the electron beam, RF signal amplitude on the helix
increases as it nears the gun end of the tube. The transfer of energy takes
place due to the formation of bunches of the electron beam.

The bunched electron beam transfers energy to RF signal which is fed to

the terminating impedance at end of helix. This phenomenon represents a
travelling wave moving towards the cathode. This new wave will again
produces bunching in the electron beam and the energy which has been
taken from the electron beam will produce amplification and oscillations at
a new frequency. As we knew electron beam can assume only one velocity
at a given time, to maintain this phenomenon the beam will give energy to
only one of the backward waves on the helix. Depending upon the velocity
of the beam an appropriate frequency is being selected. For this purpose
the potential difference between the cathode and anode are taken as a
dependent variable. The change in the potential difference in turn causes
an appropriate change in the frequency of oscillation.

Performance characteristics of BWO:

 Frequency range : 1 GHz to 1000 GHz

 Power output : 10 mW to 150 mW (CW)
20 W (at high frequencies)
250 kW (pulsed) with duty cycle < 1 sec.
 Tuning range : up to about 40 GHz

Application of BWO:

 A BWO can be used as a source of signals in microwave instruments and

transmitting devices.
 It can be used as a broad band source with noise with an application of
creating confusion to the enemy radar about its characteristics.
 It can be used as noise less oscillator in the frequency range 3–9 GHz with a
desirable bandwidth.
 It is used as a continuous-wave generator.
 It is used to generate a wide range of frequencies.

8.11 M-TYPE TUBES

Crossed-field tubes are referred to as M-Type tubes, which deal with the
propagation of waves in a magnetic field. In crossed field tubes both static
electric and magnetic fields are present and they are perpendicular to each
other. The electron motion takes place in area where the fields are
perpendicular to each other. These fields affect the RF behavior of the
electrons under RF fields. The magnetron is the most commonly used
resonant crossed-field tube that is used in microwave circuits.

8.11.1 Crossed-Field Effects

If both electric and magnetic fields are present, motion of electrons
depends on the orientation of electric and magnetic fields.

1. If electric and magnetic fields are in the same direction or the opposite
direction, the magnetic field exerts no force on electrons. Therefore, electron
motion depends only on the electric field as shown in Figure 8.28 (b). Example:
linear beam tubes.
2. If electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other, electron motion
depends on both electric and magnetic fields, this type of field is called cross field.

In crossed-field tubes, the electrons emitted by the cathode are accelerated

by the electric field, and the motion of electrons is perpendicular to both
fields as is indicated in Figure 8.28 (a). Analyzing the operation of crossed
field tube, consider that an RF field is applied to the anode circuit. During
the retarding field, electrons which enter the field at this point are
decelerated by the field and loose some of their energy to the RF field.
Hence the electron velocity decreases. Now these electrons with less
velocity will travel into the dc electric field, a far enough distance, they
will retain their earlier velocity at the end of the field.

Figure8.28 Comparison of field configurations in crossed-field and linear

beam tubes

The presence of cross field interactions makes the electrons to give up

some of its energy to the RF field. Only those electrons which have given
sufficient energy to the RF field can only be eligible to travel to the anode
end. Hence this phenomenon makes M-type devices relatively efficient
devices. On the other hand when an electron enters into the circuit at the
time of accelerating fields, it receives energy from RF fields which are in
turn are accelerated, or returned towards cathode. This phenomenon
produces heat in the cathode and in turn reduces efficiency of the device.

8.12 MAGNETRONS

The magnetron is a crossed field device, in which electric field and

magnetic field are produced in a direction perpendicular to each other, in a
way to cross each other. Therefore, the flow of electrons is perpendicular
to both the fields. In magnetrons anode and cathode are concentric and
cylindrical type structures. The magnetic field causes the electrons that are
emitted from the cathode to move in curved paths. Magnetrons use various
shapes of cavities to build oscillations and power.
 8.12.1 Types of Magnetrons
There are three basic types of magnetrons:

 Cyclotron-frequency magnetrons
 Negative-resistance (split-anode) magnetrons
 Cavity-type magnetrons

Cyclotron-frequency magnetrons: Its principle of working is based on

the synchronization between orbiting electrons in a magnetic field and a
resonant circuit that is tuned to the cyclotron frequency. In this magnetron
the ac component of electric field and the oscillations of electrons are
parallel to the field.

Negative-resistance (split-resistance) magnetrons: It uses the static

negative resistance between two anode segments. In this operation when
both segments are at the same potential, the magnetic field effects can only
be sufficient to keep flow of electrons to reach anode. By connecting a
resonant circuit between the two anode segments, we can obtain sustained
oscillations.

Traveling-wave magnetrons: These magnetrons provide oscillations of

high peak power and peak power capability that is increased by about an
order of magnitude to 100 kW. The operating frequency of negative
resistance magnetron is generally below the microwave region. In the case
of cyclotron frequency magnetron, it operates at microwave frequency
range, but it has low power output and efficiency (γ = 10% − split anode
type, 1% single anode type). Since the efficiency is very low in the first
two types, they are not dealt in this chapter. In general, travelling wave
magnetrons uses cavity resonators.

8.12.2 8-cavity Cylindrical Magnetron

Cavity magnetron is a high power microwave oscillator with high
efficiency. The operating principle of this device is interaction of electrons
with the perpendicularly oriented electric and magnetic fields. An 8-cavity
cylindrical magnetron is shown in Figure 8.29 (a). It is a diode with eight
re-entrant cavities and is concentric with an oxide-coated cathode. A
permanent magnet was used for applying a magnetic field that is parallel
to the cathode surface as shown in Figure 8.29 (c). A cavity magnetron is
usually of a cylindrical configuration with a thick cylindrical cathode at
the center and a co-axial cylindrical block of copper as anode as shown
in Figure 8.29 (b).

In the anode block, a number of holes and slots act as resonant anode
cavities. The electric field due to DC voltage applied between anode and
cathode is radial, whereas the magnetic field produced by a permanent
magnet is axial. When DC voltage and magnetic field are adjusted
properly, due to the magnetic field, the electrons follow curved cyclodial
paths in the cathode to anode interaction space.

The electric field in this resonant oscillator can be resolved into two
components i.e., alternating current field, direct current fields. In ac fields,
it is undesirable effect for the electrons to take the energy from the ac
fields. The RF oscillations which are induced at the anode block (cavity
tank circuits) due to noise transients affects the dc field to extend radially
between adjacent anode segments. Cloud of electrons will be formed
around the cathode due to DC voltage (or thermonic emission). The energy
has to be given to the inputs in the correct phase, in order to not to disturb
the sustained oscillations in the resonant circuit, that is, for this, the anode
DC voltage should be adjusted so that the average rotational velocity of
electrons coincides with ϕ of gap voltage at various gaps.

Figure 8.29 (a) Structure of a cavity magnetron; (b) Cylindrical

configuration; (c) Magnetic field

The heated cathode is a source of electrons in a magnetron. The cavity

magnetron consists of 8 cavities that are tightly coupled to each other. If
we consider the case of N cavity magnetron it will have N modes of
operation. Each mode of operation will be distinctively characterised by,
“frequency and phase of oscillation”, which are relative to next cavities.
Sufficient care has to be taken while considering these combinations for a
given mode so that it is self consistent. That is the total phase shift
produced by this system is 2nπ, n is an integer. The minimum phase shift
should be 45° (45 × 8 = 360°). The relative phase change, ϕv of the electric
field across the adjacent cavities can be given as

where

That is, N/2 mode of resonance can exist only in resonator systems that
have an even number of resonators. If n = N/2, ϕv = π. Since the phase
angle of π radians is in the N/2 mode, this mode of resonance is called the
π-mode. If n = 0, ϕv = 0, this mode is the zero mode; that is, there will be
no RF electric field between the anode and cathode (called the fringing
field) and it will be of no use in magnetron operations.

To have an in-depth analysis of operation of cavity magnetron in which

the RF field is applied in presence of perpendicularly oriented electric and
magnetic fields, let us clearly understand that the incidence of electron in
the EMF field.

Electron trajectories at various magnetic fields: Comparing the

magnitude of electric and magnetic fields, we can understand the trajectory
of an electron coming from cathode, moving towards anode takes different
paths through the interaction space. Electron trajectories at various
magnetic fields V0 are present.

1. If B = 0, electrons emitted from the cathode move along the radial direction

(a) No magnetic field

 (b) Small magnetic field
2. When a small B is applied (at a perpendicular to radial electric field),
electron trajectories bend and follow a curved path. The radius of the curved path is
directly proportional to the electron velocity and inversely proportional to the
magnetic field strength.
3. The magnetic field required to return electrons to the cathode while just
grazing the surface of the anode is called the critical magnetic field (Bc) and is also
known as the cut-off magnetic field. Under this condition, the motion of electrons is
shown in Figure 8.30.

(a) Magnetic field = Bc

(b) Magnetic field > Bc

Figure8.30 Electron trajectories in cavity magnetrons
4. If the magnetic field is made larger than the critical field (B > Bc), the
electrons travel with a greater velocity and may return to the cathode quite faster;
these electrons may cause back heating of the cathode. To disallow this back
heating of cathode we have to switch off the heater supply after oscillation.

The equation of the cut-off magnetic field is given by (the derivation of

this equation will be explained in sec.8.12.4)
Conversely, the cutoff voltage is given by

8.12.3 Modes of Resonance and π Mode Operation

We have discussed the effect of electric and magnetic fields in the
previous section when no RF field is applied. Let us assume RF
oscillations are initiated and are maintained sustainably and assume that
these oscillations are created by some noise which is transient in the
magnetrons. The device is having high Q- cavity resonators. Now, we
proceed to explain the mechanism by which the oscillations are sustained.
Best results are obtained when n = 4, that is, the phase difference between
adjacent cavities is π radians, and then there is a π mode of operation
which is shown in Figure 8.31 (a).

Figure8.31 (a) Magnetron operation in π mode; (b) Electron cloud

showing spokes

The electron “a” that is entering the interaction space during the
decelerating field gives some of its energy to the RF field; therefore, its
velocity decreases and it spends more time in interaction space during its
long journey. In the same way, the electrons that are emitted a little later to
be in the correct position move faster and try to catch up with electron “a”.
The electrons that are emitted a little earlier than “a” slow down, and they
fall back in step with electron “a”.

All these favored electrons come together, form electron bunches, and
are confined to spokes or electron clouds. The process is called phase-
focusing effect. The spokes so formed in the π mode rotate with an angular
velocity that corresponds to two poles per cycle. The RF oscillations are
sustained due to phase processing effect of the forward electrons which
give enough energy to RF oscillations.

The electron ‘b’ which is introduced during accelerated RF field takes

energy from the oscillations. This results in increased velocity of electrons.
Since the velocity is increased, the trajectory path of an electron bends
more sharply and it stays short time in the interaction space. Hence they
are returned to the cathode early. These electrons are unfavoured electrons
as they do not participate in bunching process, rather, they are harmful in
the sense that they cause back heating.

8.12.4 Hull Cut-Off Voltage Equation

A cavity cylindrical magnetron is the most commonly used magnetron,
because for a cross-field device the electric and magnetic fields are
perpendicular to each other, and the path of the electrons in the presence of
this cross-field is naturally parabolic. The equation for the hull cut-off
voltage is given by

where B = magnetic flux density

a = cathode radius

b = anode radius

e = charge of the electron

m = mass of the electron

Derivation of Hull Cut-off Voltage Equation

The Hull cut-off condition is obtained, under the condition that there is no
RF field, which in turn defines anode voltage is a function of magnetic
field. The magnetic field tends to prevent the flow of electrons to the
anode. On the other hand, under right circumstances, the electrons leave
the hub after getting interacted with the RF wave that is rotating about the
cathode, and flow to the anode. It happens when the rotating speed of
electrons is more than the RF wave. By interacting with the RF wave, the
electrons speed is reduced to RF rotation rate. In this process the electrons
amplify the wave and losses the energy. Here, we will discuss the Hull cut-
off voltage equation:

Force acting on the electron is F = Bev

In the direction of ϕ, the force component is given by

where vρ = velocity in the direction of the radial distance ρ, from the

center of the cathode cylinder.

Torque in direction of ϕ can be given as

= (8.127)

Angular momentum = angular velocity × moment of inertia =

(8.128)

Time rate of angular momentum = (8.129)

This gives the torque in ϕ direction. Equating Eqs. 8.129 and 8.127 (the
two values of torque in ϕ direction),

= That is, = (8.130)

We know that

Therefore, Eq. 8.130 becomes

 (8.131)

Integrating Eq. 8.131 with regard to “t,” we will get

For a particular direction, mρ.ϕ can be considered a constant.

(8.132)

The value of C can be determined by applying boundary conditions (i.e.,

at surface of the cathode and = 0 being the zero angular velocity

at emission):

or

Substituting the above value of C in Eq. 8.132, we get

or

(8.133)

When ρ = a (i.e., at cathode), approaches 0.

When , approaches (maximum angular velocity).

i.e.,

(8.134)

where B = Bc is the cut-off magnetic flux density.

 We know that the potential energy of electron = kinetic energy of
electrons

That is,

(8.135)

where and

Rewriting the equation (substituting for vρ and Bϕ), Eq. 8.135 becomes

From Eqs. 8.133 and 8.134,

At anode , , substituting these boundary conditions in the

above equation,

(8.136)

Substituting Eq. 8.134 in Eq. 8.136, we get

i.e.,
or

(8.137)

i.e., for a given V0, the electrons will not reach at anode, if B > Bc.

On the other hand, the cut-off voltage is given by

(8.138)

It can be observed that for a given B, the electrons will not reach at anode,
if V0 < Vc. Equation 8.138 is called the Hull cut-off voltage equation.

8.12.5 Hartree Condition

The Hull cut-off condition is obtained, under the condition that there is no
RF field, which in turn defines anode voltage is a function of magnetic
field. The magnetic field tend to prevent the flow of electrons to the anode.
On the other hand, under right circumstances, the electrons leave the hub
after getting interacted with the RF wave that is rotating about the cathode,
and flow to the anode. It happens when the rotating speed of electrons is
more than the RF wave. By interacting with the RF wave, the electrons
speed is reduced to RF rotation rate. In this process the electrons amplify
the wave and losses the energy. This happens when the anode voltage is
such that the electrons are rotating faster than the RF wave. Therefore,
velocity of electrons is reduced by giving up energy to the RF wave.

The rate of rotation of electrons is reduced if the anode voltage is kept

below the Hull cut-off voltage. Due to this, the electrons transfer less
energy to the rotating wave. At a critical anode voltage, the rate of rotation
of electrons and wave becomes equal. At this point the magnetron stops
functioning as the electrons can no longer give up energy to the wave. The
magnetron cannot work below that critical voltage as the rotation of the
electrons is much slower than the RF wave. The critical voltage at which
the magnetron stops functioning is called Hartree Voltage.

The Hartree anode voltage equation is a function of the magnetic flux

density and the spacing between the cathode and anode.

where B = magnetic flux density

d = spacing between anode and cathode

η = circuit efficiency

vm = mean spoke velocity

va = Velocity of spoke at anode.

Derivation of Expression for Hartree Condition

Let us assume, in a magnetron an RF wave is rotating at an angular rate ϕ

and an electron is rotating at an angular rate θ as indicated in Figure
8.32 (a). The electron can transfer energy to the wave as long as θ > ϕ. The
energy, W, which can be transferred from the electron to the RF wave is

(8.139)

where

and

where r is the radius of the electron path.

Figure 8.32 (a) Electron and wave rotation in a magnetron; (b) Operating
region of magnetrons

Now, the condition for transfer of energy is zero, and from the electron
spoke to the RF wave is

8.140)

If we assume that the amplitude of the RF wave is small,

(8.141)

where Vr is the voltage that causes the electron to rotate at θ′. This means
that the voltage for which the energy transfer goes to zero (i.e Hartree
voltage from Eqs. 8.141 and 8.140) is
 (8.142)
where

(8.143)

For the normal π mode of magnetron operation, there are N/2 cycles of the
RF wave around the anode, where N is the number of cavities. This means
that the rate of rotation of the wave should be the operating frequency of
the magnetron divided by the number of cycles

That is,

(8.144)

Substituting Eqs. 8.143 and 8.144 in Eq. 8.142, the Hartree voltage
becomes

By making the following substitutions, this can be rewritten in a form

that leads to a straight forward physical interpretation

Spacing between anode and cathode, d = b − a

Mean radius of spoke, rm = (b −a)/2

Mean spoke velocity,

Velocity of spoke at anode,

(8.145)

From the above Eq. 8.145, the Hartree voltage varies linearly with the
magnetic field and so, the Hartree voltage and the Hull cut-off voltage can
be plotted as shown in Figure 8.32 (b). The significant voltages for a
magnetron are between the Hartree and Hull cut-off voltages.
Example Problem 8.17

A normal circular magnetron has the following parameters: inner radius

0.15 m, outer radius 0.45 m, and magnetic flux density 1.2 milli weber/m2.

1. Determine Hull cut-off voltage

2. Determine the Hull cut-off magnetic flux density if the beam voltage is 6000
V.

Solution

Given a = 0.15 m, b = 0.45 m, and B = 1.2 mWb/m2

1. Hull cut-off voltage

= 5.699 kV
2. Hull cut-off magnetic flux density

Example Problem 8.18

The magnetic flux density of a normal circular magnetron is 0.2

Wb/m2 and find the cut-off magnetic flux density if V0 = 20 kV. If the
cathode radius = 2 mm and anode radius = 4 mm, then determine the Hull
cut-off voltage.

Solution

Given a = 2 mm = 2 × 10−3 m, b = 4 mm = 4 × 10−3m, and B0 = 0.2 Wb/m2

Hull cut-off voltage

= 10.55 kV

Cut-off magnetic flux density

= 317.911 mWb/m2

8.12.6 Separation of o Mode

Modes of operation: The resonant circuit that is used in cavity resonators
acts similar to an LC tank circuit. If two resonant circuits are coupled, they
produce two different resonant frequencies. In general, if resonant circuits
are coupled together, they produce “n” different and distinct resonant
frequencies. However, the difference in frequency value is very small. The
resonant modes of magnetrons are very close to each other. As a result,
there is every possibility that one resonant frequency (or mode of
operation) gets shifted easily to another and is called mode jumping. To
avoid this problem, resonant frequencies should be separated as widely as
possible. The best desired mode is the π mode, where adjacent blocks of
the anode become positive and negative, respectively. This can be done by
strapping.

Strapping: Keeping magnetron operations in the π mode is difficult;

unless special means are employed, strapping is one method that is
used. Strapping means to connect alternate anode plates with two
conducting rings of heavy gauge touching the anode’s poles at the dots as
shown in Figure 8.33. This is done in order to make the anode poles
together. One ring is strapped to the even blocks, and the other is strapped
to the odd blocks; that is, it keeps alternate anode blocks at the same
potential and keeps two rings at the opposite (positive and negative)
potential. By using strapping we can achieve only the dominant mode in
magnetrons.
Figure8.33 Strapping of magnetrons

Disadvantages of strapping

 Strapping may cause power loss in the conducting rings.

 Strapped resonators are very difficult.
 As the number of cavities increase (16 or 32), strapping has no effect on
mode jumping.
 At higher frequencies, it will be difficult to maintain the RF field within the
interaction space and it may introduce stray effects.

A magnetron that needs no strapping is the rising sun magnetron and is

shown in Figure 8.34 (a). Here, the anode cavities are designed to be
dissimilar, and only the dominant mode with 2π phase will be effective.
The adjacent cavities oscillate at widely different frequencies, and, hence,
separation will be quite effective. The other types of resonators that are
used in the magnetron structure are slot and vane resonators and are shown
in Figure 8.34 (b) and (c), respectively.

Figure8.34 Traveling-wave magnetron resonators

Frequency pushing and pulling: Similar to reflex klystron, it is possible
to change the resonant frequency of magnetrons by changing the anode
voltage, which results in a change in the orbital velocity of electrons. This
process is called frequency pushing. This alters the rate at which the
energy is transferred to anode resonators and results in a change of
oscillation of frequency.

Magnetrons are also susceptible to frequency variation due to changes in

load impedance. This takes place regardless of whether these load
variations are purely resistive or reactive variations. However, magnetron
frequency variations are more severe for reactive variations. These
frequency variations are known as frequency pulling. To prevent
frequency pushing, a stabilized power supply is employed. Frequency
pulling is prevented by using a circulator, which does not allow backward
flow of electromagnetic energy. It is placed before the waveguide
connection at the output of the magnetism.

8.12.7 Sustained Oscillations in Magnetrons

The cavities of magnetrons have (possesses) high quality factor (Q). The
transient switching in the cavities is good (ample) enough to start
oscillations. The electrons from the cathode are deflected (repelled)
towards the anode as soon as the anode voltage is applied. The axial
magnetic field acts on them as these electrons gain velocity. The electrons
are deflected with a tangential velocity due to magnetic field and the radial
directions (due to radial electric field) of electrons are now changed (at
this instant).Due to the (because of the presence of ) RF field in the
interaction space, the tangential velocity of the electrons experiences a
drag or opposition, thus slowing them in the process (the electrons). In
losing velocity, the electrons part off their energy to the RF field. Since the
velocity of the electrons is less, the deflection force of the magnetic field
on them also is reduced, and, hence, these electrons (favourable electrons
only) move toward the anode instead of curving back to the cathode in
spite of B > Bc.

The spacing between the anodes is adjusted such that it is equal to half
cycle of the RF frequency, so when the electrons reach the second anode
the polarity of RF is reversed. The electrons continue to decelerate, as the
energy acquired by them in falling through the dc anode to the cathode
voltage is delivered to the RF oscillating wave. After delivering the kinetic
energy got by anode to cathode, the electrons at last reaches the anode
after slowing down to dead spot.

The outward centrifugal force should be equal to the magnetic force on

the electron which is assumed to be a favourable electron in presence of
cross-field.

i.e.,

where r = radius of cycloidal path

v = tangential velocity of electrons

Angular velocity,

Period of one revolution,

The feedback should be in phase or integral multiples of 2π radians, for

oscillations. If there are N cavities, the phase should be

where n = integer of the nth mode oscillation.

From the above discussions, magnetron oscillators are operated in the π

mode therefore ϕ = π. It can be observed from the Figure 8.31 (a) that in
this mode the successive cavities of RF fields are in anti- phase. The
angular velocity in the interaction space of the RF field is given by

Maximum amount of energy is transferred from electrons to the RF field

when the angular velocity and cyclotron frequency of electron of RF wave
are equal.

That is,
 or
Comparison of magnetron and reflex klystron tubes

Magnetron Reflex kly

(1) Magnetron is a cross-field device. These are generally referred (1) Reflex klystron is a linear
to as M-type tubes. generally referred to as O-typ

(2) The electrons carrying energy are made to interact with the RF (2) The electrons carrying ene
field for a long duration. the RF field for a short durati

(3) The range of frequencies over which magnetrons work properly (3) The range of frequencies o
is 500 MHz to 12 GHz. klystron works properly is 1-2

(4) The efficiency provided by magnetrons is in the range of 40 to (4) The efficiency provided b
70%. less than magnetrons and is in

(5) For these tubes, the output power is in the range of 2 mW to 250 (5) For these tubes, the outpu
kW. 1 mW to 2.5 W.

(6) A permanent magnet is used that generates the magnetic field; it (6) No permanent magnet is u
is so placed that the magnetic field is perpendicular to the electric electrode is used at the end of
field inside the magnetron. back the electron beam.

(7) Magnetrons are used for industrial heating and microwave (7) Reflex klystron is used as
ovens. microwave radars or receivers

Performance characteristics

 Power output : In excess of 250 kW (pulsed mode)

10 mW (UHF band) 2 mW (X band)
8 kW (at 95 GHz)
 Frequency : 500 MHz to 12 GHz
 Duty cycle : 0.1 %
 Efficiency : 40% to 70%

Applications of Magnetrons

The most important application having large pulse power is pulsed radar.

 Dielectric heating on industrial scale

  In telemetry sweep oscillators, Voltage tunable magnetrons (VTMs) are
used.
 In missiles applications also voltage tunable magnetrons are used (200 MHz
to X band with CW, powers up to 500 W, and efficiency of 70 %)
 In industrial heating and microwave ovens, Fixed-frequency CW magnetrons
are used. (500 MHz – 2.5 GHz frequency range, 300 W to 10 kW power
outputs, and efficiency of 50 %).

Example Problem 8.19

A linear magnetron has the following operating parameters: anode

voltage V0 = 15 kV, cathode current I0 = 1.2 A, operating frequency f = 8
GHz, magnetic flux density B = 0.015 Wb/m2, hub thickness h = 2.77 cm,
and distance between anode and cathode, d = 5 cm.

Calculate

(a) The electron velocity at the hub surface

(b) The phase velocity for synchronism

(c) The Hartee anode voltage

Solution
1. The electron velocity is

v= 1.759 × 1011 × 0.015 × 2.77 × 10-2 = 0.73 × 103 m/s

2. The phase velocity is

= 0.73 × 108 m/s

3. The Hartee anode voltage is
VH = 0.73 × 108 × 0.015 × 5 × 10−2 − 1/ (2 × 1.759 × 1011) × (0.73 ×
108)2
= 5.475 × 104−1.515 × 104 = 39.60 kV
Example Problem 8.20

A magnetron has a cathode radius of 2.5 mm and an anode radius of 5 mm.

What is the cut-off potential if a 0.27-Wb/m2 magnetic field is applied?
Solution

Hull potential in volts

a = cathode radius in meters = 0.0025 m

b = anode radius in meters = 0.005 m

e = 1.6 × 10−19 coulombs

m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg

B = 0.27 Wb / m2

= 10.018 kV
Example Problem 8.21

A magnetron has the following parameters: Anode voltage V0 = 25 kV,

cathode current I0 = 25 A, operating frequency f = 8 GHz, Magnetic flux
density B = 0.34 Wb/m2, cathode radius a = 4 cm, Radius of the vane edge
center b = 8 cm. Calculate the cyclotron frequency and cutoff voltage

Solution

The expression for Cyclotron frequency of a magnetron is given by

The expression for cutoff voltage of a magnetron is given by

= 91503.18 V
Example Problem 8.22
Find the angular frequency, cut-off voltage, cut-off magnetic flux density
of a pulsed cylindrical magnetron when it has beam current =30 A,
Magnetic Flux density = 0.34 Wb/m2 and other parameters are V0 = 30
KV, a = 5 cm, b = 10 cm.

Solution

Angular frequency = = 1.759 × 1011 × 0.34 = 0.5981 × 1011 rad/sec

Cut-off voltage =

= 14297 kV

Cut-off magnetic flux density

= 155.73 mWb/m2

Example Problem 8.23

A normal circular magnetron has the following parameters: inner

radius, a = 0.15 m, outer radius, b = 0.45 m and magnetic flux density, B =
1.2 m Wb/m2. Determine the cyclotron frequency in GHz.

Solution

Cyclotron frequency is given by the following equation

where e = 1.6 × 10−19 c

m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg
ωc = 1.759 × 1011 × 1.2 × 10−3 rad/sec
fc = 0.0336 GHz

8.13 CROSSED-FIELD AMPLIFIERS

A crossed-field amplifier (CFA) is a broadband microwave power

amplifier. CFA is similar to magnetron in structure. The RF and dc
interacts in the region of crossed electric and magnetic fields. It has high
efficiency in providing moderately large amounts of power. There are two
general types of CFAs based on their electron stream source:

 injected-beam CFA and

 distributed-emission CFA

These CFAs describe the method by which electrons reach the interaction
region and how they are controlled. In injected-beam CFAs, the electrons
are injected into the interaction region by an electron gun; whereas in
distributed-emission CFAs, electrons are emitted by the cathode or sole.
The injected-beam CFA is generally not suited for high powers. Therefore,
distributed-emission CFAs are mostly preferred. Two types of formats can
be used in construction of distributed-emission CFA. They are the circular
format and the linear format. In the circular format, electrons from the
output may be isolated from the input, forming the non-reentrant
configuration. In the re-entrant configuration, the feedback electrons may
be bunched, forming RF feedback, or the electrons may be de-bunched,
eliminating the RF feedback. The linear-format tubes are of a non re-
entrant type.

CFAs are also classified by their mode of operation in to two types:

 Forward-wave CFAs
 Backward-wave CFAs

The forward wave and backward wave CFAs are mainly troubled with the
direction of the phase and group velocity of the energy on the microwave
circuit. The behaviour of the phase velocity with frequency is of primary
concern because of electron stream reacts to the RF field forces. For the
forward waves CFA, the helix slow wave structure is selected as a
microwave circuit and for the backward waves CFA the strapped bar line
is used.

Basic Principle of Operation of CFA

The CFAs have an odd number of resonant cavities which are coupled
with each other and they act as slow-wave structures. These resonant
cavities produce oscillations and the oscillating resonant cavity excites the
next cavity and this cavity excites the next one and so on. The actual
oscillation starts from the input wave guide and they continue until the
output waveguide. Due to the influence of electric field, (anode voltage)
and the magnetic field (a strong permanent magnet), all the electrons will
move evenly from cathode to anode in a cycloid path without applying any
input signal. The vanes of the resonator get a voltage difference
synchronously to the oscillation when the input of the wave guide
introduces an RF oscillation into the first resonator. The electron bunches
(which are formed due to acceleration and deceleration of the electrons)
are formed due to the difference in the speed of electrons. These bunches
of electrons rotate alike to a “Space-Charge Wheel” that is similar to the
magnetron operation. But the Space Charge Wheel will be interrupted due
to the odd number of cavities causing an opposite phase in the last odd
cavity that is the cavity between input and output waveguide. The last odd
cavity may exist as a block containing graphite to decouple input and
output to avoid a negative feedback in this resonant cavity.

In the input cavity of the CFA, the oscillation is weak. As the electron
bunches hit the vanes of the other cavities, their energy is distributed
synchronously to the oscillation. The oscillations get stronger from cavity
to cavity since the electrons can alternatively accelerate and slow down
near the next cavity because of the alternating magnetic field. These
electrons finally hit the anode cavity, causing amplification, and the anode
current is coupled through the output waveguide as shown in Figure 8.35.
CFA also requires strapping in its construction similar to a magnetron to
avoid ineffective modes of operation.
Block containing graphite
Figure8.35 The interrupted “Space-Charge Wheel” in a Crossed-Field
Amplifier

CFA has many advantageous characteristics such as wide bandwidth,

high efficiency, and the ability to handle large amounts of power. So now
a days CFA are used in many microwave electronic system applications.
The CFA is of less cost, particularly when a relatively simple power
supply/ modulator system is used for operating it.

From the below Table 8.2 we can compare various types of tubes.

Table 8.2 Comparison of characteristics of microwave tubes

Example Problem 8.24

A reflex klystron has following parameters, beam voltage V0 = 200 V.
Beam current I0 = 20 mA, signal voltage V1 = 40 V. Find (i) the input
power in watts (ii) output power in watts (iii) efficiency, when it operates
at the peak mode of n = 2

Solution
1. Pdc (input power) = V0 I0 = 4 W.

2. Pac (output power) = = 0.906 W.

3. = 22.6%.

Example Problem 8.25

A reflex klystron tube is oscillating at a frequency fr = 9 GHz at the peak

on n = 2 mode or 1 ¾ mode under the following conditions: Rsh = 30
kΩ, V0 = 500 V. The spacing between the repeller and the cavity is L = 1
mm. Assume that the transit time through the gap and through beam
loading effect can be neglected. Find the value of (a) repeller voltage Vr (b)
Find the dc necessary to give a microwave gap of voltage of 100 V (c)
Calculate the electronic efficiency.

Solution
1. The relationship between repeller voltage and accelerating voltage is given
by

By substituting the given values in the above formula we

get Vr = 503.39 V.
2. Assuming β0 = 1,

2.863 mA

3. Electronic efficiency %

Example Problem 8.26

Determine the following when the reflex klystron operates at the peak
of n = 1 or 3/4 mode and has dc power input of 50 mW, and the ratio
of V1 over V0 is 0.178

1. The efficiency of the reflex klystron.

2. The total power output in mW.
3. Power delivered to the load, if 20% of the power delivered by the electron
beam is dissipated in the cavity walls

Solution

1. Efficiency, = 0.655
2. Pout = 4.455 mW
3. Power delivered to load = 4.455*0.8 = 3.564 mW

SUMMARY
1. Microwave tubes perform the same functions of generation and amplification
in the microwave portion of the frequency spectrum that vacuum tubes
perform at lower frequencies.
2. At microwave frequencies, the size of electronic devices required for
generation of microwave energy becomes smaller and smaller. This results in
lesser power-handling capability and increased noise levels.
3. To produce resonance a circuit would require a parallel connection of a
inductor and a capacitor at low frequencies. At microwave frequencies, this
is achieved by using a cavity, which may be constructed of brass, copper, or
aluminum.
4. Conventional vacuum triodes, tetrodes, and pentodes are less useful signal
sources at frequencies above 1GHz because of lead-inductance and inter-
electrode-capacitance effects, transit-time effects, and gain-bandwidth
product limitations.
5. Microwave tubes are constructed so as to overcome the limitations of
conventional and UHF tubes. The basic operating principle of microwave
tubes involves transfer of power from a source of the dc voltage to a source
of the ac voltage by means of a current density modulated electron beam.
The same is achieved by accelerating electrons in a static field and retarding
them in an ac field.
6. The linear beam tubes are the most important microwave tubes which are
currently in use.
7. In linear beam tubes, the electron beam travels along a straight path between
the cathode and the collector. It is parallel to both the electric and magnetic
fields.
8. The two-cavity klystron is a microwave amplifier that is operated by the
principles of velocity and current modulation. Extra cavities help to modulate
the electron beam’s velocity and increase the output energy. Hence,
intermediate cavities are added between the input and output cavities of a
klystron amplifier. This will improve the klystron parameters like
amplification, efficiency and power output to a great extent.
9. For applications which require variable frequency, Reflex klystron is used. It
is a single cavity variable frequency microwave generator of low power and
low efficiency. It is a low-power, low-efficiency microwave oscillator that is
used as a signal source in microwave generators, as a local oscillator in
microwave receivers, as a pump oscillator in parametric amplifiers, and as
frequency-modulated oscillators in portable microwave links.
10. Klystrons are essentially narrow band devices, as they utilize cavity
resonators to velocity modulate the electron beam over a narrow gap;
whereas TWTs are broadband devices in which there are no cavity
resonators.
11. The Backward-Wave Oscillator (BWO) is a slow-wave device that operates
on the principle of velocity modulation. BWO is a self-oscillating TWT that
is capable of delivering microwave power over a wide range of frequency.
12. In crossed-field tubes, the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to
each other. Crossed-field tubes are also known as M-type devices, as they
deal with propagation of waves in a magnetic field.
13. The magnetron is a crossed-field device. This means that the flow of
electrons, the electric field, and the magnetic field are mutually
perpendicular to each other. Magnetrons use various shapes of cavities to
build oscillations and power.
14. A cavity magnetron is a high-power, high-efficiency microwave oscillator
that depends on the interaction of electrons with a traveling electromagnetic
wave for its operation.
15. The Hull cut-off condition determines the anode voltage or magnetic field
that is necessary to obtain non zero anode current as a function of the
magnetic field or anode voltage in the absence of an electromagnetic field.
16. Hartree anode voltage equation is a function of the magnetic flux density and
the spacing between the cathode and anode. Magnetrons using identical
cavities in the anode block employ strapping to prevent mode jumping.
17. A Crossed-field Amplifier (CFA) is a broadband microwave power amplifier
where RF-dc interaction region is a region of crossed electric and magnetic
fields.
18. CFAs are classified based on their electron stream source as injected-beam
CFAs and distributed-emission CFAs, and by their mode of operation, they
are classified as forward-wave CFAs or backward-wave CFAs.

OBJECTIVE-TYPE QUESTIONS
 1. Both axial magnetic field and radial electric fields are used in the following
vacuum tube
1. magnetron
2. a reflex klystron
3. Klystron
4. traveling-wave tube
2. The following vacuum tube can be used as an oscillator and an amplifier?
0. klystron
1. BWO
2. TWT
3. magnetron
3. The transit time can be reduced in microwave tubes,
0. if electrodes are brought closer together
1. if a higher anode current is used
2. if multiple or coaxial leads are used
3. none
4. The modes in a reflex klystron
0. give the same frequency but different transit time
1. result from excessive transit time across the resonator gap
2. are caused by spurious frequency modulation
3. are just for theoretical considerations
5. Vacuum tubes fail at microwave frequencies, because
0. noise figure increases
1. shunt capacitive reactances become too large
2. transit time becomes too short
3. series inductive reactances become too small
6. For use as a local oscillator for frequency measurements, the most suitable
microwave source would be
0. TWT
1. double-cavity klystron
2. reflex klystron
3. magnetron
7. The main advantage of TWT over a multi-cavity klystron is:
0. greater bandwidth
1. more efficient
2. higher number of modes
3. higher output power
8. In a travelling-wave tube, the purpose of helix structure is
0. to make-sure broadband operation
1. to minimise the noise figure
2. to minimse the RF field’s axial velocity
3. none
9. The purpose of attenuator in a travelling-wave tube is
0. to prevent saturation
1. to increase gain
2. to prevent oscillation
3. to help bunching
10. The oscillating frequencies of different modes (or cavity resonators ) of
magnetrons are not same and are quite close to each other, which results in
0. helping focusing
1. providing attenuation
2. improving bunching
3. mode jumping
11. The following is not used as a TWT slow-wave structure
0. coupled cavity
1. helix
2. ring bars
3. periodic permanent magnet
12. The phase velocity of RF field’s axial component in the TWT slow-wave
structure is
0. equal to the velocity of the electrons
1. slightly less than the velocity of the electrons
2. slightly greater than the velocity of the electrons
3. equal to the velocity of light in vacuum
13. In the following microwave tubes, RF energy travels at nearly the same
speed as the electrons that are traveling from the cathode to the collector:
0. magnetron
1. TWT
2. CFA
3. Klystron
14. A backward-wave oscillator is based on
0. cross-field amplifier
1. coaxial magnetron
2. traveling-wave tube
3. rising sun magnetron
15. Which one of the following can be used for the amplification of microwave
energy?
0. traveling-wave tube
1. magnetron
2. reflex klystron
3. Gunn diode
16. Strapping is used in magnetrons to
0. prevent mode jumping
1. ensure bunching
2. improve the phase-focusing effect
3. prevent cathode back heating
17. The purpose of the slow-wave structure used in TWT amplifiers is
0. to increase wave velocity
1. to reduce spurious oscillations
2. to reduce wave velocity so that the electron beam and the signal
wave can interact
3. None of the above
18. The following cavity structure is preferred for use in magnetron to overcome
problems with strapping at high frequencies is
0. slot
1. rising sun
2. Vane
3. all
19. The time taken by the electron to travel into the repeller space and back to
the gap in a reflex klystron is referred to as
0. transit time, T =n + 1/4
1. bunching time, T = n + 1/4
2. transit time, T =n + 3/4
3. bunching time, T = n + 3/4

ANSWERS TO OBJECTIVE-TYPE QUESTIONS

1. (a)
2. (d)
3. (a)
4. (a)
5. (b)
6. (c)
7. (a)
8. (c)
9. (c)
10. (d)
11. (d)
12. (b)
13. (b)
14. (c)
15. (a)
16. (a)
17. (c)
 18. (d)
19. (c)

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the limitations of conventional vacuum tubes at microwave
frequencies?
2. Explain clearly the classification of microwave sources.
3. Explain the principle of operation of a two-cavity klystron with a neat
diagram.
4. Find out the expression for efficiency of a two cavity Klystron amplifier.
5. Derive the equation of velocity modulation for a two-cavity Klystron
amplifier.
6. Explain in detail bunching process & obtain expression for bunching
parameter in a two cavity klystron.
7. Explain the construction and working of a multi-cavity klystron.
8. Explain the construction and operation of Reflex Klystron Oscillator.
9. Derive the relationship between accelerating voltage and repeller voltage.
10. Draw the equivalent circuit of reflex klystron and explain about the
electronic admittance.
11. Explain about electronic and mechanical tuning of reflex klystron.
12. What is slow wave structure? Explain how a helical TWT achieves
amplification.
13. Explain the principle of working of Travelling Wave Tube.
14. Explain why there are four propagation constants in TWT & derive equations
to these propagation constants.
15. How oscillations are prevented in a Travelling Wave Tube.
16. Explain the principle of working of Backward Wave Oscillator.
17. Explain about the different types of magnetron.
18. Explain the working principle of 8-Cavity Cylindrical Magnetron.
19. Derive an expression for the Hull cutoff equation for cylindrical magnetron.
20. Derive the Hartree anode Voltage equation for linear magnetron.
21. Explain the π-mode operation of magnetron.
22. A two-cavity klystron amplifier has the following parameters: V0 = 1000
V, R0 = 40 K ohm, I0 = 25 mA, frequency = 3 GHz, gap spacing (d) = 1 mm,
cavity spacing = 4 cm, effective shunt impedance, and excluding beam
loading = 30 K ohm.
1. Find the input gap voltage to give maximum voltage V2.
2. Find the voltage gain and efficiency of the amplifier neglecting
the beam loading.
23. The parameters of a two-cavity klystron are given by Vb =
900 V, f = 3.2 GHz, and d = 10−3 m. Determine electron velocity,
transit angle, and beam coupling coefficient.
 24. A reflex klystron operates at the peak mode of n = 2 with
beam voltage V0 = 300 V, beam current I0 = 20 mA, and signal
voltage V1 = 40 V. Determine
0.Input power in watts
1.Output power in watts
2.The efficiency
25. A reflex klystron having an accelerated field of 300 V oscillates at a
frequency of 10 GHZ with a retarding field of 500 V. If its cavity is returned
to 9 GHz, what should be the new value of the retarding field for oscillations
in the same mode to take place?
26. A reflex klystron has the following parameters: V0 = 800 V, L = 1.5
mm, Rsh = 15 kΩ, and f = 9 GHZ. Calculate
0.The repeller voltage for which the tube can oscillate in 1 ¾ mode
1.The direct current necessary to give a microwave gap voltage of 200 V
2.Electron efficiency
27. A reflex klystron is operated at 56 Hz with an anode voltage of 1000 V and a
cavity gap of 2 mm. Calculate the gap transit angle. Find optimum length of
the drift region. Assume n = 1 ¾ and Vr = −500 V.
28. A reflex klystron operates at 8 GHz with dc beam voltage 300 V, repeller
space = 1 mm for 1 ¾ mode. Calculate and corresponding repeller
voltage for a beam current of 18 mA.
29. A TWT operates under following parameters: beam voltage Vo = 3 KV, beam
current Io = 20 mA, characteristic impedance of helix Zo = 10, circuit
length Nl = 50, and frequency f = 10 GHz. Determine
0.Gain parameter
1.Output power gain in dB and all
2.Four propagation constants
30. A TWT has the following parameters: Vo = 3 KV, Io = 4 mA, f = 9 GHz, Z =
20, and N = 50. Calculate the
0.Gain parameter
1.Power gain in db
31. A linear magnetron has the following operating parameters: Vo = 15 KV, Io =
1.2 A, f = 8 GHZ, Bo = 0.015 wb/m2, d = 5 cm, and h = 2.77 cm. Calculate
0.Electron velocity at hub surface
1.Phase velocity for synchronism
2.Hartree anode voltage.
32. A magnetron operates with the following parameters: Vo = 25 KV, Io = 1.25
A, Bo = 0.4 wb/m2, diameter of the cathode = 8 cm, and radius of vane edge to
center = 8 cm. Find the cyclotron frequency and cut-off voltage.
33. A normal circular magnetron has the following parameters: inner radius of
0.15 m, outer radius of 0.45 m, and magnetic flux density of 1.6 milli
weber/m2.
0.Determine Hull cut-off voltage.
1.Determine the Hull cut-off magnetic flux density if the beam voltage is
4000 V.
34. A normal circular magnetron has the following parameters: Cathode radius =
2 mm and anode radius = 4 mm. Determine the Hull cut-off voltage if the
magnetic flux density is 0.3 Wb/m2 and the cut-off magnetic flux density
if Vo = 15 KV.
35. A magnetron is operating in the π mode and has the following specifications:
N = 10, f = 3 MHz, a = 0.4 cm, b = 0.9 cm,
L = 2.5 cm, Vo = 18 KV, B = 0.2 Wb/m2,
and m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg.
Determine angular velocity of electrons.
36. For a magnetron, a = 0.6 m, b = 0.8 m, N = 16, B = 0.06 T, f = 3 GHz,
and V0 = 1.6 KV. Calculate the average drift velocity for electrons in the
region between the cathode and anode.